Ebook Engineering Hydrology 3 Full Chapter PDF

Engineering Hydrology - eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://ebooksecure.com/download/engineering-hydrology-ebook-pdf-3/
Engineering Hydrology
About the Authors
Rajesh Srivastava is Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur. He
obtained his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Civil Engineering from the University of Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee). He
received his doctorate in Civil Engineering from the University of Arizona, Tucson, USA. He has taught at the University
of Roorkee for four years and has been teaching at IIT Kanpur for 20 years. He also has an industrial experience of 3 years
with consulting companies in the USA related to metal mining and its effect on the environment. His areas of expertise
include Water Flow and Contaminant Transport in Porous Media, and Effect of Climate Change on Water Resources.
He has authored more than 85 technical articles in national and international journals and conferences, 15 technical
reports for consultancy projects, and two textbooks, one on open channel flow and the other on numerical methods. He
has also edited a two-volume set on contemporary research on Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power and has created a video
module on Water Resources Engineering under the National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL).
He was awarded the G M Nawathe medal of the Indian Society for Hydraulics in 2004 and 2005, Best paper award in
Asia and Pacific Division of International Association of Hydraulic Research in 2006, and Best poster award at the
Annual Monsoon Workshop of Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology in 2015. He was the first occupant of the Sir M.
Visvesvaraya Chair instituted by the Ministry of Water Resources at IIT Kanpur. He is a member of the Indian Society
for Hydraulics, the American Geophysical Union, and InterPore–an International Society for Porous Media.
Ashu Jain is Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur. He received his Bachelor’s degree in Civil
Engineering from the Malaviya Regional Engineering College, Jaipur (now National Institute of Technology, Jaipur)
and Master’s degree in Civil Engineering from IIT Bombay. He did his PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of
Kentucky, Lexington, USA and then worked in two consulting firms, Michael Baker Jr., Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, USA,
and The Oyekan Group USA, Inc., Dallas, Texas, USA, for a total of about 3 years in the areas of flood management and
drainage design. He then joined as Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur. He teaches
undergraduate courses on Hydrology, Open Channel Flow, and Engineering Graphics; tutors undergraduate courses
on Engineering Graphics, Numerical Methods, and Fluid Mechanics; and teaches postgraduate courses on Advanced
Hydrology, Groundwater Hydrology, Stochastic Hydrology, and Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (AI) Techniques.
He has also developed a video-based course on Advanced Hydrology for NPTEL. His research interests include Rainfall-
runoff Modelling, Applications of AI Techniques for Modelling and Management of Water Resources Systems, and
knowledge extraction from Trained Artificial Neural Network Hydrologic Models.
He has published more than 105 articles in international and national journals and conferences, authored about 20
technical reports related to sponsored research and consultancy projects, guided seven doctoral and 37 master’s theses.
He has been a peer reviewer for several journals, organized several technical sessions in international and national
conferences, delivered numerous invited lectures in India and abroad, and is currently an associate editor of Hydrological
Sciences Journal published by Taylor and Francis. He was awarded the Best Discussion Paper Award, 2005 by ASCE;
Royal Society Fellowship, 2005-06, to visit The University of Leeds, Leeds, UK; International Centre of Excellence in
Water Resources Management (ICE WaRM) Fellowship, 2008, to visit The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia;
and Endeavour Executive Award, 2009 by the Ministry of Education, Australia. He is a life member of the Indian Society
for Hydraulics, the Indian Water Resources Society, the Indian Association of Hydrologists, and a Fellow of the Indian
Water Resources Society and the Indian Society for Hydraulics.
RAJESH SRIVASTAVA
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
ASHU JAIN
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI
McGraw Hill Education Offices
Chennai New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas
Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
444/1, Sri Ekambara Naicker Industrial Estate, Alapakkam, Porur, Chennai 600 116
Copyright © 2017 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The
program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for
publication.
This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
Print Edition
ISBN (13): 978-93-5260-620-7
ISBN (10): 93-5260-620-5
e-Edition
ISBN (13): 978-93-5260-621-4
ISBN (10): 93-5260-621-3
Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani
Director—Science & Engineering Portfolio: Vibha Mahajan
Lead—Science & Engineering Portfolio: Hemant Jha
Content Development Lead: Shalini Jha
Specialist—Product Development: Sachin Kumar
Specialist—Product Development: Vaishali Thapliyal
Production Head: Satinder S Baveja
Copy Editor: Taranpreet Kaur
Assistant Manager—Production: Anuj K Shriwastava
General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela
Manager—Production: Reji Kumar
Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources believed to be
reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any
information published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors,
omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw
Hill Education (India) and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other
professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.
Typeset at APS Compugraphics, 4G, PKT 2, Mayur Vihar Phase-III, Delhi 96, and printed at
Cover Printer:
Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Dedicated to
Late Dr. A. C. Srivastava and Late Dr. P. C. Jain
Contents
Preface xv
1. Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
1.1 Engineering Hydrology 1
1.2 Importance of Engineering Hydrology 2
1.3 Hydrologic Cycle 5
1.3.1 Atmospheric Moisture 6
1.3.2 Precipitation 6
1.3.3 Infiltration 7
1.3.4 Groundwater 8
1.3.5 Surface Runoff 9
1.3.6 Evaporation and Transpiration 9
1.3.7 General Discussion of the Hydrologic Cycle 10
Summary 11
Exercises 12
Objective-Type Questions 12
Descriptive Questions 15
Numerical Questions 15
Useful Links 16
Glossary 16
2. Precipitation 18
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Occurrence – Mechanism of Formation, Various Forms, Distribution 19
2.2.1 Mechanism 19
2.2.2 Forms 20
2.2.3 Intensity 21
2.2.4 Distribution 21
viii Contents
2.3 Measurement – Rain Gauges, Remote Sensing 22

2.4 Analysis of Data – Missing Data, Consistency Check, Averaging 22
2.4.1 Completeness Check 26
2.4.2 Estimation of Missing Data 26
2.4.3 Consistency Check 29
2.4.4 Averaging of Data 33
2.5 Storm Averaging 38
Summary 44
Exercises 45
3. Abstractions from Precipitation 51

3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Abstraction Processes 51
3.2.1 Interception 52
3.2.2 Depression Storage 52
3.2.3 Evaporation 53
3.2.4 Transpiration 53
3.3 Initial Abstraction 53
3.4 Evaporation 55
3.4.1 Factors Affecting Evaporation 58
3.4.2 Estimation of Evaporation 59
3.5 Evapotranspiration 75
3.5.1 Empirical Equations 75
3.5.2 Theoretical Equations 78
3.6 Infiltration 79
3.6.1 Infiltration Process 80
3.6.2 Factors Affecting Infiltration 81
3.6.3 Estimation of Infiltration Capacity 82
3.6.4 Actual Infiltration 90
Summary 95
Exercises 96
Contents ix
4. Runoff 101
4.1 Runoff Generation 101
4.2 Measurement of Streamflow 102
4.2.1 Area 103
4.2.2 Velocity 103
4.3 Annual and Storm Hydrographs 104
4.3.1 Annual Hydrograph 105
4.3.2 Storm Hydrograph 105
4.4 Factors Affecting Runoff 107
4.4.1 Catchment Characteristics 107
4.4.2 Storm Characteristics 108
4.5 Rainfall-Runoff Relationships 109
4.5.1 Analytical Models 109
4.5.2 Empirical Models 110
4.6 Rational Formula 115
4.6.1 Runoff Coefficient 115
4.6.2 Intensity of Rainfall 117
4.6.3 Time of Concentration 118
4.7 SCS Method 119
4.8 Flow Duration Curve 126
4.9 Flow Mass Curve 130
Summary 135
Exercises 136
5. Hydrograph Analysis 145

5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 Unit Hydrograph 146
5.2.1 Definition 146
5.2.2 Theory and Assumptions 147
5.2.3 Application of UH 148
5.3 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph 150
5.3.1 Baseflow Separation 150
5.3.2 Effective Rainfall and Direct Runoff Hydrograph 152
5.3.3 Derivation of UH from an Isolated Storm 152
5.3.4 Derivation of UH from a Complex Storm 154
5.4 S-Hydrograph 156
5.5 Unit Hydrograph of Different Durations 158
x Contents
5.5.1 UH of Different Durations by Method of Superposition 159

5.5.2 UH of Different Durations by S-Hydrograph Method 161
5.6 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 163
5.6.1 Snyder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 163
5.6.2 SCS Dimensionless Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 167
5.7 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 170
5.8 Relationships among UH, IUH, and S-Hydrograph 171
Summary 174
Exercises 175
6. Hydrograph Routing 187

6.2 Hydrologic and Hydraulic Routing 188
6.2.1 Hydrologic Routing 188
6.2.2 Hydraulic Routing 189
6.3 Hydrologic Routing through a Reservoir 190
6.3.1 Modified Puls Method 191
6.3.2 Goodrich’s Method 195
6.3.3 Standard Runge–Kutta (SRK) Method 195
6.3.4 Changes in Inflow Hydrograph Characteristics 200
6.4 Hydrologic Routing through a Channel 200
6.4.1 Muskingum Method 202
6.4.2 Estimation of Parameters of Muskingum Equation 205
6.5 IUH Development 207
6.5.1 Clark’s Method 208
6.5.2 Nash’s Method 211
Summary 217
Exercises 218
Useful Links 229
7. Groundwater 230
7.2 Occurrence of Groundwater 231
7.2.1 Unsaturated Zone 232
Contents xi
7.2.2 Saturated Zone 235

7.3 Movement of Groundwater 236
7.3.1 Basic Equations 239
7.4 Flow through a Confined Aquifer 245
7.4.1 Steady One-Dimensional Flow 246
7.4.2 Steady Flow Towards a Well 248
7.4.3 Transient One-Dimensional Flow 250
7.4.4 Transient Flow Towards a Well 252
7.5 Flow through Unconfined Aquifers 257
7.5.1 Steady One-Dimensional Flow 257
7.5.2 Steady Flow Towards a Well 260
7.5.3 Transient One-Dimensional Flow 262
7.5.4 Transient Flow Towards a Well 263
7.6 Non Ideal Conditions 265
7.6.1 Well Loss and Specific Capacity 265
7.6.2 Flow through a Layered Porous Medium 267
7.6.3 Flow through Leaky Aquifers 269
7.6.4 Flow through Unsaturated Zone 271
7.6.5 Flow Near Boundaries 271
7.7 Parameter Estimation 272
7.7.1 Estimation of Flow Direction 272
7.7.2 Estimation of Recharge 273
7.7.3 Estimation of Hydraulic Conductivity 274
7.7.4 Estimation of Transmissivity and Storage Coefficient 275
Summary 281
Exercises 282
Useful Links 287
8. Irrigation and Water Resource Management 288

8.2 Water Requirement of Crops 289
8.3 Canal Irrigation 292
8.4 Irrigation Methods 294
8.4.1 Basin Irrigation 296
8.4.2 Furrow Irrigation 296
8.4.3 Border Irrigation 296
8.4.4 Ring Irrigation 297
8.4.5 Sprinkler Irrigation 297
xii Contents
8.4.6 Subsurface Irrigation 297

8.4.7 Drip Irrigation 297
8.5 Single-purpose and Multipurpose Projects 298
Summary 301
Exercises 302
9. Statistical Methods in Hydrology 305

9.2 Basic Probabilistic and Statistical Concepts 306
9.2.1 Sample and Population 306
9.2.2 Random Variable 307
9.2.3 Probability 307
9.2.4 Probability of Discrete Random Variables 309
9.2.5 Probability of Continuous Random Variables 312
9.3 Moments and Basic Descriptive Statistics 315
9.3.1 Measures of Central Tendency 316
9.3.2 Measures of Variation 319
9.3.3 Measure of Skewness 322
9.3.4 Measures of Peakedness 323
9.4 Some Important Probability Distributions 326
9.4.1 Binomial Distribution 326
9.4.2 Normal Probability Distribution 329
9.4.3 Gumbel’s Probability Distribution 332
9.5 Frequency Analysis 334
9.5.1 Probability Plotting Method 335
9.5.2 Frequency Factor Method 338
9.6 Risk and Reliability of Water Resources Projects 349
9.6.1 Risk 350
9.6.2 Reliability 350
9.6.3 Factor of Safety 350
Summary 351
Exercises 352
Contents xiii
10. Measurement of Hydrologic Variables 361

10.2 Measurements – General 362
10.3 Selection of Site and Instruments 363
10.3.1 Site-selection 363
10.3.2 Instrument-selection 364
10.4 Measurement Techniques 364
10.4.1 Precipitation 364
10.4.2 Evaporation and Transpiration 370
10.4.4 Soil Moisture 377
10.4.5 Streamflow 379
10.4.6 Groundwater 383
10.4.7 Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Wind, Radiation 384
10.5 Databases 385
Summary 386
Exercises 387
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 392
References 395
Index 400
Preface
Introduction to the Course

Hydrology is the science dealing with the occurrence and movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the earth. The movement of water is conveniently described through a hydrologic cycle, involving
evaporation of water from water bodies, return of this water to the earth in form of rain, snow, etc., transfer of
rain water as runoff to surface streams and infiltration to underground water, and finally, the movement of water
from surface streams and underground water to the water bodies. This book deals with basic understanding of
various processes of the hydrologic cycle, with emphasis on the engineering aspect, i.e., the application for
management of water resources.
Target Audience
The book is primarily designed for a first course in hydrology at the undergraduate level. However, the
treatment of the subject matter is such that it may also be useful in a graduate level course. Scientists and
engineers dealing with water resources may use this book to get a broader perspective and learn about recent
developments, particularly in the areas of statistical analysis and measurement of hydrologic variables.
Objective of this Book

Several books are already available on the subject with some emphasising the basic concepts, while others
concentrating on problem-solving. Following the principle of science based engineering, we believe that the
students should not only know how to apply a technique, but should also know how it has been arrived at, in
order to better understand its limitations. The presentation of material in this book is made with emphasis on
engineering applications of hydrology, with enough fundamental concepts interwoven in between for better
understanding of the basic principles.
Salient Features
∑ Comprehensive coverage of the science of hydrology, incorporating the recent developments and
techniques
∑ Exclusive coverage on topics like statistical methods in hydrology, estimation of evaporation and
runoff, infiltration capacity models, and transient flow of groundwater, to help students develop a
deeper understanding of the subject
∑ A dedicated chapter on measurement of hydrologic and climatic variables explaining the conventional
and advanced methodologies, which has not been paid much attention in the existing books on
hydrology
xvi Preface
∑ Summary of important concepts for a quick review before exams

∑ Over 680 chapter-end exercises and 76 solved examples to illustrate the underlying concepts and
help the students prepare for first course in hydrology of their engineering degrees/diplomas and
competitive examinations
∑ Online links to hydrological and meteorological databases to help students understand hydrological
concepts and instructors to develop additional examples/questions
Learning Tools in the First Edition

Learning Objectives
Each chapter is organized into multiple learning Abstractions from
objectives (LOs). The topics covered in the
chapter closely follow these objectives with each
3 Precipitation
section listing the relevant objective. This feature
of tagging each section with respective learning LEARNING OBJECTIVES
objective will help the instructors to plan the LO 1

LO 2
Know about the various abstraction processes and initial abstraction
Define evaporation, factors affecting it, and the methods of estimation
structure of course. The tagged LO brings out the LO 3 Estimate potential and actual evapotranspiration
LO 4 Discuss the infiltration process and the influence of various factors on the rate of infiltration
essence of every section before the readers. LO 5 Summarize empirical and theoretical methods for the estimation of infiltration
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Although precipitation is an important part of the hydrologic cycle, as mentioned earlier, the topic of greater
interest for engineers and hydrologists is the amount of water flowing in the rivers. If we could estimate how
and how much water is being abstracted from the precipitation before it runs-off to the streams, we will have
Illustrations and Diagrams

It is quite essential for a book to present figures
to keep the interests of the users, and hence
liberal use of figures is made in the book to aid in
understanding of basic concepts.
Figure 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle
Worked-Out Examples EXAMPLE 2.1

The annual precipitation at the four rain gauges is shown in the table below. Determine whether more stations
are needed, if the desired CV is 20%.
The book contains 76 solved examples for better Station S1 S2 S3 S4
Annual Rainfall (mm) 830 1120 1000 650
understanding and application of concepts. Solution
Solved example problems also help in explaining The mean of the station data for annual precipitation is obtained as 900 mm, and the standard deviation,
2 2
(70 220 100 250 ) 2 2
204.78 mm. The coefficient of variation is, therefore, 0.228. Since it
new concepts and illustrate the working of
n 1
3
is more than the desired CV of 0.2, we require more stations and the total number of stations, using Eq. (2.1),
2
computational procedure. is
0.228
0.2
4 5.18. We should provide two more stations.
Notes: If there is another station close to the boundary, but outside the catchment area, we may expect
it to be climatically similar to other stations and should include it in the analysis, even though it lies in a
different catchment. Also, we should keep in mind that this technique should be applied to long-term data,
e.g., annual, which tends to average out the temporal and spatial variations in rainfall.
Preface xvii
Chapter-End Exercises
OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS More than 680 chapter-end exercises have been
6.1 The factors affecting the size, shape, and other characteristics of an inflow hydrograph while traveling carefully constructed to enhance knowledge.
through a channel reach include
(a) Storage in the river reach
(b) Resistance to flow due to friction from sides and bed
These are categorized into Objective-Type
(c) Lateral addition or subtraction of flow within the reach
(d) Questions, Descriptive Questions, and Numerical
6.2
(a)
(c)
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
Questions, to enable the students evaluate their
6.3
I.
II.
6.1 Why do the size, shape, and characteristics of an inflow hydrograph change when it travels through a channel
reach? understanding of different concepts after end
6.2 Explain the hydraulic and hydrologic methods for hydrograph routing with the help of equations.
III.
6.3 Explain the Modified Puls method of hydrologic routing. of each chapter. Answers to the Objective-type
(a) 6.4 Explain the Goodrich’s method of hydrologic routing.
(e) 6.5 Explain the fourth order SRK method of hydrologic routing. Questions are provided at the end of the book.
6.6 For hydrograph routing through a reservoir, prove that the peak of the outflow hydrograph intersects inflow
hydrograph. (Hint: use continuity equation).
6.7 Discuss the importance of hydrograph routing in flood management with special emphasis on attenuation
and lag
6.8
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
6.9 7.1 Water flows through a 2 m long horizontal soil column at a constant velocity. At a section of the tube, a red
dye was inserted and it was observed that it travelled a distance of 1 m in 235 seconds and the dispersion
was negligible. The soil is sandy with a porosity of 0.42 and hydraulic conductivity of 1 cm/s. What would
6.10
be the drop in piezometric head across the column length?
7.2 A 50 m thick confined aquifer has a porosity of 0.35. The formation compressibility is 5 × 10−8 Pa–1 and
water compressibility is 1 × 10−10 Pa–1. Estimate the storage coefficient and the specific storage of the
aquifer.
7.3 Two large lakes are connected by a 200 m long confined aquifer in such a way that one-dimensional flow
assumption is valid. The difference in water level of the lakes is 2.5 m and it is estimated that water is
being conveyed through the aquifer at a rate of 1 m3/min per meter width. Estimate the transmissivity of the
aquifer.
7.4 A fully-screened well is pumping a confined aquifer at a constant rate of 1 m3/s. A prior pump test on the
aquifer has provided an estimate of the transmissivity as 0.05 m2/s. Two observation wells are located at a
distance of 50 m and 100 m, respectively, from the pumping well. After a long time of pumping, the water
levels in the observation wells achieve a nearly constant value. If the piezometric level in the first well (at 50
m) is 120 m above mean sea level, what would be the level in the other well?
Summary SUMMARY
Presence of water and condensation nuclei in the atmosphere is required for the formation of
A detailed chapter-end summary is provided clouds and, for precipitation to take place, a cooling mechanism is needed. The cooling may occur
due to orographic, convective, frontal, or cyclonic mechanisms, and results in precipitation in
for a quick review of the important concepts. It any of its various forms, such as rain, snow, or hail. The severity of precipitation is expressed
either in terms of its intensity, generally in mm/h, or the depth, generally over the period of a
day. The variation of intensity with time is shown by a hyetograph and the variation of the depth
helps in recapitulating the ideas initiated with the with time is shown either through a histogram (showing daily precipitation depths) or a mass
curve (showing cumulative depths). The measurement of precipitation is done by recording rain
outcomes achieved. gauges, which maintain a continuous record, or non-recording gauges, which provide only the daily
precipitation depths. Any missing values in a precipitation record may be estimated by utilizing
the precipitation records at nearby stations. The normal ratio method, inverse distance method,
quadrant method, or more advanced techniques like Kriging, may be used for this purpose.
To check if the data is consistent with the general climatic conditions, a double mass curve
analysis is performed. This technique also provides a method to correct the data, if found to be
inconsistent. The point rainfall data measured at a rain gauge is processed to obtain meaningful
quantities related to catchment area, by using the arithmetic mean method, the Thiessen polygon
method, or the isohyetal method. The isohyetal method is likely to be the most accurate method
Use of Technology
1. Maps of average annual precipitation
(a) India: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:India_annual_rainfall_map_en.svg,
In bringing out this book, we have taken
www.mapsofi
(b) US: advantage of recent technological
(c) Global:
developments to create a wealth of
2.
(a) useful information to be supplemented
(b) US:
(c) Global: with the physical book. Considering
3. the ease of internet access at most
4.
engineering institutes, useful links
5.
to literature and datasets have
been provided throughout the book.
Moreover, Excel based solutions are
incorporated in the book.
xviii Preface
Approach Adopted in this Book

The presentation of material in this book is made with an emphasis on engineering applications of hydrology
with just enough fundamental concepts interwoven in between for better understanding of the basic principles.
From an engineering viewpoint, it is the runoff component of the hydrologic cycle which is the most important
and, therefore, it is only natural that this component is discussed in greater details than other components. In
fact, the objective of nearly all hydrological exercises by engineers boils down to the prediction of peak flows
or low flows in a stream or the amount of water available as groundwater. One could then question the utility of
studying other parts of the hydrologic cycle, such as evaporation and infiltration. Due to the rapidly changing
stream characteristics, in order to draw some logical conclusions about its behavior, one must have data about
the streamflow covering a long period. However, the length of record of streamflow and the reliability of this
data is generally not adequate. On the other hand, rainfall and other climatic data are available to us for a
much longer period and are more reliable, partly because of their direct effect on our daily lives and partly
because their measurement requires very little skill or training. Therefore, it is quite common to develop a
relationship between rainfall and runoff for the area under consideration and then estimate the runoff on the
basis of longer duration and more reliable rainfall record. The rainfall-runoff relationship will be affected by
several factors which influence the evaporation, infiltration, and other losses from the precipitation.
Organization of the Book

Keeping in mind these points, this book is divided into ten chapters. The chapters are organized as follows:
• Chapter 1 introduces the subject and the motivations for studying it. Chapter 2 deals with
precipitation of atmospheric water onto the earth surface with emphasis on various aspects of data
collection, presentation, and analysis. The measurement techniques are described very briefly since
we find it more convenient to describe the measurement of all hydrologic variables together in the
final chapter.
• Chapter 3 describes various abstractions from precipitation before it runs off to the surface streams.
These abstractions include interception, depression storage, evaporation and infiltration. Stress is
placed on discussion of various factors affecting these abstractions and their estimation, so as to
enable an engineer to derive a logical rainfall-runoff relationship.
• Chapters 4, 5, and 6 deal with the runoff component, with Chapter 4 introducing the processes
of its generation, its measurement and estimation, and the analysis of data for use in the design
and operation of water systems. Chapter 5 emphasizes hydrograph analysis for estimation of
runoff. It introduces the concepts of unit hydrograph, its components and estimation, S-hydrograph,
instantaneous unit hydrograph, inter-relationships among them, and their application in design and
operation of water systems. Chapter 6 discusses the movement of runoff water through a stream or
a reservoir and how the concepts of hydrograph routing can be useful in the hydrologic design and
flood control studies.
• The subsurface reservoir of groundwater, movement of water within it, and its recharge and
withdrawals are described in Chapter 7, which effectively ends with the discussion of hydrologic
cycle and water supply.
Preface xix
• Chapter 8 then describes an aspect of water demand, related to irrigation, and application of the
hydrological principles for better management of water resources of an area. Since hydrological
variables vary widely in space and time, there is always an inherent uncertainty in the analysis of
these variables. Any prediction we make, based on the available data and our understanding of the
hydrological principles, will, therefore, not be precise.
• Chapter 9 describes several statistical techniques to not only estimate the desired quantities but to
also assign a degree of uncertainty to those. Estimation of flood magnitudes and their probability is
an important component of this analysis.
• Finally, as mentioned before, since the issues involved with measurement of most hydrological
variables are similar, we have clubbed all measurement techniques in Chapter 10. Particular
attention is given to more recent techniques based on remote-sensing of the data, as it is expected to
become more common in future.
• References have been provided at the end of the book and an effort has been made to include freely
accessible online references, wherever possible, rather than printed books or research papers.
Online Learning Center Supplements

There are a number of supplementary resources available on the book’s website:
http://www.mhhe.com/srivastava_jain/eh
� For Instructors
• Solutions Manual
• PowerPoint Lecture Slides
� For Students
• Web links for further readings
Acknowledgements
Rajesh Srivastava thanks his parents, Mrs. G. K. Srivastava and Late Dr. A. C. Srivastava, for their
encouragement, wife, Jayshree, for her understanding and support, and children, Soumya and Tanu, for their
delightful presence. Ashu Jain would like to express his deep sense of appreciation to his father, Late Dr. P.
C. Jain, for being a constant source of inspiration not only for writing this book but for pursuing academics
throughout his life. He is grateful to his mother, Mrs. Swarn Lata Jain, wife, Savita, and children, Ateendriya
and Tarushi, for their support, tolerance, and understanding throughout the time spent on writing this book.
He would also like to thank all other friends, relatives, and colleagues, who have helped in some form or the
other. One learns so much while teaching and the acknowledgement cannot be complete without thanking all
the students, teaching whom we learn the nuances of the subject matter, and for their inquisitiveness urging a
teacher to delve deep into the subject matter.
The authors would also like to thank the team members of McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Vibha Mahajan, Shalini Jha, Hemant Jha, Vaishali Thapliyal, Sachin Kumar, Satinder Singh Baveja,
Anuj Kr. Shriwastava and Taranpreet Kaur who handled various responsibilities related to the book very
patiently and effectively.
xx Preface
The authors would like to welcome any constructive criticism of the book and will be grateful for any
appraisal by the readers.
Rajesh Srivastava
Ashu Jain
Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers who have helped in
improving the subject matter with their critical reviews.
Himanshu Sharma National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand
Kedar Sharma BML Munjal University, Gurgaon, Haryana
Mani Kant Verma National Institute of Technology, Raipur, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Ompal Singh Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, Delhi
Ekta Babu Banarasi Das University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Mayank Gupta CBS Group of Institutions, Belochpura, Haryana
Himanshu Gupta Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Masood Ahmad Maulana Azad College of Engineering and Technology, Neora, Bihar
Sanchayan Mukherjee Kalyani Government Engineering College, Nadia, West Bengal
Manoj N. Langhi Institute of Infrastructure, Technology Research and Management, Ahmedabad,
Gujarat
P. Velumani Excel Engineering College, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu
Y. Ramalinga Reddy REVA Institute of Technology and Management, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Shivanna Sri M. Visvesvaraya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, Karnataka
MHE India invites suggestions and comments from the readers, all of which can be sent to
info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line) or can be directly
sent to the authors at rajeshs@iitk.ac.in or ashujain@iitk.ac.in
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
1 Introduction
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 1 Define engineering hydrology

LO 2 Understand the importance of engineering hydrology
LO 3 Explain hydrologic cycle and its various components
1.1 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

The literal meaning of hydrology is water science and a complete definition
LO 1 Define engineering
would, therefore, involve the entire history of water on earth. There is no
hydrology
general accepted definition of hydrology but a workable definition could
be “a science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of
water on and below the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere”. Although the distinction between them is
sometimes not very rigid, hydrology is different from hydraulics which is the “study of liquids (generally
water for most engineering applications) at rest and in motion, especially under pressure, and application of
that knowledge in design and control of machines”. Similarly, hydrology, which is considered a branch of
Earth Sciences, has a considerable overlap with the other earth sciences areas like geology and meteorology.
It is difficult, and probably pointless, to try defining the boundaries between these branches rigidly.
Depending on the focus of study, hydrology could be further classified into Theoretical, dealing with
higher conceptual levels; Physical, looking at the physical processes affecting the occurrence and movement
of water; and Applied (or Engineering), emphasizing the application of hydrological principles to manage
the water resources. Although this book is mainly concerned with engineering hydrology, it draws heavily
on physical hydrology and, to some extent, theoretical hydrology, based on the paradigm of science-based
engineering.
2 Engineering Hydrology
Engineering hydrology is traditionally considered a part of civil engineering, even though hydrology is
thought of as a branch of earth sciences, as it enables an engineer to regulate water for beneficial use of the
society. However, considering the importance of water in almost all aspects of life, it is relevant to many
other fields.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Engineering hydrology finds numerous applications in civil engineering
LO 2 Understand the
(and other branches of engineering and science). Some of the applications
importance of engineering
of principles of engineering hydrology are listed below.
hydrology
Note: Several terms used in this section could be unfamiliar to the
reader; hence to avoid frequent breaks in the narrative we have included a glossary section comprising the
definitions of such terms at the end of this chapter.
• Deciding on the need to manage the water resources of an area—The first question which a
water resources engineer needs to answer is: Is there a need for “engineering” the water resources
of a particular area? The answer primarily depends on the water supply and demand. For example,
assuming that rainfall is the only source of water in a region, if the pattern of rainfall is such that it is
just enough to satisfy the demand at all times, there is no need of interfering with the natural supply.
However, it is practically impossible to have a perfect match, spatially and temporally, between
the supply and the demand. The mismatch leads to a problem of either scarcity or abundance,
necessitating management of the water resources. For example, in a region, we may store water
during the period of abundance and use it when the supply is not enough. Or, at a certain time, we
may transport water from a region having surplus water to the one with scarcity of water. The storage
could also be used to protect against the damaging effects of abundance of water. Sometimes, even
if enough supply is available at a point to cater to the demand, additional water may be required due
to restrictions on the use of water or the poor quality of water. For example, all the water of a river
passing through an area should not be used since it would be detrimental to the downstream users
and to the aquatic life. Or, if water is to be used for drinking, the river water quality may not be good
enough for such use.
After it is decided that the water resources have to be managed, the next decision should be on the
extent of this management and the techniques for the same. For this, an estimate of the availability of
water and the demand is required. It is the first aspect, i.e., the availability, which is the subject matter
of this book. We assume that the demand is known to us through certain sources (e.g., domestic
demand from municipal sources and industrial demand from the appropriate industry); however, a
brief description of the agricultural demand is provided in Chapter 8.
• Determination of the sources of water and the available quantity/quality—The sources of water
could be on the earth’s surface (e.g., rivers and lakes), below the surface (e.g., groundwater), or
above the surface (e.g., rain). These should, however, not be viewed in isolation, because of their
interdependence. For example, using a part of the rain may cause reduction in the river flow and
groundwater, using the groundwater may reduce the river flow (if there is significant contribution to
the river flow from the groundwater) and vice versa. It is also possible that a particular water source
is present but is not economically viable, for example, when the groundwater is at a large depth or
Introduction 3
when the river water is so polluted that the cost of treatment is prohibitive. Our primary focus in this
book is on the quantity and we leave the issues related to the quality of water to the environmental
engineers. However, a hydrologist should be aware of the direct link between the quantity and
quality, as dilution is often used to tackle pollution.
Due to considerable spatial and temporal variations in the seemingly random hydrologic variables
like precipitation and streamflow, it would be impossible to determine the exact quantity of water
available through these sources at a particular place and/or at a specific time. Moreover, the physical
principles governing several hydrologic processes are not yet completely understood. Therefore,
most of the techniques used in estimation of the available quantity of water rely heavily on the
analysis of past data and have an inherent uncertainty in the estimates. It also implies that the
reliability of the estimates would be largely dependent on the quality of the data used and the spatial
and temporal extent of the available data.
• Checking the completeness and consistency of the data—Much of the analysis of availability of
water is based on the measured data about rainfall, river discharge, and groundwater levels. Due
to the large network of measurement stations and the manpower needed to operate and maintain
this network, there are bound to be errors in the data, for example, errors due to equipment
malfunction, human errors in reading etc. While it is important that any data be free of errors, it is
more significantly so for data-driven models. Hence, the first step after receiving a data-set should be
to check whether it makes sense. One of the easiest methods to do it is by comparing the data at one
station with that of some nearby stations, which not only establishes the consistency of the data but
also enables us to estimate any missing values. However, one must be aware of several factors which
could complicate this analysis. For example, it is possible that a storm does not occur near a rain
gauge but covers other nearby rain gauges, climatic conditions at two nearby weather stations may
be significantly different, and river discharge at two nearby stations could be different due to the
presence of tributaries. Therefore, comparing the data of a station with a single nearby station may
not be desirable. On the other hand, if several nearby stations show a consistent trend, an average
trend could be used to either check the consistency of the record or to fill in the missing portion of
the data at a particular station.
Once we have a complete set of consistent data, we are ready to analyze it to obtain the desired
quantities, e.g., precipitation, streamflow, groundwater etc. Since most data would be in the form of
point values representing the measurement station, it is sometimes necessary to estimate an areal
average. For example, data available at different rain gauges in a catchment may show significant
variation and estimation of an average rainfall over the area may not be straightforward.
• Estimation of average rainfall over an area—The amount of rainfall (or, more generally,
precipitation which also includes snow, hail, etc.) received by an area, and its distribution over time
are important parameters in determining the capacity of water storage structures. Although more
recent measurement techniques provide an areal distribution of precipitation, traditionally the data
has been collected using point measurements at rain gauges. Estimation of the average rainfall over
an area from a few point measurements has been the subject of several studies. The easiest option
would be to use the average of the point values, but it may not work well in cases where the gauges
are not uniformly distributed throughout the area or where the gauges are located in regions of
widely different characteristics. For example, a simple averaging is likely to result in an erroneous
estimate when one gauge is in the centre of the area and the other near the boundary; or when one
gauge is in the valley and the other on a mountain. Several techniques have been suggested to
account for these factors and are discussed in the next chapter.
• Estimation of flow in a stream due to rainfall in the catchment area—The response of a stream
to a rainfall event in its catchment depends on several stream and catchment properties. Stream-
gauging stations measure the river flow which, combined with corresponding rainfall data, may be
used to develop the relationship between rainfall over a catchment and the streamflow at the outlet.
The unit hydrograph method, described in Chapter 5, is useful in obtaining the streamflow pattern
due to a given rainfall event. And how this pattern gets modified as water travels downstream, may
be analyzed using the routing methods, discussed in Chapter 6.
• What should be the storage capacity of a reservoir—If we decide to harvest the available rainwater
or streamflow by building reservoirs, we need to analyze the precipitation/streamflow data vis-à-vis
the water demand, to determine the capacity of the reservoir. In simple terms, we store water during
the surplus season and use it later when the demand is more than the supply. How much to store
will depend on what is the deficit in supply versus demand. For example, if the demand is constant
at, say, 1 unit per month, and the yearly supply is just enough (i.e., 12 units) but is spread over only
3 months (4 units per month), and assuming that we are able to use all 12 units, we would need to
store 9 units to be able to supply water for the 9 deficit months. In practice, both the demand and the
supply show great seasonal variations and specialized techniques are needed to estimate the storage
capacity. Also, one needs to be aware of the potential water loss through evaporation, seepage, and
sedimentation in these reservoirs which would result in a larger requirement for the capacity.
• What is the safe limit for withdrawing water from the groundwater—Groundwater is a widely
available and more frequently used resource than streamflow and precipitation. Major advantages in
using groundwater are its better quality (due to the filtration ability of the soil) and the avoidance of
an elaborate distribution system (due to local availability). However, overdrawing of the groundwater
has already resulted in a lowering of the water table in several parts of the world. To find out the
safe limits of withdrawal, we need to estimate the rate at which the groundwater is being replenished
through infiltration of rain water. Also, we need to decide about the depth and diameter of wells to
be used for extracting this water, which will require an understanding of the movement of water in
the sub-surface environment.
• What kind of extreme hydrological events could be expected in an area and what is the
probability of such occurrences—Safeguarding against extreme events, like floods and drought,
is as, or sometimes more, important as the proper utilization of the available water resources. An
estimate of the magnitude and the associated probability of floods may be obtained by the analysis
of the streamflow data. Similarly, the frequency and severity of drought could be estimated by
analyzing the precipitation data. Statistical techniques are generally required for the analysis since
the available data typically does not cover a sufficiently long time span. For example, one may need
to estimate floods which are expected once in 100 years, but the streamflow record may be available
only for 50 years. An extrapolation for estimation of a 100-year, or a 500-year flood, therefore,
requires some assumptions regarding the statistical distribution of these extreme values. The results
obtained from this analysis are useful for flood and drought insurance also, since they provide an
idea about the risks associated with submergence of an area or damage to a crop. In addition to the
extreme event analysis, the statistical techniques could also predict, for example, what amount of
streamflow is likely to be available half-the-time or 90% of the time.
Introduction 5
We hope that this book will either help the reader in answering these and many more similar questions,
or will provide the background which would help in searching for the answers. The first step towards this goal
is to understand the occurrence and movement of water, which is achieved through a simple but powerful
concept of “Hydrologic Cycle.”
1.3 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The water present on, above, and below the earth’s surface could be
LO 3 Explain hydrologic
thought of as constituting three big reservoirs: a surface reservoir (oceans
cycle and its various
and lakes), a subsurface reservoir (groundwater), and an atmospheric
components
reservoir which comprises mainly water vapour. There is a nearly
continuous movement of water from one reservoir to the other through
various pathways, e.g., evaporation from the oceans transfers water from the surface reservoir to the
atmospheric reservoir, precipitation transfers from the atmospheric reservoir to the surface reservoir, seepage
from lakes transfers from the surface to the subsurface reservoir, seepage from coastal aquifers transfers from
subsurface to surface reservoir, and so on. This cycle of storage and transfer is called Hydrologic Cycle or
Water Cycle and can be depicted in several forms with varying degrees of details. One such description is
given in Figure 1.1 as shown below:
Atmosphere Condensation
Ice and snow

Precipitation
Evapotranspiration
Evaporation
Snowmelt runoff Surface runoff
Infiltration Streamflow Evaporation
Plant uptake Oceans

Freshwater
Gro
und
wat
er fl
ow
Graoundwater storage
Figure 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle
We first look at the occurrence of water and then describe its movement. We also describe briefly the
factors affecting the components of the water cycle, so that we are able to make an informed choice about
what is important and what is not, when we analyse the hydrologic data.
The total water on earth (including the subsurface and atmospheric water) is nearly 1.4 billion km3
(we use billion as a thousand millions and not a million millions, which is also prevalent), which we will
denote as 100 units to simplify the description. The surface storage is about 98.3 including about 96.5 in
oceans and seas; 1.7 in icecaps, glaciers, and permanent snow; 0.013 in lakes; and less than one thousandth
in rivers, swamps, and biological water. The subsurface storage is about 1.7 including 1.69 in groundwater;
0.02 as ground ice; and about one thousandth as soil moisture. Although the atmospheric storage is only
about 0.001, it plays a critical role in the hydrologic cycle by accepting the evaporation from the surface and
then releasing it as precipitation. It is obvious that most of the water on earth is saline and not directly usable
for our purpose, unless a cost-effective method of desalination is devised. In fact, out of 0.013 units in the
lakes, 0.006 is saline, and out of the 1.69 in groundwater, about 0.9 is saline. Thus, overall there are about
97.5 units of saline water and only 2.5 units of fresh water. And even out of this 2.5 units, not all is usable
since it may be permanently frozen, or be very deep inside the earth. One estimate puts the amount of total
usable fresh water as 200,000 km3, which is about 0.00014 units!! A note of caution is needed here that the
numbers mentioned above should not be treated as exact. There have been several studies using different
methodologies and these numbers represent just one of those. While some components are easier to estimate
(e.g., lakes), some others may have a greater uncertainty (e.g., groundwater).
We now look at the movement of water among the reservoirs. The broad components of the water cycle
include three different types of transport- first, from the surface and subsurface reservoirs to the atmospheric
reservoir through evaporation and transpiration; second from the atmosphere to the earth through precipitation;
and third of the precipitating water to the subsurface reservoir through infiltration and to the surface reservoir
through runoff. Since it is a cycle, we could start from any of these reservoirs. Traditionally, the evaporation
from the surface reservoir is chosen as the start of the hydrologic cycle. However, in keeping with the order
of coverage in subsequent chapters, we decide to take precipitation from the atmospheric reservoir as the
start of the cycle.
1.3.1 Atmospheric Moisture

The main source of the atmospheric moisture is the evaporation from the oceans. Most of this moisture is
in the form of water vapour, which is water in a gaseous state formed due to evaporation. When the water
vapour condenses upon small nuclei present in the atmosphere, for example, salt, dust, etc., it takes the form
of clouds or fog. It is estimated that the amount of water held in the atmosphere at any given time is about
13,000 km3, which is sufficient to produce about 2.5 cm of rain over the entire surface of the earth. Once the
atmospheric conditions are conducive for precipitation, i.e., there is enough moisture, condensation nuclei
are present, and the resulting water droplets grow to a sufficient size, the atmospheric moisture precipitates
in the form of rain (or snow, etc.) onto the surface of the earth. However, all of this water may not reach the
surface of the earth as some may evaporate while falling down.
1.3.2 Precipitation
The term precipitation is used to represent all aqueous particles which fall from the atmosphere onto the earth,
mostly as rain but often in other forms like snow and hail. Since oceans cover more than three-fourths of the
earth’s surface, it is not surprising that almost 80% of the precipitation occurs over the oceans. Of the total
estimated annual precipitation on earth, which is about 500,000 km3 (or, in terms of the 100 units of water
on earth, about 0.0004 units), nearly 400,000 km3 falls directly on the oceans. If it were to occur uniformly
Introduction 7
over the entire globe, it would represent an annual precipitation depth of about 1 m. However, there are wide
variations, both spatially and temporally, in the amount of precipitation across the globe. For example, the
average annual precipitation varies from around 12 m (Meghalaya, India; Cauca, Colombia) to about 0.1
mm (Antofagasta, Chile) and some parts of Antarctica receive no rain at all. Another example of the spatial
heterogeneity of precipitation is that some parts of Hawaii have 350 rainy days in a year, while some areas
of Chile have one rainy day in six years (some parts of Antarctica have none in a million years!). It should be
kept in mind that these are average annual values, and the rainfall in any particular year may be much larger or
smaller (the maximum rainfall observed in a single year is about 26 m in the state of Meghalaya, India). Even
within a country there are considerable variations in precipitation. In India, the driest parts receive an annual
average precipitation of 20 cm (Rajasthan) and 10 cm (Leh) while, as mentioned earlier, the wettest parts
have 12 m of precipitation. Similarly, there are large temporal variations in precipitation over a significant
part of the earth. The city of Kanpur in India, for example, receives nearly 90% of its annual precipitation in
the four monsoon months of June, July, August, and September (and about 60% in just two months, July and
August). Therefore, although the hydrologic cycle is depicted as a continuous cycle, one should be aware
that it represents an average behaviour. Sometimes it would appear that the cycle has completely stopped
while at some other times, it would appear to be overactive. How much precipitation occurs, and when and
where it occurs, depends on several factors like humidity, air currents, nearness to water bodies, and presence
of orographic barriers. The rate at which precipitation occurs is denoted by its intensity, expressed in terms
of the depth of precipitation in a given time period, usually in mm/h. More details of the mechanism of
precipitation and the effect of these factors are provided in the next chapter.
Engineers are generally not concerned with the part of the precipitation which does not reach the earth
surface. Out of the precipitation which reaches the surface, some infiltrates into the ground, some is detained
in depressions or retained on the ground as a film or puddle from which it either infiltrates or evaporates, and
the rest runs-off over the surface to various streams and ultimately to the surface reservoirs.
1.3.3 Infiltration
Rain and melting snow tend to moisten the surface first, and then enter the interstices of the soil under the
influence of gravitational and capillary forces. The rate at which water infiltrates the soil is expressed in
terms of water depth per unit time, normally in mm/h, and the maximum rate at which soil can allow water to
infiltrate is known as its infiltration capacity. The infiltration capacity is affected by several factors like soil
type, soil surface condition, soil moisture, vegetation, and the nature of rainfall. For example, soil surface
compaction will reduce the infiltration capacity while presence of surface cracks will increase it. Similarly,
dry soils will have a larger capacity than wet ones. Generally during a rain event, the infiltration capacity
decreases with time due to increase in soil moisture, swelling of clay and blocking of pores by the fine
particles carried by the rain water. The infiltration capacity of sandy soils is generally greater than 20 mm/h,
for clayey soils it is 1–5 mm/h, and for loam it is 5–10 mm/h.
The infiltrating water could stay in the upper layers of the soil as soil moisture, from where it is utilized
by the vegetation and transpired back to the atmosphere, or it could percolate deeper into the subsurface
reservoir. Sometimes, instead of percolating deeper, the infiltrating water encounters an impervious layer of
rock close to the ground surface and flows over it to join a surface stream. This component of the runoff is
called interflow and is a part of the subsurface runoff. If the precipitation intensity is more than the infiltration
capacity, water will runoff over the surface to join the stream system. This surface runoff is one of the two
most important parameters (the other being the subsurface reservoir) from a water-supply perspective.
1.3.4 Groundwater
The completely saturated soil mass at some depth, which may range from zero to a few thousand meters below
the ground surface is called the groundwater and is a major component of the subsurface water reservoir (the
other components are soil moisture and ground ice). If this soil mass is not confined by an impervious or semi-
pervious formation at the top, the top surface of the saturated soil will have water at atmospheric pressure and
this surface is known as the water table or the phreatic surface. If it is confined, the water pressure would be
more than atmospheric and water in a well tapping this soil will rise above the confining layer (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Groundwater under confined and unconfined conditions
The transfer of water from/to the groundwater may take place in various ways. Infiltration is the primary
source of water for the groundwater. Depending on the water level in streams and the water table height,
water will flow either from the groundwater to the stream (known as the base flow of the stream) or from the
stream to the groundwater (resulting in recharge of the groundwater). Water may be pumped out through tube
wells or extracted from dug wells. Recharge wells are sometimes used to enhance the groundwater recharge
by conveying rain water directly to the subsurface. When groundwater is under pressure, it may discharge as
springs, geysers or artesian wells. In coastal areas, groundwater may discharge directly into the sea.
The soil or rock porosity determines how much water could be stored in it and the permeability determines
the ease with which this water can be extracted. An ideal soil formation for supplying water at a reasonable
rate would, therefore, have a high porosity and large permeability, and is called an aquifer. While tapping
an aquifer for water supply, one must ensure that the withdrawal rates are not significantly larger than the
recharge rates; otherwise the water table will progressively go down, resulting in a possible deepening of the
wells and an increase in pumping cost. The recharge rates are dependent on the precipitation magnitude and
Introduction 9
pattern, soil and vegetation type, and land cover, since, as discussed in the previous section, all these factors
influence the infiltration. Recharge rates are much higher during the rainy season and rise of a few metres
in the water table is commonly observed. Data collected by the Central Ground Water Board, India, in 2013
before the monsoon season, shows (compared to the data taken at the same time in 2012) a rise in water table
in 44% wells and a fall in 56% wells, with most wells (77%) showing a fluctuation of less than 2 m. Nearly
identical results were obtained for a decadal change from 2003 to 2013.
1.3.5 Surface Runoff

The excess rain, after satisfying the infiltration capacity, first fills the surface depressions and then reaches
a stream system through which it passes and discharges ultimately into the ocean or an inland water body.
Some part of the water moving in the stream systems evaporates into the atmosphere and some seeps down
from the channel boundaries to recharge the subsurface reservoir. It is estimated that the annual flow in the
rivers of the world adds up to about 40,000 km3. As with precipitation, there are large spatial and temporal
variations in the stream flows. For example, the annual flow in Amazon is about 6500 km3, while that in
Ganges is about 500 km3 and in Pecos only about 0.06 km3. The flow in a river varies with location and the
values listed are at the mouth of the river where it flows into the sea. It is customary to express the flow in a
river in terms of the discharge in the units of m3/s (also called cumecs). For Ganges, the average discharge
during a year translates into about 15,000 cumecs. Near the city of Kanpur, the average discharge in Ganges
is only about 4000 cumecs, while at Allahabad located about 200 km downstream, it is about 13,000 cumecs.
This increase is due to the additional catchment area because of the joining of big tributaries in this stretch of
the river. An idea about the temporal variation of river flow could be obtained from the fact that in the month
of May, the average discharge of Ganges at Kanpur is about 100 cumecs and at Allahabad it is about 300
cumecs. The maximum discharge observed in Ganges is about 70,000 cumecs, nearly 5 times the average
value! Similarly, for the river Kosi at Baltara, the average discharge over a year is about 2200 cumecs, over
the monsoon period about 5100 cumecs, and in non-monsoon period about 1200 cumecs. The maximum
observed discharge over a 22-year period is 12,000 cumecs and an estimate of a 100-year flood is about
14,000 cumecs (the methodology of estimating a 100-year flood is discussed in Chapter 9).
The discharge into a river at a particular point primarily depends on the area of the catchment up to that
point and the climatic and physiographic characteristics of this area. For example, if the same amount of rain
occurs in fewer but more intense storms, the runoff is likely to be more than that for a larger number of lower
intensity rains. Similarly, runoff from a vegetated area is likely to be less than an equivalent bare area and
runoff from a sandy catchment is likely to be less than that for a clayey area. A hydrograph, representing the
variation of the river discharge with time, is a useful tool to analyse the flow pattern in a river to obtain peak flow,
dependable flows etc. A more detailed discussion of runoff and hydrograph is provided in Chapters 4 and 5.
1.3.6 Evaporation and Transpiration

The atmospheric reservoir transfers water to the earth’s surface through precipitation, from which the
subsurface reservoir is recharged through infiltration and contribution to the surface reservoir is made
through runoff. To complete the water cycle, we need to look at the transfer from the surface reservoir to the
atmospheric reservoir, which is effected through evaporation from water bodies and land, and transpiration
from vegetation. Evaporation is the passage of water from the liquid to gaseous state when subjected to
heating, generally by solar energy. Transpiration is the process of returning of the soil moisture to the
atmosphere by vegetation, which absorb water from the soil through its roots, utilize it for maintaining
life and producing growth, and then discharge it through its pores as water vapour. Since the processes of
evaporation and transpiration are very similar and are affected by similar factors, it is customary to combine
these into a single term evapotranspiration. This is the source of all atmospheric moisture and, therefore,
all precipitation. The chief contributor to evaporation are the oceans and a small portion comes from falling
rain, intercepted precipitation, depression storage, ground films, rivers and lakes. Since the hydrologic cycle
is in a stable state, the total global evaporation in a year is equal to the precipitation, i.e., nearly 500,000 km3
(or, in terms of water depth, about 1 m). However, if we consider the oceans and landmasses separately, the
precipitation on the landmass is larger than the evaporation from it, and the precipitation on the oceans is less
than the evaporation from them by an equal amount. The difference is made up by the runoff which transfers
water from the landmass to the ocean. In addition to its important role in the water balance, evaporation,
which requires a considerable amount of energy, plays an equally important role in the global heat transfer
and the resulting circulation pattern. The two requirements for evaporation to take place are the availability
of water and energy. To delink the water availability, we typically look at potential evaporation, which is the
amount of evaporation that would occur if water is abundantly available. The potential evaporation depends
on factors like solar radiation (more intense radiation will lead to higher evaporation), temperature, relative
humidity (more humid air will result in less evaporation), and wind speed (larger wind speed leads to higher
evaporation). A more detailed discussion is provided in Chapter 3. Since these factors show significant spatial
and temporal variations, the potential evaporation also varies widely from one place to the other and from
one time to another. For example, temperature has been observed to vary from −89°C in Antarctica to 56°C
in California (for India, a range of −50°C in Ladakh to 50°C in Rajasthan has been observed), and the daily
average wind speed could go as high as 175 km/h in Antarctica. The solar radiation depends on the position of
the sun and the atmospheric conditions. The solar constant, which is the amount of incoming solar radiation
per unit area at a distance equal to the average distance of the earth from the sun (known as one astronomical
unit) on a plane perpendicular to the rays, is about 1360 W/m2 (this number varies slightly due to change in
solar activity, so it is not really a constant). However, the energy per unit area on the earth’s surface, known
as irradiance, is smaller due to the presence of clouds, inclination of rays etc. The average yearly sum of
solar irradiance across the world generally decreases with latitude and shows a variation from about 60 W/m2
to about 400 W/m2. These variations imply that the potential evaporation also shows a wide variation from
its global annual average of a depth-equivalent of about 1 m. For example, the annual potential evaporation
depth in India varies from about 1.5 m to 2 m, with some places showing as high as 3.5 m. The monthly
evaporation depth could be as high as 50 cm for some parts of Maharashtra in summer or as little as 5 cm
or less in some parts of Assam in winter. The actual evaporation is smaller than these values due to lack of
available water. Australia, for example, has annual potential evaporation ranging from 1 m to 4 m, but the
actual evapotranspiration is only 20 cm to 120 cm. Globally, the actual evaporation at some places may be
as low as 1 cm.
The evapotranspiration transfers water from the surface and subsurface reservoirs to the atmospheric
reservoir, thereby completing the hydrologic cycle.
1.3.7 General Discussion of the Hydrologic Cycle

The preceding description of the Hydrologic Cycle and its various components should reinforce the fact
that this cycle is not a continuous cycle, either in space or in time. However, it provides us a good starting
Introduction 11
point to study the various aspects of engineering hydrology in a systematic manner. A few notable points are
summarized below:
• The cycle is not spatially uniform. Some areas may experience intense rainfall while other nearby
areas may be completely dry.
• The cycle is not temporally steady. The same area may get intense rain at times and would be
completely dry at other times.
• A general idea about the movement of water through various phases of the cycle could be obtained
through an average residence time. For example, it is estimated that atmospheric reservoir has a
storage volume of about 13,000 km3 and it transfers water at the rate of about 500,000 km3/year.
Therefore, on an average, a water drop will stay in the atmosphere for about 9 to 10 days [~13000/
(500000/365)]. Similarly, river waters have residence time varying from about 2 to 6 months,
oceans 3000 years, shallow groundwater about 100 years and deep groundwater about 10,000 years.
Clearly, there is a wide variation from these average values as in the case of, say, infiltrating water
percolating to the groundwater and resurfacing as interflow.
• Changing climate of the world may have significant effect on the hydrologic cycle. For example,
higher temperatures may lead to higher evaporation; some studies suggest that the precipitation
pattern is likely to change to more intense storms and longer dry periods; and rise in sea levels may
lead to less groundwater discharge into sea and more ingress of saline water in coastal aquifers.
SUMMARY
Hydrology deals with the occurrence and movement of water on and below the earth’s surface
and in the atmosphere as well. Engineering hydrology aims at applying the principles of hydrology
for management of water resources. These applications include the determination of quantity and
quality of available water, deciding the storage capacity of reservoirs, estimation of hydrologic
extremes, for example the maximum expected flood or the minimum expected rainfall, and
determination of the maximum safe withdrawal of water from the groundwater. The hydrologic
cycle, which is a convenient starting point for hydrologic analysis, represents the occurrence of
water in surface, subsurface, and atmospheric reservoirs, and its transfer from one reservoir
to the others. Out of the total water in these reservoirs, estimated at about 1.4 × 109 km3,
97.5% is saline water and only 2.5% is freshwater. Most of this freshwater is not amenable to
economic use, due to being frozen or occurring very deep into the earth, and only about 200,000
km3 freshwater is usable. The atmospheric moisture storage at any time is around 13,000
km3, with most of it being contributed by evaporation from the oceans. Only about 20% of the
annual precipitation of about 500,000 km3 falls on the continents, from which some infiltrates
into the ground, some evaporates, and the rest runs off to the surface stream systems. How
much water infiltrates depends primarily on the type of soil and how much evaporates depends
mainly on the temperature and humidity. The surface runoff is an important source of water
and is estimated at about 40,000 km3 per year. The other important source of water is the
groundwater, occurring below the ground surface, which is recharged by the infiltrating water.
The amount of storage in the groundwater depends on the porosity and its speed of movement
is governed by the permeability. There is a wide variation, in both space and time, in all the
components of the hydrologic cycle. The concept of an average residence time, however, may be
used to visualize the movement of water through various phases of the hydrologic cycle.
OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS
1.1 Literal meaning of hydrology is

(a) Water mechanics (b) Water record
(c) Water science (d) Water budget
1.2 Hydrology is typically considered a branch of which of the following disciplines?
(a) Hydraulics (b) Meteorology (c) Earth Sciences (d) Astronomy
1.3 Theoretical hydrology deals with
(a) Concepts (b) Processes (c) Application (d) All of these
1.4 Which of the following may best be described as being a topic of study in Engineering Hydrology?
(a) Pipe flow (b) Hydropower (c) Cloud formation (d) Reservoir design
1.5 Physical hydrology refers to the study of
(a) Instruments (b) Processes (c) Equations (d) Measurement
1.6 The magnitude of possible drinking water supply from a river will depend on
(a) River discharge (b) Water quality (c) Aquatic life needs (d) All of these
1.7 Will the water flow in a stream be affected by the use of groundwater for irrigation in nearby areas?
(a) Never (b) Always
(c) Only if groundwater use is large (d) None of these
1.8 Reliability of the estimates of water availability from collected data will depend on its
(a) Quality (b) Spatial coverage (c) Temporal coverage (d) All of these
1.9 Computing areal average of rainfall over an area from the point measurements at a few rain gauges will work
best in which of the following cases?
(a) The area is climatically uniform (b) Rain gauges are very large in number
(c) There are several hills and valleys (d) All measurements are taken at the same time
1.10 What is meant by the consistency of a hydrologic dataset obtained at a station?
(a) It is spatially uniform (b) It is not changing with time
(c) It shows a monotonic trend (d) It agrees well with nearby stations
1.11 The consistency of a hydrologic dataset obtained at a station is checked by
(a) Ensuring that there are no missing values
(b) Comparing with nearby stations
(c) Ensuring that the data shows random variation
(d) Analyzing the trend in data
1.12 The river discharge measured at two gauging stations situated near each other might be significantly different
due to
(a) Evaporation (b) Seepage (c) Tributary (d) Rainfall
1.13 The storage capacity of a reservoir will depend on
(a) Supply only (b) Demand only
(c) Both supply and demand (d) Neither supply nor demand
Introduction 13
1.14 Which of the following will NOT increase the required reservoir capacity?
(a) Evaporation (b) Seepage (c) Sedimentation (d) Precipitation
1.15 Out of the options given below, which one is correct about the following statements?
(i) The quality of groundwater is generally worse than that of surface water.
(ii) Use of groundwater for water supply does not require elaborate distribution system.
(a) (i) is true, (ii) is false (b) (i) is false, (ii) is true
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are true (d) Both (i) and (ii) are false
(i) Streamflow record may be analyzed to obtain an estimate of flood probability.
(ii) Precipitation data may be analyzed to obtain an estimate of drought frequency.
1.17 What is the depth of rain which could be produced over the entire earth surface by the amount of water held
in the atmosphere at any time?
(a) 1 mm (b) 5 mm (c) 25 mm (d) 100 mm
1.18 What percentage of the total water on, above, and within the earth is freshwater?
(a) 1.0% (b) 2.5% (c) 5.0% (d) 7.5%
1.19 What percentage of the total water on, above, and within the earth is surface water?
(a) 96.0% (b) 97.5% (c) 98.3% (d) 99.7%
1.20 River water comprises about _____% of the surface water.
(a) 1.0 (b) 0.1 (c) 0.01 (d) 0.001
1.21 What percentage of the total water on, above, and within the earth is groundwater?
(a) 1.0% (b) 1.7% (c) 2.9% (d) 4.1%
1.22 The total usable fresh water on earth is about _______ km3.
(a) 100,000 (b) 200,000 (c) 1,000,000 (d) 2,000,0000
1.23 The main source of atmospheric moisture is
(a) Glaciers (b) Rivers (c) Oceans (d) Groundwater
1.24 What is the order of magnitude of the largest average annual precipitation at any place on earth?
(a) 1 cm (b) 1 m (c) 10 m (d) 50 m
1.25 What percentage of the global precipitation falls directly on the oceans?
(a) 1% (b) 10% (c) 50% (d) 80%
1.26 What is the maximum number of rainy days in a year observed at any place on earth?
(a) 200 (b) 250 (c) 300 (d) 350
1.27 What is the maximum rainfall observed at any place on earth in a single year?
(a) 1 m (b) 12 m (c) 26 m (d) 37 m
(i) Kanpur receives 90% of its annual precipitation in July and August.
(ii) Average annual precipitation in Antofagasta, Chile, is about 1 mm.
1.29 The intensity of rainfall is generally expressed in the units of

(a) m/s (b) m/h (c) mm/s (d) mm/h
(i) Compaction of soil generally reduces the infiltration capacity.
(ii) Presence of surface cracks generally reduces the infiltration capacity.
1.31 What happens to the infiltration capacity of soil during a precipitation event as time passes?
(a) Decreases (b) Increases
(c) First decreases then increases (d) First increases then decreases
1.32 What is the typical order of magnitude of the infiltration capacity of sandy soils?
(a) 1 mm/h (b) 5 mm/h (c) 20 mm/h (d) 200 mm/h
1.33 The component of infiltrating water which flows over an impermeable rock near the ground surface and then
joins a surface stream, is called
(a) Virga (b) Transpiration (c) Interflow (d) Recharge
(i) The soil or rock porosity determines how fast water will flow through it.
(ii) An aquifer should have high porosity and low permeability.
1.35 What is the average annual flow in the river Amazon?
(a) 500 km3 (b) 1000 km3 (c) 3500 km3 (d) 6500 km3
1.36 What is the gage pressure at the groundwater table?
(a) Negative (b) Zero (c) Positive (d) Varies with time
1.37 The water table is also known as
(a) Base flow (b) Artesian well (c) Phreatic surface (d) Spring
(i) For the same total precipitation, fewer but more intense events are likely to produce a larger runoff
compared to more, but less intense, events.
(ii) Runoff from a vegetated area is likely to be more than an equivalent bare area.
1.39 What is the total global evaporation, in 1000 km3, in a year?
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 100 (d) 500
(i) Precipitation on the landmass is larger than the evaporation from it.
(ii) More humid air will result in more evaporation.
1.41 What is the value of the solar constant?
(a) 360 W/m2 (b) 1360 W/m2 (c) 2360 W/m2 (d) 3260 W/m2
1.42 How does the average yearly sum of solar irradiance generally vary with increasing latitude?
(a) Decreases (b) Increases (c) Remains constant (d) Depends on humidity
Introduction 15
1.43 The residence time of the atmospheric moisture is about

(a) 1 day (b) 10 days (c) 1 month (d) 6 months
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
1.1 What is hydrology? Describe some of its applications.

1.2 What is Hydrologic cycle? Describe its components. What is meant by the statement that the hydrologic
cycle is in a stable state?
1.3 Why is simple averaging of rain gauge data to obtain areal average rainfall not very accurate in some
cases?
1.4 What are the factors affecting the infiltration capacity of a soil? Why does this capacity reduce with time
when there is a rainfall event?
1.5 How does the rainfall pattern and presence of vegetation affect the fraction of rain which may be converted
to runoff?
1.6 What is meant by the terms evaporation and transpiration? Why are evaporation and transpiration combined
together in the term evapotranspiration? What is potential evaporation?
1.7 Explain the various ways in which water is transferred from/to groundwater.
1.8 What are some possible effects of climate change on the hydrologic cycle?
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1.1 If the latent heat of vaporization for water is 2.44 5 106 J/kg, estimate the depth of water which could be
evaporated by the energy equivalent to the solar constant.
1.2 It is estimated that the average annual discharge of the river Amazon is about 200,000 m3/s and the average
volume of water in the river is about 1000 km3. What is the average residence time of water particles in this
river?
1.3 A lake has a surface area of 10 km2 and water surface elevation of 182.527 m above mean sea level at
a certain time. A precipitation event occurred during the next four hours, with a uniform intensity of 5
mm/h and the evaporation rate during this period was estimated as 0.2 mm/h. The surface stream flowing
into the lake had an average flow rate of 20 m3/s while the outflowing stream had an average flow rate of
25 m3/s during this period. If the water surface elevation at the end of the precipitation event is measured as
182.538 m, estimate the volume of water seeping into the ground during this time.
(Hints: The increase of storage in the lake is equal to the difference of inflow to and outflow from the lake
during the given period. The inflows are the precipitation and the inflowing streams and the outflows are the
evaporation, outflowing streams and seepage. Quantities expressed in terms of depth have to be multiplied
by the surface area of the lake to get the volumes).
1.4 For a catchment of area 250 km2, the estimate of annual precipitation is 900 mm, annual evapotranspiration
is 120 mm, and the annual surface runoff is 0.15 km3. Assuming that 40% of the infiltration contributes to
the recharge of groundwater, estimate the annual safe withdrawal volume from the groundwater. (Hints: The
safe withdrawal limit is equal to the recharge of the groundwater).
1.5 There are several resources available online for finding out the precipitation and evaporation at any place
(some links are provided in Chapter 10). Obtain the record of daily precipitation and actual or potential
evaporation for the previous year at a station near you, plot the data, and compute the total annual precipitation
and evaporation.
1.6 Streamflow data may also available for a river near your area. If so, plot the precipitation versus streamflow
and see whether there is any relationship between these.
1. Maps of average annual precipitation

(a) India: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:India_annual_rainfall_map_en.svg,
www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/annualrainfall.htm
(b) US: www.wrcc.dri.edu/pcpn/us_precip.gif
(c) Global: www.whymap.org/whymap/EN/Downloads/Additional_global_maps/precipitation_pdf,
www.britannica.com/science/climate-meteorology/World-distribution-of-precipitation
2. Maps of evaporation/evapotranspiration
(a) India : nihroorkee.gov.in/rbis/india_information/evaporation.htm
(b) US: www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/nch/nch-40.html,
(c) Global: nelson.wisc.edu/sage/data-and-models/atlas/maps/pevapotrans/atl_pevapotrans.jpg,
www.waterandclimatechange.eu/evaporation/average-monthly-1985-1999
3. Map of global surface runoff
atlas.gwsp.org/atlas/img/map/a3_runoffWSAG1_0_wl.png, wwap.cesr.de/results.htm#map1
4. Map of global groundwater recharge
www.whymap.org/whymap/EN/Downloads/Additional_global_maps/gw_recharge_pdf
5. Hydrologic cycle and its components
scied.ucar.edu/longcontent/water-cycle
100-year-flood: The flood which is expected to occur, on an average, once in 100 years.
Aquifer: A soil formation which can store enough water and can transmit it at a reasonably fast rate.
Artesian well: A well from which water flows out without pumping, due to the large pressure under which water
is stored in the soil.
Base flow: The flow in a stream which comes from the seepage of water from the adjacent soil.
Catchment: The area which catches the rain falling over it and carries it to a stream.
Confined aquifer: A completely saturated aquifer bounded by impermeable layers on top and bottom and, therefore,
carrying water under pressure.
Depression storage: The capacity of an area to store water in pits and depressions on the land surface.
Evaporation: The process by which liquid water changes into water vapour.
*
A very brief and general definition is given here. More specific descriptions are provided in the relevant chapters.
Introduction 17
Evapotranspiration: It is the combined evaporation and transpiration.

Groundwater: Water present below the ground surface in soil pores or rock crevices.
Humidity: The amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere.
Hydrograph: The graph showing variation of discharge in a stream with time.
Infiltration: The process through which water enters the soil from the ground surface.
Infiltration capacity: The maximum rate at which a soil can absorb infiltrating water.
Interflow: The water that infiltrates into the soil and then quickly returns to the surface due to lateral movement.
Permeability: Ability of a porous medium to allow passage of a fluid.
Phreatic surface (or Water table): The upper surface of the saturated groundwater which is at atmospheric
pressure.
Porosity: A measure of the void space present in the soil.
Precipitation: Water reaching the earth from the atmosphere.
Rain gauge: An instrument to collect and measure the amount of rain falling over an area.
Recharge: Water entering the saturated groundwater.
Relative humidity: The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere in relation to that needed to saturate the air with
water vapour.
Routing: The technique used to estimate the change in the shape of a hydrograph as water flows through a stream
or a storage structure.
Runoff: The rainwater that flows off to the stream.
Sedimentation: The process of settling/deposition of suspended sediments on the channel bed.
Seepage: The slow passage of fluid through the pores of a porous medium.
Soil moisture: Water contained in the soil pores.
Stream-gauging station: An observation point at which the flow in a stream is measured.
Subsurface runoff: The portion of runoff which comes from water infiltrating into the soil and then joining the
river without recharging the groundwater.
Surface runoff: The portion of runoff which is contributed by the water flowing on the land surface.
Transpiration: Evaporation of water from the leaves, or other parts, of a plant.
Unconfined aquifer: An aquifer which has an upper surface open to atmosphere, i.e., there is no confining layer
at the top.
Unit hydrograph: A hydrograph due to a unit rainfall occurring uniformly over the entire catchment.
Water table (or Phreatic surface): The upper surface of the saturated groundwater which is at atmospheric
pressure.
2 Precipitation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 1 Know about precipitation, its formation and distribution

LO 2 Outline the methods of measurement of precipitation
LO 3 Summarize the methods of processing of precipitation data, estimation of missing data,
completeness and consistency checks, averaging – Thiessen polygons and isohyets
LO 4 Understand presentation of precipitation data, intensity-duration curve, depth-area-duration curve
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Although evaporation is traditionally seen as the starting point of the
LO 1 Know about
hydrologic cycle, from an engineering point of view, precipitation is
precipitation, its formation
the driving force behind availability of water. The part of precipitation
and distribution
which infiltrates into the ground augments the groundwater and the part
which runs-off over the surface contributes to the streamflow. Hence total
precipitation over an area, and its spatial and temporal distribution, is probably the most significant parameter
for hydrologic analysis. Moreover, due to its importance to agriculture (and, therefore the economy) and the
simplicity of measuring devices, extensive measurement of precipitation has been going on for hundreds of
years (the earliest measurements are thought to be around 500 B.C. and systematic measurements started
in the 17th century). At times when precipitation is not the primary variable of interest (e.g., when one is
interested in the streamflow), it could be beneficial to correlate the precipitation with these other variables
to take advantage of the long and more reliable record of precipitation. With this in mind, we look at several
aspects of precipitation in this chapter.
Precipitation 19
The description of the basic mechanism of precipitation, its various forms, and its variation in space and
time is provided in the next section. The discussion is just enough to provide an understanding of the factors
affecting precipitation and avoids going into greater details, which are probably more suitable for a course
in meteorology.
2.2 OCCURRENCE – MECHANISM OF FORMATION,

VARIOUS FORMS, DISTRIBUTION
LO 1
2.2.1 Mechanism
A brief description of the various mechanisms leading to precipitation is provided here with the intention that
it would lead to a better appreciation of the various factors which affect precipitation and the extent to which
they do so.
For precipitation to occur there should be water in the atmosphere and the water droplets (or snow/ice
crystals) should be heavy enough to overcome the upward forces of the air currents. As far as the presence
of water in the atmosphere is concerned, there is almost always some water present in the air (represented
as humidity); however, it is generally invisible since it is in the form of water vapour. The air has a certain
capacity to hold the water vapour, which depends on its temperature: warmer air can hold more water vapour
than cooler air. Hence, for the vapour to become visible in a liquid form, either more water vapour has to
be added beyond this saturation point, or the air has to be cooled to a temperature beyond its dew point (the
temperature at which the air becomes saturated with water vapour). The addition of water vapour may be
through evaporation, transpiration, combustion etc. but is generally not enough by itself to saturate the air.
Cooling is, therefore, required for the condensation of water vapour to form clouds and some mechanism is
needed for fusion of the small droplets into bigger, precipitable drops. Presence of condensation nuclei is
necessary for the formation of clouds. These nuclei are small particles (0.1 to 10 μm) on which the droplets
or crystals form, and are abundant in the atmosphere. Condensation may occur due to adiabatic (or dynamic)
cooling, radiational cooling, contact cooling, or by mixing of air masses of different temperatures. Almost
all precipitation is a result of adiabatic cooling in which air mass rises to a higher altitude, expands because
of lower pressure, and becomes cooler due to loss of a part of the heat energy in doing work in the process of
expansion. This rise could be orographic (due to mountains), convective (due to local heating of air mass),
frontal (due to a warm air mass climbing over colder air mass), or cyclonic (similar to frontal, with air masses
converging into a low pressure area). Accordingly, the precipitation is classified as orographic, convective,
frontal, or cyclonic.
2.2.1.1 Orographic Precipitation

When an air mass encounters a topographic barrier (e.g., a mountain), it may flow up and over it. This lifting
results in cooling of the air mass and sets off precipitation. The precipitation is heavier on the windward
side and there is a “rain shadow” on the leeward side, i.e., there is lighter precipitation due to the air mass
becoming dry and warm as it travels down from the peak. This type of precipitation is usually of low intensity
and long duration. Sometimes the term relief precipitation is also used for orographic precipitation.
2.2.1.2 Convective Precipitation

On a hot day, as the ground surface gets heated, the air in contact with it also becomes warmer and therefore,
lighter. This sets up a convective current in which the warm moist air rises and its place is taken by the
colder (and denser) surrounding air. This colder air is then heated as it comes in contact with the ground and
rises, thus continuing the convection. The rise, expansion and consequent cooling of the air mass results in
convective precipitation. This type of precipitation is more common in hot and humid tropical areas and is of
high intensity, generally accompanied by thunder and lightning.
2.2.1.3 Frontal Precipitation

The surface of contact between air masses of different temperatures is known as a front. If the cold air
mass is moving into a warm air mass, it is called a cold front and if the warm air is moving into the colder
air, it is called a warm front. In both cases, the warmer air gets lifted above the front, causing cooling
and precipitation. The frontal precipitation is generally of moderate to high intensity, with the cold fronts
having more intense precipitation on a relatively smaller area and the warm fronts causing less intense but
widespread precipitation.
2.2.1.4 Cyclonic Precipitation

A cyclone is an area of low pressure with a circulatory motion, generally inward, of air around it (the
circulation is in counter-clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere). The air converging into this low pressure area gets lifted and causes cyclonic precipitation. The
smaller diameter cyclones (up to about 1600 km) have high wind velocity and result in high precipitation,
while the larger cyclones (diameter up to about 3200 km) cause widespread precipitation, similar in nature
to frontal precipitation.
2.2.2 Forms
As discussed in the previous chapter, precipitation includes all aqueous particles which fall from the
atmosphere onto the earth. A wider definition includes, in addition to the particles falling onto the earth,
particles falling from the atmosphere but not reaching the earth due to evaporation. However, this portion of
the precipitation, known as virga, is not of as much interest to engineers as it is to meteorologists. Depending
on the mechanism and location of its formation and the properties of the medium through which it passes
before reaching the earth, the precipitation could be in one of several possible forms, either liquid, or solid,
or mixed. For example, rain and drizzle comprise liquid precipitation, with rain having drops with diameter
more than 0.5 mm and drizzle having drops of smaller diameter; snow and hail are solid, with hail having
balls of diameter more than 5 mm; and sleet is a mixture of liquid and solid. Sometimes, the precipitation may
be in the form of liquid but becomes solid as soon as it comes in contact with a surface (freezing rain).
Other forms in which the atmospheric moisture manifests itself are: Mist–small droplets suspended in
air; Fog–mist with visibility of less than one kilometer; Dew–condensation of water vapour on a surface
whose temperature is below the dew point of the surrounding air; Frost–when the temperature of the air near
the earth’s surface is below freezing, the liquid precipitation freezes on coming in contact with the ground
or other cold objects (the ice thus formed is also known as glaze). From the engineering perspective of water
availability, it is common to express all forms of precipitation in terms of an equivalent water depth. Thus,
Precipitation 21
depending on its density, which in turn depends on whether the snow is fresh or compacted, 1 cm of snow
depth could result in a water depth of about 1 mm to 5 mm (specific gravity of falling snow is generally in
the range of 0.05 to 0.15, with most of the values closer to 0.08).
2.2.3 Intensity of precipitation

More than the form of precipitation, it is the intensity, i.e., the rate at which it is falling, which is of relevance
to a hydrologist. The intensity represents the depth of precipitation accumulated per unit time and is generally
expressed in mm/h. The precipitation is classified as light, medium (or moderate), and heavy, depending on
the intensity. For example, on the basis of hourly intensity, rain is classified as light if the intensity is less
than 2.5 mm/h, heavy if the intensity is more than 7.5 mm/h, and medium in between. Drizzle has intensity
less than 1 mm/h. The India Meteorological Department classifies rain based on daily precipitation, with very
light rain having an accumulated depth of precipitation in a day between 0.1 to 2.4 mm, light rain between
2.5 to 7.5 mm, moderate rain between 7.6 to 35.5 mm, rather heavy rain between 35.6 to 64.4 mm, heavy
rain between 64.5 to 124.4 mm, very heavy rain between 124.5 to 244.4 mm and extremely heavy rain more
than or equal to 244.5 mm. A rainy day is one which has a rainfall amount of 2.5 mm or more, i.e., a day with
very light rain is not considered a rainy day. Snow is generally classified on the basis of visibility, which is
an indirect measure of the intensity–light if the visibility is more than 1000 m, heavy for visibility less than
500 m, and moderate in between.
2.2.4 Distribution
As discussed in the previous subsection, precipitation is affected by several factors like presence of moisture,
condensation nuclei, mountains, differential heating of air masses, etc. Therefore, it shows considerable
variations in space and time. For example, if we consider the precipitation at a particular place over a year,
most days may have little or no precipitation and a few days may account for more than half of the annual
precipitation. Similarly, the annual precipitation may vary from year to year and it would be desirable to
define an average or normal annual precipitation which could form a basis for comparing the precipitation
at different places. This average is taken over a long period (usually 30 years, recomputed every 10 years;
currently 1981–2010 period averages are being used and in 2021, 1991–2020 averages would be used)
and clearly shows the distinct precipitation regimes at different places. For example, the normal annual
precipitation averaged over the entire country is about 50 mm for Egypt and about 3000 mm for Costa Rica!
Similarly, different places within a country could be compared: in USA, Hawaii receives about 1600 mm
per year while Nevada only 240 mm; in India, Western Rajasthan receives 300 mm while Kerala receives
3000 mm.
In addition to the large scale variations, there are small scale spatial and temporal variations which are
equally important but difficult to characterize. For a single storm, i.e., strong winds with a lot of precipitation,
the rainfall intensity varies widely over time, and two places within a few kilometers of each other may show
considerable difference in precipitation. These variations influence the runoff amount and pattern significantly
and must be considered in estimating the maximum flood in a channel or for the design of storm water drains.
A proper measurement of precipitation is, therefore, necessary and is described in the next section.
2.3 MEASUREMENT – RAIN GAUGES, REMOTE SENSING

A very brief description of precipitation measurement is provided here and
LO 2 Outline the methods of
more details are given in Chapter 10, which deals with the measurements
measurement of precipitation
of several hydrologic variables. In this chapter, we assume that the
precipitation is in the form of rain; else if it is in the form of snow, it should be converted to an equivalent
depth of rain. The precipitation is generally measured in terms of the depth of water which will accumulate on
the land surface if no part of it is allowed to infiltrate/evaporate/run-off. Traditional methods of measurement,
therefore, comprise a container which collects the precipitating water/snow and which could be monitored
continuously (recording gauges) or periodically (non-recording gauges). For the non-recording gauges, the
precipitation depth is measured at a fixed time (in India, 8:30 am) every day and is reported as the depth of
precipitation accumulated in the previous day. During intense storms, however, measurements are sometimes
made every few hours or at even smaller intervals. Depending on the purpose for which the data is to be used,
non-recording gauges may be adequate. However, for some cases, the more expensive recording gauges
have to be used. For example, if one were interested in finding the monthly distribution of precipitation in
an area, data from a non-recording gauge is sufficient. On the other hand, to estimate peak flow in a nearby
river, intra-day variation of precipitation is generally needed. The flow in a river would be much higher if the
same amount of rain falls in an hour compared to when it falls uniformly over the whole day. To balance the
needs and the cost, typically about 10% of the gauges in an area are of the recording-type and the others are
non-recording gauges which are assumed to follow a similar precipitation pattern as obtained at the recording
gauges.
In addition to the rain gauges, the use of radars and other remote-sensing devices is now becoming common.
These devices estimate the intensity of rainfall or the velocity of raindrops by emitting an electromagnetic
pulse and analyzing its reflection by the precipitating water. As mentioned earlier, Chapter 10 provides more
details of these techniques of collecting the precipitation data. Here we describe the presentation of data and
its analysis.
2.4 ANALYSIS OF DATA – MISSING DATA,

CONSISTENCY CHECK, AVERAGING
Data from the non-recording gauges is in the form of total depth
LO 3 Summarize the methods of
of precipitation collected at the gauge during a 24-hour period.
processing of precipitation data,
It could be expressed as a histogram, which shows the variation
estimation of missing data, completeness
of daily precipitation with time, or could be manipulated to
and consistency checks, averaging –
obtain a mass curve, which shows the variation of accumulated Thiessen polygons and isohyets
precipitation with time, as shown below:
For a recording gauge, the measurement is generally of the cumulative depth and the histogram could
be derived as shown below (the data corresponds exactly to that shown in Figure 2.1, but the cumulative
precipitation depths are recorded every hour).
Precipitation 23
25 70
Cumulative Depth (mm)

Precipitation Depth (mm)
60
20
50
15 40
10 30
20
5
10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (d) Time (d)
Figure 2.1 Histogram and mass curve for a non-recording gauge
Figure 2.2 Mass curve and histogram for a recording gauge
It is more instructive to express the data in terms of precipitation intensity, generally in mm/h. For
example, we observe from Figure 2.2 that the rainfall depth increases rapidly during the second day (and
most rapidly around the middle of the day) and
very slowly during the 5th day. This is readily seen
1.8
Precipitation Intensity (mm/h)
from the histogram but, in order to compare

1.6
different precipitation events which may have 1.4
different recording intervals, it is more useful to 1.2
plot rainfall intensity versus time rather than the 1
precipitation depth during that interval. The plot 0.8
of rainfall intensity versus time is known as a 0.6
hyetograph, and is shown below in Figure 2.3. 0.4
0.2
(Since the observed data is at hourly intervals, the
0
hyetograph is identical to the histogram. To 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
differentiate, we have plotted a smooth curve for Time (h)
the hyetograph, with the intensity during a time
Figure 2.3 Hyetograph for a recording gauge
interval assumed to correspond to the mid-point.)
The maximum intensity is at about 40 h and is equal to 1.7 mm/h, compared to an average intensity on
that day of about 20 mm/d (see Figure 2.1) or about 0.85 mm/h. For a non-recording gauge, the hyetograph
will be similar to the histogram since the data at a finer resolution is not available. However, data from a
nearby recording gauge could be utilized to estimate the intensity variation within a day. For subsequent
discussion, therefore, we will assume that the data given to us is from a recording gauge and analyze it
accordingly. While some recording gauges record the time taken for a specified rainfall depth to accumulate
and therefore have a discrete record, others record the continuous accumulation of rainfall over time. The
continuous record could be presented as a plot but, from data storage perspective, it must be discretized. For
example, we could express it as the rainfall depth accumulated in a day, an hour, or a minute. Clearly, if the
data is stored as depth of rain in a day, there is no advantage gained by a recording gauge over a non-recording
gauge, which also records the rainfall in a day. On the other hand, if we store the data in terms of the depth
accumulated every minute, it may become voluminous. Therefore, a 15-minute interval is commonly used
for reporting purposes.
The analysis of precipitation data is described below by considering a hypothetical, and probably
unrealistic, basin which has been idealized as a rectangle with dimensions 60 km East-West and 30 km
North-South. There are four rain gauge stations as shown in Figure 2.4 given below:
Figure 2.4 Idealized basin with four rain gauges
The catchment area has 4 gauges inside it and the first question we need to address is whether these four
gauges are sufficient to capture the spatial variation of rainfall over this area, or do we need to install more
gauges. There are several statistical techniques which may be utilized to answer this question and we describe
two of these below.
(i) Based on the allowable coefficient of variation The coefficient of variation (CV) is defined as the
ratio of standard deviation to the mean and is a measure of the spread of the data. We may consider a network
of gauges to be dense enough if its CV is less than, say, 20%. Therefore, for the existing network if we
compute the CV and find it to be less than 20%, we do not need to add more gauges. However, if the CV
is more than 20%, we would need to add an adequate number of gauges to bring the CV below 20%. If we
assume that addition of gauges does not significantly alter the sum of the squared deviations and the mean
(in other words, the additional gauges have precipitation equal to the mean), we obtain the desired number
of stations by
Precipitation 25
2
Ê CVexisting ˆ
N desired = Á ˜ N existing (2.1)
Ë CVdesired ¯
The following example illustrates the procedure.
� EXAMPLE 2.1
The annual precipitation at the four rain gauges is shown in the table below. Determine whether more stations
are needed, if the desired CV is 20%.
Station S1 S2 S3 S4
Annual Rainfall (mm) 830 1120 1000 650
Solution
The mean of the station data for annual precipitation is obtained as 900 mm, and the standard deviation,
(702 + 2202 + 1002 + 2502 )
s n -1 = = 204.78 mm. The coefficient of variation is, therefore, 0.228. Since it
3
is more than the desired CV of 0.2, we require more stations and the total number of stations, using Eq. (2.1),
2
Ê 0.228 ˆ
is Á ¥ 4 = 5.18. We should provide two more stations.
Ë 0.2 ˜¯
Notes: If there is another station close to the boundary, but outside the catchment area, we may expect
it to be climatically similar to other stations and should include it in the analysis, even though it lies in a
different catchment. Also, we should keep in mind that this technique should be applied to long-term data,
e.g., annual, which tends to average out the temporal and spatial variations in rainfall.
(ii) Based on the allowable error in the estimation of the mean We could view the observed station
data as a “sample” drawn from a large “population” of possible stations located in and around the catchment
area and then estimate how close is the sample mean to the true value, i.e., the population mean (more details
about sample and population characteristics are provided in Section 9.2). In statistical terms, we measure
this closeness by the standard error of the mean, defined as the standard deviation of the estimates of the
s
population mean through sample means, and given by SE = , where s is the sample standard deviation
n
and n is the sample size. A relative standard error, RSE, is defined as the ratio of the SE and the mean, and
we could stipulate that the station density is adequate if RSE is below, say, 10%. Assuming that addition of
stations does not significantly change the standard deviation, the number of stations required to achieve a
desired RSE is given by
2
Ê CV ˆ
N= Á ˜ (2.2)
Ë RSEdesired ¯
If this number comes out to be less than or equal to the number of existing stations n, the network density
is adequate, otherwise we need to add N − n stations (obviously, N − n is rounded up to the next higher
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
After this we begin the second stasis in tone v, in which at the end
of a verse we say,
Have mercy upon thy servant.
The choir beginneth, Thy commandments....
Have mercy upon thy servant.
And again the same choir, Thy hands have made me....
After the iind stasis, deacon, Again and again.... Page 142.
And again they begin the third stasis in tone iii.
Thy name, alleluia.
And again the same choir singeth,
Look upon me, and have mercy upon me....
After the iiird stasis, and after the troparia of the undefiled, deacon,
Again and again.... Page 142.
Then troparia, tone v.
Our Saviour rest thy servant with the just, and place him in thy
courts, as it is written, as being good, despising his iniquities, both
willing ones and those unwilling, and all those done in knowledge
and in ignorance, O lover of mankind.
Glory. Both now.
Christ God, who from the Virgin, shinest to the world, who hast
through her made manifest the sons of light, have mercy thou on us.
Then graduals, tone vi.
Unto heaven have I lifted up mine eyes, unto thee, O Word; have
compassion upon me, that I may live to thee.
Have mercy upon us who have been set at nought, appointing us,
O Word, to be vessels acceptable unto thee.
Glory.
To the Holy Ghost belongs every all-saving cause: on whomsoever
he, through worthiness, doth breathe, he quickly taketh him from
earthly things, gives wings, exalteth and appoints his place on high.
Both now, the same.
Then prokimenon, tone vi.
Blessed is the way wherein thou goest to-day, O soul, because a
place of rest hath been prepared for thee.
Verse. Return O my soul, unto thy rest, for the Lord hath wrought a
good thing for thee.
The message of the holy apostle Paul to the Thessalonians,
section cclxx.
Brethren, I would not have you to be ignorant.... ending, be ever
with the Lord.[35]
Priest. Peace to thee.
Reader. And to thy spirit.
Reader. A psalm of David. Alleluia, tone viii.
Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O Lord.
Deacon. Wisdom, standing, let us hear the holy gospel.
Priest. The reading of the holy gospel from John, section xvi.
The Lord said unto the Jews that came unto him, Verily, verily, I
say.... ending, the Father which hath sent me.[36]
Then the deacon. Let us pray to the Lord.
Choir. Lord, have mercy.
And the priest the prayer.
Master, Lord our God, who only hast immortality, who dwellest in
unapproachable light, who killest and makest alive, who wentest
down into hades and didst arise therefrom; thou didst in wisdom
create man, and didst turn him again to earth, exacting payment of
his spiritual debt. Thee we beseech, Accept the soul of thy servant,
and rest him in the bosom of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob; and
give unto him the crown of thy righteousness, the portion of the
saved, in the glory of thine elect; that in whatsoever he hath laboured
in this world for thy name’s sake, he may receive a plenteous reward
in the habitations of thy saints; through the grace, and compassions,
and love to man of thine only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ.
Amen.
Kathisma, tone ii.
To-day I from my kinsfolk sever’d am, and unto thee betake
myself, thou only sinless one: O rest me in the tabernacles of the just
with thine elect.
Then we say psalm xxii.
The Lord tendeth me, and there is nothing lacking to me.
Alleluia, thrice, repeating alleluia to every verse of the rest of the
psalm.
Then the present troparion, tone ii.
Since to the same abiding-place we all are urg’d, and under the
same stone shall come, and in a little time in self same dust shall be,
let us ask Christ for rest for him removed hence. For such our life is,
brethren, this on earth, a toy: that which is not it abides, and that that
doth abide it perisheth. We are a dream that stayeth not, a breath
that is not held, a flight of passing birds, a ship upon a trackless sea.
Then let us cry to the immortal King, O Lord, vouchsafe to him thine
endless blessedness.
Prokimenon, tone vi.
Verse. To thee is due a song, O God, in Sion.
The epistle to the Romans, section lxxxix.
Brethren, as by one man sin.... ending, Jesus Christ our Lord.[37]
Alleluia, tone vi.
Verse. Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O
Lord.
The gospel from John, section xv.
The Lord saith unto the Jews that came unto him, My Father
worketh.... ending, but is passed from death unto life.[38]
And the priest.
We give thanks unto thee, O Lord our God, for thine alone it is to
have immortal life, and inaccessible glory, and unspeakable love to
man, and an uninheritable kingdom, and there is no respect of
persons with thee; for thou hast appointed unto all men a common
limit of life, when life hath been fulfilled. Therefore we beseech thee,
O Lord, Rest thy servant, and our fellow minister, name, who hath
fallen asleep in hope of the resurrection of eternal life, in the bosom
of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob. And as on earth thou hast
appointed him a minister of thy church, so also declare him at thy
heavenly altar, O Lord; and like as thou hast adorned him with
spiritual honour among men, so accept him uncondemned in angelic
glory. Thou thyself hast glorified his life on earth, and do thou thyself
appoint the outgoing of his life to be the ingoing to thy holy righteous
ones; and number his soul among all them that from ages have been
acceptable unto thee.
For thou art the resurrection and the life, and the repose of thy
servant, name, who hath fallen asleep, O Christ our God, and to thee
we ascribe glory, with thine unbeginning Father, and with thy most
holy, and good, and life-creating Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of
ages. Amen.
Antiphon ii.
Were not the Lord with us, we none could have withstood the foe’s
attack; for they that overcome are thence lift up.
As a small bird be not my soul caught in their teeth, O Word: woe
unto me! how from the foe shall I be freed, who am a lover of sin.
Glory.
Through the Holy Ghost divinity comes to all, goodwill and
understanding, peace and blessing; for he is like-effective with the
Father and the Word.
Both now, the same.
The earth is the Lord’s, and the fulness thereof.[39]
Alleluia, thrice, repeating alleluia to every verse of the rest of the
psalm. Glory, alleluia. Both now, alleluia.
Troparion, tone ii.
In faith, and hope, and love, and meekness, and in chastity, and in
the priestly dignity thou piously hast liv’d, thou aye remember’d one.
Therefore the eternal God, whom thou hast served, in a bright and
pleasant place, where rest the just, thy soul hath plac’d; and, at the
judgment-seat of Christ, thou shalt forgiveness gain, and mercy
great.
Kathisma, tone v.
Thou knowest, O our God, that we were born in sin. Therefore we
thee beseech, Rest him who is remov’d from us, o’erlooking, as the
good one, the iniquities, which he, as mortal man, hath done in life,
through the God-bearing one’s entreaties, thou sole lover of
mankind.
Verse. His remembrance is to generation and generation.
The epistle to the Corinthians, section clviii.
Brethren, I declare unto you.... ending, so ye believed.[40]
Alleluia. Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O
Lord.
The gospel from John, section xxi.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, I am the
bread.... ending, at the last day.[41]
And the priest this prayer.
O Lord of hosts, who art the joy of the afflicted, the consolation of
mourners, and the aid of all them that are faint-hearted; do thou in
thy tenderness console them that are constrained with grief for him
that hath fallen asleep, and heal every distress that lieth in their
hearts, and rest thy servant, name, who hath fallen asleep in hope of
the resurrection of eternal life, in the bosom of Abraham.
For thou art the resurrection, the life, and the repose of thy
servant, name, O Christ our God, and to thee we ascribe glory, with
thine unbeginning Father, and with thy most holy, and good, and life-
creating Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.
Antiphon iii.
They that trust in the Lord are terrible to enemies, and wonderful
to all; for they look on high.
Let not the inheritance of the righteous, having thee, O Saviour, as
a helper, stretch forth their hands unto transgression.
Glory.
Of the Holy Ghost is the might in all things: him the hosts above
worship, and everything that hath breath below.
Both now, the same.
How amiable are thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts....[42]
Alleluia, thrice, repeating also in order the rest of the Psalm.
Then troparion, tone vi.
O my beloved brethren, do ye forget me not, when ye sing unto
the Lord; but remember ye the brotherhood, and beseech ye God
that the Lord may rest me with the just.
Troparion, tone vi.
On me death suddenly hath come, and parted me to day from that
which was mine own; but me, translating, do thou rest, O Christ, in
places of refreshment.
Have mercy upon us, O Lord, have mercy upon us; for, destitute of
all defence, we sinners offer unto thee, as Master, this prayer, Have
mercy upon us.
Glory.
O Lord, have mercy upon us; for we have put our trust in thee. Be
not exceedingly wroth against us, neither remember our
transgressions; but, as being loving-kind, look now upon us, and
deliver us from our enemies; for thou art our God, and we are thy
people, we are all the work of thy hand, and we call upon thy name.
Both now. Theotokion.
Open unto us the gates of loving-kindness, O blessed God-
bearing one, that we perish not who put our trust in thee, but through
thee may we be delivered from calamities; for thou art the salvation
of the christian race.
His soul shall dwell in good things.
Verse. Unto thee, O Lord, have I cried....
The epistle to the Corinthians, section clx.
Brethren, Christ is risen ... ending, God may be all in all.[43]
Alleluia.
Blessed is the man that feareth the Lord.
Verse. His seed shall be mighty upon earth.
The gospel from John, section xxii.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, This is the
will.... ending, at the last day.[44]
Then the beatitudes in tone ii.
In thy kingdom remember us, O Lord, when thou comest in thy
kingdom.
Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted.
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness,
for they shall be filled.
Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.
For tasting the tree’s fruit of old Adam from paradise was driven;
but for thee owning to be God, when on the cross he hung, the thief
was plac’d in paradise. And, saved by thy passion, Lord, we imitate
the thief, crying in faith, Remember us, when in thy kingdom thou
shalt come.
Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.
My maker, taking clay from earth, by will divine my body form’d,
but by a holy ordinance he plac’d a soul therein, by breathing breath
that beareth life. And when to sin’s corruption I in evil wise was
bound, me thou recalledst, lover of mankind, by tenderness extreme.
But rest, O God, among thy Saints, him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children
of God.
When soul and body parted are, fearful and dread the mystery is
to all: then wailing goeth forth the soul, and hid the body is, consign’d
to earth. Therefore let us, knowing the final going hence, before the
Saviour come with tears, and cry, When in thy kingdom thou shalt
come, do thou remember us.
Blessed are they that are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for
theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Why bitterly do ye lament, O men, for me? and why in vain do ye a
murmuring make? he that is gone to all exclaims; for unto all a rest is
death. Then let us hear the voice of Job who saith, Death is the rest
of man. But rest, O God, among thy Saints him whom thou hast
receiv’d.
Blessed are ye when they shall revile you, and persecute you, and
shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for my name’s sake.
The all-wise Paul hath clearly fore-announc’d the change,
instructing all that uncorrupt the dead shall rise, and we be chang’d
by God’s command. Then shall that trumpet sound in fearful wise,
and they that have from ages slept shall rise from sleep. But rest, O
God, among thy Saints him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Rejoice and be exceeding glad, for great is your reward in heaven.
He that is gone and in the grave lies dead, being reconcil’d, to all
exclaims, Come unto me, ye sons of earth, see ye the body’s beauty
render’d dark. Then, brethren, knowing his departure hence, let us
before the Saviour come, and cry with tears, Rest thou, O God,
among thy Saints him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Glory. Both now. Theotokion.
Thou, Queen, didst seedlessly within thy womb in supernatural
wise conceive the God who ere the ages was, and bring him forth in
flesh unchangedly and unconfusedly, himself being God and man.
Therefore we ever owning thee God-bearing one in faith exclaim to
God brought forth from thee, Remember in thy kingdom also us.
Verse. His soul shall dwell in good things.
The epistle to the Romans, section cxiii.
Brethren, he that regardeth the day.... ending, the dead and living.
[45]
Alleluia, tone vi.

Verse. His soul shall dwell in good things.
The gospel from John, section xxiii.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, I am the bread
of life.... ending, at the last day.[46]
Then psalm l. And the canon, tone vi.
Ode i. Irmos.
Him that beneath the surges of the sea....
Refrain. Rest, O Lord, thy sleeping servant’s soul.
To thee, O benefactor, Christ, and Lord of all, we cast us down
with fervent tears, and wailing cry this funeral song, Thy faithful
servant rest, thou that art loving-kind.
Him that is dead in hope of resurrection grant the holy standing,
Word, at thy right hand with thine elect, prolongedly with voice of
praise we pray, O lover of mankind.
Thy chosen servant from the earth remov’d, O lover of mankind,
count worthy brightly to rejoice within thy kingdom heavenly and
rever’d; and overlook, as loving-kind, his soul’s iniquities.
Glory.
Alas! life’s glory grew as grass, and straightway was dried up.
Where in the grave is honour? and where form or beauty there?
Then spare thy servant, Lord, as being loving-kind.
With love, as it behoves, we thee all praise, O Mary, Mother of
God, Virgin most pure; for thou hast ever sleepless eyes—thy
prayers—to save us now from sins, and from the doom of death.
Ode iii. Irmos.
There is none holy like to thee, O Lord my God....
There is no man on earth that hath not sinn’d, O Word. Therefore
accept a prayer from us, the lowly ones: and, Saviour, pardon and
forgive thy servant all iniquities.
And who, O lover of mankind, as thou, Lord merciful, forgivest sins
of quick and dead with great authority? Therefore thy servant do
thou save by this.
Glory.
Of calling from on high, O Saviour, him heritor declare, even him
gone hence in faith, accepting his last tearful prayer, thou only
sinless one.
O thou that art our Queen, all holy Virgin, cease not beseeching
God, whom thou didst bear, to count him worthy of his kingdom,
even him who hence in faith hath gone.
Kathisma, tone vi.
Verily everything is vain, and life a shadow is, a dream; for vainly
every earth-born one disquieteth himself, as saith the scripture.
When we have gain’d the world, then dwell we in the grave, where
kings and beggars are as one. Therefore, O Christ, thy servant rest
in tract of living ones, and in the dwellings of the just.
Ode iv. Irmos.
Thy divine exhaustion on the cross....
Since importable is the terrible threatening of that day, let us
unceasingly beseech of Christ forgiveness of all sins for him that
hath in faith and hope of resurrection hither gone.
Since, through penitence, he, thy servant, unto thee a lamp
enkindled brightly ere his death, O Master, Saviour loving-kind,
vouchsafe to him in brightly wise thy bridal-room.
Glory.
When all things hid thou dost reveal, and prove our sins, O Christ,
him whom thou hast receiv’d do thou then spare, remembering his
confession, Lord.
Holy God-bearing one, forget not all that cry to thee with ceaseless
wail; and find him rest, thou blessed one, even him, thy faithful
servant, who is gone from us.
Ode v. Irmos.
Of thy divine epiphany, O Christ....
In the elect ones’ choir, and in the joy of paradise, O thou
compassionate one, give rest to him whom thou from us in faith
removed hast; for thou, our Saviour, hast divine repentance laid on
all men who have sinn’d; and him, as Master, of thy kingdom worthy
count.
According to thy might as God, thou art, in lordly wise, unto thy
creature merciful, whom thou subjected hast to human law, O Lord,
sole lover of mankind. Therefore remit, forgive the sins of him gone
hence in faith, and him, O Saviour, of thy kingdom worthy count.
Glory.
None there escape the fearful sentence of thy judgment-seat:
kings, mighty ones with servants all together stand, and them, the
people who have sinn’d, the judge’s fearful voice bids to gehenna’s
doom; but save from this thy servant, Christ.
In supernatural wise from thee was born, according unto human
nature, him that Redeemer is; and him, O thou unwedded Virgin,
ceaselessly beseech to free from torment all, and from the fierce and
fearful hades’ pains; and save him who is now in faith remov’d from
us.
Ode vi. Irmos.
The lowest depth....
Death and the grave and judgment us await, impressing all our
works; and out of these thy servant save, O lover of mankind, even
him who thou removed hast.
Open, my Saviour, I beseech thee, unto him gone hence thy
mercy’s door, that he, O Christ, in glory may in chorus sing,
partaking of the gladness of thy mightiness.
Glory.
Deliver, Saviour, from iniquities thy servant for thy mercy’s sake,
him whom thou now removed hast in faith; for none is justified by
human works, O lover of mankind.
The slayer of death and looser of the curse in flesh thou
broughtest forth, God-bearing one, and all that die in faith he saves,
as being good and lover of mankind.
Then the customary ectenia.
Again and again.... Page 142.
And the prayer, O God of spirits.... Page 139.
Condakion, tone viii.
Rest with the Saints, O Christ, thy servant’s soul, where is no pain,
nor grief, nor sighing, but life that endeth not.
Icos.
Thyself alone immortal art, who madest and didst fashion man, for
out of earth we mortals fashion’d were, and unto that same earth
shall go, as thou who madest me hast given command, and sayest
unto me, Earth thou art, and unto earth shalt thou return. And thither
all we mortals go, making the funeral wail, even the song, the
Alleluia.
Hearken in thoughtful wise, I pray; for I with pain these words
announce; yea, for your sake I make the wail: it may for profit be to
some. But when ye have to sing these words, remember me who
once was known; for ofttimes we together went, and in God’s house
together sang the Alleluia.
Arise ye then, and gather ye together all, and, sitting down, hear
ye a word, Brethren, the judgment-seat is dread, where we have
every one to stand. There none is slave, and none is free; there
none is little, none is great; but all in nakedness shall stand: for this
cause it is well to sing ofttimes the psalm, the Alleluia.
Bewail we all with tears as we behold the relics lie, and all
approaching them to kiss let us in equal wise exclaim, Lo, thou hast
left them who thee lov’d: wilt thou not speak with us again? Why dost
thou speak not, friend, as thou wast wont to speak to us? But so
thou silent art, even to say with us the Alleluia.
What, brethren, are the dying’s bitter words, which, when they go,
they say? I from the brethren parted am, I quit and leave you all, O
friends. Then where I go I do not know, and how I shall be there
know not: God only knows, who calleth me. But make ye my
memorial with the song, the Alleluia.
Then where now go the souls? then how now fare they there? I
long to learn the mystery; but none sufficient is to tell. Do they
remember their own things, as we remember them? or have they us
forgotten who are left, who them lament and make the song, the
Alleluia.
Accompany the dead, O friends, and to the grave with heed hie
ye, and muse ye there in thoughtful wise, and your own feet prepare:
all youthfulness is cast therein, all vigour fadeth there: there dust and
ashes are, and worms: there all is silence, and none saying Alleluia.
Lo, now we see him lying, but to us no presence is of him: behold,
the tongue now silent is, and, lo, already cease the lips. Farewell, O
friends, O children; be ye saved, O ye brethren, O acquaintance, be
ye sav’d; for I depart my way. But make ye my memorial with the
song, the Alleluia.
Not one of those who there hath gone doth live again to tell to us
how they, our brethren once and kinsfolk, fare who there have come
before the Lord. Therefore, we oft, yea, ever say, Do they each other
there behold? do they a brother see? do they together say the
psalm, the Alleluia?
We go the everlasting way in mien as them that are condemn’d,
with faces all cast down. Then where is beauty? where is wealth?
then where the glory of this life? Nothing of these shall help us there,
even to say ofttimes the psalm, the Alleluia.
Why in untimely wise disquietest thou thyself, O man? one hour,
and all is gone; for there in hades no repentance is, nor any further
pardon there: the never-dying worm is there, all there is dark and
gloomy land, where I must come to be condemn’d. For I have not
ofttimes made speed to say the psalm, the Alleluia.
Nothing so soon forgotten is by man as man when he is gone; for,
if we do remember for a time, we straightway death forget, when
absent is the dead. And parents even every child forget, that, of the
womb begot, they nourish’d have, and have with tears accompanied
with the song, the Alleluia.
I remind you, O my brethren, and my children, and my friends, that
ye forget me not when ye beseech the Lord. I pray, I ask, I make
entreaty that ye keep these words in memory, and bewail me day
and night. I speak to you as Job did to his friends, O sit ye down to
say again the Alleluia.
Forsaking all things we depart, and naked and abhorrent we
become; for comeliness doth fade away as grass, but only do we
men delude ourselves. Thou naked, wretched one, wast born, and
altogether naked there shalt stand! Then be not prodigal in life, O
man; but only always sigh with wailing, Alleluia.
If thou, O man, art merciful to man, he there shall mercy have to
show to thee; and if to any orphan hast been kind, he there shall
thee deliver out of need; if thou in life the naked clothed hast, he
there shall clothing have to put on thee, and sing the psalm, the
Alleluia.
The way is evil whereby I depart, and therein so I never went; that
country also is unknown, where me none recognize at all. ’Tis fearful
them to see who dreadfully are led, and him who me hath call’d, who
ruleth life and death, and there us biddeth when he willeth. Alleluia.
If from some country we depart, we of some guides have need.
What shall we do, and whither go, that country in, where we are
quite unknown? To thee will then be needful many guides, and many
prayers to go with thee to save thy wretched soul, ere it attain to
Christ, and say to him, the Alleluia.
They that to lusts material subject are, in nowise have forgiveness
there: there terrible accusers are, and there too opened are the
books. Then where, O man, wilt thou glance round? or who will there
then thee assist? save thou in life hast wrought some good, or done
some kindness to the poor, singing the Alleluia.
Both youth and bodily beauty fade away in time of death, and then
in painful wise is parch’d the tongue, and, dried up, is scorch’d the
throat, then quenched is the beauty of the eyes, all chang’d the
beauty of the face, the beauty of the neck is spoil’d, and what
remaineth silent is to say ofttimes the Alleluia.
Keep silence then, keep silence: O ye survivors, be ye still before
him lying there, and contemplate the mystery great; for fearful is the
hour. Hush, that the soul may go in peace; for it endureth anguish
great, and in much fear beseecheth God with Alleluia.
I have seen an infant dying, and for my life have wept; for it was
altogether scar’d, and, when its hour came, trembling cried, O father,
help me; mother, save me! and none sufficient was to help it then:
they only griev’d beholding, and in the grave bewail’d it. Alleluia.
How many on a sudden have been taken from their bridal to the
grave, betroth’d been with an everlasting troth, have costless made
the dirge, and from the chamber have not risen; but together there
was marriage and the grave, together troth and parting, together
laughter and the wail, yea, and the psalm, the Alleluia.
We are enflam’d when only hearing that everlasting light is there,
there our life’s fount, and there eternal joy: the paradise is there
where every soul rejoiceth with the just. We all in Christ shall
gather’d be, that so to God we all may cry the Alleluia.
All-holy Virgin, thou unwedded one, who didst bring forth th’
approachless light, I pray, entreaty make, and beg, Cease not to
pray the Lord concerning him, thy sleeping servant, thou most pure,
that in the day of judgment he may find forgiveness there; for thou,
as Queen all pure, to pray thy Son hast always boldness. Alleluia.
Then again the condakion.
Rest with the Saints, O Christ.... Page 188.
Ode vii. Irmos.
Narrateless wonder....
As being pitiful, O Christ, deliver him, thy servant, whom thou in
faith received hast, from fearful doom, and from gehenna’s fire, and
to thy servant grant to sing to thee, Blessed art thou, redeemer, God.
Within the land of gentle ones, and in delights of paradise, in
glory’s wondrous dwelling-place, thy servant faithfully asleep
esteeming worthy, God, do thou grant him to sing to thee, Blessed
art thou, redeemer, God.
Glory.
Great is the doom and undescribable the need, O brethren, in
gehenna; for the souls of sinners there are burned with their bodies,
and in anguish weep, unable to exclaim, Blessed art thou, redeemer,
God.
Both now.
Them that undoubtingly thee praise, O Mother of God, thou
altogether undefil’d God-bearing one, when living by thy prayers for
ever guard, and when departed free from bitter torment, that they
with thee to Christ may say, Blessed art thou, redeemer, God.
Ode viii. Irmos.
Fearingly quake, O heaven....
O what dread hour awaiteth sinners, brethren! O what terror then!
gehenna’s fire consumes, and shall eternally torment. Therefore, O
Christ, compassionate Lord, deliver him departed now from us from
fearful threatening, and snatch him from gehenna’s pains eternally.
Oh, of the just the joy which they receive when comes the judge!
for them the bridal-chamber is prepar’d, and paradise, and all
Christ’s kingdom; and there thy servant, Christ, make manifest
rejoicing with the Saints eternally.
Glory.
Who shall endure the fearful menace of thy presence, Christ? the
heavens thereat roll’d up shall be as is a scroll in fearful wise, the
stars shall fall, and all creation shake with fear, and changed be the
light; but then, O Word, spare him whom thou removed hast from us.
Him whom thou gavest flesh in supernatural wise, O pure, even
the Son, he is the judge of living and of dead, and judgeth all the
earth, and saves from torment whom he wills, and them especially
who in types adore him lovingly, and thee, God-bearing one, extol
eternally.
Ode ix. Irmos.
Weep not for me, O mother....
O weep ye not, all ye who die in faith; for Christ for us bore flesh,
the cross, and sepulture, and made all them immortal sons that sing
to him, O into judgment with thy servant enter not.
Let us, ye faithful, from the heart pray Christ to stablish in the
dwellings of the saints the brother who in faith and hope of
resurrection sleeps; for there is judgment stern and trial dread, and
none can help himself without good works, and common prayer of
faithful ones; and let us cry, Lord, into judgment with thy servant
enter not.
Glory.
In, Blessed One, thy glory that becomes not old, and in delights of
paradise, place him who now is gone from us, and in the right-belief
and penitence betaketh him to thee in faith; and of thy kingdom him
a chosen partner make.
God-bearing Virgin, we reverently, we, faithful ones, extol thee
who art mother of life in supernatural wise; for we, aforetime dead,
being made immortal, life have found; and, lo, to thee the song we
end.
Deacon. Again and again.... Page 142.
And the prayer, O God of spirits.... Page 139.
Exapostilarion.
Now am I at rest, and much forgiveness have receiv’d; for I have
passed from corruption, and am translated unto life: glory to thee, O
Lord.
And the people the same.
Verse i. Man is as grass, his day is as a flower of the field.
Verse ii. For his spirit goeth through in him, and he shall not be.
Verse iii. And the mercy of the Lord shall endure to ages.
And to each verse the exapostilarion.
Then, Glory. Both now.
Now have I chosen the maiden Mother of God, for Christ,
redeemer of all, was born of her: glory to thee, O Lord.
And straightway, Praise the Lord from the heavens....[47]
Then stichera, tone vi.
Like, Having despair’d....
Thy godly minister is gone to thee, now deified in the translation by
thy quickening mystery, Christ: take as a bird his soul into thy hand,
and range him in thy courts and in the angelic choirs, and rest him
whom thou hast received by thy command, O Lord, for thy great
mercy’s sake.
Strange is the mystery of death; for unacceptably it comes to all,
nature by force is spoil’d; it taketh elders, abbots, scribes, teachers
who vainly strive, bishops, and pastors too. Then let us cry with
tears, Him, whom thou hast receiv’d, O Lord, by thy command, O
rest, for thy great mercy’s sake.
He that in piety hath liv’d, and was thy decorated priest, O Christ,
the celebrant and offerer of thy mysteries divine, is gone, by thy
divine command, from life’s alarms to thee; and him, accepting as a
priest, O Saviour, save, and with the righteous rest, even him whom
thou received hast, for thy great mercy’s sake.
God-bearing Virgin, we have understood the God made flesh from
thee, whom do thou pray to save our souls.
Then they say, Glory to God in the highest....
And after the Vouchsafe, O Lord....
the following stichera idiomela are said,
of Damascene, tone i.
What sweet of life abideth unaccompanied with grief? what glory
stayeth upon earth unchang’d? All is the feeblest shade, all the most
cheating dream: one moment, and death taketh all these things. But
in thy face’s light, O Christ, and in the sweetness of thy beauty, grant
rest to him whom thou hast call’d, as lover of mankind.
Verse. The Lord tendeth me, and there is nothing lacking to me.
By deed, my Saviour, thou hast shewn that thou the resurrection
art of all, who didst, O Word, by word raise Lazarus from the dead.
Then were the fetters burst, and shatter’d hades’ gates; then human
death declared was a sleep. Thou, therefore, who didst come thy
creature, not to judge, but save, rest him whom thou received hast,
as lover of mankind.
Thou art made manifest, O Bringer-forth of God, a fervent
advocate for all, for all a shelter, and a might of God for them that hie
to thee, an aid for them that are in need, a quick deliverance for the
bound. For thee against barbarians Christ hath placed as a fence,
and barrier, and assailless wall; and for the weak a strength
unovercome; and for our souls the arbitress of peace.
Stichera, tone ii.
Woe unto me, what agony hath the soul when it is from the body
torn! alas, then how it weeps, and none is merciful to it! To Angels
lifting eyes, without effect it prays; to men extending hands, it findeth
none to help. Therefore, my brethren lov’d, musing on our brief life,
let us for the departed ask for rest from Christ, and for great mercy
for our souls.
Verse. When I was in affliction I cried unto the Lord, and he heard
me.
Come, let us all a wonder passing thought behold: he who but
yesterday abode with us now lieth dead. Come, let us know that

Ebook Engineering Hydrology 3 Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Engineering Hydrology 3 Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Engineering Hydrology - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Copyright © 2017 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

2.3 Measurement – Rain Gauges, Remote Sensing 22

3. Abstractions from Precipitation 51

5. Hydrograph Analysis 145

5.5.1 UH of Different Durations by Method of Superposition 159

6. Hydrograph Routing 187

7.2.2 Saturated Zone 235

8. Irrigation and Water Resource Management 288

8.4.6 Subsurface Irrigation 297

9. Statistical Methods in Hydrology 305

10. Measurement of Hydrologic Variables 361

Answers to Objective-Type Questions 392

Introduction to the Course

Objective of this Book

∑ Summary of important concepts for a quick review before exams

Learning Tools in the First Edition

objective will help the instructors to plan the LO 1

Illustrations and Diagrams

Figure 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

Worked-Out Examples EXAMPLE 2.1

Approach Adopted in this Book

Organization of the Book

Online Learning Center Supplements

LO 1 Deﬁne engineering hydrology

1.1 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

1.3 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Ice and snow

Snowmelt runoff Surface runoff

Infiltration Streamflow Evaporation

Plant uptake Oceans

Figure 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

1.3.1 Atmospheric Moisture

Figure 1.2 Groundwater under conﬁned and unconﬁned conditions

1.3.5 Surface Runoff

1.3.6 Evaporation and Transpiration

1.3.7 General Discussion of the Hydrologic Cycle

1.1 Literal meaning of hydrology is

1.29 The intensity of rainfall is generally expressed in the units of

1.43 The residence time of the atmospheric moisture is about

1.1 What is hydrology? Describe some of its applications.

1. Maps of average annual precipitation

Evapotranspiration: It is the combined evaporation and transpiration.

LO 1 Know about precipitation, its formation and distribution

2.2 OCCURRENCE – MECHANISM OF FORMATION,

2.2.1.1 Orographic Precipitation

2.2.1.2 Convective Precipitation

2.2.1.3 Frontal Precipitation

2.2.1.4 Cyclonic Precipitation

2.2.3 Intensity of precipitation

2.3 MEASUREMENT – RAIN GAUGES, REMOTE SENSING

2.4 ANALYSIS OF DATA – MISSING DATA,

Cumulative Depth (mm)

Figure 2.1 Histogram and mass curve for a non-recording gauge

Figure 2.2 Mass curve and histogram for a recording gauge

from the histogram but, in order to compare

Figure 2.4 Idealized basin with four rain gauges

Alleluia, tone vi.