The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:

www.emeraldinsight.com/2059-5891.htm

VJIKMS
49,3 Knowledge management practices
and systems in county governments
in developing countries
420 Perspectives from selected counties in Kenya
Received 30 January 2019 Joshua Rumo Arongo Ndiege and Patrick Kanyi Wamuyu
Revised 13 June 2019
Accepted 16 June 2019
Computing Department, United States International University, Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract
Purpose – While several studies have indicated the critical role played by the ability of countries to
exploit knowledge as an economic resource, it would appear that there have been very few
studies conducted on understanding the practices adopted by governments in relation to exploring
knowledge, particularly in Africa. The purpose of this study is to investigate the prevailing knowledge
management practices and technological solutions used by governments to support knowledge
management.
Design/methodology/approach – To address the research objective of this study, semi-structured
interviews and document analysis were used. The interviews were conducted with both senior and
junior county officials from five counties in Kenya, with a total of 31 county officials participating.
Further, various county documents were analysed both to seek convergence and corroborate the
interview findings.
Findings – The study findings revealed that no systematic knowledge management practices existed
in the county governments in Kenya, which were investigated. On the few occasions that the study did
find evidence of knowledge management practices, these practices were isolated, informal,
uncoordinated and rarely documented and/or communicated. Furthermore, the study found that there
were inadequate policy frameworks in place to support knowledge management practices. The study
also revealed a scarcity of relevant technological solutions tailored to support knowledge management
practices.
Research limitations/implications – It was, thus, hoped that this research would promote an
understanding of the prevailing local circumstances that hinder the effective utilisation of knowledge
management practices and systems. The study recommends that county governments develop the
capabilities required for creating and sustaining an enabling knowledge management environment
through frameworks and policies that foster knowledge management practices and systems. The
findings have practical implications for the way in which county governments in Kenya and other
developing countries may improve their knowledge management practices and adopt appropriate
technological solutions to support such practices.
Originality/value – Much of the existing literature on knowledge management is focussed on
exploring such practices in large businesses. Studies centred specifically on the analysis of knowledge
management practices in county governments in Africa, and how technological solutions may be used
to build such practices are conspicuously lacking in the relevant literature.

Keywords Knowledge management, County governments, Developing countries, Kenya

Paper type Research paper
VINE Journal of Information and
Knowledge Management Systems
Vol. 49 No. 3, 2019
pp. 420-439 We wish to express our gratitude to the staff of the Maarifa centre at the Council of Governors in
© Emerald Publishing Limited Kenya for their support during the data collection period for this study. We also thank United States
2059-5891
DOI 10.1108/VJIKMS-01-2019-0014 International University – Africa for providing grant to support this study.
1. Introduction Knowledge
Much of the existing literature on knowledge management is focussed on exploring knowledge management
management practices in large businesses (Bolisani et al., 2018; Darroch, 2005; García-Álvarez,
2015; Hislop et al., 2018; Mariano and Awazu, 2016; Sharma et al., 2013). While this literature
practices and
has formed the basis of our understanding of successful knowledge management practices systems
within business environments, studies centred specifically on the analysis of knowledge
management practices in county governments in Africa, and how technological solutions may
be used to build such practices are conspicuously lacking in the relevant literature. The irony of 421
the situation, however, is that governments throughout the world are not only major
consumers of knowledge but also produce a significant portion of such knowledge in addition
to creating value through their knowledge management practices and systems (Lynden and
Wu, 2008; Malik and Al-Toubi, 2018; Nath and Kanjilal, 2018; Shilohu et al., 2018).
It is worth noting that the Africa Agenda 2063 appreciates the changing global context that is
characterised by, among other things, changes in both technology and the knowledge market
(African Union, 2015). To this end, this Agenda calls for countries in Africa to build and expand
an African knowledge society. Many institutions in the developing countries striving to embrace
knowledge management have been forced to rely on lessons and best practices gleaned from their
counterparts in the developed economies. It is important to note, however, that many of the
studies on knowledge management frameworks, for example, those by Pawlowski and Bick
(2012), Andrew (2005) and Martin and Remo (2007), etc., were designed based on the specific
country contexts in which these individual studies were conducted. However, the findings from
such studies on developed countries are not always practically applicable to the developing
countries. The main reason for this is that the latter operate within different policy, regulatory,
industry and organisational contexts to those of developed countries.
County governments in Kenya are increasingly coming to appreciate the value of knowledge
through the adoption of lessons, new ideas, concepts and innovations from other counties.
However, a look at the strategic plans of the 47 Kenyan county governments (Council of
Governors, 2018) would seem to indicate that the majority do not have a strategic focus on
knowledge management. At the time of this study, Kenya’s vision of a knowledge-based
economy was directed at shifting the current industrial development path towards innovation,
with the creation, adoption, adaptation and exploitation of knowledge remaining pivotal to the
country’s economic growth (KIPPRA, 2018). Nevertheless, poor governance has led to the
ongoing marginalisation of many counties in Kenya, with a number of county governments
struggling to fulfill their mandate (KIPPRA, 2018). Furthermore, while there is evidence of the
government’s appreciation of the role played by knowledge in running Kenya’s affairs, it would
appear the country is still struggling in its efforts to build a better knowledge management
culture (The Council of Governors, 2017; Kamar, 2008; Kwanya et al., 2015; Ondari-Okemwa and
Smith, 2009). Consequently, better knowledge management practices and systems should be used
to improve governance at the county level (Giudice and Peruta, 2016; Laihonen and Mäntylä,
2018; Lynden and Wu, 2008). This should be based on the understanding that knowledge
management theory is relatively new and as it is the case with any evolving discipline, there are
several unresolved issues that need to be addressed, for example, contextualising the application
of knowledge management practices and systems.
This study was premised on the view that knowledge management practices and systems
remain pivotal to the success of the initiatives of various governments in fulfilling their
constitutional mandates effectively. In addition, there is a need for a contextual understanding
of knowledge management practices and systems to appreciate more fully what may be the
best for a developing country such as Kenya. This may be seen against the backdrop of the
2014-2017 Kenya’s Council of Governors’ strategic plan, which proposed the enactment of
VJIKMS knowledge management strategies for county governments in the country. Nevertheless, the
49,3 existing 2017-2022 strategic plan provides evidence of counties still grappling with knowledge
management initiatives (The Council of Governors, 2017). It must also be remembered that the
impressive technological penetration that has occurred in Kenya (Communication Authority of
Kenya, 2017) is establishing an effective environment in which technological solutions may be
harnessed to support knowledge management practices.
422 This study attempted to make a contribution to the existing body of knowledge by
improving the understanding of knowledge management practices and systems in county
governments in a developing country context, particularly in Africa. It was hoped that this
increased understanding would enable the governments in developing countries to better
understand their knowledge management practices and adopt appropriate technological
solutions to help support such practices.
Accordingly, the aim of the study was to obtain a deeper understanding of the context in
which county governments are endeavouring to implement good knowledge management
practices and systems and to make recommendations for enhancing existing good practices
and creating innovative new practices. Consequently, the research question for the study was:

RQ1. What are the knowledge management practices and systems used by county
governments in Kenya?
The paper is structured as follows: this introductory section is followed by a review of existing
literature on knowledge management processes and systems. In addition, to situate the study,
contextual information on Kenya is presented. The methodological processes used in the study
are then explored, followed by a presentation of the study findings. These findings are then
discussed. Finally, the conclusions are drawn from the study, the limitations of the study and
several recommendations for future research directions are presented.

2. Literature review
2.1 Knowledge management processes and systems
Knowledge management may be defined as the process that supports the acquisition,
generation, storage, transfer and application of knowledge (Alavi and Leidner, 2001). In
today’s knowledge economies, the ability to manage knowledge has become more critical
than ever before. Knowledge management capabilities enable the efficient use of resources
while improving both innovativeness and performance (Bogner and Bansal, 2007; Darroch,
2005; Mariano and Awazu, 2016; Rossi et al., 2016). Consequently, it may be argued that
knowledge management maturity is positively associated with growth, and consequently, it
is important that the ability to leverage this critical resource is developed.
Knowledge management deals with the way in which relevant knowledge is identified,
captured, shared and applied by organisations/individuals to help to achieve certain desired
objectives or goals. Figure 1 illustrates these key processes in knowledge management.
Knowledge discovery is linked to the processes that enable the development of new tacit
or explicit knowledge and/or the replacement of prevailing knowledge with new knowledge
(Mariano and Awazu, 2016). Knowledge discovery may take place through collaborative
and social activities, and through the cognitive reflections of individuals (Hislop et al., 2018).
These processes are supported by knowledge discovery systems. There is a significant
unified understanding among several researchers that previous experience and contextual
interpretation play a key role in a number of knowledge creation activities (Mariano and
Awazu, 2016). It is imperative that once relevant knowledge has been discovered, this
knowledge is captured and stored in an accessible and reusable form (De Arruda et al., 2017).
Knowledge capture is associated with the processes that enable the retrieval of
 Knowledge
Knowledge
storage
management
practices and
Knowledge
capture
Knowledge
sharing
systems

423
Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge
discovery management application

Figure 1.
Knowledge Management System Knowledge
management
processes
Source: Authors’ illustration

the knowledge residing within people and organisational entities or artefacts (Oluikpe,
2012). This process is supported by knowledge capture systems.
On the other hand, knowledge sharing is associated with the processes that enable
knowledge retrieval (Gangeswari et al., 2015). An integral part of the knowledge
management strategy is the dissemination of the relevant knowledge to the right recipient(s)
at the right time. A number of studies have indicated that culture is one of the strongest
barriers to knowledge sharing (Gangeswari et al., 2015; Mannie et al., 2013; Mariano and
Awazu, 2016; Song and Sun, 2018). It is imperative, therefore, that keen attention is paid to
building cultures and practices that support knowledge sharing. With the advent of
technology, social aspects of sharing knowledge through the use of social media platforms,
such as Facebook and Twitter, maybe realised with minimal effort.
Knowledge application refers to the exploitation of knowledge; in other words, putting
knowledge into use. Knowledge application has been widely viewed as the ultimate outcome
of a successful knowledge management process (Gangeswari et al., 2015; Mariano and
Awazu, 2016; Song and Sun, 2018). It involves bringing together the knowledge that has
been discovered, captured and shared for application and use. This is considered to be a
strategic dimension for any entity as knowledge application produces the outcomes that
follow on the other aims of knowledge management processes. Knowledge application
relates to the development of routines that will maximise the knowledge required to improve
operations and invent new products and/or services, among other things.
Knowledge management systems are the key components of knowledge management
practices (Mirzaee and Ghaffari, 2018) and may be applied to support such practices (García-
Álvarez, 2015; Lin, 2013; Santro et al., 2018). As indicated in Figure 1, these technologies provide
the knowledge management infrastructure that facilitates knowledge management practices such
as the creation, storage, access to, dissemination and exploitation of knowledge. Examples of
such technologies include databases, groupware, intranet, search engines, etc.
Information technologies may enable workers to connect to each, thereby becoming aware of
each other’s activities with the possibility of contributing to such activities. In addition, the
storage of commonly developed documents may support peer learning (Van Joolingen et al., 2005).
To promote peer learning, the development of shared knowledge is important. To this end, it is
imperative that the various approaches used by workers to carry out their duties are integrated in
VJIKMS the common space created by information technology (IT). One of the overarching goals of
49,3 knowledge management is connecting people and fostering collaboration (Hislop et al., 2018).
Several technological tools may be used to facilitate various knowledge management practices.
These include (Soto-Acosta and Cegarra-Navarro, 2016; Van Joolingen et al., 2005) the following:
 Acquisition: data warehouses, browsers, database index systems and expert systems.
 Creation: virtual reality, computer-aided design and investment workstations.
424  Sharing: intranet, groupware, portals and computer supported cooperative work.
 Use: collaboration suites, e-meetings, email messaging and group decision support
systems.
 Distribution: web publishing, electronic calendars, word processing and personal
information management.

It is clear from the discussions above that there is sufficient documented evidence
demonstrating that information technologies are tools that may be leveraged to help
improve knowledge management practices. In view of the ongoing technological
developments and increased technological penetration in the developing countries, it is
important to carefully evaluate the technological solutions that best fit a particular situation
to ensure that maximum benefit is realised from such investments (Massingham et al., 2018).
Accordingly, a major goal of this study was not only to provide a contextualised
understanding of knowledge management practices but also to advance a similar
understanding of how technology is being exploited to enhance the knowledge management
practices in county governments in Kenya.

2.2 Related works

Despite the widely accepted importance of knowledge management in increasing the
efficiencies and effectiveness of government functions (Durst and Bruns, 2016; Gangeswari
et al., 2015; Khilji and Roberts, 2015), Massaro et al. (2015), in their review of literature on
knowledge management, observed that few authors have laid focus on knowledge
management within governments/public sector. This demonstrates that more studies are
needed to develop a cohesive body of literature in this area. In further underscoring this need,
they (Massaro et al., 2015) observe that government sectors operate in environments that differ
considerably from the private sector. Consequently, the application of knowledge management
models or tools obtained from the private sector to the government sector may yield few or no
positive results. There is, thus, a need to understand the way in which knowledge management
is evolving within the context of governments in developing countries to have a contextualised
understanding of how best it may be exploited within this context.
The application of knowledge management has been plagued by numerous challenges
in both the public and the private sectors. As researchers have observed, nearly half of
the knowledge management initiatives fail (Lu, 2017). In the government sector,
knowledge management generally takes a technological perspective with a focus on
particular government services (Edge, 2005; Syysnummi and Laihonen, 2014). Usoro and
Abiagam (2018), in their study of the effect of culture on knowledge management,
confirmed that cultural issues affect knowledge management adoption. Other studies
have found political influence to have an impact on knowledge management (Amayah,
2013). With a number of developing countries, particularly those in Africa, facing
political instability, it is likely that the prevailing political environment could hinder
efforts to institute effective knowledge management practices. Consequently, there is a
need for a well-thought-out knowledge management approach for governments in
developing countries. Laihonen and Mäntylä (2018), for example, posit that local Knowledge
governments need to have systematic knowledge management frameworks. management
Additionally, institutional, environmental and task complexities have been reported to
hinder knowledge management within the government sector (Ingrams, 2017).
practices and
The supporting role of technology in knowledge management has been highlighted in systems
several studies (García-Álvarez, 2015; Massingham et al., 2018; Salleh et al., 2013). However,
it is important that knowledge management practices and systems are premised in a
conducive environment. Authors such as Jennex and Olfman (2006), Akhavan and 425
Pezeshkan (2014) and Pour et al. (2018) observed that to achieve success in knowledge
management, there is a need to use models that take into consideration the critical success
factors for knowledge management, such as technological resources, knowledge strategy
and management support. From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that for a successful
knowledge management initiative, it is important that foundational precursors
(technological resources, knowledge strategy and management support) form the basis of
the knowledge management ecosystem.
Extant literature on knowledge management within developing countries remains scant.
The few existing studies paint a picture of growing interest in the area by scholars
(Gangeswari et al., 2015; Kwanya et al., 2015; Ondari-Okemwa and Smith, 2009; Saxena,
2018). However, the studies also reveal that the concept remains nebulous and knowledge
management practices and systems are still largely underdeveloped. For example, Saxena
(2018), in a study of three countries in the Middle East – Lebanon, Iran and Jordan –
observed that knowledge dissemination processes from the governments to citizens were
not well-developed. The author further observed that the government data in the three
countries were in many cases merely aggregated, outdated and presented in a manner that
made it challenging to use analytics. This further supports the argument that knowledge
management practices and systems in developing countries are not sufficiently well-
developed to enable effective exploitation.

2.3 The Kenyan situation

In 2010, Kenyans voted for a new constitution that fundamentally changed the system of
governance by introducing 47 devolved governments known as county governments. This
system of government was operationalised in 2013. In Kenya, county governments consist of
two arms, namely, the County Assembly and the County Executive. The functions of the
county governments are contained in the fourth schedule of the 2010 constitution and include
finance and economic planning; roads, public works and transport; health and sanitation;
education; information and communication technology (ICT); agriculture and irrigation;
livestock, fisheries and veterinary services; trade, industry and cooperative development; land,
housing, physical planning and urban development; water development, environment and
natural resources; and tourism, culture, sports and social development. To be able to effectively
discharge their constitutional mandate, county governments have to devise effective ways of
managing their knowledge resources. The counties have a constitutional responsibility to find
sustainable ways in which to fulfill their material, social and economic responsibilities and
improve the quality of life of the inhabitants of their counties.
Many county governments have outlined their roadmap in the county integrated
development plans (CIDPs). Such plans are intended to provide the counties with guidelines
to address their challenges and guide their operations. County governments in Kenya are
increasingly finding value in knowledge through the adoption of lessons, new ideas,
concepts and innovations from other counties. Nevertheless, an examination of the CIDPs of
the 47 county governments (Council of Governors, 2018) reveals a lack of focus in respect of
VJIKMS the knowledge management initiatives of the majority of the counties. On the other hand,
49,3 exceptional counties such as Kericho County have plans to develop information
documentation centres to encourage a reading culture and to ease the dissemination of
information. In addition, one of the objectives of Kisumu County, as indicated in its CIDP
under the capacity building programme, is sector learning, knowledge management and
development, although there are no clear guidelines on how this is to be realised.
426 Furthermore, the initiative has a narrowly scoped outcome of improving the capacity of
irrigation personnel. Finally, Tharaka-Nithi County plans to develop an integrated county
information management system that will facilitate, among other things, the sharing of
information from various departments. It should be noted that the absence of knowledge
management initiatives in the counties’ CIDPs is contrary to the 2014-2017 Kenya’s Council
of Governors Strategic Plan, which calls for the realisation of knowledge management
initiatives such as knowledge sharing and learning platforms; communication; sharing best
practices; training and capacity building; and the establishment of a digital platform for
knowledge management (The Council of Governors, 2017).
There is evidence of growing uptake of technology in the counties in Kenya with the
Kenyan government launching several initiatives to facilitate such an uptake. For example,
through the Smart County Project (ICT Authority, 2017) the government is working towards
supporting ICT adoption in the county governments. Another similar initiative is the
County Connectivity Project, which is geared to ensuring that the offices of the county
governments are fully connected to the internet and the use of telephone systems, emails and
teleconferencing facilities is promoted (ICT Authority, 2017). In addition, in December 2018,
the National Assembly passed a motion compelling the national government to provide free,
secure Wi-Fi in every county (National Assembly, 2018), thus providing an indication of the
country’s desire to develop the necessary technological infrastructure. Such infrastructure, if
well-developed, may be used to effectively support knowledge management practices.
Furthermore, the country’s Council of Governor’s strategic plan for 2017-2022 identifies a
strategic framework that consists of the following five key performance areas: good
governance; adequate resourcing for devolved functions; a strong council of county
governors; knowledge-driven performance; and sustainable intergovernmental relations (The
Council of Governors, 2017). By identifying knowledge-driven performance as one of the key
performance areas, the county governments in Kenya have demonstrated their appreciation
of knowledge management as a critical element of the success of devolution in Kenya. The
2017-2022 Strategic Plan of the Council of Governors, informed by a situational analysis, has
identified five focus areas, including knowledge sharing. In addition, it calls for the
development of a responsive dynamic IT infrastructure.
Moreover, county governments in Kenya, through the Council of Governors, have
established the Maarifa Centre (Maarifa is a Swahili word for knowledge) to coordinate the
systematic documentation and sharing of good practices across all the counties. This effort
is designed to help the county governments to improve service delivery and influence
policies that promote both devolution and the welfare of citizens. The establishment of this
centre represents a key strategy for realising section 20(b) of the Intergovernmental
Relations Act, 2012 (National Council for Law Reporting, 2013). This Act states that one of
the functions of the Council of Governors is to share information on the performance of the
counties in the execution of their functions, with the objective of learning and promoting
best practice. Through the Maarifa Centre, the Council of Governors is continuing to put in
place mechanisms and structures for institutionalising knowledge capturing and sharing
between all 47 counties. This is a clear indication of the county governments’ appreciation of
the critical role that knowledge management will play in promoting devolution in Kenya. It
is, thus, important that county governments have appropriate structures for knowledge Knowledge
management in place to help them improve the effectiveness and efficiency of their services. management
practices and
3. Methodology systems
This study’s research objective considered issues that characterise and inform the
knowledge management practices and systems in county governments in Kenya. Although
some of these issues may not be desirable from the perspective of good knowledge 427
management practices and systems, they do, however, still present themselves. To address
the research objective of this study, semi-structured interviews and document analysis were
used. The semi-structured interview approach was adopted because it produces rich data
regarding the subject of research (Yin, 2018). The interviews were conducted with both
senior and junior county officials (Public Service Board personnel, human resource
personnel, County Executive Committee of ICT, Director of Communication and Director of
Information) of five counties in Kenya, namely, Kericho, Kisumu, Makueni, Tharaka-Nithi
and Isiolo. Table I shows the counties and the number of people interviewed in each
department.
As indicated in Table I, a total of 31 participants participated in the study. Hagaman and
Wutich (2017), in an attempt to determine how many interviews are adequate in a
qualitative study, came to the conclusion that 16 or fewer participants are sufficient to find
common themes from a relatively homogeneous population. In this study, however, data
saturation were attained at 18 participants as the identified common themes were then
clearly recurring with no new themes emerging.

County Division No. interviewed

Kericho Public service board 2

Human resources 1
County executive committee ICT 1
Communication 1
Information 1
Kisumu Public service board 1
Human resources 1
County executive committee ICT 1
Communication 1
Information 1
Makueni Public service board 1
Human resources 2
County executive committee ICT 2
Communication 1
Information 1
Tharaka-Nithi Public service board 2
Human resources 1
County executive committee ICT 2
Communication 2
Information 2
Isiolo Public service board 1
Human resources 1
County Executive Committee ICT 0
Communication 1 Table I.
Information 1 Participants
VJIKMS The five counties were conveniently selected based on the availability of the officials to
49,3 participate in the study. The participating officials were equally conveniently selected based
on the positions they held, with the understanding that the holders of the positions were
better placed to understand the knowledge management practices and systems that existed.
This was informed by the job descriptions of the officials. The interviews were held at the
convenience of the respondents and in all the cases, were held at the respondents’ offices.
428 The interviews were administered directly by the researchers with the help of a research
assistant. To ensure that the participants’ privacy rights were respected, their responses
were anonymous. No incentives were provided for participation in the study.
The data collected from each interview were subjected to both an individual case
(county) analysis and a cross-case analysis to increase the reliability of such data (Yin, 2018).
The questions posed during the interviews and the subsequent coding categories used were
drawn mainly from the theoretical lens derived from the literature review. As a result, the
thematic areas covered included knowledge management practices and systems on
discovery, capture, storage, sharing and application. Frequency counts and thematic
analysis were used as analysis methods to address the research objective. The interview
transcripts were reviewed using inductive thematic analysis to understand the prevalent
themes that emerged. Subsequently, open coding and a sequential approach were used to
analyse the data from the interviews (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015). In addition, various
county documents were analysed both to seek convergence and to corroborate the interview
findings (Bowen, 2009). The documents analysed for the purposes of the study included
CIDPs, departmental work plans, policy documents and annual reports. Figure 2 presents a
summary of the methodology adopted in the study.
The triangulation of the data derived from the semi-structured interviews and document
analysis was carried out to assure the completeness of the findings and to confirm them.
This process contributed to the verification and validation of the study findings (Yin, 2018).

Interviews Document
analysis

Public Service Board personnel CIDPs

Human resource personnel Departmental work plan

Communicaon personnel
Policy documents

Informaon personnel
Annual reports

Data triangulaon

Study findings
Figure 2.
Study methodology
Source: Authors’ illustration
Additionally, the following was done to ensure that the study was dependable. The standard Knowledge
questions used in the interview schedule helped ensure that the research participants were management
asked similar questions (Yin, 2018). Moreover, a clear detailed procedure was used for the
practices and
analysis of data. On the other hand, to ensure the credibility of the study, the codes used
were obtained mainly from the literature and the themes produced were also analysed in systems
relation to the themes obtained from the literature (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015).
To reinforce the researchers’ efforts in the data analysis, the study used computer
429
assisted qualitative data analysis software NVivo. This enabled more consistent, efficient
and comprehensive data analysis, thus ensuring that the findings were more credible.
Figure 2 presents a summary of the way in which NVivo was used to help realise the
objective of this study (Figure 3).
The data from each county were initially analysed separately (individual case analysis).
However, as interesting as the findings were, we have not included the individual county
results in this paper due to confidentiality concerns. Accordingly, we present an analysis of
the cumulative findings obtained from the five counties. This study was approved by the
United States International University-Africa’s Institutional Review Board. Furthermore,
informed consent to take part in the study was obtained from all the study participants.

4. Findings
This section presents the results of the study. The findings are presented in the form of a
narrative informed by the interviews, which were conducted and the documents analysed.
Firstly, the findings on the knowledge management practices, as captured during the coding
process, are presented. This is then followed by a presentation on the knowledge
management systems.

4.1 Knowledge management practices

It was evident from the interviews carried out that the concept of knowledge management
was not well understood because, in all cases, the participants were not able to clearly
articulate the meaning of knowledge management. In addition, there were no dedicated
knowledge management workers in the counties surveyed.
As indicated in Table II, employee rotation and the attending of workshops were among
the activities identified that were related to knowledge identification. Nevertheless, such
activities took place on the initiative of the individual employee and were rarely supported
by policy frameworks. However, in instances in which policies and regulatory frameworks
did exist (i.e. policy on staff training), there were implementation challenges as a result of

Code Reflect
•Text search •Document the
•Interview
•Matrix coding findings
transcripts •Review all the
and audio •Develop •Coding
themes and •Group materials in a
nodes consolidated
Query manner
Import Record
Figure 3.
Data analysis using
NVivo
Source: Authors’ illustration
VJIKMS Knowledge
49,3 management Codes generated during Supporting
theme analysis Illustrative quotes documents

Knowledge Employee rotation “We normally, once in a while, rotate Departmental

identification Attending staff to enable knowing and learning work plans
workshops/conferences new developments” Annual reports
430 “Sometimes, on one’s personal
initiative, one attends conferences,
sometimes these are organised by the
Council of Governors or Kenya School
of Government”
Knowledge Informal conversations “Some employees who attend CIDPs
acquisition Collaborative agreements workshops will tell us what they learnt Annual reports
. . . but this will be out of goodwill”
Employee rotation “We sometimes go for benchmarking
Attending workshops/ organised by the county government or
conferences sometimes by the CoG [Council of
Governors]”
Knowledge Manual filing system “We have cabinets where we keep our Annual reports
storage records”
Databases “There is a HR [human resource]
Websites system that has the records of all the
county employees”
“Information regarding current and
previous projects are posted on the
county website”
Knowledge Formal and informal “We use block SMS and WhatsApp to CIDPs
sharing meetings communicate with the public and key
Social media stakeholders” Annual reports
E-mail
Communities of practice “Internally we use emails and
Table II. WhatsApp to send communications
Knowledge from time to time”
management “Sometimes we attend workshops
practices in counties organised for technology professionals”

inadequate resource allocation, and poor coordination and linkages between the various
county departments.
Informal conversations between employees, collaborative agreements between the
county governments and the national government, and engagement with the Council of
Governors were noted to be instrumental in facilitating knowledge acquisition, while
job rotation within certain departments, and organised workshops and conferences
were also mentioned.
In relation to the storage of knowledge, in many instances, manual filing systems were
still largely used. However, this hindered the sharing of documents as was illustrated in the
following comment by one of the employees:
“[. . .] we have these records [manual] but they are not easy to get.”
It was noted, however, that database systems and the use of websites were fast gaining
prominence as forms of data storage.
 The sharing of knowledge took place mainly through informal structures such as Knowledge
informal meetings, while social media (Facebook and WhatsApp) and e-mails were also management
cited as being widely adopted and used. However, as seen in Table III, it was obvious that
more extensive use of these technologies could be made.
practices and
The following were identified as some of the impediments to knowledge systems
management:
 The limited number of staff members inhibits knowledge sharing and forces the
431
counties to outsource, thus hindering the learning and sharing of knowledge, in
particular, because the outsourced resource is never retained.
 People were from different backgrounds, thus resulting in different cultures and
norms. One interviewer observed:
“Some people may feel I do not want to work with these people [. . .]”.

 A lack of policy to support knowledge management initiatives, as indicated in the

following statement:
“Sharing between employees is based on goodwill [. . .] it is not a requirement. When my colleague
goes for training he may decide to share what he learnt”.
In addition, a clear policy on knowledge management was lacking in the various county
policy documents.
 Political appointments and bureaucracies also impeded knowledge management
with one informant observing:
“You can’t say no to them [senior county government officials] when they ask you to employ
someone [. . .] they are the county managers”.
It was evident that hiring was not based on merit in the majority of cases as political
appointments appeared to be norm. This was further corroborated by one respondent who
noted that:
“[. . .] some appointments are political [. . .] so whether you have the skills for the job or not is not
important, you just get hired and this is a big problem”.

 There was also a belief that hoarding information enhanced one’s competitiveness
and value. Consequently, as illustrated by one of the interviewee’s comments below,
some of the workers indicated that they saw no benefit in sharing:
“[. . .] you just do not share knowledge, honestly, most believe that, when they know and others
don’t know, then they are more important and you cannot do away with them since they are the
only ones who know how to do it”.

Technology Potential Current use Table III.

County websites Knowledge sharing and capture Knowledge sharing Systems used that
Social media platforms (Facebook, Knowledge sharing, knowledge capture and Knowledge sharing support knowledge
Twitter and WhatsApp) knowledge generation and capture management
Database Storage, mining to create new knowledge Data storage functions
VJIKMS 4.2 Knowledge management systems
49,3 While there were no deliberately designed systems to support knowledge management
practices, the following technological solutions, which support some knowledge
management functions were mentioned. These are outlined in the table below.
In this study, we observed that the systems used by the counties surveyed to support
knowledge management practices included county websites, social media platforms and
432 databases, the latter being used mainly by the human resource department to store
employee records. The interviews conducted with the IT personnel revealed that IT
departments were largely understaffed, while the majority of the other departments, such as
revenue and human resources, had their own separate IT systems (silo systems).
The study also noted that while some employees appreciated the need for the use of
computers, the lack of provision of computers by the county governments in their workplaces
was forcing employees to use their personal computers. This contributed to work-related
documents being stored on the employees’ own computers. A key challenge with such an
arrangement is the limited access to and sharing of such documents. One employee observed:
The majority of my staff use their computers to do office work . . . sometimes, when they are away, I
have to call to ask for documents that I need. Even the annual reports are on their computers.
The ICT/IT departments are key to promoting the effective adoption and use of relevant
technologies in organisations. However, ICT is not one of the functions that have been
devolved to the county governments in Kenya. In fact, this study revealed a lack of
consistency in the way in which the counties positioned the ICT role/division in the county
departmental structures. In addition, there appeared to be little clarity on the rationale used
to inform such decisions. One IT personnel member observed:
I don’t know why they decided to put us together with the other units. So, we don’t have our own
budget, everything is put together. It becomes a problem with limited resources since now we
have to compete with them [other units where the ICT is housed].
Table IV illustrates the positioning of ICT divisions in the counties that were surveyed. As
indicated in the table, ICT is never an independent division/department. This may help to
explain why these divisions/departments remain understaffed and are accorded so little
appreciation. Another employee observed:
If there would be more understanding about just how important IT is, I think they would give it more
priority. We are the backbone [. . .] At the moment it is only a few of us but I am trying my best.

5. Discussion
This section presents the discussion informed by the study findings. Firstly, the knowledge
management practices are discussed. This is then followed by a discussion on the
knowledge management systems.

County Name Divisions housing ICT

Kisumu Education, ICT and human resource development

Makueni Education and information communication technology
Table IV. Tharaka-Nithi Energy and ICT
Positioning of the Kericho Information, communication, e-government, sports and youth
ICT division Isiolo Finance, economic planning, special programmes and ICT
5.1 Knowledge management practices Knowledge
As the findings show, the concept of knowledge management remains nebulous for county management
employees. It was also evident that there were no dedicated knowledge workers. These
findings are consistent with those of Saxena (2018), who observed that knowledge
practices and
management within the government sectors of the three Middle East countries surveyed systems
was not well-developed. Such an environment makes it challenging for individuals to fully
appreciate the need for knowledge management processes and systems (Mariano and
Awazu, 2016). 433
It is important to realise that knowledge management practices should be supported by
relevant government policies (Laihonen and Mäntylä, 2018). Pour et al. (2018) equally
observed that a clear road map and strategy remain critical elements in successful
knowledge management initiatives. It is, therefore, imperative that the county governments
formulate appropriate policies that will promote a knowledge management culture and also
ensure that such policies are properly implemented. Furthermore, both formal and informal
networks within and across departments should be encouraged, as these are ideal for
learning and knowledge sharing (Gangeswari et al., 2015; Janus, 2017).
The already existing culture of job rotation noted in some departments, and the informal
conversations and collaborative agreements, need to be promoted and replicated. A number
of studies have highlighted the role of conversations between employees as important in
building a sound knowledge management culture (Gangeswari et al., 2015; Hislop et al.,
2018).
Building a conducive knowledge management culture is a critical step towards
sustainable knowledge management practices (Gangeswari et al., 2015; Mariano and
Awazu, 2016). It is important, therefore, that the county governments invest in the
development of such knowledge management practices. As observed by Weeks and Veltri
(2013), there is also a need for the creation of understanding on how to engage and work
within communities, which are characterised by individuals from diverse backgrounds. In
addition, the county governments need to empower their employees to share and exploit
knowledge in ways that will enrich the counties’ efforts to improve governance. Thus,
knowledge sharing should be seen as a strength and the culture of knowledge hoarding
discouraged. Additionally, the political commitment by the county government to
knowledge management initiatives remains critical (Amayah, 2013).
A number of institutions, particularly in the private sector, have, with positive outcomes,
used the use of incentives to continuously motivate employees to embrace knowledge
management practices (Janus, 2017). The county governments could explore such
approaches to encourage their employees to embrace a knowledge management culture. At
the time of the study, such a knowledge management culture appeared to be largely lacking
in the county governments that participated in this study.

5.2 Knowledge management systems

Knowledge management systems are key to the success of knowledge management
practices (Giudice and Peruta, 2016; Khalifa et al., 2008; Maier, 2007). While the counties
used technologies, as revealed in Table II, their full capabilities were not being exploited to
better harness their knowledge management capabilities.
The independent (silo) systems that existed do not promote knowledge sharing and there
is a need for the adoption of enterprise portals that would allow the integration of knowledge
from different systems or departments. This, in turn, would facilitate access to county
knowledge repositories and communication and information sharing between employees or
departments (Khalifa et al., 2008).
VJIKMS While the notion of bring-your-own-device is fast gaining popularity in the workplace,
49,3 this practice should be adopted with care to ensure that the various challenges associated
with it, such as the ones observed in this study, are avoided (Doargajudhura and Dell, 2018;
Musarurwa et al., 2018).
While it is not possible to over-emphasise, the central role played by ICT in facilitating
the various operations of the county governments, these departments lack independence
434 (Table III). This potentially creates bottlenecks when it comes to resource allocation. It is
essential that such a critical department is well-resourced and deliberately strategically
positioned to ensure that it plays its role, while also helping to promote the various
knowledge management practices.

6. Conclusion, limitations and future research

Using selected county governments in Kenya, this study set out to understand the
knowledge management practices and systems used by these governments. The results of
this study build on the limited body of literature on knowledge management within county
governments in developing countries and more specifically Africa.
It was evident from the study findings that knowledge management awareness was
lacking in the counties surveyed. While at the higher levels there were indications of an
appreciation of knowledge management (as was evident in the establishment of the Maarifa
Centre by the Council of Governors and the outlining of the need for knowledge
management in the Council of Governors’ 2017-2022 strategic plan), the same situation was
not reflected at the county levels. Accordingly, the findings indicate that the counties
appeared to have neither the intention to manage knowledge nor any ability in respect of
knowledge management. As a result, many important lessons are likely to be lost by
inhibiting learning opportunities. A major component of successful knowledge management
practices is the awareness and appreciation of the relevance of such practices, and the
realisation of the central role played by knowledge management systems in supporting
knowledge management. Consequently, we submit that the need for knowledge
management and its supporting systems should be better understood by the county
governments in Kenya. In addition, strengthening the capacities of the county governments
in respect of knowledge management may profoundly affect the speed and efficiency with
which progress is consolidated, scaled up and replicated.
There is also a need for the county governments to manage knowledge deliberately and
systematically. The study findings revealed that the existing practices had never been
planned and nor had they been implemented systematically, thus indicating that knowledge
management practices are still in their infancy in the county governments in Kenya. It is,
thus, important that the county governments establish systems and processes that will
enable them to highlight those experiences that have led or contributed to negative
outcomes and build on those practices that have resulted in success. There is also a need for
dedicated knowledge workers in the counties, with the appropriate level of authority, as
such officials will ensure that relevant knowledge management policies are developed and
used.
Furthermore, there is a need for a greater appreciation of the role of technology in
knowledge management. The study found definite evidence that county governments are
lacking in the adequate adoption and use of technology to support knowledge management
practices. It is, thus, imperative that county governments deliberately invest in relevant
technologies that will contribute to knowledge identification, capture, storage, sharing and
exploitation.
 Given the scarcity of empirical studies on knowledge management in county Knowledge
governments in developing countries, this exploratory study has contributed to an management
understanding of the knowledge management practices and systems used in county
governments in Kenya. The limitations of this research study must, however, be
practices and
acknowledged. systems
The fact that the study was situated in Kenya and five counties only participated in the
study may affect the generalisability of the results. It may be challenging to apply the
findings to other countries in view of the different social, economic and political conditions 435
prevailing in different countries. However, these findings are transferable to other
developing countries and counties with similar settings. The study also has the limitations
that tend to be commonly found in exploratory studies, for example, the small sample size
that resulted from the use of only selected county officials as the key informants.
Nevertheless, the findings of this study are relevant for laying the foundation upon, which
future studies may interrogate other aspects of knowledge management practices and
systems in county governments in developing countries.
This study contributed to the existing body of literature on knowledge management
practices and systems in county governments in developing countries, which our literature
search had found to be scant. The study subsequently provided insights that could be used
to understand the prevailing practices and challenges surrounding knowledge management
in county governments in developing countries. Additionally, the findings of the study may
assist county governments in creating a roadmap for enhancing their performance through
knowledge management practices and systems.
In the interests of a better understanding of knowledge management practices and systems
in county governments in developing countries, further research is required to report on and
raise awareness in this regard. Thus far, there are limited studies to be found in the academic
literature on the knowledge management practices and systems in developing countries,
especially in Africa. In addition, despite the good reasons for choosing such respondents, the
fact that one of the limitations of this study was that only senior and junior county government
officials were interviewed, it is recommended that future studies consider a broader sampling
to provide further insights into this study area. Additionally, an overarching knowledge
management framework that is tailored to meet the unique needs of county governments in
developing countries is lacking. Thus, studies focussing on the development of such a
framework would be beneficial to the knowledge management community.

References
African Union (2015), Africa Agenda 2063, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa.
Akhavan, P. and Pezeshkan, A. (2014), “Knowledge management critical failure factors: a multi-case
study”, VINE, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 22-41.
Alavi, M. and Leidner, D. (2001), “Review: knowledge management and knowledge management
systems: conceptual foundations and research issues”, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 107-136.
Amayah, A.T. (2013), “Determinants of knowledge sharing in a public sector organization”, Journal of
Knowledge Management, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 454-471.
Andrew, L.S. (2005), “Harnessing knowledge for innovation: an integrated management framework”,
Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 6-18.
Bogner, W.C. and Bansal, P. (2007), “Knowledge management as the basis of sustained high
performance”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 165-188.
Bolisani, E., Scarso, E. and Padova, A. (2018), “Cognitive overload in organizational knowledge management:
case study research”, Knowledge and Process Management, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 223-231.
VJIKMS Bowen, G.A. (2009), “Document analysis as a qualitative research method”, Qualitative Research
Journal, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 27-40.
49,3
Communication Authority of Kenya (2017), First Quarter Sector Statistics Report for the Financial Year
2017/2018, Communication Authority of Kenya, Nairobi, Retrieved from Communication
Authority of Kenya website.
Council of Governors (2018), “About US: council of governors – county integrated development plans”,
436 About US: Council of Governors Web Site, available at: http://cog.go.ke/about-us/20-the-council-
of-governors/484-county-integrated-development-plans (accessed 7 December 2018).
Darroch, J. (2005), “Knowledge management, innovation and firm performance”, Journal of Knowledge
Management, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 101-115.
De Arruda, H.F., Silva, F.N., Costa, L.D. and Amancio, D.R. (2017), “Knowledge acquisition: a complex
networks approach”, Information Sciences, Vol. 421, pp. 154-166.
Doargajudhura, M.S. and Dell, P. (2018), “The effect of bring your own device (BYOD) adoption
on work performance and motivation”, Journal of Computer Information Systems,
pp. 1-12.
Durst, S. and Bruns, G. (2016), “Sustaining the future of the public sector: insights into a Swedish
municipality’s dealing with knowledge management and succession planning”, Journal of
Information and Knowledge Management, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 1-19.
Edge, K. (2005), “Powerful public sector knowledge management: a school district example”, Journal of
Knowledge Management, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 42-52.
Gangeswari, T., Roziah, M.R., Maimunah, I. and Bahaman, A.S. (2015), “Fostering knowledge sharing
behaviour among public sector managers: a proposed model for the Malaysian public service”,
Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 121-140.
García-Álvarez, M.T. (2015), “Analysis of the effects of ICTs in knowledge management
and innovation: the case of Zara group”, Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 51,
pp. 994-1002.
Giudice, M.D. and Peruta, M.R. (2016), “The impact of IT-based knowledge management systems on
internal venturing and innovation: a structural equation modeling approach to corporate
performance”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 484-498.
Hagaman, A.K. and Wutich, A. (2017), “How many interviews are enough to identify metathemes and
cross-cultural research? Another perspective on Guest, Bunce, and Johnson’s (2006) landmark
study”, Field Methods, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 23-41.
Hislop, D., Bosua, R. and Helms, R. (2018), Knowledge Management in Organizations: A Critical
Introduction, Oxford University Press.
ICT Authority (2017), “ForgGovernment: Smart counties”, ICT Authority of Kenya Web Site, available
at: http://icta.go.ke/smart-county/ (accessed 11 April 2018).
Ingrams, A. (2017), “Managing governance complexity and knowledge networks in transparency
initiatives: the case of police open data”, Local Government Studies, Vol. 43 No. 3,
pp. 364-387.
Janus, S.J. (2017), Capturing Solutions for Learning and Scaling up: Documenting Operational
Experiences for Organizational Learning, World Bank Group, Washington, DC.
Jennex, M.E. and Olfman, L. (2006), “A model of knowledge management success”, International
Journal Knowledge Management, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 51-68.
Kamar, N. (2008), “Factors hindering effective management of government information in Kenya”, in
Lynden, I. and Wu J. (Eds), Best Practices in Government Information: A Global Perspective,
Walter de Gruyter, p. 243.
Khalifa, M., Yu, A.Y. and Shen, K.N. (2008), “Knowledge management systems success: a contingency
perspective”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 119-132.
Khilji, N.K. and Roberts, S.A. (2015), “An exploratory study of knowledge management for enhanced Knowledge
efficiency and effectiveness: the transformation of the planning system in the UK local
government”, Journal of Information and Knowledge Management, Vol. 14, pp. 1-15.
management
KIPPRA (2018), Kenya Economic Report 2017, Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis
practices and
(KIPPRA), Nairobi. systems
Kwanya, T., Ogutu, J., Muthuri, E., Turandi, T., Maina, E. and Omach, C. (2015), “Knowledge
management jobs in Kenya: a functional analysis”, Regional Journal of Information and
Knowledge Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 20-38. 437
Laihonen, H. and Mäntylä, S. (2018), “Strategic knowledge management and evolving local
government”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 219-234.
Lin, H.F. (2013), “Examining the factors influencing knowledge management systems adoption
and continuence intention”, Knowledge Management Research and Practice, Vol. 11 No. 4,
pp. 389-404.
Lu, W. (2017), “Knowledge management in organizations”, Proceedings of 12th International
Conference, KMO2017, Springer, Beijing.
Lynden, I. and Wu, J. (2008), Best Practices in Government Information: A Global Perspective, Walter de
Gruyter.
Maier, R. (2007), Knowledge Management Systems: Information and Communication Technologies for
Knowledge Management, Springer, pp. 1-8.
Malik, H. and Al-Toubi, S. (2018), “Knowledge management in the public sector”, in Syed, J., Murray, P.,
Hislop, D. and Mouzughi, Y. (Eds), The Palgrave Handbook of Knowledge Management,
Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Mannie, A., Niekerk, H.J. and Adendorff, C.M. (2013), “Significant factors for enabling knowledge
sharing between government”, South African Journal of Information Management, Vol. 15
No. 2.
Mariano, S. and Awazu, Y. (2016), “Artifacts in knowledge management”, Journal of Knowledge
Management, Vol. 20 No. 6, pp. 1333-1352.
Martin, J.E. and Remo, A.B. (2007), “Visual representations in knowledge management frameworks and
cases”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 112-122.
Massaro, M., Dumay, J. and Garlatti, A. (2015), “Public sector knowledge management: a structured
literature review”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 530-558.
Massingham, P., Massingham, R. and Pomering, A. (2018), “Designing a knowledge management
system for social services not-for-profit organisations”, International Journal of Knowledge
Management, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 1-13.
Merriam, S.B. and Tisdell, E.J. (2015), Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation, 4th
ed., John Wiley, San Francisco, CA.
Mirzaee, S. and Ghaffari, A. (2018), “Investigating the impact of information systems on knowledge
sharing”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 501-520.
Musarurwa, A., Flowerday, S. and Cilliers, L. (2018), “An information security behavioural model for
the bring-your-own-device trend”, South African Journal of Information Management, Vol. 20
No. 1, pp. 1-9.
Nath, A. and Kanjilal, D. (2018), “Addressing the challenges of e-Government: learning from the IT industry”,
VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems, Vol. 48 No. 1, pp. 62-82.
National Assembly (2018), “The national assembly: the Kenyan parliament website”, Kenyan
Parliement Website, available at: www.parliament.go.ke/the-national-assembly/house-business/
motion (accessed 8 December 2018).
National Council for Law Reporting (2013), “Kenya law”, Laws of Kenya Database, available at: www.
kenyalaw.org/lex//actview.xql?actid=No.%202%20of%202012 (accessed 3 November 2018).
VJIKMS Oluikpe, P. (2012), “Developing a corporate knowledge management strategy”, Journal of Knowledge
Management, Vol. 16 No. 6, pp. 862-878.
49,3
Ondari-Okemwa, E. and Smith, J.G. (2009), “The role of knowledge management in enhancing
government service-delivery in Kenya”, South African Journal of Libraries and Information
Science, Vol. 1 No. 12, pp. 28-39.
Pawlowski, J. and Bick, M. (2012), “The global knowledge management framework: towards a theory
438 for knowledge management in globally distributed settings”, Electronic Journal of Knowledge
Management, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 92-108.
Pour, M.J., Zadeh, Z.K. and Zadeh, N.A. (2018), “Designing an integrated methodology for knowledge
management strategic planning: the roadmap toward strategic alignment”, VINE Journal of
Information and Knowledge Management Systems, Vol. 48 No. 3, pp. 373-387.
Rossi, F.M., Citro, F. and Marco, B. (2016), “Intellectual capital in action: evidence from Italian local
governments”, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 696 -713.
Salleh, K., Chong, S.C., Ahmad, S.N. and Ikhsan, S.O. (2013), “The extent of influence of learning
factors on tacit knowledge sharing among public sector accountants”, VINE, Vol. 43 No. 4,
pp. 424-441.
Santro, G., Vrontis, D. and Thrassou, A. (2018), “The internet of things: building a knowledge
management system for open innovation and knowledge management capacity”, Technological
Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 136, pp. 347-354.
Saxena, S. (2018), “Open government data (OGD) in Iran, Lebanon and Jordan: a comparative
approach”, VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems, Vol. 48
No. 1, pp. 47-61.
Sharma, R., Noorjahan, M.L. and Victoriano, M.M. (2013), “On the use of benchmarking and good
practices for knowledge management for development”, Knowledge Management Research and
Practice, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 346-360.
Shilohu, R.N., Ravi, S.C. and Dhrubajit, G. (2018), “Knowledge management system for governance:
transformational approach creating knowledge as product for governance”, in Lenart-Gansiniec,
R. (Ed.), Crowdsourcing and Knowledge Management in Contemporary Business Environments,
GI Global, Hershey, PA, p. 304.
Song, S. and Sun, J. (2018), “Exploring effective work unit knowledge management (KM): roles of
network, task, and KM strategies”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 22 No. 7,
pp. 1614-1636.
Soto-Acosta, P. and Cegarra-Navarro, J.-G. (2016), “New ICTs for knowledge management in
organizations”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 417-422.
Syysnummi, P. and Laihonen, H. (2014), “Top management’s perception of knowledge management in
a vocational education and training organization in Finland”, International Journal of
Educational Management, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 53-65.
The Council of Governors (2017), Strategic Plan 2017–2022, Council of Governors, Nairobi.
Usoro, A. and Abiagam, B. (2018), “Culture effect on knowledge management adoption in Nigerian
hospitality industry”, VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems,
Vol. 48 No. 3, pp. 314-332.
Van Joolingen, W.R., De Jong, T., Lazonder, A.W., Savelsbergh, E.R. and Manlove, S. (2005), “Co-Lab:
research and development of online learning environment for collaborative scientific discovery
learning”, Computers in Human Behaviour, Vol. 21, pp. 677-688.
Weeks, M.R. and Veltri, N.F. (2013), “Virtual communities as narrative networks: developing a model of
knowledge creation for crowdsourced environments”, International Journal of Knowledge
Management, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 21-41.
Yin, R.K. (2018), Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods, Sage, London.
About the authors Knowledge
Dr Joshua Rumo Arongo Ndiege has over 14 years of university teaching experience including 5 management
years in administration heading academic departments. He has served as a member of several
university-wide committees like the Senate, Educational Effectiveness Committee, and Academic practices and
Standards Committee amongst others. Currently, Ndiege is an Assistant Professor of Information systems
Systems at United States International University – Africa. He has authored and co-authored a
number of refereed journal articles and conference papers. He is a reviewer of various academic
journals and has served in programme committees of a number of international conferences. Ndiege 439
has supervised a number of postgraduate students. He also acts as an external examiner (Masters
and PhDs) to a number of universities in South Africa and Kenya. Ndiege’s research interests are
largely in the areas of development informatics and business informatics. Joshua Rumo Arongo
Ndiege can be contacted at: jrumo@usiu.ac.ke
Dr Patrick Kanyi Wamuyu is an Associate Professor of Information Technology at United States
International University-Africa, Nairobi, Kenya. He has a PhD in Information Systems and
Technology from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, Postdoc from Indian
Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad and German Research Foundation Postdoc from
Freie Universität Berlin. His research is in the discipline of information systems and technology, with
emphasis on areas of information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D), social
media consumption in developing countries, e-business Infrastructures, ICT innovations and
entrepreneurship, wireless sensor networks and databases. He has published in five of the premier
publishing houses, namely, Elsevier, Springer, IEEE, Wiley-Blackwell and Taylor and Francis and in
various other information systems and technology journals. Patrick has over 20 years of experience
in the computing and information technology industry that have taken him from software
development, running his own information technology enterprise to the academic world. In his spare
time, he enjoys traveling and various outdoor activities.

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com