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Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia

This fully revised new edition provides advice on the assessment and
support of bi/multilingual learners and assists practitioners in identifying
the difference between literacy difficulties due to bi/multilingualism and
dyslexia. An essential text for staff development, it includes innovative
approaches in technology and teaching programmes beneficial to
bi/multilingual learners and advice on learning additional languages. With
contributions from experts from across the globe, this book will provide
guidance on key themes, including:

the assessment of bi/multilingual learners,

the impact of dyslexia on bi/multilingualism,
the literacy challenges facing learners from Indigenous cultures,
the role of the SENCo in identifying children with English as an
additional language and dyslexia,
the emotional needs of learners with bi/multilingualism and
dyslexia.

This book will provide guidance to anyone involved in literacy development

and language learning. With the increase in international schools around the
globe and the ever growing desire of parents to ensure that their children
become proficient in English, this book will appeal to teachers, teaching
assistants, specialists, and all other practitioners who work with
bi/multilingual children.

Lindsay Peer, CBE, is an educational and chartered psychologist,

international speaker, author and expert witness. Her previously published
titles with Routledge include Glue Ear, Dyslexia: Successful inclusion in
secondary schools and Introduction to Dyslexia.

Gavin Reid is an international consultant and psychologist. His previously

published titles with Routledge include: The Routledge Companion to
Dyslexia, Assessing Children with Specific Learning Difficulties, Dyslexia
and Inclusion, Addressing Difficulties in Literacy Development and Meeting
Difficulties in Literacy Development.
Multilingualism, Literacy and
Dyslexia
Breaking down barriers for educators
Second edition

Edited by Lindsay Peer and Gavin Reid

Second edition published 2016
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2016 selection and editorial matter, L. Peer and G. Reid; individual chapters, the
contributors.

The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the
authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and
78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by David Fulton Publishers 2000

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Peer, Lindsay. | Reid, Gavin, 1950- | British Dyslexia Association.

Title: Multilingualism, literacy and dyslexia : breaking down barriers for
educators / edited by Lindsay Peer and Gavin Reid.
Description: Second edition. | Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY :
Routledge, 2016.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015039809| ISBN 9781138898639 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138898646 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315708478 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Multilingualism in children--Congresses. | Dyslexic
children--Education--Congresses. | Literacy--Congresses. |
Dyslexia--Congresses.
Classification: LCC LC4708.5 .M85 2016 | DDC 371.91/44--dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015039809

ISBN: 978-1-138-89863-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-89864-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-70847-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby
Contents

Editors
Contributors
Foreword 1
Tony Cline
Foreword 2
Charles Haynes

PART I Multilingualism, literacy and dyslexia: The context

1 Introduction
Lindsay Peer and Gavin Reid

2 Dyslexia and learning: Theory into practice

Angela Fawcett

3 Dyslexia, bi/multilingualism and otitis media (glue ear): A sticky

educational problem!
Lindsay Peer

4 Multilingualism and dyslexia: A critical perspective

Deirdre Martin

5 Principles and guidelines in test construction for multilingual children

Gad Elbeheri and John Everatt

6 Dyslexia and specific learning difficulties: Assessment and intervention in

a multilingual setting
 Jennie Guise, Gavin Reid, Sionah Lannen and Colin Lannen

7 Language, literacy, identity and culture: Challenges and responses for

Indigenous Māori learners
Sonja Macfarlane, Te Hurinui Clarke and Angus Macfarlane

PART II Planning and implementing intervention and addressing key

issues

8 Language-based literacy interventions: Innovative practice in South Africa

Elizabeth Nadler-Nir and Michelle Pascoe

9 Foreign language teacher training on dyslexia: DysTEFL resources

Joanna Nijakowska and Judit Kormos

10 English as an Additional Language (EAL), special educational needs and

dyslexia: The role of the 21st century SENCo
Abigail Gray

11 Lessons from the Dyslexia and Multilingualism Project

Mim Hutchings and Tilly Mortimore

12 Bilingualism and dyslexia: The case of children learning English as an

additional language
Linda Siegel

13 Theory and practice in the support of young people and adults with
English as an additional language and dyslexia, in further and higher
education
Sheena Bell and Emma Tudhope

14 Two bilingual case studies from a specialist dyslexia practitioner’s

perspective: Working in Germany
Maya Jakubowicz
15 Contradictions/dilemmas around differentiation of homework for
students with dyslexia studying English as a foreign language
Marie Rontou

16 Approaching dyslexia and multiple languages

Gilda Palti

17 Reading skills in children provided simultaneous instruction in two

distinct writing systems: Insights from behaviour and neuroimaging
Nandini Singh, Sarika Cherodath, T.A. Sumathi, Rozzel Kasera, Kate
Currawala, Bhoomika Kar and Geet Oberoi

18 The emotional and mental health challenges of acculturation, multilingual

stress and migration
Richard Soppitt

19 Policy considerations in addressing the needs of L2 learners who may

have dyslexia
Esther Geva and Yueming Xi

20 Neighbor languages in Scandinavia in a multilingual world

Michael Dal

Postscript
Lindsay Peer and Gavin Reid

Index
Editors

Lindsay Peer CBE is an educational and chartered psychologist,

international speaker, author and expert witness; Lindsay is widely
recognised as an expert in the range of specific learning difficulties, special
educational needs and mainstream education. In 2002 she was appointed
CBE for services to education and dyslexia. In 2011 she was awarded the
Outstanding Lifetime Academic Achievement Award by the British Dyslexia
Association (BDA). She is Patron of GroOops, a charity dedicated to creating
an emotionally healthy dyslexia-aware world. She has lectured extensively
as a keynote speaker internationally since the late 1980s and advises
governments, trade unions, policy makers, lawyers, adults, schools,
psychologists, therapists and parents. She is an Associate Fellow and
Chartered Scientist of the British Psychological Society and a Fellow of both
the International Academy of Research in Learning Disabilities and the
Royal Society of Arts. She is a member of the Association of Child
Psychologists in Private Practice and of the Association for Child and
Adolescent Mental Health (ACAMH). She is registered to practise with the
UK Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). She has been a keynote
speaker in the UK, the USA, India, Sweden, Belgium, Finland, Israel, Iceland,
Norway, Italy, Spain, Majorca, Greece, South Africa, Botswana, Swaziland,
Cyprus, the Czech Republic and the Netherlands. She held the posts of
Education Director and Deputy CEO of the BDA until 2003. She has many
years’ experience as a teacher, teacher trainer and SENCo. She has published
a considerable body of both theoretical and practical material, and published
the first ground-breaking book linking ‘Glue Ear’ with dyslexia. She assesses
children, students and adults facing challenges in learning. Her email is
lindsay@peergordonassociates.co.uk and her website is
www.peergordonassociates.co.uk.

Gavin Reid is an international consultant and psychologist with

consultancies in Canada, the UK, Europe, the Middle East, Asia and
Australasia. He was Visiting Professor at the University of British Columbia
in Vancouver, Canada in the Department of Education and Counseling
Psychology and Special Education in 2007 and 2010. He is Chair of the BDA
accreditation board and an ambassador for the Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre
in the UK. He is also a consultant for the Child Enrichment Medical Centre
in Dubai, the Centre for Child Evaluation and Teaching (CCET) in Kuwait
and for the Institute of Child Education and Psychology Europe (ICEPE). He
is a director of the Red Rose School for children with specific learning
difficulties in St Annes on Sea, Lancashire, UK, and is a visiting educational
psychologist to organisations and schools in Switzerland, the UK, the Middle
East, Egypt and Canada. He was Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Educational Studies (formerly Department of Special Education), Moray
House School of Education, University of Edinburgh from 1991 to 2007. He
has written 30 books on learning, motivation and dyslexia and lectured to
thousands of professionals and parents in 80 countries. He has also had
books published in Polish, Italian, Arabic, Hebrew, French, Chinese and
Slovak. He is an experienced teacher with over 10 years’ experience in the
classroom and has held external examiner appointments at 18 universities
worldwide for PhD and master’s courses.
His email is gavinreid66@gmail.com and his website is
www.drgavinreid.com.
Contributors

Sheena Bell is a Senior Lecturer in special educational needs and inclusion

at the University of Northampton, UK. She is a member of the CeSNER
(Centre for Special Needs Education and Research) team and leads courses
for specialist teachers and assessors of dyslexia/specific learning difficulties.
She has taught in a range of settings in England and abroad, from further
and higher education settings including prisons, to primary schools. She has
had considerable experience with supporting and teaching learners with
dyslexia from other cultures and language backgrounds.

Sarika Cherodath is a graduate student at the Laboratory for Language,

Literacy and Music at the National Brain Research Centre in India. Her
research is focused on understanding how reading networks in the brain are
organized in children who receive simultaneous instruction in two
languages written in two orthographies – Hindi and English. She
investigates these processes by designing behavioural and functional
neuroimaging experiments.

Te Hurinui Clarke affiliates to the Te Arawa confederation and Ngāi Tahu

tribes in Aotearoa New Zealand. His research and publications focus on
student retention in Māori language programmes in English-medium
secondary schools. He has been a classroom teacher of Māori language in
secondary schools and now lectures in undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. Te Hurinui is
currently Programme Co-ordinator and a Lecturer in a Postgraduate
diploma in bilingual and immersion teaching (HMaka Pounamu).
Kate Currawalla is President of the Maharashtra Dyslexia Association,
India. She is a strong advocate for individuals with dyslexia and is actively
associated with creating awareness of dyslexia in India and providing
appropriate intervention.

Michael Dal is an Associate Professor and Head of the Centre for Research
in Foreign and Second Language Learning at the School of Education at
Iceland University. His primary research interests focus on foreign language
acquisition, didactics in foreign languages and the use of new technology in
foreign language learning. He has conducted and participated in several
European research programmes on foreign language learning. His areas of
expertise include inclusive education, literacy, and dyslexia and foreign
language learning.

Gad Elbeheri is the Dean of the Australian College of Kuwait; a university

providing internationally recognized and accredited tertiary education to the
business and engineering sectors. He is also an expert providing consultancy
to the Center for Child Evaluation and Teaching, Kuwait. An applied linguist
who obtained his PhD from the University of Durham, UK, Dr Elbeheri has
a keen interest in cross-linguistic studies of dyslexia and other specific
learning difficulties and their manifestations in Arabic.

John Everatt is a Professor of Education at the University of Canterbury,

New Zealand. He received a PhD from the University of Nottingham, UK,
and has lectured on education and psychology programmes at universities in
New Zealand and the UK. His research focuses on literacy acquisition and
developmental learning difficulties. His current work is investigating the
relationship between literacy and language by considering the
characteristics of different scripts and how these might lead to variations in
learning/acquisition.

Angela Fawcett is Emeritus Professor, Department of Psychology, Swansea

University, UK. She was a mature student following experience of dyslexia
in her family, with a BA and PhD in psychology. Her research with Professor
Rod Nicolson at Sheffield University produced three major theories of
dyslexia, and eight normed screening tests, which are best sellers worldwide.
She is Vice President of the British Dyslexia Association, and former editor
of Dyslexia, and continues to present ongoing research in keynote
presentations internationally, consulting in Wales, Poland, with the Dyslexia
Association of Singapore and in the rest of Asia.

Esther Geva is full Professor of Applied Psychology and Human

Development at the University of Toronto, Canada. Her extensive research,
publications, and graduate teaching focus on the development of language
and literacy skills in students from diverse linguistic backgrounds, second
language students with learning difficulties, and cultural perspectives on
children’s psychological problems. She has presented her work
internationally, and served on numerous advisory, policy and review
committees in the USA and Canada concerned with policy and research on
literacy development in culturally and linguistically diverse children and
adolescents.

Abigail Gray has spent over 20 years in special educational needs. Her
career in education has taken her from the role of Learning Support
Assistant in a London, UK, comprehensive to the headship of The Moat
School in Fulham. After 12 years in leadership, Abigail launched a special
educational needs consultancy service, Senworks, which provides training,
advice and support to schools and families on improving provision and
outcomes. She also volunteers for IPSEA (Independent Parental Special
Education Advice) as part of their free Tribunal Support Service.

Jennie Guise is a practitioner psychologist with extensive experience of

assessing working memory. She is highly qualified in the areas of
psychology and education, and has worked in research, and now in applied
practice as Director of Dysguise Ltd, UK. Dr Guise also has years of
experience in teaching students of different ability levels, and of putting
theory into practice. Her main interests are in identifying what will help
individual learners, and working collaboratively with teachers and tutors to
use that knowledge in the classroom.

Mim Hutchings specialized in social and educational inclusion within

educational and childhood studies and master’s programmes at Bath Spa
University, UK. She was part of the Dyslexia and Multilingualism team
mainly responsible for the qualitative elements of the research. Her previous
lives have included teaching in mainstream and special schools, and
universities, and working as an advisor for special educational needs and
within minority ethnic support services.

Maya Jakubowicz is a trilingual TEFL teacher and a British Dyslexia

Association qualified dyslexia specialist practitioner and PgCert Education
Studies (Bangor University, UK). She has worked with those with severe
learning difficulties. She has a personal interest in language development
and dyslexia. She currently lives in Germany where she teaches dyslexic
children. She is deeply interested in the emotional issues experienced by
dyslexic learners, and alongside academic development, works on
development of skills to raise self-esteem, confidence, resilience and a sense
of hope and possibility.

Bhoomika Kar is Associate Professor at the Centre of Behavioural and

Cognitive Sciences, University of Allahabad, India. She has a PhD in clinical
psychology from the National Institute for Mental Health and Allied
Sciences, Bangalore. Her research interests are normative development of
attention and control, disorders including dyslexia and attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, cognitive–affective control, bilingualism and
cognitive control using behavioural, electrophysiological (EEG/ERP) and
neuroimaging methods.

Judit Kormos is a Professor of Second Language Acquisition at Lancaster

University, UK. She was a key partner in the award-winning DysTEFL
(Dyslexia for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) project sponsored
by the European Commission and a lead educator in the Dyslexia and
Foreign Language Teaching massive open online learning course offered by
Future Learn. She is the co-author of the book Teaching Languages to
Students with Specific Learning Differences and has published widely on the
effect of dyslexia on processes of second language learning.

Rozzel Kasera was a summer intern at the Laboratory for Language,

Literacy and Music at the National Brain Research Centre in India and is
interested in understanding behavioural assessments in biliterate children.

Colin Lannen is co-founder, Director and Principal of the Lancashire Centre

for Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD), UK, including the Red Rose School.
He is an international speaker and teacher trainer on SpLD, including autism
spectrum disorder and learning styles in Canada and Europe. He was Joint
Project Co-ordinator of an EU Lifelong Learning Grundtvig Project: ‘SpLD
Roadmap for Teacher and Adult Learner Training’, 2011–2013. He is
currently Project Co-ordinator for the EU ‘Erasmus Plus’ project which aims
to introduce SpLD teacher training in Europe. The project is of three years’
duration and runs from 2014 to 2017.

Sionah Lannen is a chartered educational psychologist; co-founder, Director

and Head Teacher of the Red Rose School (for Specific Learning Difficulties,
SpLD); and involved in teacher training in educational psychology in
Canada, the Middle East and Europe. She is Co-director of the EU ‘Erasmus
Plus’ project which aims to introduce SpLD teacher training in Europe
(2014–2017).

Angus Hikairo Macfarlane affiliates to the Te Arawa confederation of

tribes in Aotearoa New Zealand. His research and publications focus on
exploring Indigenous and sociocultural phenomena that influence education
and psychology. He has received several prestigious awards including the
University of Canterbury Research Medal, and the national (Ako Aotearoa)
tertiary teaching award. Dr Macfarlane is the Kaihautū (Senior Māori
Advisor) of the New Zealand Psychological Society, and the Professor of
Māori Research at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand.
 In chapter 4 Dr Deirdre Martin provides a critical perspective on
multilingualism and dyslexia and introduces the complex phenomenon of
dyslexia in ‘superdiversity’. She refers to the work of Vertoveç (2007) that
describes new patterns of migration as ‘superdiversity’. She describes this as
a recent phenomenon in Europe, the USA, Canada and Australia,
characterized by a change in the linguistic landscape and that in some areas,
the sum-population of linguistic minority speakers is larger than speakers of
the majority language. She relates this new context to literacy development
and in particular to the dyslexia debate and the sad omission in that debate
(Elliot and Grigorenko 2014) of multilingualism. Dr Martin includes an
informative and thought-provoking section on the construction of dyslexia
in multilingualism. She also indicates that drawing on critical pedagogy in
professional development can offer a methodology that can raise awareness
in primary and secondary schools, and challenge assumptions about
multilingualism in relation to classroom/curriculum learning.
This is followed by the chapter by Dr Gad Elbeheri and Professor John
Everatt who discuss principles and guidelines in test construction for
multilingual children. This is a crucial chapter as it is important that
appropriate assessment tools are used to ensure that bilingual children are
fairly represented in the population of children who are identified as
dyslexic. At present this is not always the case. As the authors concede,
multilingualism has been a problem in psycho-educational assessment for
quite some time and there is a lack of diagnostic tools that allow
practitioners to distinguish between ‘language differences related to the
environmental context of growing up as a multilingual immigrant and
language impairments of a neuro-linguistic origin’.
In their chapter they also refer to the importance of assessing the child in
their first language in order to distinguish between an underlying cognitive
deficit, as opposed to a lack of second language acquisition leading to poor
vocabulary that may be improved simply by increased practice.
They refer to the Arabic context as an example of the importance of
robust test construction and particularly the importance of assessing
phonological processing skills. They indicate that dyslexia assessment is a
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Castor-oil plant, seed of, 72.
Cells, 139-143.
description of, 139.
passage of moisture through, 147, 148.
water supply of, 149.
functions of, 152.
loosening leafstalk, 185.
Cherry blossom, parts of, 37, 38, 188, 189, 218.
development into cherry, 37, 38, 189.
Cherry tree, branch of, 126.
buds of, 129.
Cherry, wild, 39.
Chestnut, burrs of, 67, 68.
seed leaves of, 87, 88.
leaves of, 161.
Chicory flower, pollen of, 197.
Chlorophyll (leaf green), described, 137.
function of, 151-161.
Chokecherries, 39, 40.
Clematis, seed appendages of, 58.
fruit clusters of, 59.
stem of, 115.
“Clock,” dandelion’s fruit, 35.
Clover, red and white, 117.
leaf of, 168.
a flower head, 243, 244, 247.
Coal, origin of, 152, 153.
Cocoanut, 69.
Coffee seed, a food, 91.
Color change in leaf, 185.
Coloring of fruit, function of, 42, 43, 50.
Columbine, plan of, 221.
spur of, 226.
Composite family, 248, 252, 254.
Corm, 105, 106.
Corn, seed of, 80, 88.
seed leaves of, 88.
stem of, 114, 117.
stalk of, 120, 121.
Corolla, position of, 15.
of apple blossom, 19.
function of, 188.
defined, 190.
Cottonwood seed, 61.
Cotyledons, see “seed leaves.”
Crane’s bill, 65, 66.
Crocus, bulb or underground stem of, 105, 150.
an early flower, 216.
Cup, green, see “calyx.”
Cyclamen, underground stem of, 105.

D
Daffodil, 216.
Daisy, pollen of, 196.
plan of, 249-251.
blue, 251.
flower head of, 252.
strap and tube flowers of, 254, 255.
Dandelion, puffball of, 35, 36, 95.
fruit cluster of, 60.
plan of, 247, 248.
 flower head of, 252.
strap flowers of, 254, 255.
Dicotyledonous plants (plants with two seed leaves), 85-87.
Dodder, 108-110, 114, 123.
Dogwood, berries of, 42.
Dogwood blossom, plan of, 245.
Duckweed, 111.
Dust boxes (anthers), position of, 14, 227.
contents of, 17.
function of, 188.
varieties of, 193-195.
Dutchman’s breeches, 203.

E
Easter lily, building plan of, 191.
stamens of, 193.
description of, 218, 219.
Elm, seed of, 62.
Enchanter’s nightshade, stamen of, 195.
English ivy, 106, 107, 115, 116.
Eucalyptus, perspiration of, 149.
Evening primrose, a night-blooming
flower, 229, 230.
pollen of, 197.
Evergreen leaves, 184.
Evergreen plants, 171.
Everlasting, 255.
Eyes of potato, 104, 131.

F
False Solomon’s seal, 48.
Ferns, 215.
Fertilization, see “pollen.”
Fibrous roots, 102, 103.
Fir tree, trunk of, 121.
Fireweed, pod of, 58.
stamens and pistil of, 227, 228.
Flax plant, 110.
Fleshy root, 102-104.
Flower cluster, 245, 246.
Flower dust, see “pollen.”
Flower head, 244, 247-255.
Flower leaves, 192.
Flowering plants, 22.
Flowers, 187-255.
with many pistils, 201, 202.
with stamens only, 206-211.
with pistils only, 207-211, 250.
of trees, 209-211.
night-opening, 228-230.
design of odor of, 231.
Food of plants, 143-148, 150.
Forsythia, buds of, 129.
Foxglove, garden, 225.
Foxglove, yellow false, 112, 225, 226.
Fruit, the plant’s object, 24.
the seed holder, 33-36.
defined, 34, 94.
wild and cultivated, 39, 40.
 varieties of, 52-55, 95.
function of, 95.
formed from pistil, 202.
Fruits and seeds, 9-73.

G
Garden foxglove, 225.
Geranium, wild, 65, 66, 220.
Golden-rod, fruit clusters of, 59.
stamens of, 194, 195.
plan of, 252, 253.
description of, 254.
Grass of Parnassus, pistil of, 200.
Grass plants, classified, 88.

H
Hairy leaves, design of, 170-175.
Hanging roots, 107.
Haws, 49.
Hemlock cone, 62.
Hemlock tree, 171, 184.
Hobblebush, leaves of, 215.
buds of, 130.
flower cluster of, 245, 246.
Holly leaves, 174, 175.
Hop hornbeam fruit, 62.
Horse chestnut, buds of, 126, 128.
Hyacinth, 216.

I
Indian corn, see “corn.”
Indian cucumber root, 44, 45.
Indian pipe, 112.
Ivy, English, 106, 107, 115, 116.
Ivy, Japanese, 116.
Ivy, poison, 107, 115, 116.

J
Jack-in-the-pulpit, flower and berry of, 47.
underground stem of, 105, 123.
leaf of, 214.
an early spring flower, 216.
Japanese ivy, 116.
Jewelweed, blossom of, 222.
pod of, 65, 66.

L
Lady’s eardrop, 66.
Lady’s slipper, 222.
Laurel flower, pollen of, 197.
Leaf blade, described, 136, 137.
position of, 161.
Leaf green (chlorophyll) described, 137.
function of, 151-161.
Leaf mouths, function of, 146, 159, 160, 171-173.
perspiration of, 148, 149.
Leaflets, defined, 168.
Leafstalk, use of, 115.
a bud protector, 131.
defined, 136.
Leaves, 135-185.
protection of, 126, 127.
buds on, 132, 133.
parts of, 135-137.
edges of, 135, 136, 168.
functions of, 145.
perspiration of, 146, 149, 150, 170-173.
as storehouses, 150.
position of, 160, 161.
shapes of, 161, 167, 168.
effect on roots, 162.
net-veined, 165, 166.
parallel-veined, 166.
covering on, 170-175.
hairy, 170-172, 175.
woolly, 172.
as traps, 176-183.
fall of, 184, 185.
color change of, 185.
Life everlasting, 171, 172.
Life substance of plants (protoplasm), 140, 141.
Lily, classified, 88.
underground stem of, 123, 150.
flower leaves of, 191.
plan of, 191, 192.
pollen of, 196.
pistil of, 197, 198.
development of, 199.
coloring of, 226.
Lily, Easter, plan of, 191, 218, 219.
Lily family, 45, 219.
Liverwort, 203, 219.
Locust leaf, 168.
 M
Mallow, stamens of, 195.
Mangrove, fruit and stem of, 92-94.
Maple, keys of, 86, 210.
winged seed of, 61, 86.
seed leaves of, 90.
branch of, 126.
buds of, 129.
leaf of, 136, 165, 167.
flower of, 210.
Maple, red, 92, 127.
Maple, silver, 210.
Maple, sugar, 92, 210.
Maple, swamp, 210.
Marsh marigold, a spring flower, 203.
plan of, 218.
pistils of, 219.
Midrib of leaf, 137.
Milkweed, pod of, 35, 95.
seedbox of, 57.
seeds of, 61.
Mistletoe, 110, 111.
Monocotyledonous plants (plants with one seed leaf), 88.
Morning-glory, seed leaves of, 78.
seed of, 83, 90.
development of, 112, 113.
stem of, 114, 115, 117, 123.
Mountain laurel, buds of, 129.
arrangement of stamens of, 226, 227.
Mullein leaves, 170, 175.
 N
Nasturtium spur, 226.
Nepenthes leaf, 178, 179.
Nettles, 175.
Net-veined leaves, 165, 166.
Nightshade, enchanter’s, 195.
Nightshade, garden, 115.
Nourishment of plant, 150.

O
Oak, seed of, 68.
root of, 145.
leaf of, 167.
Oat seed, a food, 91.
Orchid family, 107, 223, 224.
Orchids, 123, 223, 224, 226.
Ovary, see “seedbox.”

P
Palm tree, trunk of, 121.
Pansy, plan of, 220.
Parallel-veined leaves, 166.
Parasitic plants, 108-111.
Parsley family, 247.
Partridge berries, 45, 46, 51.
Partridge vine, 46, 184, 231.
Pea, seed of, 80, 87, 90, 242.
seed leaves of, 87.
stem of, 115.
 pod of, 241, 242.
Pea blossom, stamens of, 194, 241, 242.
pistil of, 200, 241, 242.
analysis of, 240-242.
Pea family, 54, 240.
Peach, compared with apple, 36.
blossom of, 38.
Persian origin of, 40.
buds of, 129.
Pear, compared with apple, 31.
blossom of, 32.
buds of, 129.
Pear, wild, 118.
Peony seeds, 75, 76.
Perspiration of plants, 148, 149, 160.
Petals (handkerchiefs), used as signals, 17, 18, 188, 192, 221,
223, 226.
functions of, 188.
Pine, cone of, 62.
classified, 88, 89.
leaves of, 171, 184.
flower of, 197.
Pins with dust boxes, see “stamens.”
Pins without dust boxes, see “pistils.”
Pistils (pins without dust boxes), described, 15, 18, 197-202.
function of, 188, 198, 199.
defined, 190.
varieties of, 200.
flowers with many, 201, 202.
fruit formed from, 202.
position of, 227, 228, 248.
of strawberry, 233, 234.
 of berries, 236.
Pit or stone, 37.
Pitcher plant, 176-178.
Pith, defined, 120, 121.
Plants, flowering, 22.
object of life of, 22, 23.
use of, to world, 26, 27.
service of, to animals, 26, 27, 156, 157.
young, 75-98.
nourishment of, 75, 76, 77, 150, 156-160.
with two seed leaves (dicotyledons), 85-87.
with one seed leaf (monocotyledons), 88.
with many seed leaves (polycotyledons), 88, 89.
parasitic, 108-111.
development of, 112, 113.
absorption of water by, 147.
perspiration of, 148, 149, 160.
as air purifiers, 151-153, 158, 159.
breathing of, 158-160.
storing of food in, 185, 216, 217.
protection of, 214, 215.
Plants and animals, difference between, 154, 155.
Plum, compared with apple, 36.
blossom of, 38.
Plum, wild beach, 40.
Pods, 35, 54, 55, 58, 65-67, 241, 242.
Poison ivy, 107, 115, 116.
Pollen (flower dust), described, 14, 196-199.
carriers of, 17, 18, 189, 207, 213, 223, 224, 226-230, 233.
effect on pistil, 18, 20.
fertilizing power of, 18, 20, 196-199.
transportation of, 18, 207, 211, 213, 226, 227, 229-231, 233,
250.
 function of, 188, 198, 199.
varieties of, 196, 197.
defined, 199, 200.
Polycotyledonous plants (plants with many seed leaves), 88, 89.
Polygala, 222.
Poplar tassels, 211.
Poppy seed, dispersal of, 70, 71.
Potato, a stem, 104, 131.
eyes of, 131, 174.
Potato, sweet, 102.
Prickles, 174, 175.
Primrose, evening, 197, 229, 230.
Protoplasm (life substance), 140, 141.
Puffballs, 35, 36, 59, 95.
Pussy willow, 129.
tassels of, 205-207.

Q
Quince leaf, 135, 136, 137, 165.

R
Radish root, 102.
Raspberry, development of, 237-239.
Red baneberry, 49.
Red clover, stem of, 117.
Red maple, seed of, 92.
leaves of, 127.
buds of, 127.
Rhubarb plant, 164.
Robin’s plantain, 251, 252.
Root branches, 162-164.
Roots, origin of, 81, 113.
hairs of, 81, 99-102, 104, 123, 143.
function of, 99-103.
fibrous, 102, 103.
fleshy, 102-104.
as food, 103, 104.
above-ground, 106-111.
varieties of, 106-112.
hanging, 107.
underground, 111.
water, 111, 112.
absorbing capacity of, 146.
spreading of, 162, 163.
position of, 163, 164.
Roots and stems, 99-122.
Rootstocks, function of, 106, 217.
Rose, petals of, 32, 33.
stem of, 120.
Rose family, 31, 32, 36, 40, 235.
Rose hip, 33, 34.
Rose mallow, 258.
Rose of Jericho, pod of, 71.
Rose, wild, 32.

S
Saint John’s-wort, pistil of, 200.
Saxifrage, pistil of, 200.
Sea pinks, 228, 258.
Seaweed, 258.
Seed sailboats (appendages), 56-60, 207.
Seedbox (ovary), described, 15, 18.
function of, 188.
in berries, 236-239.
Seed coat, 80-84, 86, 113.
Seed leaf, plants with one (monocotyledons), 88.
of corn, 88.
Seed leaves (cotyledons), description of, 78, 81-90.
plants with two (dicotyledons), 85-87.
of acorn, 87.
of pea, 87.
of walnut, 87, 88.
of chestnut, 87, 88.
plants with many (polycotyledons), 88, 89.
development of, 113.
number of, 120, 121, 165.
Seeds, growth of, in the apple, 18-20.
the object of the plant’s life, 24.
importance of, to world, 27.
protection of, 28, 29.
reason for scattering of, 50, 51.
transportation of, 52-64, 69-73.
winged, 61
shooting, 63-67.
nourishment of, 75-77.
planting of, 79-87, 95, 96.
germination of, 80-89, 92, 198, 199.
as food, 89-91.
as storehouses, 90, 91.
Shin leaf flower, stamen of, 193.
Shooting seeds, 64-67.
Silver maple, 210.
Skunk cabbage, description of, 204.
Snowberry, stem of, 117.
Snowdrop, 216.
Solomon’s seal, fruit of, 48.
underground stem of, 105, 216.
scars of, 105, 106.
Solomon’s seal, false, 48.
Speckled alder, 173.
Spice bush buds, 129.
Spikenard, 49.
Spring beauty, 203, 216.
Spur, 226.
Squash, seed of, 80, 85, 86, 90.
Squirting cucumber, 67.
Stamens (pins with dust boxes), description of, 14.
function of, 188.
defined, 190.
varieties of, 193-195.
position of, 248.
Steeple bush, leaves of, 172.
Stems, development of, 81, 112, 113.
of bean plant, 96.
underground, 104-106, 150, 216-219.
varieties of, 104, 112-120.
use of, to plant, 113-117.
habits of, 117-119.
hairy, 118, 119.
sticky, 118.
parts of, 120.
as water carriers, 146-148, 163.
Stick-tight, 55.
Stone or pit of fruits, 37.
Strap flowers, 247-255.
Strawberry, stem of, 117.
pistil of, 201.
development of, 233, 234.
description of, 238.
Sugar maple, seeds of, 92.
blossom of, 210.
Sumac, 43.
Sun (Sunbeam), factor in plant life, 151-161.
Sundew, leaf of, 182, 183.
pistil of, 200.
Sunflower, plan of, 255.
Sunflower plant, perspiration of, 149.
Swamp alder, 173.
Swamp maple, 210.
Sweet potato root, 102.

T
Thistle, 56, 59, 118, 174, 254, 255.
Thistle down, 56.
Thorn, 49.
use of, to plant, 117, 118.
Thorn apple, 199.
Tick trefoil pod, 54, 55.
Ticks, transportation of, 55.
Tiger lily buds, 132.
Touch-me-not pod, 65-67.
Trailing arbutus, a spring flower, 203, 209.
plan of, 217, 218.
Transportation of pollen, 18, 207, 211, 213, 226, 227, 229-231,
233, 250.
Transportation of seeds, 52-64, 69-73.
Traps of plants, 176-183.
Trees, flowers of, 209, 211.
Trunk, a stem, 119.
section of, 121, 147.
Tube flowers, 249-255.
Tuber, defined, 217.
Tulip, stem of, 148.
parts of, 193.
an early spring flower, 216.
Turnip root, 102.

U
Underground roots, 111.
Underground stems, 104, 105, 150, 216, 217, 219.

V
Veinlets, described, 137.
function of, 160.
Veins, described, 137.
function of, 160.
significance of, 165.
Venus’s flytrap, leaf of, 181.
Violet, a spring flower, 203, 209.
plan of, 220.
spur of, 226.
Violet, yellow, 203.
Virginia creeper, 116.
 W
Wake-robin, a spring flower, 216.
plan of, 219.
Walnut, seed leaves of, 87, 88.
seed of, 90.
a fruit, 95.
Water lily, stem of, 116, 117.
Water roots, 111, 112.
Wheat seed, a food, 91.
White baneberry, 49.
White clover, stem of, 117.
White elm, flower cluster of, 210.
Wild beach plum, 40.
Wild carrot, 246, 247.
Wild geranium, plan of, 220.
seed dispersal of, 65, 66.
Wild ginger, a spring flower, 216.
plan of, 219.
seedbox of, 219.
Wild pear, 118.
Wild rose, 33.
Willow, seed appendages of, 61.
roots of, 111, 112.
Willow herb, pod of, 58.
seeds of, 61.
Wintergreen, leaves of, in winter, 184.
berries of, 49.
Witch-hazel, flower of, 63.
nut of, 63-65.
 seed of, 64.
Wood lily, stem of, 105.
Woolly leaves, 172.

Y
Yellow adder’s tongue, an early spring flower, 203, 216.
plan of, 219.
Yellow false foxglove, 112, 225, 226.
Yellow violet, 203.
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