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 The Noble Quran
In the English Language
A Summarized Version of At-Tabari, Al-Qurtubi and Ibn Kathir
with comments from Sahih Al-Bukhari
By
Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din Al-Hilali, Ph.D.
Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan

Quran in Chapter order with English and Arabic text

Credit's and
Glossary of Terms Appendix
Acknowledgements
1. Al-Fâtihah 39. Az-Zumar 77. Al-Mursalât
2. Al-Baqarah 40. Ghâfir 78. An-Naba'
3. Âl-'Imrân 41. Fussilat 79. An-Nazi'ât
4. An-Nisâ' 42. Ash-Shûra 80. 'Abasa
5. Al-Mâ'idah 43. Az-Zukhruf 81. At-Takwîr
6. Al-An'âm 44. Ad-Dukhân 82. Al-Infitâr
7. Al-A'râf 45. Al-Jâthiya 83. Al-Mutaffifîn
8. Al-Anfâl 46. Al-Ahqâf 84. Al-Inshiqâq
9. At-Taubah 47. Muhammad or Al-Qitâl 85. Al-Burûj
10. Yûnus 48. Al-Fath 86. At-Târiq
11. Hûd 49. Al-Hujurât 87. Al-A'lâ
12. Yûsuf 50. Qâf. 88. Al-Ghâshiyah
13. Ar-Ra'd 51. Az-Zâriyât 89. Al-Fajr
14. Ibrahîm 52. At-Tûr 90. Al-Balad
15. Al-Hijr 53. An-Najm 91. Ash-Shams
16. An-Nahl 54. Al-Qamar 92. Al-Lail
17. Al-Isrâ' 55. Ar-Rahmân 93. Ad-Duha
18. Al-Kahf 56. Al-Wâqi'ah 94. Ash-Sharh
19. Maryam 57. Al-Hadîd 95. At-Tin
20. TâHâ. 58. Al-Mujâdilah 96. Al-'Alaq
21. Al-Anbiyâ' 59. Al-Hashr 97. Al-Qadr
22. Al-Hajj 60. Al-Mumtahinah 98. Al-Baiyinah
23. Al-Mu'minûn 61. As-Saff 99. Az-Zalzalah
24. An-Nûr 62. Al-Jumu'ah 100. Al-'Adiyât
25. Al-Furqân 63. Al-Munafiqûn 101. Al-Qâri'ah
26. Ash-Shu'arâ' 64. At-Taghâbun 102. At-Takâthur
27. An-Naml 65. At-Talâq 103. Al-'Asr
28. Al-Qasas 66. At-Tahrîm 104. Al-Humazah
29. Al-'Ankabût 67. Al-Mulk 105. Al-Fîl
30. ArRûm 68. Al-Qalam 106. Quraish
31. Luqmân 69. Al-Hâqqah 107. Al-Mâ'ûn
32. AsSajdah 70. Al-Ma'ârij 108. Al-Kauthar
33. AlAhzâb 71. Nûh 109. Al-Kâfirûn
34. Saba' 72. Al-Jinn 110. An-Nasr
35. Fâtir or AlMalâ'ikah 73. Al-Muzzammil 111. Al-Masad
36. YâSîn. 74. Al-Muddaththir 112. Al-Ikhlâs or At-Tauhîd
37. As-Sâffât 75. Al-Qiyâmah 113. Al-Falaq
38. Sâd. 76. Al-Insân or Ad-Dahr 114. An-Nâs

http://www.unn.ac.uk/societies/islamic/quran/naeindex.htm 11/20/02
 Translated Quran Credit's
Syed Abu-Ala' Maududi's Chapter Introductions to the Qur'an
Original source provided by tjangda@infi.net
Copied from MSA-USC

The Meaning of The Noble Quran

In the English Language, A Summarized Version of At-Tabari, Al-Qurtubi and Ibn Kathir
with comments from Sahih Al-Bukhari By
Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din Al-Hilali, Ph.D.
Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan
Copied from Ibrahim Shafi's page

Quran in Arabic
Original source, Don't know
Copied from Ibrahim Shafi's page

Besm allah alrrahmån alrahim

'håzå men fazhl rabbi'
God, you know that I made this PDF of Qur'an
just for usage of your servants and increase their
faith, please accept this from me.

http://www.unn.ac.uk/societies/islamic/quran/credit.htm 11/20/02
 1. Al-Fâtihah
Introduction to this Surat.
1.

In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

2.

All the praises and thanks be to Allâh, the Lord [] of the 'Alamîn (mankind, jinns and all that exists). []
3.

The Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

4.

The Only Owner (and the Only Ruling Judge) of the Day of Recompense (i.e. the Day of Resurrection)
5.

You (Alone) we worship, and You (Alone) we ask for help (for each and everything).
6.

Guide us to the Straight Way []

7.

The Way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace [], not (the way) of those who earned
Your Anger (such as the Jews), nor of those who went astray (such as the Christians). [],[],[]
 2. Al-Baqarah
Introduction to this Surat.
In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.
1.

Alif-Lâm-Mîm. [These letters are one of the miracles of the Qur'ân and none but Allâh (Alone) knows
their meanings].
2.

This is the Book (the Qur'ân), whereof there is no doubt, a guidance to those who are Al-Muttaqûn
[the pious and righteous persons who fear Allâh much (abstain from all kinds of sins and evil deeds
which He has forbidden) and love Allâh much (perform all kinds of good deeds which He has
ordained)].
3.

Who believe in the Ghaib [] and perform As-Salât (Iqâmat-as-Salât), [] and spend out of what we
have provided for them [i.e. give Zakât [], spend on themselves, their parents, their children, their
wives, etc., and also give charity to the poor and also in Allâh's Cause - Jihâd, etc.].
4.

And who believe in (the Qur'ân and the Sunnah) [] which has been sent down (revealed) to you
(Muhammad Peace be upon him ) and in [the Taurât (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel), etc.] which
were sent down before you and they believe with certainty in the Hereafter. (Resurrection,
recompense of their good and bad deeds, Paradise and Hell, etc.).
5.

They are on (true) guidance from their Lord, and they are the successful.
6.

Verily, those who disbelieve, it is the same to them whether you (O Muhammad Peace be upon
him ) warn them or do not warn them, they will not believe.
7.

Allâh has set a seal on their hearts and on their hearings, (i.e. they are closed from accepting Allâh's
Guidance), and on their eyes there is a covering. Theirs will be a great torment.
8.

And of mankind, there are some (hypocrites) who say: "We believe in Allâh and the Last Day" while
in fact they believe not.
9.

They (think to) deceive Allâh and those who believe, while they only deceive themselves, and
perceive (it) not!
10.

In their hearts is a disease (of doubt and hypocrisy) and Allâh has increased their disease. A painful
torment is theirs because they used to tell lies.
11.

And when it is said to them: "Make not mischief on the earth," they say: "We are only
peacemakers."
12.

Verily! They are the ones who make mischief, but they perceive not.
13.

And when it is said to them (hypocrites): "Believe as the people (followers of Muhammad Peace be
upon him , Al-Ansâr and Al-Muhajirûn) have believed," they say: "Shall we believe as the fools have
believed?" Verily, they are the fools, but they know not.
14.

And when they meet those who believe, they say: "We believe," but when they are alone with their
Shayâtin (devils - polytheists, hypocrites, etc.), they say: "Truly, we are with you; verily, we were but
mocking."
15.

Allâh mocks at them and gives them increase in their wrong-doings to wander blindly.
16.

These are they who have purchased error for guidance, so their commerce was profitless. And they
were not guided.
17.

Their likeness is as the likeness of one who kindled a fire; then, when it lighted all around him, Allâh
took away their light and left them in darkness. (So) they could not see.
18.

They are deaf, dumb, and blind, so they return not (to the Right Path).
19.

Or like a rainstorm from the sky, wherein is darkness, thunder, and lightning. They thrust their
fingers in their ears to keep out the stunning thunderclap for fear of death. But Allâh ever
encompasses the disbelievers (i.e. Allâh will gather them all together).
20.

The lightning almost snatches away their sight, whenever it flashes for them, they walk therein, and
when darkness covers them, they stand still. And if Allâh willed, He could have taken away their
hearing and their sight. Certainly, Allâh has power over all things.
21.

O mankind! Worship your Lord (Allâh), Who created you and those who were before you so that you
may become Al-Muttaqûn (the pious - see V.2:2).
22.

Who has made the earth a resting place for you, and the sky as a canopy, and sent down water
(rain) from the sky and brought forth therewith fruits as a provision for you. Then do not set up rivals
 unto Allâh (in worship) while you know (that He Alone has the right to be worshipped). []
23.

And if you (Arab pagans, Jews, and Christians) are in doubt concerning that which We have sent
down (i.e. the Qur'ân) to Our slave (Muhammad Peace be upon him ), then produce a Sûrah
(chapter) of the like thereof and call your witnesses (supporters and helpers) besides Allâh, if you
are truthful.
24.

But if you do it not, and you can never do it, then fear the Fire (Hell) whose fuel is men and stones,
prepared for the disbelievers.
25.

And give glad tidings to those who believe and do righteous good deeds, that for them will be
Gardens under which rivers flow (Paradise). Every time they will be provided with a fruit therefrom,
they will say: "This is what we were provided with before," and they will be given things in
resemblance (i.e. in the same form but different in taste) and they shall have therein Azwâjun
Mutahharatun [] (purified mates or wives), (having no menses, stools, urine, etc.) and they will abide
therein forever.
26.

Verily, Allâh is not ashamed to set forth a parable even of a mosquito or so much more when it is
bigger (or less when it is smaller) than it. And as for those who believe, they know that it is the Truth
from their Lord, but as for those who disbelieve, they say: "What did Allâh intend by this parable?"
By it He misleads many, and many He guides thereby. And He misleads thereby only those who are
Al-Fâsiqûn (the rebellious, disobedient to Allâh). []
27.

Those who break Allâh's Covenant after ratifying it, and sever what Allâh has ordered to be joined
(as regards Allâh's Religion of Islâmic Monotheism, and to practise its legal laws on the earth and
also as regards keeping good relations with kith and kin []), and do mischief on earth, it is they who
are the losers.
28.

How can you disbelieve in Allâh? Seeing that you were dead and He gave you life. Then He will give
you death, then again will bring you to life (on the Day of Resurrection) and then unto Him you will
return.
29.

He it is Who created for you all that is on earth. Then He Istawâ (rose over) towards the heaven and
made them seven heavens and He is the All-Knower of everything.
30.

And (remember) when your Lord said to the angels: "Verily, I am going to place (mankind)
generations after generations on earth." They said: "Will You place therein those who will make
mischief therein and shed blood, - while we glorify You with praises and thanks (Exalted be You
above all that they associate with You as partners) and sanctify You." He (Allâh) said: "I know that
which you do not know."
31.

And He taught Adam all the names (of everything) [], then He showed them to the angels and said,
"Tell Me the names of these if you are truthful."
32.

They (angels) said: "Glory be to You, we have no knowledge except what you have taught us. Verily,
it is You, the All-Knower, the All-Wise."
33.

He said: "O Adam! Inform them of their names," and when he had informed them of their names,
He said: "Did I not tell you that I know the Ghaib (unseen) in the heavens and the earth, and I know
what you reveal and what you have been concealing?"
34.

And (remember) when We said to the angels: "Prostrate yourselves before Adam.". And they
prostrated except Iblîs (Satan), he refused and was proud and was one of the disbelievers
(disobedient to Allâh).
35.

And We said: "O Adam! Dwell you and your wife in the Paradise and eat both of you freely with
pleasure and delight of things therein as wherever you will, but come not near this tree or you both
will be of the Zâlimûn (wrong-doers)."
36.

Then the Shaitân (Satan) made them slip therefrom (the Paradise), and got them out from that in
which they were. We said: "Get you down, all, with enmity between yourselves. On earth will be a
dwelling place for you and an enjoyment for a time."
37.

Then Adam received from his Lord Words []. And his Lord pardoned him (accepted his repentance).
Verily, He is the One Who forgives (accepts repentance), the Most Merciful.
38.

We said: "Get down all of you from this place (the Paradise), then whenever there comes to you
Guidance from Me, and whoever follows My Guidance, there shall be no fear on them, nor shall they
grieve.
39.

But those who disbelieve and belie Our Ayât (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations,
etc.) such are the dwellers of the Fire, they shall abide therein forever.
40.

O Children of Israel! Remember My Favour which I bestowed upon you, and fulfill (your obligations
to) My Covenant (with you) so that I fulfill (My Obligations to) your covenant (with Me), and fear none
but Me.
41.

And believe in what I have sent down (this Qur'ân), confirming that which is with you, [the Taurât
(Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel)], and be not the first to disbelieve therein, and buy not with My
Verses [the Taurât (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel)] a small price (i.e. getting a small gain by selling
My Verses), and fear Me and Me Alone. (Tafsir At-Tabarî, Vol. I, Page 253).
42.

And mix not truth with falsehood, nor conceal the truth [i.e. Muhammad Peace be upon him is
Allâh's Messenger and his qualities are written in your Scriptures, the Taurât (Torah) and the Injeel
(Gospel)] while you know (the truth) [].
43.

And perform As-Salât (Iqâmat-as-Salât), and give Zakât, and Irka' (i.e. bow down or submit
yourselves with obedience to Allâh) along with ArRaki'ûn. []
44.

Enjoin you Al-Birr (piety and righteousness and each and every act of obedience to Allâh) on the
people and you forget (to practise it) yourselves, [] while you recite the Scripture [the Taurât
(Torah)]! Have you then no sense?
45.

And seek help in patience and As-Salât (the prayer) and truly it is extremely heavy and hard except
for Al-Khâshi'ûn [i.e. the true believers in Allâh - those who obey Allâh with full submission, fear
much from His Punishment, and believe in His Promise (Paradise, etc.) and in His Warnings (Hell,
etc.)].
46.

(They are those) who are certain that they are going to meet their Lord, and that unto Him they are
going to return.
47.

O Children of Israel! Remember My Favour which I bestowed upon you and that I preferred you to
the 'Alamîn (mankind and jinns) (of your time period, in the past).
48.

And fear a Day (of Judgement) when a person shall not avail another, nor will intercession be
accepted from him nor will compensation be taken from him nor will they be helped.
49.

And (remember) when We delivered you from Fir'aun's (Pharaoh) people, who were afflicting you
with a horrible torment, killing your sons and sparing your women, and therein was a mighty trial
from your Lord.
50.

And (remember) when We separated the sea for you and saved you and drowned Fir'aun's
(Pharaoh) people while you were looking (at them, when the sea-water covered them).
51.

And (remember) when We appointed for Mûsa (Moses) forty nights, and (in his absence) you took
the calf (for worship), and you were Zâlimûn (polytheists and wrong-doers, etc.).
52.

Then after that We forgave you so that you might be grateful.

53.

And (remember) when We gave Mûsa (Moses) the Scripture [the Taurât (Torah)] and the criterion
(of right and wrong) so that you may be guided aright.
54.

And (remember) when Mûsa (Moses) said to his people: "O my people! Verily, you have wronged
yourselves by worshipping the calf. So turn in repentance to your Creator and kill yourselves (the
innocent kill the wrongdoers among you), that will be better for you with your Lord." Then He
accepted your repentance. Truly, He is the One Who accepts repentance, the Most Merciful.
55.

And (remember) when you said: "O Mûsa (Moses)! We shall never believe in you till we see Allâh
plainly." But you were seized with a thunderbolt (lightning) while you were looking.
56.

Then We raised you up after your death, so that you might be grateful.
57.

And We shaded you with clouds and sent down on you Al-Manna [] and the quails, (saying): "Eat of
the good lawful things We have provided for you," (but they rebelled). And they did not wrong Us but
they wronged themselves.
58.

And (remember) when We said: "Enter this town (Jerusalem) and eat bountifully therein with
pleasure and delight wherever you wish, and enter the gate in prostration (or bowing with humility)
and say: 'Forgive us,' and We shall forgive you your sins and shall increase (reward) for the good-
doers."
59.

But those who did wrong changed the word from that which had been told to them for another, so
We sent upon the wrong-doers Rijzan (a punishment) [] from the heaven because of their rebelling
against Allâh's Obedience. (Tafsir At-Tabarî, Vol. I, Page 305).
60.

And (remember) when Mûsa (Moses) asked for water for his people, We said: "Strike the stone with
your stick." Then gushed forth therefrom twelve springs. Each (group of) people knew its own place
for water. "Eat and drink of that which Allâh has provided and do not act corruptly, making mischief
on the earth."
61.

And (remember) when you said, "O Mûsa (Moses)! We cannot endure one kind of food. So invoke
your Lord for us to bring forth for us of what the earth grows, its herbs, its cucumbers, its Fûm
(wheat or garlic), its lentils and its onions." He said, "Would you exchange that which is better for
that which is lower? Go you down to any town and you shall find what you want!" And they were
covered with humiliation and misery, and they drew on themselves the Wrath of Allâh. That was
because they used to disbelieve the Ayât (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations,
etc.) of Allâh and killed the Prophets wrongfully. That was because they disobeyed and used to
transgress the bounds (in their disobedience to Allâh, i.e. commit crimes and sins).
62.

Verily! Those who believe and those who are Jews and Christians, and Sabians, [] whoever believes
in Allâh and the Last Day and do righteous good deeds shall have their reward with their Lord, on
them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve [].
63.

And (O Children of Israel, remember) when We took your covenant and We raised above you the
Mount (saying): "Hold fast to that which We have given you, and remember that which is therein so
that you may become Al-Muttaqûn (the pious - see V.2:2).
64.

Then after that you turned away. Had it not been for the Grace and Mercy of Allâh upon you, indeed
you would have been among the losers.
65.

And indeed you knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath (i.e.
Saturday). We said to them: "Be you monkeys, despised and rejected."
66.

So We made this punishment an example to their own and to succeeding generations and a lesson
to those who are Al-Muttaqûn (the pious - see V.2:2).
67.

And (remember) when Mûsa (Moses) said to his people: "Verily, Allâh commands you that you
slaughter a cow." They said, "Do you make fun of us?" He said, "I take Allâh's Refuge from being
among Al-Jâhilûn (the ignorants or the foolish)."
68.

They said, "Call upon your Lord for us that He may make plain to us what it is!" He said, "He says,
'Verily, it is a cow neither too old nor too young, but (it is) between the two conditions', so do what
you are commanded."
69.

They said, "Call upon your Lord for us to make plain to us its colour." He said, "He says, 'It is a
yellow cow, bright in its colour, pleasing to the beholders.' "
70.

They said, "Call upon your Lord for us to make plain to us what it is. Verily to us all cows are alike,
And surely, if Allâh wills, we will be guided."
71.

He [Mûsa (Moses)] said, "He says, 'It is a cow neither trained to till the soil nor water the fields,
sound, having no other colour except bright yellow.' " They said, "Now you have brought the truth."
So they slaughtered it though they were near to not doing it.
72.

And (remember) when you killed a man and fell into dispute among yourselves as to the crime. But
Allâh brought forth that which you were hiding.
73.

So We said: "Strike him (the dead man) with a piece of it (the cow)." Thus Allâh brings the dead to
life and shows you His Ayât (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.) so that you
may understand.
74.

Then, after that, your hearts were hardened and became as stones or even worse in hardness. And
indeed, there are stones out of which rivers gush forth, and indeed, there are of them (stones) which
split asunder so that water flows from them, and indeed, there are of them (stones) which fall down
for fear of Allâh. And Allâh is not unaware of what you do.
75.

Do you (faithful believers) covet that they will believe in your religion inspite of the fact that a party of
them (Jewish rabbis) used to hear the Word of Allâh [the Taurât (Torah)], then they used to change
it knowingly after they understood it?
76.

And when they (Jews) meet those who believe (Muslims), they say, "We believe", but when they
meet one another in private, they say, "Shall you (Jews) tell them (Muslims) what Allâh has revealed
to you [Jews, about the description and the qualities of Prophet Muhammad Peace be upon him ,
that which are written in the Taurât (Torah)] [], that they (Muslims) may argue with you (Jews) about
it before your Lord?" Have you (Jews) then no understanding?
77.

Know they (Jews) not that Allâh knows what they conceal and what they reveal?
78.

And there are among them (Jews) unlettered people, who know not the Book, but they trust upon
false desires and they but guess.
79.

Then woe to those who write the Book with their own hands and then say, "This is from Allâh," to
purchase with it a little price! Woe to them for what their hands have written and woe to them for
that they earn thereby.
80.

And they (Jews) say, "The Fire (i.e. Hell-fire on the Day of Resurrection) shall not touch us but for a
few numbered days." Say (O Muhammad Peace be upon him to them): "Have you taken a covenant
from Allâh, so that Allâh will not break His Covenant? Or is it that you say of Allâh what you know
not?"
81.

Yes! Whosoever earns evil and his sin has surrounded him, they are dwellers of the Fire (i.e. Hell);
they will dwell therein forever.
82.

And those who believe (in the Oneness of Allâh swt- Islâmic Monotheism) and do righteous good
deeds, they are dwellers of Paradise, they will dwell therein forever.
83.

And (remember) when We took a covenant from the Children of Israel, (saying): Worship none but
Allâh (Alone) and be dutiful and good to parents, and to kindred, and to orphans and Al-Masâkîn []
(the poor), [Tafsir At-Tabarî, Vol. 10, Page 158 (Verse 9:60)] and speak good to people [i.e. enjoin
righteousness and forbid evil, and say the truth about Muhammad Peace be upon him ], and
perform As-Salât (Iqâmat-as-Salât), and give Zakât. Then you slid back, except a few of you, while
you are backsliders. (Tafsir Al-Qurtubî, Vol. 2, Page 392).
84.

And (remember) when We took your covenant (saying): Shed not the blood of your people, nor turn
out your own people from their dwellings. Then, (this) you ratified and (to this) you bear witness.
85.

After this, it is you who kill one another and drive out a party of you from their homes, assist (their
enemies) against them, in sin and transgression. And if they come to you as captives, you ransom
them, although their expulsion was forbidden to you. Then do you believe in a part of the Scripture
and reject the rest? Then what is the recompense of those who do so among you, except disgrace
in the life of this world, and on the Day of Resurrection they shall be consigned to the most grievous
torment. And Allâh is not unaware of what you do.
86.

Those are they who have bought the life of this world at the price of the Hereafter. Their torment
shall not be lightened nor shall they be helped.
146.

Those to whom We gave the Scripture (Jews and Christians) recognise him (Muhammad SAW or the
Ka'bah at Makkah) as they recongise their sons. But verily, a party of them conceal the truth while
they know it - [i.e. the qualities of Muhammad SAW which are written in the Taurât (Torah) and the
Injeel (Gospel)][].
147.

(This is) the truth from your Lord. So be you not one of those who doubt.
148.

For every nation there is a direction to which they face (in their prayers). So hasten towards all that
is good. Wheresoever you may be, Allâh will bring you together (on the Day of Resurrection). Truly,
Allâh is Able to do all things.
149.

And from wheresoever you start forth (for prayers), turn your face in the direction of Al-Masjid-al-
Harâm (at Makkah), that is indeed the truth from your Lord. And Allâh is not unaware of what you
do.
150.

And from wheresoever you start forth (for prayers), turn your face in the direction of Al-Masjid-al-
Harâm (at Makkah), and wheresoever you are, turn your faces towards, it (when you pray) so that
men may have no argument against you except those of them that are wrong-doers, so fear them
not, but fear Me! - And so that I may complete My Blessings on you and that you may be guided.
151.

Similarly (to complete My Blessings on you) We have sent among you a Messenger (Muhammad
SAW) of your own, reciting to you Our Verses (the Qur'ân) and sanctifying you, and teaching you the
Book (the Qur'ân) and the Hikmah (i.e. Sunnah, Islâmic laws and Fiqh - jurisprudence), and
teaching you that which you used not to know.
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have been sufficiently described above (p. 55), and it remains only to
be mentioned that the bones of the palatine arch are but rarely
absent, as for instance in Murænophis; and that the symplectic does
not extend to the articulary of the mandible, as in Amia and
Lepidosteus, though its suspensory relation to the Meckelian
cartilage is still indicated by a ligament which connects the two
pieces. Of the mandibulary bones the articulary (35) is distinctly part
of Meckel’s cartilage. Frequently another portion of cartilage below
the articulary remains persistent, or is replaced by a separate
membrane-bone, the angular.
4. Membrane-bones of the alimentary portion of the visceral
skeleton of the skull.—The suspensorium has one tegumentary bone
attached to it, viz. the præoperculum (30); it is but rarely absent, for
instance in Murænophis. The premaxillary (17) and maxillary (18) of
the Teleostei appear to be also membrane-bones, although they are
clearly analogous to the upper labial cartilages of the Sharks. The
premaxillaries sometimes coalesce into a single piece (as in Diodon,
Mormyrus), or they are firmly united with the maxillaries (as in all
Gymnodonts, Serrasalmo, etc.) The relative position and connection
of these two bones differs much, and is a valuable character in the
discrimination of the various families. In some, the front margin of the
jaw is formed by the premaxillary only, the two bones having a
parallel position, as it has been described in the Perch (p. 53); in
others, the premaxillary is shortened, allowing the maxillary to enter,
and to complete, the margin of the upper jaw; and finally, in many no
part of the maxillary is situated behind the premaxillary, but the entire
bone is attached to the end of the premaxillary, forming its
continuation. In the last case the maxillary may be quite abortive.
The mobility of the upper jaw is greatest in those fishes in which the
premaxillary alone forms its margin. The form of the premaxillary is
subject to great variation: the beak of Belone, Xiphias is formed by
the prolonged and coalesced premaxillaries. The maxillary consists
sometimes of one piece, sometimes of two or three. The principal
membrane-bone of the mandible is the dentary (34), to which is
added the angular (36) and rarely a smaller one, the splenial or os
operculare, which is situated at the inside of the articulary.
 5. Cartilage-bones of the respiratory portion of the visceral
skeleton of the skull.—With few exceptions all the ossifications of the
hyoid and branchial arches, as described above (p. 58), belong to
this group.
6. Membrane-bones of the respiratory portion of the visceral
skeleton of the skull.—They are the following: the opercular pieces,
viz. operculum (28), sub-operculum (32), and interoperculum (33).
The last of these is the least constant; it may be entirely absent, and
represented by a ligament extending from the mandible to the hyoid.
The urohyal (42) which separates the musculi sternohyoidei, and
serves for an increased surface of their insertion; and finally the
branchiostegals (43), which vary greatly in number, but are always
fixed to the cerato- and epi-hyals.
7. Dermal bones of the skull.—To this category are referred some
bones which are ossifications of, and belong to, the cutis. They are
the turbinals (20), the suborbitals (19), and the supratemporals. They
vary much with regard to the degree in which they are developed,
and are rarely entirely absent. Nearly always they are wholly or
partly transformed into tubes or hollows, in which the muciferous
canals with their numerous nerves are lodged. Those in the temporal
and scapulary regions are not always developed; on the other hand,
the series of those ossicles may be continued on to the trunk,
accompanying the lateral line. In many fishes those of the infraorbital
ring are much dilated, protecting the entire space between the orbit
and the rim of the præoperculum; in others, especially those which
have the angle of the præoperculum armed with a powerful spine,
the infraorbital ring emits a process towards the spine, which thus
serves as a stay or support of this weapon (Scorpænidæ, Cottidæ).
The pectoral arch of the Teleosteous fishes exhibits but a
remnant of a primordial cartilage, which is replaced by two
ossifications,[10] the coracoid (51) and scapula (52); they offer
posteriorly attachment to two series of short rods, of which the
proximal are nearly always ossified, whilst the distal frequently
remain small cartilaginous nodules hidden in the base of the pectoral
rays. The bones, by which this portion is connected with the skull,
are membrane-bones, viz. the clavicle (49), with the postclavicle (49
+ 50), the supraclavicle (47), and post-temporal (46). The order of
their arrangement in the Perch has been described above (p. 59).
However, many Teleosteous fish lack pectoral fins, and in them the
pectoral arch is frequently more or less reduced or rudimentary, as in
many species of Murænidæ. In others the membrane-bones are
exceedingly strong, contributing to the outer protective armour of the
fish, and then the clavicles are generally suturally connected in the
median line. The postclavicula and the supraclavicula may be
absent. Only exceptionally the shoulder-girdle is not suspended from
the skull, but from the anterior portion of the spinous column
(Symbranchidæ, Murænidæ, Notacanthidæ). The number of basal
elements of each of the two series never exceeds five, but may be
less; and the distal series is absent in Siluroids.
The pubic bones of the Teleosteous fishes undergo many
modifications of form in the various families, but they are essentially
of the same simple type as in the Perch.
 CHAPTER V.

MYOLOGY.

In the lowest vertebrate, Branchiostoma, the whole of the

muscular mass is arranged in a longitudinal band running along each
side of the body; it is vertically divided into a number of flakes or
segments (myocommas) by aponeurotic septa, which serve as the
surfaces of insertion to the muscular fibres. But this muscular band
has no connection with the notochord except in its foremost portion,
where some relation has been formed to the visceral skeleton. A
very thin muscular layer covers the abdomen.
Also in the Cyclostomes the greatest portion of the muscular
system is without direct relation to the skeleton, and, again, it is only
on the skull and visceral skeleton where distinct muscles have been
differentiated for special functions.
To the development of the skeleton in the more highly organised
fishes corresponds a similar development of the muscles; and the
maxillary and branchial apparatus, the pectoral and ventral fins, the
vertical fins, and especially the caudal, possess a separate system
of muscles. But the most noteworthy is the muscle covering the
sides of the trunk and tail (already noticed in Branchiostoma), which
Cuvier described as the “great lateral muscle,” and which, in the
higher fishes, is a compound of many smaller segments,
corresponding in number with the vertebræ. Each lateral muscle is
divided by a median longitudinal groove into a dorsal and ventral
half; the depression in its middle is filled by an embryonal muscular
substance which contains a large quantity of fat and blood-vessels,
and therefore differs from ordinary muscle by its softer consistency,
and by its colour which is reddish or grayish. Superficially the lateral
muscle appears crossed by a number of white parallel tendinous zig-
zag stripes, forming generally three angles, of which the upper and
lower point backwards, the middle one forwards. These are the outer
edges of the aponeurotic septa between the myocommas. Each
septum is attached to the middle and the apophyses of a vertebra,
and, in the abdominal region, to its rib; frequently the septa receive
additional support by the existence of epipleural spines. The fibres of
each myocomma run straight and nearly horizontally from one
septum to the next; they are grouped so as to form semiconical
masses, of which the upper and lower have their apices turned
backwards, whilst the middle cone, formed by the contiguous parts
of the preceding, has its apex directed forward; this fits into the
interspace between the antecedent upper and lower cones, the
apices of which reciprocally enter the depressions in the succeeding
segment, whereby all the segments are firmly locked together
(Owen).
In connection with the muscles reference has to be made to the
Electric organs with which certain fishes are provided, as it is more
than probable, not only from the examination of peculiar muscular
organs occurring in the Rays, Mormyrus, and Gymnarchus (the
function of which is still conjectural), but especially from the
researches into the development of the electric organ of Torpedo,
that the electric organs have been developed out of muscular
substance. The fishes possessing fully developed electric organs,
with the power of accumulating electric force and communicating it in
the form of shocks to other animals, are the electric Rays
(Torpedinidæ), the electric Sheath-fish of tropical Africa
(Malapterurus), and the electric Eel of tropical America (Gymnotus).
The structure and arrangement of the electric organ is very different
in these fishes, and will be subsequently described in the special
account of the several species.
The phenomena attending the exercise of this extraordinary
faculty also closely resemble muscular action. The time and strength
of the discharge are entirely under the control of the fish. The power
is exhausted after some time, and it needs repose and nourishment
to restore it. If the electric nerves are cut and divided from the brain
the cerebral action is interrupted, and no irritant to the body has any
effect to excite electric discharge; but if their ends be irritated the
discharge takes place, just as a muscle is excited to contraction
under similar circumstances. And, singularly enough, the application
of strychnine causes simultaneously a tetanic state of the muscles
and a rapid succession of involuntary electric discharges. The
strength of the discharges depends entirely on the size, health, and
energy of the fish: an observation entirely agreeing with that made
on the efficacy of snake-poison. Like this latter, the property of the
electric force serves two ends in the economy of the animals which
are endowed with it; it is essential and necessary to them for
overpowering, stunning, or killing the creatures on which they feed,
whilst incidentally they use it as the means of defending themselves
from their enemies.
 CHAPTER VI.

NEUROLOGY.

The most simple condition of the nervous central organ known in

Vertebrates is found in Branchiostoma. In this fish the spinal chord
tapers at both ends, an anterior cerebral swelling, or anything
approaching a brain, being absent. It is band-like along its middle
third, and groups of darker cells mark the origins of the fifty or sixty
pairs of nerves which accompany the intermuscular septa, and
divide into a dorsal and ventral branch, as in other fishes. The two
anterior pairs pass to the membranous parts above the mouth, and
supply with nerve filaments a ciliated depression near the extremity
of the fish, which is considered to be an olfactory organ, and two
pigment spots, the rudiments of eyes. An auditory organ is absent.
The spinal chord of the Cyclostomes is flattened in its whole
extent, band-like, and elastic; also in Chimæra it is elastic, but
flattened in its posterior portion only. In all other fishes it is
cylindrical, non-ductile, and generally extending along the whole
length of the spinal canal. The Plectognaths offer a singular
exception in this respect that the spinal chord is much shortened, the
posterior portion of the canal being occupied by a long cauda
equina; this shortening of the spinal chord has become extreme in
the Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus), in which it has shrunk into a short and
conical appendage of the brain. Also in the Devil-fish (Lophius) a
long cauda equina partly conceals the chord which terminates on the
level of about the twelfth vertebra.
The brain of fishes is relatively small; in the Burbot (Lota) it has
been estimated to be 1/720th part of the weight of the entire fish, in
the Pike the 1/1305th part, and in the large Sharks it is relatively still
smaller. It never fills the entire cavity of the cranium; between the
dura mater which adheres to the inner surface of the cranial cavity,
and the arachnoidea which envelops the brain, a more or less
considerable space remains, which is filled with a soft gelatinous
mass generally containing a large quantity of fat. It has been
observed that this space is much less in young specimens than in
adult, which proves that the brain of fishes does not grow in the
same proportion as the rest of the body; and, indeed, its size is
nearly the same in individuals of which one is double the bulk of the
other.

Fig. 41.—Brain of Perch.

I. Upper aspect. II. Lower aspect.
a, cerebellum; b, optic lobes; c, hemispheres; e, lobi inferiores; f, hypophysis; g,
lobi posteriores; i, Olfactory lobes; n, N. opticus; o, N. olfactorius; p, N. oculo-
motorius; q, N. trochlearis; r, N. trigeminus; s, N. acusticus; t, N. vagus; u, N.
abducens; v, Fourth ventricle.
The brain of Osseous fishes (Fig. 41) viewed from above shows
three protuberances, respectively termed prosencephalon,
mesencephalon, and metencephalon, the two anterior of which are
paired, the hindmost being single. The foremost pair are the
hemispheres, which are solid in their interior, and provided with two
swellings in front, the olfactory lobes. The second pair are the optic
lobes, which generally are larger than the hemispheres, and
succeeded by the third single portion, the cerebellum. In the fresh
state the hemispheres are of a grayish colour, and often show some
shallow depressions on their surface; a narrow commissure of white
colour connects them with each other. The optic lobes possess a
cavity (ventriculus lobioptici), at the bottom of which some
protuberances of variable development represent the corpora
quadrigemina of higher animals. On the lower surface of the base of
the optic lobes, behind the crura cerebri, two swellings are observed,
the lobi inferiores, which slightly diverge in front for the passage of
the infundibulum, from which a generally large hypophysis or
pituitary gland is suspended. The relative size of the cerebellum
varies greatly in the different osseous fishes: in the Tunny and
Silurus it is so large as nearly to cover the optic lobes; sometimes
distinct transverse grooves and a median longitudinal groove are
visible. The cerebellum possesses in its interior a cavity which
communicates with the anterior part of the fourth ventricle. The
medulla oblongata is broader than the spinal chord, and contains the
fourth ventricle, which forms the continuation of the central canal of
the spinal chord. In most fishes a perfect roof is formed over the
fourth ventricle by two longitudinal pads, which meet each other in
the median line (lobi posteriores), and but rarely it remains open
along its upper surface.
The brain of Ganoid fishes shows great similarity to that of the
Teleostei; however, there is considerable diversity of the
arrangement of its various portions in the different types. In the
Sturgeons and Polypterus (Fig. 42) the hemispheres are more or
less remote from the mesencephalon, so that in an upper view the
crura cerebri, with the intermediate entrance into the third ventricle
(fissura cerebri magna), may be seen. A vascular membranous sac,
containing lymphatic fluid (epiphysis), takes its origin from the third
ventricle, its base being expanded over the anterior interspace of the
optic lobes, and the apex being fixed to the cartilaginous roof of the
cranium. This structure is not peculiar to the Ganoids, but found in
various stages of development in Teleosteans, marking, when
present, the boundary between prosencephalon and
mesencephalon. The lobi optici are essentially as in Teleosteans.
The cerebellum penetrates into the ventriculus lobi optici, and
extends thence into the open sinus rhomboidalis. At its upper
surface it is crossed by a commissure formed by the corpora
restiformia of the medulla.
 Fig. 42.—Brain of Polypterus. (After Müller.)
I., Upper; II., Lateral; III., Lower aspect.
a, Medulla; b, corpora restiformia; c, cerebellum; d, lobi optici; e, hypophysis; f,
fissura cerebri magna; g, nervus opticus; g’, chiasma; h, hemispheres; i, lobus
olfactorius; k, sinus rhomboidalis (fourth ventricle).
As regards external configuration, the brain of Lepidosteus and
Amia approach still more the Teleosteous type. The prosencephalon,
mesencephalon, and metencephalon are contiguous, and the
cerebellum lacks the prominent transverse commissure at its upper
surface. The sinus rhomboidalis is open.
The brain of the Dipnoi shows characters reminding us of that of
the Ganoids as well as the Chondropterygians, Ceratodus agreeing
with Protopterus in this respect, as in most other points of its
organisation. The hemispheres form the largest part of the brain;
they are coalescent, as in Sharks, but possess two lateral ventricles,
the separation being externally indicated by a shallow median
groove on the upper surface. The olfactory lobes take their origin
from the upper anterior end of the hemispheres. Epiphysis and
hypophysis well developed. The lobi optici are very small, and
remote from the prosencephalon, their division into the lateral halves
being indicated by a median groove only. The cerebellum is very
small, overlying the front part of the sinus rhomboidalis.

Fig. 43.—Brain of Carcharias. (After Owen.)

ac, Nerv. acusticus; b, corpus restiforme; c, cerebellum; d, lobus opticus; e,
hypophysis; g, nervus opticus; h, hemisphere; i, lobus olfactorius; i’, olfactory
pedicle; k, nerv. olfactorius; l, epiphysis; m, nerv. oculo-motorius; tr, nerv.
trigeminus; v, nerv. vagus.
The brain of Chondropterygians (Fig. 43) is more developed than
that of all other fishes, and distinguished by well-marked characters.
These are, first, the prolongation of the olfactory lobes into more or
less long pedicles, which dilate into great ganglionic masses, where
they come into contact with the olfactory sacs; secondly, the space
which generally intervenes between prosencephalon and
mesencephalon, as in some Ganoids; thirdly, the large development
of the metencephalon.
The hemispheres are generally large, coalescent, but with a
median, longitudinal, dividing groove. Frequently their surface shows
traces of gyrations, and when they are provided with lateral
ventricles, tubercles representing corpora striata may be observed.
The olfactory pedicles take their origin from the side of the
hemispheres, and are frequently hollow, and if so, their cavity
communicates with the ventricle of the hemisphere. The optic lobes
are generally smaller than the hemispheres, coalescent, and
provided with an upper median groove like the prosencephalon. At
their base a pair of lobi inferiores are constant, with the hypophysis
and sacsus vasculosus (a conglomeration of vascular loops without
medullary substance) between them.
The cerebellum is very large, overlying a portion of the optic
lobes and of the sinus rhomboidalis, and is frequently transversely
grooved. The side-walls of the fourth ventricle, which are formed by
the corpora restiformia, are singularly folded, and appear as two
pads, one on each side of the cerebellum (lobi posteriores s. lobi
nervi trigemini).
 Fig. 44.—Brain of Bdellostoma. (Enlarged, after
Müller.)
I., Upper; II., Lower aspect. Letters as in Fig. 45.
 Fig. 45.—Brain of Petromyzon. (Enlarged,
after Müller.)
I., Upper; II., Lower aspect.
a, Medulla oblongata; ac, nerv. acusticus; b,
corpus restiforme or rudimentary
cerebellum; d, lobus ventriculi tertii; d’,
entrance into the third ventricle; c,
hypophysis; fa, nerv. facialis; g, nerv.
opticus; h, hemisphere; hy, nerv.
hypoglossus (so named by Müller); i, lobus
olfactorius; k, sinus rhomboidalis; l,
 epiphysis; m, nerv. oculo-motorius; q,
corpora quadrigemina; tr, nerv. trigeminus;
tro, nerv. trochlearis; v, nerv. vagus.
The brain of the Cyclostomes (Figs. 44, 45) represents a type
different from that of other fishes, showing at its upper surface three
pairs of protuberances in front of the cerebellum; they are all solid.
Their homologies are not yet satisfactorily determined, parts of the
Myxinoid brain having received by the same observers
determinations very different from those given to the corresponding
parts of the brain of the Lampreys. The foremost pair are the large
olfactory tubercles, which are exceedingly large in Petromyzon. They
are followed by the hemispheres, with a single body wedged in
between their posterior half; in Petromyzon, at least, the vascular
tissue leading to an epiphysis seems to be connected with this body.
Then follows the lobus ventriculi tertii, distinctly paired in Myxinoids,
less so in Petromyzon. The last pair are the corpora quadrigemina.
According to this interpretation the cerebellum would be absent in
Myxinoids, and represented in Petromyzon by a narrow commissure
only (Fig. 45, b), stretching over the foremost part of the sinus
rhomboidalis. In the Myxinoids the medulla oblongata ends in two
divergent swellings, free and obtuse at their extremity, from which
most of the cerebral nerves take their origin.
The Nerves which supply the organs of the head are either
merely continuations or diverticula of the brain-substance, or proper
nerves taking their origin from the brain, or receiving their constituent
parts from the foremost part of the spinal chord. The number of
these spino-cerebral nerves is always less than in the higher
vertebrates, and their arrangement varies considerably.
A. Nerves which are diverticula of the brain (Figs. 41–45).
The olfactory nerves (first pair) always retain their intimate
relation to the hemispheres, the ventricles of which are not rarely
continued into the tubercle or even pedicle of the nerves. The
different position of the olfactory tubercle has been already
described as characteristic of some of the orders of fishes. In those
fishes in which the tubercle is remote from the brain, the nerve which
has entered the tubercle as a single stem leaves it split up into
several or numerous branches, which are distributed in the nasal
organ. In the other fishes it breaks up into branchlets spread into a
fan-like expansion at the point, where it enters the nasal cavity. The
nerve always passes out of the skull through the ethmoid.
The optic nerves (second pair) vary in size, their strength
corresponding to the size of the eye; they take their origin from the
lobi optici, the development of which again is proportionate to that of
the nerves. The mutual relation of the two nerves immediately after
their origin is very characteristic of the sub-classes of fishes. In the
Cyclostomes they have no further connection with each other, each
going to the eye of its own side.[11] In the Teleostei they simply cross
each other (decussate), so that the one starting from the right half of
the brain goes to the left eye and vice versa. Finally, in Palæichthyes
the two nerves are fused together, immediately after their origin, into
a chiasma. The nerve is cylindrical for some portion of its course, but
in most fishes gradually changes this form into that of a plaited band,
which is capable of separation and expansion. It enters the bulbus
generally behind and above its axis. The foramen through which it
leaves the skull of Teleostei is generally in a membranous portion of
its anterior wall, or, where ossification has taken place, in the orbito-
sphenoid.
B. Nerves proper taking their origin from the brain
(Figs. 41–45).
The Nervus oculorum motorius (third pair) takes its origin from
the Pedunculus cerebri, close behind the lobi inferiores; it escapes
through the orbito-sphenoid, or the membrane replacing it, and is
distributed to the musculi rectus superior, rectus internus, obliquus
inferior, and rectus inferior. Its size corresponds to the development
of the muscles of the eye. Consequently it is absent in the blind
Amblyopsis, and the Myxinoids. In Lepidosiren the nerves supplying
the muscles of the eye have no independent origin, but are part of
the ophthalmic division of the Trigeminus. In Petromyzon these
muscles are supplied partly from the Trigeminus, partly by a nerve
representing the Oculo-motor and Trochlearis, which are fused into a
common trunk.
 The Nervus trochlearis (fourth pair), if present with an
independent origin, is always thin, taking its origin on the upper
surface of the brain from the groove between lobus opticus and
cerebellum; it goes to the Musculus obliquus superior of the eye.
C. Nerves taking their origin from the Medulla oblongata (Figs.
41–45).
The Nervus abducens (sixth pair) issues on the lower surface of
the brain, taking its origin from the anterior pyramids of the Medulla
oblongata, and supplies the Musculus rectus externus of the eye,
and the muscle of the nictitating membrane of Sharks.
The Nervus trigeminus (fifth pair) and the Nervus facialis
(seventh pair) have their origins close together, and enter into
intimate connection with each other. In the Chondropterygians and
most Teleostei the number of their roots is four, in the Sturgeons five,
and in a few Teleostei three. When there are four, the first issues
immediately below the cerebellum from the side of the Medulla
oblongata; it contains motory and sensory elements for the maxillary
and suspensorial muscles, and belongs exclusively to the trigeminal
nerve. The second root, which generally becomes free a little above
the first, supplies especially the elements for the Ramus palatinus,
which sometimes unites with parts of the Trigeminal, sometimes with
the Facial nerve. The third root, if present, is very small, and issues
immediately in front of the acustic nerve, and supplies part of the
motor elements of the facial nerve. The fourth root is much stronger,
sometimes double, and its elements pass again partly into the
Trigeminal, partly into the Facial nerve. On the passage of these
stems through the skull (through a foramen or foramina in the
alisphenoid) they form a ganglionic plexus, in which the palatine
ramus and the first stem of the Trigeminus generally possess
discrete ganglia. The branches which issue from the plexus and
belong exclusively to the Trigeminus, supply the organs and
integuments of the frontal, ophthalmic, and nasal regions, and the
upper and lower jaws with their soft parts. The Facial nerve supplies
the muscles of the gill-cover and suspensorium, and emits a strong
branch accompanying the Meckelian cartilage to the symphysis, and
another for the hyoid apparatus.
 The Nervus acusticus (eighth pair) is strong, and takes its origin
immediately behind, and in contact with, the last root of the seventh
pair.
The Nervus glossopharyngeus (ninth pair)[12] takes its origin
between the roots of the eighth and tenth nerves, and issues in
Teleostei from the cranial cavity by a foramen of the exoccipital. In
the Cyclostomes and Lepidosiren it is part of the Nervus vagus. It is
distributed in the pharyngeal and lingual regions, one branch
supplying the first branchial arch. After having left the cranial cavity it
swells into a ganglion, which in Teleostei is always in communication
with the sympathic nerve.
The Nervus vagus or pneumogastricus (tenth pair) rises in all
Teleostei and Palæichthyes with two discrete strong roots: the first
constantly from the swellings of the corpora restiformia, be they
thinner or thicker and overlying the sinus rhomboidalis, or be they
developed into lateral plaited pads, as in Acipenser and
Chondropterygians. The second much thicker root rises from the
lower tracts of the medulla oblongata. Both stems leave the cranial
cavity by a common foramen, situated in Teleosteous fishes in the
exoccipital; and form ganglionic swellings, of which those of the
lower stem are the more conspicuous. The lower stem has mixed
elements, motory as well as sensory, and is distributed to the
muscles of the branchial arches and pharynx, the œsophagus and
stomach; it sends filaments to the heart and to the air-bladder where
it exists. The first (upper) stem forms the Nervus lateralis. This
nerve, which accompanies the lateral mucous system of the trunk
and tail, is either a single longitudinal stem, gradually becoming
thinner behind, running superficially below the skin (Salmonidæ,
Cyclopterus), or deeply between the muscles (Sharks, Chimæra), or
divided into two parallel branches (most Teleostei): thus in the Perch
there are two branches on each side, the superficial of which
supplies the lateral line, whilst the deep-seated branch
communicates with the spinal nerves and supplies the septa
between the myocommas and the skin. In fishes which lack the
lateral muciferous system and possess hard integuments, as the
Ostracions, the lateral nerve is more or less rudimentary. It is entirely