PARENTAL CARE IN BIRDS AND MAMMLES

ASSIGNMENT#01SEMESTERFALL-2024
Submission Date (March 25,2024)
BY
Rehan Asghar
ROLL#22011514-114
ZOO-473(Animal Behavior )
Mam Mishal Mubashir
Department of Zoology
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page#
Definitions ..................................................................................................................1
1.1 Importance of parenting .......................................................................................1
2.Types of nesting in birds .........................................................................................1
2 Incubation in birds ..................................................................................................5
2.1 Egg-Laying Mechanisms and Patterns ....................................................................5
2.2 Species-Specific Patterns........................................................................................6
2.4 Brooding and thermoregulation ...........................................................................7
2.5 Protection and defense .........................................................................................8
3.1Parental care in mammals .....................................................................................9
3.2 Types of parental care ........................................................................................10
3.2.1 Maternal care...................................................................................................10
3.2.2 Paternal care ....................................................................................................10
4.Maternal behaviour of cats....................................................................................11
References ................................................................................................................15
 Table of figures

CONTENTS PAGE#

figure#1.1 cup shape -------------------------------------------------------------------------2

figure#1.2 scarpe ----------------------------------------------------------------------------2
figure#1.3 burrow-----------------------------------------------------------------------------3
figure#1.4 mound ----------------------------------------------------------------------------3
figure#1.5 cavity -----------------------------------------------------------------------------4
figure#1.6 platform---------------------------------------------------------------------------5
figure#2.1 egg laying ------------------------------------------------------------------------6
figure#2.2 thermoregulation----------------------------------------------------------------8
figure#2.3 cat pregnancy-------------------------------------------------------------------11
figure#2.4 cat feeding----------------------------------------------------------------------13
Definitions
In birds, "parental care" describes the actions taken by adult birds to guarantee the survival and
welfare of their young. Typically, this care entails construction of nests, egg incubation, feeding
the young, and predator protection. Depending on elements like ecological niche, habitat, and
evolutionary adaptations, parental care can differ greatly amongst bird species in terms of duration,
intensity, and particular behaviors.(Storey et al., 2006)

1.1 Importance of parenting

Having enough caring parents boosts the likelihood that their children will survive by giving them
access to necessities like food, warmth, and safety from predators. Many baby birds would not
make it to adulthood without the right care.By providing the right nutrition, social connections,
and environmental stimuli, parental care helps young birds develop healthily. Their behavioral
skills, cognitive capacities, and physical development may all benefit from this. Young birds pick
up vital skills and habits from their parents that will help them survive in the future, like how to
forage, how to avoid predators, and how to send out communication signals. Parental guidance
aids in a child's surroundings adaptation and acquisition of the knowledge necessary for
growth(Mock, 2022)

2.Types of nesting in birds

When birds build structures, their main objective is to house and safeguard their eggs and young.
This process is known as nesting. diverse bird species display diverse forms of nesting habits and
structures, each tailored to their own habitat and way of life. Here are a few typical forms of
nesting

Cup shaped
Numerous bird species, including flycatchers, chats, batises, larks, thrushes, warblers, and many
more, use these cup-shaped nests. They are made out of a robust, coarser outer shell made of fine
vines, tendrils, rootlets, and grass. Next, soft materials like fluffy seeds or downy feathers are used
to line these nests. The nest is frequently tied together with spider's web, and material such as
lichen and moss fragments are frequently added to the exterior to conceal the nest—which is
frequently located in a tree fork—from view. Some pipits and chats make tidy cup-shaped nests
deep in a tussock of grass, whereas rock martins build their cup-shaped mud nests against walls or
cliff overhangs.(Spoon et al., 2006)
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Figure 1.1 cup shape

Scarpe
Actually, these scrape nests are just small indentations in the sand, gravel, or earth. The bird merely
needs to scratch the sand or dirt away from the center point in a circle to generate them. While
some scrape nests have soft material lining, many have no lining at all, in which case the bird just
deposits its eggs on the ground. Ground birds such as lapwings, plovers, oystercatchers, thick-
knees, and many more build these nests. Occasionally, the birds will conceal the outside of the
nest with small pebbles or deer dung. Because of their color and enigmatic markings, these birds'
eggs typically blend in well. Because these nests put the nestlings in grave danger Lapwing and
plover chicks hatch with their eyes open and are able to walk on the ground right away. At that
age, little, cuddly balls can be seen running around with their fiercely protective parents.

Figure 1.2 scarpe

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Burrow
These burrows can be located in erosion gullies, abandoned mine shafts, and sandbanks along
riverbanks, as well as on the slopes of termite mounds and occasionally on the roofs of enormous
aardvark burrows. Ant-consuming The long burrows of chats are known to be constructed in the
roofs of the enormous aardvark burrows. The eggs are placed at the end of these burrows, which
can reach a length of more than a meter. Usually, soft material is used to line the nesting chamber.
These burrows are typically built with a small upward gradient to prevent flooding during heavy
rains. These kinds of burrows are used by bee-eaters, certain kingfishers, some starlings, and some
martins in sandbanks.(Angelier & Chastel, 2009)

Figure 1.3 burrow

Mound
In shallow pans, flamingos construct turret-shaped mounds or mounds of mud or clay. Some
waterfowl, such as coots, build a messy pile that floats in the water or is affixed to reeds or
underwater branches. These nests are built from any local vegetation, such as grass, sedge stems,
and reeds. Predators typically cannot harm nests that are constructed above or in water.

Figure 1.4 mound

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Cavity
Typically, these nests are located in naturally occurring tree cavities or are dug out by woodpeckers
or barbets. Cavities can occasionally be found in gaps in buildings, in roofs, or in walls. Tree trunks
in the dug tree cavities feature clean, rounded apertures that face away from the wind, rain, and
other adverse weather conditions. The eggs are placed and the chicks are nurtured in a bigger
chamber at the end of these cavities. Many bird species that do not dig their own nests are attracted
to nesting cavities. These nesting niches are frequently contested, and after all their laborious
efforts, the original owners may be forced to leave. Excavated cavity nests are used by a variety
of birds, including starlings, hoopoes, and certain sparrows.(Cockburn, 2006)

Figure 1.5 cavity

Platform
The basic construction of a platform nest is the placement of woody twigs in a tree's fork or on a
cliff's edge to create a platform for the laying of eggs. Numerous huge raptors, herons, and certain
storks build these nests. The nest can grow rather large and durable if it is utilized year after year.
Little twigs are also used by pigeons and doves to build their delicate, thin nests. The nest is
frequently so transparent that you can see the eggs inside from below and there are instances when
no effort is made to conceal it from predators.

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Figure 1.6 platform

2 Incubation in birds
In birds, incubation is the process through which eggs are safeguarded and kept warm until they
hatch into chicks. Depending on the species, either or both parents may carry out this crucial phase
of the reproductive cycle in birds. Maintaining the ideal temperature and humidity levels inside
the eggs for the growth of the embryos is the major objective of incubation.(Clark & Wilson, 1985)
2.1 Egg-Laying Mechanisms and Patterns
 When female birds hatch, they already have all of their egg cells.
 The ovary contains these cells, which are referred to as ova.
 The yolk, which surrounds developing ova, contains the nutrients needed by the
developing embryo.
 During ovulation, the ovum is discharged into the oviduct.
 The oviduct's infundibulum, the first segment, is where the ovum is fertilized if sperm are
present.
 The egg then moves on to the magnum, the following phase. Here, the albumen which
supplies water and protein—covers it.
 The albumen is then surrounded by membranes and given a calcium carbonate layer to
form the shell.

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2.2 Species-Specific Patterns
All birds lay eggs, however the amount of eggs that each species produces in a given year varies
greatly. Numerous wildfowl and groundbird species provide remarkable clutches of more than
twelve eggs annually, while certain domestic chicken varieties are capable of laying over 300 eggs
annually. Slow breeders, on the other hand, such as albatrosses, only lay one egg every two years,
and ground hornbills only make one small clutch every three years. The majority of birds only
raise one brood a year, typically in the spring or summer. Many species, nevertheless, can build
their nests quickly enough to rear a second brood before the weather turns unfavorable. Certain
species can breed at any time of year, while others quickly generate many broods.(Skutch, 1957)

Figure 2.1 egg laying

2.3 The Art and Science of Incubation

 If the egg does not have access to enough humidity and oxygen, it cannot develop into an
embryo. Crucially, the egg needs to be kept in a particular temperature range, which is
typically between 36 and 39°C, or 97 and 102 degrees Fahrenheit.
 It takes protection from the sun and other environmental factors, as well as heat transfer
from the parent bird, to keep the eggs inside such a small range.
 The eggs are incubated by one or both parents working in shifts, providing warmth from a
brood patch—a region of exposed skin. Some birds use their feet to provide heat to their

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 eggs. For example, the Emperor Penguin incubates its solitary egg while standing, atop its
webbed toes.

Challenges an predators
 Predators can kill a great deal of birds, especially ground-nesting birds like ducks,
because they prey on incubating birds and their eggs.
 Extreme weather events have an impact on adults who are incubating and their eggs. In
order for the eggs to grow, the parent bird must shield them from intense heat and cold,
but storms can ruin their chances by uprooting trees or causing foliage to be blown by the
wind, smashing the nests.
 Using great camouflage, cryptic species such as nightjars and numerous groundbirds
manage to blend in with their surroundings. Since many ground-nesting birds only make
small indentations in the ground, it can be challenging to locate their nests. Predators
frequently can't see the incubating adults or their eggs because of how nicely they blend
with their environment.(Skutch, 1957)

2.4 Brooding and thermoregulation

In birds, brooding and thermoregulation are essential behaviors, particularly during the breeding
season when it is critical to ensure the survival of young.
Brooding
 When a parent bird, usually the female, broods, it means that she is incubating the eggs
by sitting on them and keeping them warm until they hatch.
 Maintaining a steady and ideal temperature for the growth of the embryos inside the eggs
is the primary goal of brooding. Typically, this temperature is marginally higher than the
bird's basal temperature.
 The eggs are warmed by the body heat of the parent birds. By changing their stance and
positioning their feathers to fully encase the eggs, they establish a cozy and well-
insulated nest.
 Because the embryos inside the eggs are unable to control their own body temperature,
brooding is essential. Without the parental bird's warmth, the embryos might not develop
normally or might even die.

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Thermoregulation
 The technique by which birds, independent of their external surroundings, keep their
body temperature within a specific range is known as thermoregulation.
 The metabolic rate of birds is higher than that of many other species. They can produce
heat internally thanks to this accelerated metabolism, which is essential for remaining
warm, particularly in the winter.
 The function of feathers in thermoregulation is noteworthy. By keeping warm air near to
the bird's body and limiting heat loss, they serve as insulation.
 Feathers may be adjusted by birds to control how much heat they exchange with their
surroundings.
 Birds have evolved their bodies to regulate their body temperature. One such adaptation
is a high surface area to volume ratio, which allows for effective heat exchange with the
surroundings.
 In order to enhance insulation against the cold, birds may puff up their
feathers.(Katzenberger et al., 2015)
Figure 2.2 thermoregulation

2.5 Protection and defense

 Nesting Patterns:
choosing appropriate nesting locations and building nests that offer predator protection,
structural soundness, and concealment.

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  To reduce the chance of predation, many bird species construct their nests in obscure or
difficult-to-reach places like cliff ledges, tree cavities, or thick vegetation.
Disguise:
Certain birds have developed colors and patterns in their plumage that match their
environment, reducing their visibility to predators.
 During their time in the nest, nestlings and eggs may display camouflage patterns to
evade discovery by potential predators.
Alarm Triggers:
Alarm calls are a common way for birds to alert one another of impending danger. These
noises have the ability to warn those in the vicinity of predators so they can flee.
 Parental Protection:
In order to keep predators away from their nests, eggs, and young, parent birds frequently
display aggressive behavior.
To dissuade predators from using the nest site, this may entail going straight after them
with actions like diving bombing or swooping.
Collective Defense:
Certain bird species band together to form cooperative flocks or groups that offer security
in numbers.
By remaining together, people can lower their chance of being preyed upon by using
coordinated defense techniques and shared awareness.

3.1Parental care in mammals

Any behavior displayed by parents that aids in the survival, development, and well-being of their
young is considered parental care in animals. This care can include a broad range of actions and
tactics meant to give children the resources, security, and encouragement they need at different
phases of their growth. Providing food, nutrients, and other essential resources necessary for
offspring growth and development. Shielding offspring from predation, environmental hazards,
and other potential threats

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3.2 Types of parental care
3.2.1 Maternal care
Gestation: The part of pregnancy in which the mother carries and provides nourishment for her
developing child.
Parturition: The act of giving birth to children, which may entail a number of actions to speed
up the delivery process and guarantee the security of the mother and her babies.
Nursing and lactation: A mother's process of producing and supplying milk to feed her young.
In order to promote bonding and provide vital nutrients for growth and development, nursing
entails intimate physical contact between the mother and her child.
safety and Sheltering: Whether by building nests, being watchful of predators, or hiding their
young in tunnels or caves, mothers frequently give their young safety and shelter.(Gubernick,
2013)

3.2.2 Paternal care

Protection and Defense: To ensure the safety and survival of the family, certain male mammals
actively protect their young and mates from predators and other dangers.
Provisioning: Males may help provide food and resources for the young in species where they
are involved in parental care. Hunting, foraging, or feeding the mother and children are some
examples of this.
Social Bonding: Through play, grooming, and other interactions, fathers and children can also
create social relationships as part of paternal care.
3,2.3 Biparental care
Shared Responsibilities: Biparental care entails sharing the provisioning, protection, and
upbringing of children in species where both parents assist in the upbringing of the offspring.
Division of Labor: Depending on their respective talents and the requirements of their children,
parents may assign responsibilities to each other, with one parent concentrating on certain
behaviors (like providing) and the other on others (like grooming).
Coordinated Efforts: In order to properly address the requirements of offspring and increase
their chances of survival, biparental care frequently necessitates coordination and collaboration
between parents.

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4.Maternal behaviour of cats
Maternal behavior in cats is a complex and essential aspect of their reproductive biology. Female
cats, known as queens, exhibit a range of behaviors before, during, and after giving birth to and
caring for their kittens

Pregnancy and Birth Pregnancy in cats lasts around 63-65 days. As the due date approaches, a
pregnant cat may exhibit nesting behavior, seeking out quiet and secluded areas to give birth. When
the time comes, she'll typically deliver her kittens one by one, with intervals between each birth.
As soon as a cat reaches sexual maturity and begins experiencing heat cycles, she can get pregnant.
Although kittens as young as 3 or 4 months old have been reported to initiate their heat cycles, this
normally starts at 5–6 months of age, depending on the time of year they are born. The term
"queen" refers to female cats who have attained sexual maturity.

Figure 4.1

How we know cat is pregnant

It can be quite difficult to detect pregnancy in cats during the first two trimesters of pregnancy.
The first obvious indicator of a cat pregnancy could be "pinking up," or changes in the nipples

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that occur 16–20 days into the pregnancy. This is the point at when a queen's nipples get more
noticeable and pinker. During the first two trimesters, cats are frequently friendlier and more
laid-back than normal.

The last twenty or so days of pregnancy are when the growth of the breasts and abdomen is most
noticeable. Increased belly and undertail grooming is a possible behavior in queens.
Additionally, they frequently look for appropriate places to "nest."
Cleaning and Nurturing: Immediately after birth, the mother cat will use her tongue to clean each
kitten, removing the birth membranes and stimulating them to breathe. This cleaning also serves
to bond the mother with her kittens and helps regulate their body temperature. Once cleaned, the
mother will encourage them to suckle by licking their abdomens to stimulate milk flow.

Protection Mother cats are fiercely protective of their kittens, especially in the early days when
they're most vulnerable. They'll often position themselves between their kittens and any perceived
threat, whether it's another animal or a potential danger in the environment.

Feeding Nursing is a crucial aspect of maternal behavior. Mother cats produce milk to feed their
kittens for the first several weeks of their lives. They typically nurse their kittens every 1-2 hours,
and as the kittens grow, the frequency of nursing may decrease. However, the mother will continue
to nurse them until they're ready to be weaned onto solid food, usually around 4-6 weeks
old.(Bateson, 2000)

 Once the kittens are one to two weeks old, bottle feed them a commercial milk replacer
formula every one to two hours.
 The kittens should not be given cow's milk since it is too difficult for them to digest.
 After the kittens are three to four weeks old, give them some water-softened kitten chow
and formula in a shallow dish. Serve these dishes four to six times a day.
 Reduce the amount of formula you give the kittens when they are 6–12 weeks old and
start feeding them dry kitten food instead. Four times a day, provide these items.

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Figure 4.2 Cat feeding

Teaching and Socializing Mother cats play a vital role in teaching their kittens essential skills,
such as grooming, hunting, and social behavior. Through play, the mother cat helps her kittens
develop coordination, strength, and social bonds with their littermates.

Weaning As the kittens grow and their teeth start to come in, the mother will gradually begin the
weaning process. She may start to discourage nursing by moving away from the kittens or gently
swatting them away when they try to nurse. At the same time, she'll introduce them to solid food,
initially by bringing partially chewed prey items to the nest and eventually by allowing the kittens
to eat on their own.

Gradual Independence As the kittens grow and become more independent, the mother's role
gradually shifts. She continues to provide guidance and protection, but she also starts to encourage
her kittens to explore and learn on their own. Eventually, she'll begin to distance herself from her
now-adult offspring as they become fully independent.

Paternal behavior Paternal behavior in cats is not as extensively studied or observed as

maternal behavior, primarily because male cats (tomcats) typically do not play a significant role

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in raising their offspring in the wild. However, there are some observations and studies that shed
light on paternal behavior in cats:

Mating and Fertilization Male cats play a crucial role in mating and fertilization. They are
driven by their instincts to seek out female cats in heat and compete with other males for mating
opportunities. Once successful, they contribute to the fertilization of the female's eggs.

Territorial Defense Male cats often display territorial behavior, particularly when they sense the
presence of other males near their territory. They may mark their territory with urine or engage
in confrontations with intruding males to protect their mating opportunities.

Protection of Offspring (Limited) In some cases, male cats may exhibit protective behavior
towards their offspring, especially if they have formed a bond with the mother cat or if they are
in a domestic setting where they have been involved in the care of the kittens from birth.

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References
Angelier, F., & Chastel, O. (2009). Stress, prolactin and parental investment in birds: a review. General and
comparative endocrinology, 163(1-2), 142-148.

Bateson, P. (2000). Behavioural development in the cat. The domestic cat: The biology of its behaviour, 9-
22.

Clark, A. B., & Wilson, D. S. (1985). The onset of incubation in birds. The American Naturalist, 125(4), 603-
611.

Cockburn, A. (2006). Prevalence of different modes of parental care in birds. Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences, 273(1592), 1375-1383.

Gubernick, D. J. (2013). Parental care in mammals. Springer Science & Business Media.
Katzenberger, J., Tate, G., Koeslag, A., & Amar, A. (2015). Black Sparrowhawk brooding behaviour in
relation to chick age and weather variation in the recently colonised Cape Peninsula, South Africa.
Journal of Ornithology, 156, 903-913.

Mock, D. W. (2022). Parental care in birds. Current Biology, 32(20), R1132-R1136.

Skutch, A. F. (1957). The incubation patterns of birds. Ibis, 99(1), 69-93.

Spoon, T. R., Millam, J. R., & Owings, D. H. (2006). The importance of mate behavioural compatibility in
parenting and reproductive success by cockatiels, Nymphicus hollandicus. Animal Behaviour,
71(2), 315-326.

Storey, A. E., Delahunty, K. M., McKay, D. W., Walsh, C. J., & Wilhelm, S. I. (2006). Social and hormonal
bases of individual differences in the parental behaviour of birds and mammals. Canadian Journal
of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 60(3), 237.

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