Critical Service Learning Toolkit: Social

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i

CRITICAL SERVICE
LEARNING TOOLKIT
ii
iii

CRITICAL SERVICE
LEARNING
TOOLKIT
Social Work Strategies for Promoting
Healthy Youth Development

Annette Johnson
Cassandra McKay-​Jackson
and

Giesela Grumbach

1
iv

1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

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© Oxford University Press 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

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address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

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CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​085872–​8

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 3 2
Printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
v

Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xi

1. Transforming Service Learning Into Critical Service Learning 1

2. The Nuts and Bolts of Critical Service Learning: Theoretical Foundations 6

3. Essential Elements for Promoting Student Voice: An Expanded

Framework for Critical Service Learning 12

4. The Role of the Practitioner 18

5. Gaining Administrative School and Community Buy-​In 22

6. Critical Service Learning and Group Work 24

7. Logic Model Development to Aid Project Planning 29

8. Steps to Developing Critical Service Learning Projects 35

9. Launching Critical Service Learning: A Quick Guide to Each Phase 46

vi

vi Contents

10. Self-​Care and Preventing Burnout 65

11. Future Implications 69

Appendices 77
A. Logic Model Template 77
B. Community and School Web Map Template 79
C. Hare Self-​Esteem Scale/​Elementary School Pre/​Post Data, Example 9.1 81
D. Icebreakers and Activities 85
E. Example of Evaluation Resources—​Pre-​/​Posttest 89
F. Resource List 97

Index 99
vii

Preface

The purpose of this toolkit is to provide a means for school-​based practitioners to engage
youth in solving problems in their schools or communities by being active agents in the
change process.
We bring years of combined experience as school-​and community-​based practitio-
ners, as school administrators, and more recently as scholars and researchers in academia.
We have experience in a variety of settings, such as schools, community-​based agencies,
hospitals/​mental health clinics, and private practice. Together, we have worked with
children and families and school systems in direct practice and as consultants. Our skill
sets were honed through specialized training in youth development, leadership training,
program planning and evaluation, and marriage and family therapy. In addition, we have
worked to advance the development of social and emotional learning standards. More
important, our introduction of critical service learning (CSL) to master’s level students
and social work practitioners has sparked the impetus for this toolkit.
The toolkit was written to provide unique strategies for working effectively with
youth in a participatory manner. Furthermore, it provides tools for empowering youth—​
elevating their voices and focusing on community activism, which is particularly impor-
tant for at-​promise youth (Rios, 2012; Swadener, 2010). At-​promise youth is an asset-​based
term that eschews deficit-​framed language about youth who are in need of intervention.
Common terminology typically refers to youth who need intervention as “at-​risk” youth.
We see this term as a negative label that contextualizes youth only as recipients of serv-
ices and not as individuals who can overcome adversity and contribute to their schools
and communities. In alignment with the nature of CSL, we use the term at-​promise youth.

vii
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viii Preface

Serving youth from a problem-​deficit model places the onus of change on the individ-
ual and does little to examine environmental factors or even youth’s capabilities to influ-
ence change. CSL takes the opposite approach. The methodology starts with youth voice,
taps into youth’s strengths, and provides a forum for youth to act as change agents in their
schools and communities. Through this process, youth are better able to understand their
own identities and capacity to make changes in their communities. The community web-​
mapping tool is central to the articulation of student voice and provides a framework to
help them address issues around social justice, power, and privilege. Reflection, a signif-
icant component of the process, strengthens youth identities by unearthing untapped
social and emotional competencies such as skills in leadership, mediation, decision-​
making, and the ability to work in collaborative teams. The change process is compelling,
often altering how youth are viewed by adults in their schools and communities as a result
of their engagement in this approach.
This toolkit introduces CSL and the processes involved in creating and implementing
a CSL program. In 2008, we incorporated CSL in the graduate master’s of social work cur-
riculum. Social work students interning in a variety of schools developed CSL programs
as part of their final project. The purpose was to provide strategies to work with youth
from a strengths-​based perspective. The CSL Toolkit reflects the work that has been culti-
vated, strengthened, and tested in multiple school settings for more than 8 years. Whether
you are just being introduced to the approach or are already using it in your practice, this
toolkit is a practical guide that has resources for each phase of the process. Chapter 1
discusses the difference between service learning and CSL. Chapters 2 through 7 provide
a theoretical framework for CSL and the elements in supporting youth voice, review the
community web-​mapping process, consider strategies for gaining administrative buy-​in,
present the logic model, and provide evaluation strategies. Chapter 8 provides a guide
for each phase of the project planning and implementation process. A step-​by-​step, user-​
friendly practitioner guide for each group session is illustrated in Chapter 9. Chapter 10
addresses practitioner burnout, and Chapter 11 focuses on research and future implica-
tions. Throughout the toolkit, case examples are presented.

REFERENCES
Rios, V. (2012). From “at-​risk” to “at-​promise”: Supporting teens to overcome adversity. Retrieved from https://​
ted.com/​talks/​victor_​rios_​help_​for_​kids_​the_​education_​system_​ignores
Swadener, B. B. (2010). “At Risk” or “At Promise”? From deficit constructions of the “other childhood” to
possibilities for authentic alliances with children and families. International Critical Childhood Policy
Studies, 3, 7–29.
ix

Acknowledgments

We extend our deepest appreciation to Aubrey Thornton and Lena Izzo—​Jane Addams
College of Social Work alumni—​for sharing their case examples for this toolkit. Our spe-
cial appreciation extends to practitioners in the field, Erik Engel, Julie Fisher, Kim Morris,
Chastity Owens, Margot Walsh, and Jennifer White, who took time out of their busy
schedules to provide invaluable feedback regarding the writing of this document.

ix
x
xi

Introduction

Critical service learning (CSL) is an innovative approach to promoting social and emo-
tional learning (SEL) for students. It encompasses a strengths-​based philosophy that
promotes youth empowerment to assist them in developing the assets needed to be pro-
ductive citizens. Youth voice is an essential element of CSL and represents a necessary
strategy for helping youth to connect with their schools and community.
The educational landscape affects student services and the context in which school-​
based practitioners work. With broad changes in education, the shift in educational
policy and rising mental health needs have significantly affected supportive services and
which services are available to students. At the same time, educational systems continue
to struggle with the tension between increasing college attendance rates and achieve-
ment gaps across race and income (Hirschman & Lee, 2005). This changing educational
landscape emphasizes the use of evidence-​based interventions, with a strong focus on
accountability and reducing the achievement gap (Corbin, 2005). It is critical for school-​
based practitioners to understand how to intervene using evidence-​based practice within
the changing educational context.
Evidence-​based intervention and accountability can be addressed in many ways.
For example, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
(IDEA, 2004) supports the use of evidence-​based intervention and specific interven-
tion models (Berzin & O’Connor, 2010). Response to intervention (RTI), now called
the multitier system of support (MTSS), is an early intervention system that allows
for prevention activities for all students. MTSS includes the rigorous implementa-
tion of high-​quality, culturally and linguistically responsive instruction, assessment,
and evidence-​based intervention to address the needs of youth. Policy developments

xi
xii

xii Introduction

such as these have considerably changed the framework in which today’s school social
workers and other school-​based practitioners provide services to youth.
From an intervention perspective, change in the prevalence of mental health disor-
ders among school-​age children clearly affects the work of the school social worker. The
presence of mental health disorders and concerns about school violence and bullying
have risen; bullying affects large numbers of children, with over 50% of students indicat-
ing that they have been bullied (Berzin & O’Connor, 2010). As today’s youth face a more
complex set of risk factors at the individual, school, family, and community levels (Kelly,
Raines, Stone, & Frey, 2010), new intervention models are being used in school systems
to address students’ needs.
School systems are complex organizations with an overarching purpose of educating
children and youth in preparation for adult life. Schools bring together practitioners from
diverse cultures, disciplinary perspectives, and strengths that collectively form a learning
community encompassing multiple systems, processes, and constituents (Harris, 2015).
Youth intervention work takes place within this dynamic educational landscape; there-
fore, it is important that school social workers and school-​based practitioners understand
the reality of working in schools. Achieving acceptance and professional accommoda-
tions in such an environment requires recognizing the organizational culture and mission
of the school as a learning institution, identifying both the formal and informal structures
within the organization, and assuming a role that supports the school’s mission, goals,
and expectations.
Understanding the school culture and hierarchy, as well as how the social worker fits
into this order, will be vital to the school social worker’s role in performing effectively
(Harris, 2015). In that regard, social work cannot practice in a vacuum. A strong need
exists to align school social work practice with educational goals. The paradigm shift in
education focuses on accountability and emphasizes an evidence-​based practice, which
calls for a multilevel and cross-​disciplinary approach to school social work practice. This
cross-​disciplinary approach aligns with the educational curriculum and supports the
development of students’ social and emotional competencies, which are vital for aca-
demic success.
Critical service learning represents a strengths-​based approach that lends itself to the
changing educational landscape and aligns itself with the curriculum. It can be used at
all MTSS levels—​Tier 1 (school-​wide), Tier 2 (targeted students), or Tier 3 (students in
need of intensive supports)—​to address a wide array of learning needs, whether in gifted,
regular, or special education. This approach can also be used as a stand-​alone counsel-
ing model that supports the social and emotional development of targeted students or
serves as a component of a therapeutic group or as a classroom-​based “push-​in service”
implemented in collaboration with the classroom teacher. The practitioners decide how
xii

Introduction xiii

to modify the targeted goals for any group they work with based on students’ develop-
mental needs and abilities.
Regardless of youth’s educational level, CSL engages youth in meaningful service
activities in their school and community to support the development of civic responsibil-
ity, caring and concern for others, and self-​worth. CSL is integrated into the academic
curriculum so that students are empowered to brainstorm, plan, and implement activities
that will have a direct impact on the school, the community, and their personal develop-
ment (McKay & Johnson, 2010). At the same time, CSL provides a vehicle for youth to
examine issues around social justice, power, and privilege and gives them guidance on
taking action. SEL provides the overarching structural framework for CSL, embedded
within an educational system, while components from positive youth development and
youth activism represent important tenets for working with and engaging youth. These
tenets will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

REFERENCES
Berzin, S. C., & O’Connor, S. (2010). Educating today’s school workers: Are school social work courses
responding to the changing context? Children & Schools, 32(4), 237–​249.
Corbin, J. (2005). Increasing opportunities for school social work practice resulting from comprehensive
school reform. Children & Schools, 27(4), 239–​246.
Harris, K. I. (2015). Social studies investigations for young citizens: Passports to inquiry, community and
partnerships. Social Studies Research & Practice, 10(3), 88–​97.
Hirschman, C., & Lee, J. C. (2005). Race and ethnic inequality in educational attainment in the United
States. In M. Rutter & M. Tienda (Eds.), Ethnicity and causal mechanisms (pp. 107–​138). Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA), H. R. 1350, 108th Congress (2004).
Kelly, M. S., Raines, J. C., Stone, S., & Frey, A. (2010). School social work: An evidence-​informed framework for
practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
McKay, C., & Johnson, A. (2010). Service learning: An example of multilevel school social work practice.
School Social Work Journal, 35(1), 21–​36.
xvi
xv

CRITICAL SERVICE
LEARNING TOOLKIT
xvi
1

one

Transforming Service Learning Into

Critical Service Learning

S ervice learning is a pedagogical approach that engages youth

in achieving learning goals that link communities and schools through intentional,
structured activities (McReynolds, 2015). Through service learning, the practitioner
engages students in projects that serve the community while building social, civic, and
academic skills to help them learn about others. Critical service learning, on the other
hand, builds on service learning and expands to include social justice principles. Critical
service learning as an approach compels youth to interrogate systems and structures
of inequality and distribution of power and to seek to develop authentic relationships
among all participants (Mitchell, 2008). It also encourages participants to examine
issues of power, privilege, and oppression within the service activity by questioning
hidden biases and assumptions concerning race, class, and gender and to challenge the
status quo by working toward changing inequities within social and economic systems
(Cipolle, 2010).
Engaging in critical service learning, as a therapeutic strategy, allows youth to con-
template community problem-​solving through critical thinking that raises questions
about the roots of social inequality. For example, youth who embark on service learning
may develop a wellness project that considers the effect of health on mood and behavior.
Students may incorporate simple physical exercises and healthy eating tips and create a
nutritional food menu for students to share with their peers and families.
Students who participate in this same example from a critical service learning
framework not only will do all of these activities but also will critically analyze factors

1
2

2 C ritical S ervice L earning T oolkit

that contribute to healthy living. For example, students may explore the barriers to
accessing fresh fruits and vegetables in communities that are food deserts (commu-
nities with a scarcity of mainstream markets that have fresh fruits and vegetables).
Students may delve further to consider the economic and political decisions that
reduce access to healthy foods in their neighborhoods. Students may perform action
research through facilitating a shopping field trip to neighborhood, and mainstream
food outlets to inspect and compare the produce for quality and price value. As a
result, students may bring their findings to their local political office to request sup-
port to improve local food outlet resources. This activity may be integrated in the
academic curriculum as well as provide opportunities to expand students’ social and
emotional learning development.
This can be juxtaposed with typical service learning that engages in a “do for, serve
you, and give to” mentality (consciously or unconsciously; Pompa, 2002), perpetuating
a stratified divide. Furthermore, traditional service learning projects predetermine who
should be “served” or “fixed” rather than considering the capabilities of the youth to par-
ticipate in the resolution needed within their own communities. This preconceived view
of community engagement reaffirms who holds power and how it is maintained (Cooks,
Scharrer, & Paredes, 2004). The critical service learning approach increases youth knowl-
edge regarding social justice and helps the youth to develop a proactive position, which is
empowering and enhances the sense of self.
Critical service learning is meaningful for all students regardless of their background,
and it enhances their identity development. Understanding one’s relationship to power
and privilege is an important step for students in questioning and redistributing power
within inequitable systems (Donahue & Mitchell, 2010). Donahue and Mitchell wrote
about privileged identities and reminded practitioners to address the wide array of stu-
dents’ experiences related to privilege and marginalization. For instance, some students
have little personal experiences with institutional racism and might see racism only in
flagrant acts of prejudice rather than in structures that bestow racial privilege. In contrast,
students whose racial identities are marginalized are more likely to have experienced
institutional racism and may see its effects more readily.
Students with privileged identities may believe they have a right or even a responsi-
bility to advise individuals or “help” individuals or communities. Consciously or uncon-
sciously, they assume the power to tell others what to do and believe they know what is
best for youth. Instead, when youth experience the transformative nature of critical ser-
vice learning, they begin to reframe how they see themselves and their identities, particu-
larly identities of privilege (Donahue & Mitchell, 2010). Students also learn through their
acts of service to challenge their own preconceived notions of how power is distributed
3

Transforming Service Learning Into Critical Service Learning 3

to them. It is important that all students have the opportunity to reflect on and analyze
systemic injustice whatever their own lived experience.
The parallel process of self-​examination is also important for practitioners who
work with youth. Those who practice from an unexamined lens of their own privilege
may potentially silence youth. A lack of examination may devalue youth’s expertise over
the practitioner’s experience and lessen the potential of framing the intervention from a
strengths-​based perspective. This toolkit provides an empowering approach, encourages
the examination of all lenses (or experiences), and bridges the disciplines of education
and social work practice. In addition, this chapter, examines service learning versus criti-
cal service learning not only as an educational strategy but as a strategy that support social
justice (Table 1.1). The nature of critical service learning described in this toolkit entails a
multilayer approach by which the practitioners, as well as other school/​community par-
ticipants, are engaged in liberatory forms of pedagogy. Consequently, practitioners must
be knowledgeable of the social, political, and economic forces that shape their lives and
the lives of the youth (Rhoads, 1998). As discussed in Chapter 3, reflection plays a critical
role in self-​examination of the youth as well as the practitioner.
Critical service learning can present a platform on which school social workers and
other school-​based practitioners can use elements from structural social work theory.
This theory provides a vehicle by which service learning can be transformed to critical
service learning. Structural social work emphasizes that the practitioner understand the
socioeconomic or structural context of individual problems and how exploitive power
arrangements and societal forces create social conditions that generate individual prob-
lems (Lundy, 2004), whereas traditional social work places the locus of social problems
on individuals and families (Reza & Ahmmed, 2009).
The goal of structural social work is to provide immediate relief or tension reduc-
tion as well as long-​term institutional and structural change (Reza & Ahmmed, 2009).
Structural social workers are expected to help organize oppressed groups for reclaim-
ing their identity, creating and strengthening community solidarity, and developing
group-​specific voice and perspective (Mullaly, 2007). Through critical service learn-
ing, this process occurs when practitioners engage at-​promise youth in implementing
student-​led critical service learning projects in their schools or larger communities and
practitioners act as advocates and facilitators (not directors) of the project. Through
group experiences, experiential activities and discussions questioning the distribution
of power can be facilitated (Mitchell, 2008). As students explore their communities and
locate their voices, they engage in a potentially transformative process by which they
gain confidence, exercise a sense of agency, and enact strategies to influence their own
communities.
4
TABLE 1.1 Service Learning versus Critical Service Learning
Service Learning
Aim
• Altruism/​create connections to the
community/​civic duty.
Student Orientation
• Active learners, experiential in nature to ben-
efit the student and is informed by classroom
learning to address community needs.
Educator Focus
• Social responsibility to be civically minded.
Action/​Reflection
• Achieve learning goals, which link schools
and communities together. Action guided by
a focus on the individual, yet without further
examination of personal or institutional con-
tributions to social problems (Marullo, 1999;
Rice & Pollack, 2000).
• Does not have a social justice orientation:
Can reify have and have-​not mentality. Can
disempower recipient, which maintains
power of the giver.
Critical Service Learning
Aim
• Create opportunities for social change/​
community connections for equity building—​
goal is to facilitate redistribution of power.
Student Orientation
• Active learners, student contributors, and
(more importantly) change agents. Students
are informed by classroom learning to facilitate
social change and benefit community by
addressing social injustice.
Educator Focus
• Social responsibility and critique of status quo
and promotion of community change. Embrace
the political nature of service and seeks justice.
Action/​Reflection
• Social action guided by critical thought and
reflection of personal and institutional contribu-
tions to social problems (Marullo, 1999;
Rice & Pollack, 2000).
• Address community needs:
First by examining issues of power, privilege, and
oppression (Cipolle, 2010)—​students and
then others.
• Has a social justice orientation:
Involve students in the examination of root
causes of social problems and in actions to
address these root causes; foreground issues
of identity and difference; raise consciousness
about issues of power, oppression and privilege.
5

Transforming Service Learning Into Critical Service Learning 5

REFERENCES
Cipolle, S. B. (2010). Service learning and social justice: Engaging students in social change. Plymouth,
UK: Rowman & Littlefield.
Cooks, L., Scharrer, E., & Paredes, M. C. (2004). Toward a social approach to learning in community service
learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 10(2), 44–​56.
Donahue, D. M., & Mitchell, T. D. (2010). Critical service learning as a tool for identity exploration. Diversity
and Democracy, 13(2), 16–​17.
Lundy, C. (2004). Social work and social justice: A structural approach to practice. Orchard Park,
NY: Broadview Press.
Marullo, S. (1999). Sociology’s Essential Role: Promoting Critical Service Learning. Cultivating the soci-
ological imagination: Concepts and models for service-​learning in sociology (pp. 11–​27). Washington,
D.C.: American Association for Higher Education.
McReynolds, M. (2015). The practice of engagement: Developing as a practitioner scholar. In O. Delano-​
Oriaran, M. Parks, & S. Fondrie (Eds.), Service-​learning and civic engagement: A sourcebook (pp. 3–​9).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mitchell, T. D. (2008). Traditional versus critical service learning: Engaging the literature to differentiate two
models. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 14(2), 50–​65.
Moreau, M. J. (1989). Empowerment through a structural approach to social work: A report from practice.
Ottawa, CA: Carleton University.
Mullaly, R. P. (2007). The new structural social work (3rd ed.). Don Mills, ON, Canada: Oxford University Press.
Pompa, L. (2002). Service-​learning as crucible: Reflections on immersion, context, power, and transforma-
tion. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 9(1), 67–​76.
Reza, M. H., & Ahmmed, F. (2009). Structural social work and the compatibility of NGO approaches: A case
analysis of Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC). International Journal of Social Welfare,
18(2), 73–​182.
Rhoads, R. A. (1998). Critical multiculturalism and service learning. In R. A. Rhoads & J. P. F. Howard (Eds.),
Academic service learning: A pedagogy of action and reflection (pp. 39–​46). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-​Bass.
Rice, K., & Plooack, S. (2000). Developing a critical pedagogy of servie learning: Preparing self-​reflective,
culturally aware, and responsive community participants. Integrating service learning and multicultural
education in colleges and universties, pp. 115–​134.
6

two

The Nuts and Bolts

of Critical Service Learning
Theoretical Foundations

C ritical service learning (CSL), social and emotional learning

(SEL), and positive youth development (PYD) represent key elements for promot-
ing healthy attitudes and behaviors among youth. This chapter explains each component
and provides a theoretical overview.

CRITICAL SERVICE LEARNING

As mentioned in Chapter 1, CSL represents a therapeutic strategy that encompasses a

philosophy of youth empowerment. CSL emphasizes youth becoming empowered to
view themselves in relation to others, as partners, to bring about change in their environ-
ment. Mitchell (2008) defined CSL as an approach that challenges youth to become self-​
aware of how their own situations influence their relationships within their community.
When these relationships are based on the concerns of the community, they can facilitate
CSL through the examination of issues of power, privilege, and oppression—​and dispar-
aging assumptions of class, gender, and race—​and then take action to address unjust and
inequitable social and economic systems (Cipolle, 2010). Youth engage in critical think-
ing about the problems they face within their own communities and are encouraged to
take action.

6
7

The Nuts and Bolts of Critical Service Learning 7

PYD

Critical
Service SEL
Learning

SBP

FIGURE 2.1 Critical service learning theoretical framework.

The critical approach to service learning promotes social justice and challenges the
status quo. The approach to CSL involves three key elements: “working to redistribute
power amongst all participants in the service learning relationship, developing authentic
relationships in the classroom and in the community and working from a social change
perspective” (Mitchell, 2008, p. 50). The goal of CSL is to examine power relations, chal-
lenge oppressive institutions, and cultivate in youth the power to take action.
In our model, the CSL approach presents “student voice” as a necessary component
to create a sense of empowerment and authentic engagement. The community web-​
mapping tool discussed in Chapter 3 serves as the vehicle for students to address social
justice issues as they compare and contrast their vision of perfect and imperfect commu-
nities (Figure 2.1).

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING

Social and emotional learning is a framework that provides opportunities for young
people to acquire the skills necessary for maintaining personal well-​being and positive
relationships across their life span (Elbertson, Brackett, & Weissberg, 2009). The five
competency clusters for students are the following:

1. Self-​awareness: the ability to accurately recognize one’s emotions and thoughts

and how they influence behavior. This includes accurately assessing one’s strengths
and limitations, leading to a sense of confidence and optimism.
2. Self-​
management: the ability to regulate one’s emotions, thoughts, and
behaviors effectively in different situations. This includes managing stress,
8

8 C ritical S ervice L earning T oolkit

controlling impulses, motivating oneself, and working toward achieving personal

and academic goals.
3. Social awareness: the ability to take the perspective of and empathize with others
from diverse backgrounds and cultures, understand social and ethical norms, and
recognize family, school, and community resources and supports.
4. Relationship skills: the ability to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding
relationships with diverse individuals and groups. This includes communicat-
ing clearly, listening actively, cooperating, resisting inappropriate social pressure,
negotiating conflict constructively, and seeking and offering help when needed.
5. Responsible decision-​making: the ability to make constructive and respectful
choices about personal behavior and social interactions based on consideration of
ethical standards, safety concerns, social norms, the realistic evaluation of conse-
quences of various actions, and the well-​being of self and others (Collaborative for
Academic, Social and Emotional Learning [CASEL], 2005).

In addition to the focus on interpersonal and intrapersonal skill development,

researchers have found that competencies associated with SEL have been identified as
factors that significantly affect academic performance and lifelong effectiveness (Zins,
Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004). Furthermore, SEL fosters a learning atmosphere in
which students report emotional connection to peers and teachers, producing better aca-
demic motivation. SEL also promotes the development of attitudes and behaviors con-
gruent with healthy cognitive processes. According to Sylwester (1995), the following six
areas benefit youth and the school environment: (a) accepting and controlling emotions,
(b) using metacognitive activities, (c) using activities that promote social interaction,
(d) using activities that provide an emotional context, (e) avoiding intense emotional
stress in school, and (f) recognizing the relationship between emotions and health. The
development of healthy cognitive processes is key to a youth’s positive development and
promotes healthy skills into adulthood.
A growing body of research shows that the mastery of SEL competencies improves
interpersonal and intrapersonal skill development and also significantly affects academic
performance (Zins et al., 2004). Learning to manage emotions and learning to care
about others are important skills in helping to decrease unproductive behavior and poor
academic performance in the school environment (Hawkins, Farrington, & Catalano,
1998). Klem and Connell (2004) stated that by high school, youth have become dis-
engaged from school, and 30% of high school students have multiple high-​risk behav-
iors (such as substance use, sex, violence, and depression) that interfere with school
performance. Compounded by educational disengagement, these risks have the poten-
tial to jeopardize a student’s later success in life (Dryfoos, 1997; Durlak, Weissberg,
9

The Nuts and Bolts of Critical Service Learning 9

Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011; Eaton et al., 2008). SEL promotes engagement
and focuses on the connection of one’s social life with one’s emotional life to encourage
positive relationships, positive decision-​making, and ethical and responsible behavior
in society.
From a CSL approach, self-​awareness, social awareness, and decision-​making are
intricately tied to how youth discover more about themselves and their communities.
Considering Cipolle’s premise (2010), the development of SEL competencies may aid
youth in their ability to interrogate systems of oppression. As youth engage in this proc-
ess, they are able to develop a sense of agency as they exercise their voices, examine his-
torical causes of societal issues, and take action toward change.

POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT

Positive youth development, originating from developmental systems theory, is another

approach that further promotes a strengths-​based perspective (Lerner, Alberts, & Bobek,
2007). Lerner and colleagues asserted that a perspective emerges when the malleability
of human development aligns with developmental assets.
Lerner et al. (2007) further stated that from this perspective, youth are not viewed as
broken and in need of psychosocial repair but rather as untapped resources. Employing
the techniques of PYD seeks to encourage the development of competence in youth, gen-
erates a sense of belonging, and empowers youth to act on their (own) behalf. In essence,
PYD is a participatory approach that includes youth in all aspects of the program, inter-
vention, or project.
The PYD model engages youth and builds on their strengths and assets (Farruggia
& Bullen, 2010). The Lerner model (Lerner & Benson, 2003) was introduced with five
competencies and later developed a sixth. The Lerner model suggests that youth need six
conditions to thrive: (a) cognitive and behavioral competence, (b) confidence, (c) posi-
tive social connections, (d) character, (e) caring, and (f) contributions to society.
Contributing to society is a major outcome of PYD. According to Lerner et al. (2007),
PYD is associated with civic participation, civic engagement, and civic contribution. The
goals of youth engagement in PYD involve facilitating a more adaptive development and
increasing youth’s awareness beyond self to extend outward toward valuing and contrib-
uting to family and community in meaningful ways.

STRENGTHS-​B ASED PERSPECTIVE

The strengths-​based approach, developed by Saleeby (1996), is based on the underlying

assumption that individuals and communities have abilities and inner strengths. Saleeby
10

10 C ritical S ervice L earning T oolkit

(1996) emphasized that the strengths perspective demands a different way of viewing
individuals, families, and communities. Furthermore, the strengths-​based perspective
deviates from the traditional deficit model and seeks to revive coping strategies and acti-
vate internalized resources. All people should be viewed in light of their capacities, tal-
ents, competencies, possibilities, visions, values, and hopes (Saleeby, 1996). Likewise,
this strengths approach focuses on helping individuals discover their own potential and
engage in a youth-​directed CSL project that honors youth voice, strengths, and resilience.
Utilizing the strengths perspective, practitioners should view youth as individuals with
skills and talents—​no matter how undeveloped they may seem—​and work to activate
youth voice.
It is imperative for the school-​based practitioner to recognize the significance of
youth voice and appreciate youth’s ability to plan and implement CSL projects. This CSL
approach directly aligns with the strengths-​based perspective and provides a mechanism
for school-​based practitioners to work with youth from this perspective, thereby focusing
on the strengths and capabilities of children and youth. The strengths-​based perspective
transforms the professional relationship of the social worker and client from an unequal
dyad to a more collaborative relationship, as partners, as they problem solve (Saleeby,
1996). The strengths-​based approach used in a school-​based setting emphasizes that all
students, families, and communities have strengths despite their challenges. Integrating
the strengths-​based approach into CSL is an empowering way to gain youth engagement
in the educational process.
In summary, SEL, PYD, and SBP create an integrative framework on which CSL
functions. Social workers and school-​based practitioners meet educational expectations
(e.g., social emotional learning standards) and apply a PYD approach and other relational
aspects of engaging youth. Through the blending of these three practice frameworks, mat-
urational stages are supported via activities and experiences.

REFERENCES
Cipolle, S. B. (2010). Service learning and social justice: Engaging students in social change. Plymouth,
UK: Rowman & Littlefield.
Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2005). What is social and emotional
learning? Retrieved from http://​casel.org/​why-​it-​matters/​what-​is-​sel
Dryfoos, J. G. (1997). The prevalence of problem behaviors: Implications for programs. In R. P. Weissberg,
T. P. Gullotta, R. L. Hampton, B. A. Ryan, & G. R. Adams (Eds.), Healthy children 2010: Enhancing chil-
dren’s wellness (pp. 17–​46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of
enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-​analysis of school-​based universal interven-
tions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–​432.
Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Shanklin, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., . . . Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. (2008). Youth risk behavior surveillance—​United States, 2007. MMWR Surveillance
1

The Nuts and Bolts of Critical Service Learning 11

Summaries, 57(SS04), 1–​ 131. Retrieved from http://​www.cdc.gov/​mmwr/​preview/​mmwrhtml/​

ss5704a1.htm
Elbertson, N. A., Brackett, M. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2009). School-​based social and emotional learning
(SEL) programming: Current perspectives. In A. Hargreaves, A. Lieberman, M. Fullan, & D. Hopkins
(Eds.), Second international handbook of educational change (Vol. 23, pp. 1017–​1032). Dordrecht: Springer
Netherlands.
Farruggia, S. P., & Bullen, P. (2010). Positive youth development in Aotearoa/​Nevii Zealand. In J. Low &
P. Jose (Eds.), Lifespan development: New Zealand perspectives (2nd ed., Chapter 14). Auckland, New
Zealand: Pearson.
Hawkins, J. D., Farrington, D. P., & Catalano, R. F. (1998). Reducing violence through the schools. In D. S.
Eliot, B. A. Hamburg, & K. R. Williams (Eds.), Violence in American schools: A new perspective (pp. 188–​
216). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Klem, A. M., & Connell, J. P. (2004). Relationships matter: Linking teacher support to student engagement
and achievement. Journal of School Health, 74, 262–​273.
Lerner, R. M., Alberts, A. E., & Bobek, D. (2007). Thriving youth, flourishing civil society: How positively devel-
oping young people may contribute to democracy and social justice: A Bertelsmann Foundation White Paper.
Guterslöh, Germany: Bertelsmann Foundation.
Lerner, R. M., & Benson, P. I. (2003). Developmental assets and asset-​building communities: Implications for
research, policy, and practice. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/​Plenum.
Mitchell, T. D. (2008). Traditional vs. critical service learning: Engaging the literature to differentiate two
models. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 14(2), 50–​65.
Saleeby, D. (1996). The strengths perspective in social work practice: Extensions and cautions. Social Work,
41, 296–​305.
Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons: An educator’s guide to the human brain. Alexandria,
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (Eds.). (2004). Building academic success and emo-
tional learning: What does the research say? New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
12

three

Essential Elements for Promoting

Student Voice
An Expanded Framework for Critical Service Learning

T his critical service learning (CSL) model has youth voice as the
cornerstone and places it at the center of the approach. The term youth voice describes
a strategy in which young people are authentically engaged in working toward changing the
systems that directly affect their lives. Instead of their input remaining at the discussion level,
youth conceptualize, research, and develop action plans to make recommendations to poli-
cymakers. This places youth in a unique position to advocate for their communities, which
provides a real-​world opportunity for them to learn components of the change process.
Practitioners must create a safe and supportive environment to encourage youth voice.
The practice environment, including the culture, structure, and group climate, must be
intentionally created and sustained to make youth feel safe and supported enough to raise
their voices. The youth’s voices, strengths, talents, actions, and achievements are continu-
ously integrated into the CSL approach and are infused throughout all components of
every activity, including brainstorming ideas (community web mapping), research, plan-
ning, evaluation, decision-​making, advocacy, and reflections.

COMMUNITY WEB-​M APPING PROCESS

In this model, the community web mapping (Lantieri, 1999) is central to the develop-
ment of the students’ voice. The practitioner facilitates the brainstorming for commu-
nity web mapping. This activity may span three to five sessions and encourages youth to

12
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
along, they shouted, “We are the servants of Jacob; who can resist
us?”
A second body followed, under the second angel; then a third
phalanx, under the third angel.
Esau, trembling, exclaimed, “I am the brother of Jacob. It is twenty
years since I saw him, and you maltreat me as I am on my way to
meet him!”
One of the angels answered, “If Jacob, the servant of God, had not
been thy brother, we would have destroyed thee and all thy men.”
The fourth body passing, under the command of the fourth angel,
completed the humiliation of Esau.
However, Jacob, who knew not what assistance had been rendered
him by Heaven, prepared for Esau, to appease him, rich presents.
He sent him four hundred and forty sheep, thirty asses, thirty camels,
fifty oxen, in ten troops, each conducted by a faithful servant charged
to deliver his troop as a gift from Jacob to his brother Esau.
This consoled and pleased Esau, who, as soon as he saw Jacob
again, was, by the grace of God, placed in a better mind, and the
brethren met, and parted with fraternal love.[384]
Now let us take another version of the story of this meeting.
It came to pass that Jacob spent one night alone beyond Jabbok,
and an angel contended with him, having taken on him the body and
likeness of a man. This angel was Michael, and the subject of their
contention was this:—The angel said to Jacob, “Hast thou not
promised to give the tenth of all that is thine to the Lord?” And Jacob
said, “I have promised.”
Then the angel said, “Behold thou hast ten sons and one daughter;
nevertheless thou hast not tithed them.”
Immediately Jacob set apart the four first-born of the four mothers,
and there remained eight. And he began to number from Simeon,
and Levi came up for the tenth.
Then Michael answered and said, “Lord of the world, this is Thy lot.”
So Levi became the consecrated one to the Lord.
On account of this ready compliance with his oath, Michael was
unable to hurt him, but he remained striving with Jacob, till the first
ray of sunlight rose above the eastern hills.
And he said, “Let me go, for the column of the morning ascendeth,
and the hour cometh when the angels on high offer praise to the
Lord of the world: and I am one of the angels of praise; but from the
day that the world was created, my time to praise hath not come till
now.”
And he said, “I will not let thee go, until thou bless me.”
Now Michael had received commandment not to leave Jacob till the
patriarch suffered him; and as it began to dawn, the hosts of heaven,
who desired to begin their morning hymn, came down to Michael and
bade him rise up to the throne of God and lead the chant; but he
said, “I cannot, unless Jacob suffer me to depart.”[385]
Thus did God prove Jacob, as He had proved Abraham, whether he
would give to Him his son, when He asked him of the patriarch.
But, according to certain Rabbinic authorities, it was not Michael who
wrestled with Jacob, but it was Sammael the Evil One, or Satan. For
Sammael is the angel of Edom, as Michael is the angel of Israel; and
Sammael went before Esau, hoping to destroy Jacob in the night.
Sammael, says the Jalkut Rubeni, met Jacob, who had the stature of
the first man, and strove with him; but he could not do him an injury,
for Abraham stood on his right hand, and Isaac on his left. And when
Sammael would part from him, Jacob would not suffer it, till the Evil
One had given him the blessing which Jacob had purchased from
Esau. And from that day Sammael took from Jacob his great
strength, and made him to halt upon his thigh.[386]
But when Michael appeared before God—we must now suppose the
man who strove with Jacob to have been the angel—God said to him
in anger, “Thou hast injured My priest!”
Michael answered, “I am Thy priest.”
“Yea,” said the Most High, “thou art My priest in heaven, but Jacob is
My priest on earth. Why hast thou lamed him?”
Then Michael answered, “I wrestled with him, and let him overcome
me, to Thy honour, O Lord; that, seeing he had overcome an angel
of God, he might have courage to go boldly to meet Esau.”
But this was no excuse for having lamed him. Therefore Michael said
to Raphael, “Oh, angel of healing! come to my aid.” So Raphael
descended to earth, and touched the hollow of Jacob’s thigh, and it
was restored as before.
But God said to Michael, “For this that thou hast done, thou shalt be
the guardian of Israel as long as the world lasteth.”[387]
Jacob called the name of the place Peniel; for he said, “I have seen
the angel of the Lord face to face, and my soul is saved.” And the
sun rose upon him before its time, as, when he went out from Beer-
sheba, it had set before its time.[388]
And Jacob lifted up his eyes and looked, and, behold, Esau came,
and with him four hundred men of war. And he divided the children
unto Leah, and to Rachel, and to the two concubines, and placed the
concubines and their sons foremost; for he said, “If Esau come to
destroy the children, and ill-treat the women, he will do it with them,
and meanwhile we can prepare to fight; and Leah and her children
after, and Rachel and Joseph after them.”[389] And he himself went
over before them, praying and asking mercy before the Lord, and he
bowed upon the earth seven times, until he met with his brother; but
it was not to Esau that he bowed, though Esau supposed he did, but
to the Lord God Most High.[390]
And Esau ran to meet him, and embraced him, and fell upon his
neck and bit him, but by the mercy of God the neck of Jacob became
marble, and Esau broke his teeth upon it; therefore it is said in the
Book of Genesis that he fell on his neck, and kissed him; and they
wept.[391] But the Targumim apparently do not acknowledge that the
neck of Jacob became marble, for the Targum of Palestine explains
their weeping thus: “Esau wept on account of the pain of his teeth,
which were shaken; but Jacob wept because of the pain of his neck;”
and the Targum of Jerusalem, “Esau wept for the crushing of his
teeth, and Jacob wept for the tenderness of his neck.”
“The Lord God prospered Jacob,” and he had one hundred and two
times ten thousand and seven thousand (i.e. a thousand times a
thousand, seven thousand and two hundred) sheep, and six hundred
thousand dogs; but some Rabbis say the sheep were quite
innumerable, but when Jacob counted his sheep-dogs he found that
he had twelve hundred thousand of them; others, however, reduce
the number one-half. They say, one dog went with each flock, but
those who say that there were twelve hundred thousand dogs, count
two to each flock.[392]
Jacob, says the Rabbi Samuel, could recite the whole of the Psalter.
[393]
Of course this must have been in the spirit of prophecy, as the
Psalms were not written, with the exception of Psalm civ., which had
been composed by Adam.
Adam, after his fall, had been given by God six commandments, but
Noah was given a seventh—to this effect, that he was not to eat a
limb or portion of any living animal. Abraham was given an eighth,
the commandment of circumcision; and Jacob was communicated a
ninth, through the mouth of an adder, that he was not to eat the
serpent.[394]
If we may trust the Book of Jasher, the affair of Shechem, the son of
Hamor, was as follows:—The men of the city were not all
circumcised, only some of them, so as to blind the eyes of the sons
of Jacob, and throw them off their guard; and Shechem and Hamor
had privately concerted to fall upon Jacob and his sons and butcher
them; but Simeon and Levi were warned of their intention by a
servant of Dinah, and took the initiative.[395] But this is a clumsy
attempt to throw the blame off the shoulders of the ancestors of the
Jewish nation upon those of their Gentile enemies.
Jacob, say the Rabbis, would have had no daughters at all in his
family, but only sons, had he not called himself El-elohe-Israel (Israel
is God).[396] Therefore God was angry with him, for making himself
equal with God, and in punishment he afflicted him with a giddy
daughter.[397]
Esau, say the Mussulmans, had no prophets in his family except
Job. All the prophets rose from the family of Jacob; and when Esau
saw that the gift of prophecy was not in his family, he went out of the
land, for he would not live near his brother.[398]
The father of the Israelites, from the land of Canaan which he
inhabited, could smell the clothes of Joseph when he was in Egypt,
being a prophet; and thus he knew that his son was alive. He was
asked how it was that he divined nothing when his beloved son was
cast into the pit by his brothers, and sold to the Ishmaelites. He
replied that the prophetic power is sudden, like a lightning flash,
piercing sometimes to the height of heaven; it is not permanent in its
intensity, but leaves at times those favoured with it in such darkness
that they do not know what is at their feet.[399]
The Arabs say that Jacob, much afflicted with sciatica, was healed
by abstaining from the meat he most loved, and that was the flesh of
the camel. At Jerusalem, say the Arabs, is preserved the stone on
which Jacob laid his head when he slept on his way to Haran.
The custom of saying “God bless you!” when a person sneezes,
dates from Jacob. The Rabbis say that, before the time that Jacob
lived, men sneezed once, and that was the end of them—the shock
slew them; but the patriarch, by his intercession, obtained a
relaxation of this law, subject to the condition that, in all nations, a
sneeze should be consecrated by a sacred aspiration.
 XXVIII.
JOSEPH.

Joseph’s story is too attractive not to have interested intensely the

Oriental nations in any way connected with him, and therefore to
have become a prey to legend and myth.
Joseph, say the Mussulmans, was from his childhood the best loved
son of his father Jacob; but the old man not only loved him, but
yearned after the sight of him, for he was deprived of the custody of
Joseph from an early age. Joseph had been sent to his aunt, the
sister of Isaac, and she loved the child so dearly, that she could not
endure the thought of parting with him. Therefore she took the family
girdle, which she as the eldest retained as an heirloom, the girdle
which Abraham had worn when he prepared to sacrifice his son, and
she strapped it round Joseph’s waist.
Then she drew him before the judge, and accused him of theft, and
claimed that he should be made over to her as a slave to expiate his
theft. And it was done so. Thus the child Joseph grew up in her
house, and it was not till after her death that he returned to his father
Jacob.
One morning Joseph related to his father a dream that he had
dreamt; he said that he and his brothers had planted twigs in the
earth, but all the twigs of his brothers had withered, whereas his own
twig had brought forth leaves, and flourished.
Jacob was so immersed in thought over the dream, that he allowed a
poor man who came begging to go away unrelieved, because
unnoticed.[400] And this act of forgetfulness brought upon him some
trouble, as we shall see.
One morning Joseph related to him another dream; he saw the sun,
the moon, and the stars bow down before him. Jacob could no
longer doubt the significance of these dreams, which showed him
how great Joseph would be, but he cautioned him on no account to
let his brothers know about them, lest they should envy him.
He was so beautiful that he was called the Moon of Canaan, and he
had on one of his shoulders a luminous point like a star, a token that
the spirit of prophecy rested upon him. The brothers of Joseph,
however, heard of the dreams, and they were greatly enraged, and
they said, “Joseph and Benjamin are more loved of their father than
we ten; let us kill Joseph, or drive him out of the country, and when
we have done this, we will repent at our leisure, and God will forgive
us.”[401]
One day the brothers went to feed their father’s flock in Shechem.
Then Israel said to Joseph, “Do not thy brethren feed in Shechem? I
am afraid lest the Hivite come upon them and smite them, and repay
on me what Simeon and Levi did to Shechem and Hamor, because
of Dinah their sister. I will send thee to them to caution them to go
elsewhere.”
And he said, “I am ready.” So Joseph arose, and went to Shechem;
and Gabriel, in the likeness of a man, found him wandering in the
field. And he said to him, “Thy brethren have journeyed hence. I
heard of them, when I was in the presence of God, behind the veil,
and that, from this day, the bondage of Egypt begins.”[402]
When Joseph came in sight, the brothers conspired to slay him, but
Judah said, “Slay not Joseph, for to slay is a crime; but cast him into
a well, on the way that the caravans pass, that he may be found by a
caravan, and be drawn out.” Joseph was then aged seventeen.
His brethren fell on him and stripped him, and were about to cast him
into the well which was by the wayside to Jerusalem, when he said,
“O my brothers, wherewith shall I cover my nakedness in this pit?”
They replied, “Bid the sun, the moon, and the stars, which adored
thee, bring thee clothes to cover thy nakedness.”
Having thus mocked him, they let him down into the well. There was
much water in it; and a stone had fallen into it; on this Joseph stood,
and was above the surface of the water.[403] Not so, say the Rabbis, it
was dry, but it was full of scorpions and adders.[404]
Judah, according to the Mussulman account, had not consented to
this, he being absent; and when he had learned what had been
done, he took food and let it down into the well, and told Joseph to
be of good cheer, his brothers’ anger would turn away, and then he
would bring him back to them. But the Jews say that Reuben was
absent, as he was fasting on a mountain, because he had incurred
his father’s anger, and was in disgrace, and he hoped, by restoring
Joseph to Israel, to recover his father’s favour.
The sons of Jacob then slew a lamb and dipped the garment of
Joseph in the blood, and brought it to their father, and said, “We left
Joseph in charge of our clothes, and a wolf has fallen upon him, and
has devoured him.”
But Jacob looked at the garment and said, “I see that it is bloody, but
I see no rents; the wolf was merciful to my son Joseph, for he ate
him and left his garment whole!”[405]
Then Jacob went to commune with God, and the spirit of prophecy
came upon him, and he said, “No wolf, no enemy has slain him, but
a bad woman is against him.”[406]
Now Joseph was three days and three nights in the pit, but it was not
dark, for the angel Gabriel hung in it a precious stone to give him
light.[407]
The brethren of Joseph, seeing that their father mistrusted them,
said to him, “We will go and catch the wolf that slew Joseph.”
He said, “Go, and do so.”
So they went and chased and caught a monstrous wolf, and they
brought him to their father and said, “This is the beast whereof we
spoke to thee, that it had slain Joseph.”
But God opened the mouth of the wolf, and he said, “Son of Isaac,
believe not the words of thy envious sons. I am a wolf out of a
foreign land: I one morning lost my young one when I woke up, and I
have been straying in all directions to find it; is it likely that I,
mourning over the loss of a wild cub, should attack and kill a young
prophet?”
Jacob released the wolf out of the hands of his sons, and he
dismissed his sons, for he abhorred the sight of their faces; only
Benjamin, the brother of Joseph, and the youngest child of Rachel,
did he retain near him.[408]
On the third morning, a party of Arabs passed near the well, and
were thirsty. Now the chief of these Arabs was Melek-ben-Dohar; the
second, who accompanied Melek, was an Indian, a freed man of
Melek, and his name was Buschra.
Melek reached the well carrying a bucket and a rope, and let down
the bucket into the well. Then Joseph put his hand on it, and,
however much Melek and Buschra pulled, they could not raise the
bucket. Then Melek looked down into the pit, and exclaimed: “O
Buschra, the bucket was heavy because a young man has hold of it.”
Now the face of Joseph illumined the well like a lamp: Buschra and
Melek tried to raise Joseph, but they could not.
Then Melek asked, “What is thy name, and whence art thou?”
Joseph answered, “I am a young man of Canaan; my brothers have
cast me into this cistern, but I am not guilty.”
Melek said to his companions, “If we tell the rest of the caravan that
we have drawn this youth out of the well, they will demand a share in
the price he will fetch. Now I can sell this youth for a large sum in
Egypt. I will therefore tell my comrades that I have bought him from
some people who were at the well. Do thou say the same thing, and
we will share the money between us.”
Next day, being the fourth day, the brethren, finding that their father’s
face was turned against them, went to the cistern to draw forth
Joseph, and when they found him not, they went to the caravan, and
they saw Joseph among the Arabs.
Then they asked, “Whose is this lad?”
Melek-ben-Dohar replied, “He is mine.”
They answered, “He belongs to us; he ran away from us.”
Melek replied, “Well, I will give you money for him.”[409]
So he bought him for twenty pieces of silver; thus each of the
brothers obtained two drachmæ, and therewith they bought shoes.
[410]
To this the prophet Amos refers in two places (ii. 6; viii. 6), and in
the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, which is received as
canonical by the Armenian Church, Zebulun relates the same
circumstance, that the brethren supplied themselves with sandals
from the money which they got by the sale of Joseph.
Joseph went along with the Ishmaelites till they passed his mother’s
tomb; then his grief overcame him, and he burst forth into bitter tears
and cried, “O mother, mother! I am an outcast and a slave, I the child
of the wife Jacob loved. When thou wast dying, thou didst show me
to my father, and bade him look on me, and be comforted for my
loss. O mother, mother! hast thou no thought of thy son? Awake and
see the miserable condition of thy child; shake off thy sleep; be my
defence against my brethren, and comfort my father. Awake and
stand up to judge my quarrel, awake and plead my cause with God!
awake and look upon the desolation of the soul of my father who
cherished thee, and who for fourteen years served a hard bondage
for his beloved Rachel! Console him, I pray thee, and, by the voice
that he loves, soothe the grief of his last days.”
It was moonlight, and the caravan was resting.
A low voice issued from the tomb. “My son! my son Joseph! my
child! I have heard the voice of thy crying. I know all thou hast
suffered, my son, and my grief is as deep as the sea. But put thy
trust in God, who is the help of thy countenance and thy God! Rise,
my child, and have patience. If thou knewest the future, thou wouldst
be comforted.”[411]
One of the chiefs of the caravan, wearied with the cries of Joseph,
came to drive him from the tomb, but suddenly a dark and
threatening cloud appeared in the sky over his head, and he
desisted in fear.
In the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Benjamin says that a man
struck Joseph as he lagged on the way, whereupon a lion fell upon
the man and slew him.
The sun was about to set, when the caravan entered Heliopolis, the
chief city of Egypt, which was then under the government of Rajjan,
an Amalekite. Joseph’s face shone brighter than the mid-day sun;
and as this new light from the east shone in the city, and cast the
shadows towards the declining sun, all the women and damsels ran
out upon the terraces or to the windows to see.
Next day he was placed for sale before the palace of the king. All the
wealthy ladies of Heliopolis sent their husbands or relations to bid for
the beautiful youth, but he was purchased by Potiphar, the king’s
treasurer,[412] who was childless, and designed making Joseph his
adopted son and heir.
Zuleika,[413] Potiphar’s wife, received him with great friendliness,
gave him new clothes and a garden-house in which to live, as he
would not sit down to eat with the Egyptians. He was occupied in
tending the fruit and the flowers in Potiphar’s garden; and from her
window Zuleika watched him.
Thus Joseph served as gardener to Potiphar for six years.
A graceful Arab legend of this period of Joseph’s life deserves not to
be omitted.
One day an Ishmaelite passed the gate of Potiphar’s garden, leading
a camel. As the beast approached Joseph, who was standing at the
door, it bowed, refused to follow its master, and turning to Joseph,
fell before him, and shed tears over his feet.
Joseph recognized the camel as having once belonged to his father,
and he remembered having often given it bread. He questioned the
Ishmaelite, who acknowledged he had purchased the beast from
Israel.
Now Joseph loved Zuleika as much as she loved him, but he did not
venture to hope that he was precious to his mistress.
One day when a great feast of the gods was observed, all the
household had gone to the temple, save Zuleika, who pretended to
be ill, and Joseph, who worshipped the One true God. Zuleika
prepared a table with wine and fruit and sweet cakes, and invited
Joseph to eat with her.
He was rejoiced, and his heart beat with passion; and when he took
the goblet of wine she offered him, he looked into her eyes, and saw
that she loved him. Then, says the Rabbi Ishmael in the Midrash, the
form of his father Jacob appeared in the window or doorway, and
thus addressed him: “Joseph! hereafter the names of thy brothers
engraven on gems shall adorn the breastplate of the High Priest, and
shall thine be absent from among them?” Then Joseph dug his ten
fingers into the ground, and so conquered himself.[414]
The Mussulmans say also that Joseph was brought to his senses by
seeing the vision of his father in the door biting his finger
reproachfully at him.[415]
When Potiphar returned home, Zuleika brought false accusations
against Joseph, but a babe who was in its cradle, in the room,—the
child was a relation of Zuleika,—lifted up its voice in protest, and
said, “Potiphar, if you want to know the truth, examine the torn
portion of the garment. If it is from the front of the dress, then know
that Zuleika was struggling to thrust Joseph from approaching her; if
from the back, know that she was pursuing him.”
Potiphar obeyed the voice of the sucking child, and found that his
wife had spoken falsely, and that Joseph was innocent.[416]
Now one of the neighbours had seen all that took place, for she was
sick, and had not attended the feast, so the whole affair was soon a
matter of gossip throughout the town. Then Zuleika invited all the
ladies who had blamed her to a great feast in her house; and
towards the close of the banquet, when the fruit and wine were
brought in, an orange and a knife were placed before each lady; and
at the same moment Joseph was brought into the room. The ladies,
in their astonishment, cut their fingers in mistake for the oranges, for
their eyes were fixed upon him, and they were amazed at his beauty;
and the table was deluged with blood.
“This,” said Zuleika, “is the youth on whose account you blame me. It
is true that I loved him, but his virtue has opposed me; and now love
is turned to hate, and I shall cast him into prison.”[417]
She was as good as her word, and thus it fell out that Joseph was
placed in the king’s prison. But God would not suffer the innocent to
be punished. He illumined his cell with a celestial light, made a
fountain spring up in the midst of it, and a fruit-bearing tree to grow
before the door.[418]
Joseph was five years in prison, and then the King of the Greeks,
who was warring against Egypt, sent an ambassador to Rajjan
desiring peace. But his true purpose was to throw him off his guard,
that he might with treachery destroy him. The ambassador sought
the advice of an old Greek woman who had long lived in Egypt. She
said, “I know of only one way of accomplishing what you desire, and
that is to bribe the butler or the baker of the king to poison him; but it
would be better to put the drug in the wine than in the bread.”
The ambassador then bribed the chief baker with much gold, and he
promised to put poison in Pharaoh’s meat. After that he told the old
woman that one of the two she had named to him had been
persuaded to destroy the king.
Then the ambassador returned, and when he was gone, the woman
disclosed all to Pharaoh, and she said, “Either the butler or the baker
has taken a bribe to poison thee, O king.” Thereupon the king cast
both into prison, till it should be made manifest which was guilty.
Now the name of the baker was Mohlib, and that of the butler was
Kamra.
After they had been in prison some time, they had dreams; and they
told their dreams to Joseph.
The chief butler said, “I saw in my dream, and, behold, a vine was
before me. And in the vine were three branches; and as it sprouted it
brought forth buds, and immediately they ripened into clusters, and
became grapes. And I saw till they gave the cup of Pharaoh into my
hand, and I took the grapes and squeezed them into Pharaoh’s cup,
and I gave the cup into Pharaoh’s hand.”
And Joseph said to him, “This is the interpretation of the dream. The
three branches are the three Fathers of the world, Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob, whose children are to be enslaved in Egypt in clay and
brickwork, and in all labours of the face of the field; but afterward
shall they be delivered by the hand of three shepherds. As for the
cup thou didst give into Pharaoh’s hand, it is the vial of the wrath of
God, which Pharaoh is to drink at the last. But thou, the chief butler,
shalt receive a good reward: the three branches to thee are three
days until thy liberation.”
Joseph, leaving his higher trust in God, now turned and reposed it in
man, for he added, “Be thou mindful of me when it shall be well with
thee, and obtain my release from this prison-house.”
And the chief baker, seeing that Joseph had interpreted well, began
to speak with an impatient tongue, and said to Joseph, “I also saw in
my dream, and, behold, three baskets of hot loaves were upon my
head; and in the upper basket of all, delicious meat for Pharaoh,
made by the confectioner; and the birds ate them from the basket
upon my head.”
Joseph answered, “This is its interpretation. The three baskets are
the three enslavements with which the house of Israel are to be
enslaved. But thou, the chief baker, shalt receive an evil award. At
the end of three days, Pharaoh shall take away thy head from thy
body, and will hang thee upon a gibbet, and the birds shall eat thy
flesh from off thee.”
And it fell out as Joseph had foretold. But, because Joseph had
withdrawn from putting his trust in God, and had laid it on man,
therefore he was forgotten by the butler and left in prison for two
years more.[419]
Joseph had now been seven years in prison, and this is why he had
been so long there. Potiphar’s wife persuaded her friends to bring
against Joseph the same accusation that she had laid against him,
and their husbands complained to Pharaoh; so he was kept in prison
that he might not cause strife and evil in the city.[420]
When the seven years were elapsed, one day the butler came to the
prison and bade Joseph follow him, as the King had been troubled
with a dream, and desired to have it explained. But Joseph refused
to leave till his innocence was proclaimed. He named to the butler
the ladies who had attended the banquet of Zuleika, and before
whom she had confessed that she loved him, and besought that they
might be called as witnesses before the king. Pharaoh agreed; the
ladies, when interrogated, related all that had been said, and Zuleika
herself confessed the truth.
Then Pharaoh sent and fetched Joseph out of prison, and gave him
his liberty.
“I dreamed,” said the king, when Joseph stood before his throne,
“that seven lean cows ate seven fat cows, and that seven empty
husks ate seven full ears of corn. What is the interpretation of this
dream?”
“God will give thee seven fruitful years, and then seven years of
famine,” answered Joseph. “Therefore must thou gather together all
the superfluity in the first seven years to sustain the starving people
in the seven years of dearth.”[421]
The king was so well pleased with this interpretation, that he made
Joseph his chief treasurer in Potiphar’s room. Joseph went through
all the land, and purchased corn, which, on account of the good
harvests, was at a very low price.
One day as he rode out of the town to view his magazines, he
observed a beggar-woman whose whole appearance was most woe-
begone, but bespoke her having seen better days. Joseph
approached her with compassion, and held out to her a handful of
gold. She hesitated about taking it, and said, sobbing, “Great prophet
of God! I am not worthy to receive this at thy hand, though it was my
love for thee which was the first step on the ladder on which thou
mountedst to thy present exaltation.” And Joseph saw that the poor
beggar-woman was Zuleika, wife of Potiphar.
He asked about her husband, and learned that shortly after he had
been deposed from office, he had died of distress of mind and body.
“Thou hast thought evil of me,” she said, “but I have great excuses,
thou wast so beautiful; and moreover I was young, and only a wife in
name, for I am as I left my mother’s womb, a maiden, with the seal of
God upon me.”
Then Joseph was filled with joy. He extended his hands to her, and
he brought her to the king’s palace, and she was treated there with
care, as a sister, till she recovered her bloom and joy, and then
Joseph took her to be his wife.[422] And by her he had two sons
before the seven years of dearth began, during which the Egyptians
gave first their gold, then their apparel, and all their moveable goods;
then their land, then their slaves, and last of all themselves, their
wives and children, as bondsmen, that they might have food.
But not only did Egypt suffer, the adjoining lands were also afflicted
with scarcity. There was no corn in Canaan, and Jacob sent his ten
sons into Egypt to buy corn, retaining Benjamin at home. He
cautioned his sons not to create mistrust by their numbers, nor
cause the evil eye to light on them, and advised them to enter the
city of Pharaoh by different gates, for it had ten.
But Joseph expected that his brothers would be coming to Egypt,
and therefore he bade the gatekeepers every day bring him the
names of those who had entered the city. One day one porter gave
him the name of Reuben, son of Jacob; and so on to the tenth,
Asher, son of Jacob. Joseph at once gave orders for every
storehouse to be closed with the exception of one, and gave the
keepers of the open magazine the names of his brothers, and said to
them, “When these people arrive take them prisoners, and bring
them before me.”
And when they appeared before him, he charged them with being
spies: “For,” said he, “if ye were true men, ye would have come in
together; but ye entered by different gates, and that shows that ye
are set upon evil.”[423]
When, to excuse themselves, they told their family history, he bade
them go and bring Benjamin down to him, and, to secure their return,
he kept Simeon in prison as hostage.
When Joseph wanted to imprison Simeon, his brothers desired to
assist him by force, but Simeon refused their assistance. Joseph
ordered seventy fighting men of Pharaoh’s body-guard to cast him
down and handcuff him. But when they approached, Simeon gave a
scream, and the seventy fell back on the ground, and their teeth
went down their throats. “Hah!” said Joseph to his son Manasseh,
who stood near him, “throw a chain about his neck.”
Manasseh dealt Simeon a blow, and chained him. “Then,” said
Simeon, “this blow comes from one of the family.”[424]
Jacob, reluctant to part with Benjamin, was however obliged to do
so, being pressed with famine. Joseph received the brethren,
measured out to them the wheat, and, by his orders, his steward
secretly put the silver cup of Joseph into the sack of Benjamin. Then
at the gate of the city they were charged with theft, and were brought
back to the palace of Joseph.
“What is the penalty due to him who has stolen my cup?” asked
Joseph.
“Let him be thy slave,” answered the brethren, feeling confident in
their innocence. But when the sacks were opened, and his cup was
found in that of Benjamin, they said to their youngest brother, “Woe
to thee! what hast thou done? Wast thou resolved to follow the
example of thy lost brother, who stole his grandfather Laban’s idol,
and his aunt’s girdle?”
But as they had sworn to their father to restore Benjamin to him, they
besought Joseph to take one of them in the place of Benjamin. But
Joseph persisted that he would keep Benjamin.
Then said Reuben to his brothers, “Go back to our father, and tell
him all that has occurred; I, the eldest of you, who undertook on the
security of my life to bring Benjamin home, must remain here till he
himself calls me back, for he will see that we have stood hostages
for a thief.”[425]
Now Reuben had a fierce temper, and when he became furious, all
the down or hair on his skin bristled and penetrated his clothes like
needles; he pulled off his head-gear, and uttered a scream so terrible
that all who heard it died of terror. This frenzy of Reuben’s could only
be abated by one of the family of Jacob placing his hand upon him.
Reuben went up to Joseph, and said, “O great one of Egypt. I am in
a rage; and if I scream out, all who hear me will die of fright. Restore
to me my brother, or I shall scream, and then thou and all the
inhabitants of Egypt will perish.”
Joseph knowing that Reuben spoke the truth, and seeing his hair
bristling through his clothes like needle-points, and knowing also that
if any one of the house of Jacob were to lay his hand on the body of
Reuben, his force would pass away,—he said to Ephraim, his son,
“Go softly, so that Reuben may not observe thee, and lay thine hand
upon his shoulder that his anger may abate.” Ephraim did as he was
bidden, and instantly the hairs of Reuben sank, and his fury passed
away, and he felt that the power to scream was gone from him.
Then Joseph said calmly, “I shall retain Benjamin, do what you will.”
Reuben made an effort to scream, but it was unavailing. Then
astonishment got hold of him, and he said to Joseph, “I think that
there must be one of the family of Jacob in this house.”[426]
Then Joseph ordered Benjamin to be chained. And when Judah saw
this, he roared like a lion, and his voice was so piercing, that
Chuschim, the son of Dan, who was in Canaan, heard him, and
began to roar also.
And Judah drew his sword, and roared, and pursued the Egyptian
soldiers sent to bind Benjamin, and the fear of him fell on them all,
and they fell, and he smote them up to the gates of the king’s palace;
and he roared again, and all the walls of Memphis rocked, and the
earth shook, and Pharaoh was shaken off his throne and fell on his
face, and the roar of Judah was heard four hundred miles off.
Joseph feared to be killed by Judah. When Judah was angry, blood
spirted from his right eye. Judah wore five sets of clothes upon him,
one above another; and when he was angry, his heart swelled so as
to tear them all. Joseph, fearing him, roared at him, and his voice
shivered a pillar of the palace into fine dust, so that Judah thought,
“This is a great hero! he can master me.”[427]
Then said Judah to Joseph, “Let our brother go, or we will devastate
this land.”
Then Joseph answered, “Go home, and tell your father that a wild
beast has devoured him.”
Then Judah beckoned to his brother Naphtali, who was very swift of
foot, and said to him, “Run speedily and count all the streets in
Egypt, and come swiftly back and tell me.”
But Simeon said, “There is no need; I will break a stone out of the
mountains and throw it down on the land of Egypt, and will utterly
destroy it.”[428]
Then Joseph saw that it was not well to press them further; so he
took a bowl, and filled it, and looked into it as though he were
divining by it, and said suddenly, “Ye are liars! Ye told me that your
brother Joseph was dead, and behold he is alive, and I see him in
this bowl! Ye sold him.”
Then he bade Zuleika bring the deed of sale, and he handed it to
Judah. Thereupon the brothers knew him, and fell down before him,
and besought him to pardon them.
Then he told them how God had exalted him, and he comforted their
hearts, and after that he asked news of his father.
They replied, “He is blind with grief at having to part with Benjamin.”
Therefore Joseph said, “Take my shirt and go to my father, and pass
my shirt before his face, and he will recover his sight. Then take all
that you have, and come down into Egypt.”[429]
When the caravan left Memphis, the sons of Jacob carried with them
abundance of corn and the shirt of Joseph; and the wind was in their
backs, and blew the scent of the shirt from the gate of Memphis into
Canaan. And Jacob snuffed the wind, and said, “O women! O
children! I can smell Joseph.”
They all thought, “He is deranged,” but they said, “It is forty years
since Joseph died, and thou canst think of nothing else; thou art
always insisting that he is alive.”
When the caravan was near the dwelling of Jacob, Judah brought
the shirt of Joseph in, and said, “On the day upon which I bore the
bloody coat of Joseph, I said a wolf had devoured him. Now I bring
thee good news.” And he cast the shirt upon the face of his father,
and Jacob recovered his sight.[430]
The story in the Sepher Hadjaschar, or Book of Jasher, is more
poetical. As the sons were approaching the home of their father,
Sarah, the adopted daughter of Asher, came to meet them. She was
very beautiful and graceful and modest, and could play sweetly on
the harp. They gave her the kiss of peace, and told her the tidings.
Then she went singing home, accompanying her words upon the
harp, “Joseph is not dead, God has been his protector, and he lives,
and is governor in Egypt; rejoice and be glad of heart!” Then Jacob
was filled with hope and consolation, and he said, “Because thou
hast revived my spirit, my daughter, death shall never seize on
thee.”[431]
After that, Jacob went down into Egypt, that he might see his son
Joseph before he died. And when they met, they fell on one
another’s neck and wept, and kissed; and Jacob said to his son, “Tell
me, I pray thee, what evil thy brothers did to thee.” But Joseph
answered, “Nay, my father, I will tell thee only how great good the
Lord did to me.”
We have heard how that Joseph married Zuleika, the wife of
Potiphar, but this is not a universal tradition. It is said in Genesis that
he had to wife Asenath, daughter of Potipherah, priest of On. Many
suppose that this Asenath was the daughter of Potiphar, the old
master of Joseph, and that her mother was Dinah, the daughter of
Jacob, and the following story is related of Asenath:—
She was a maid of wondrous beauty, of which she was very proud,
and she greatly despised all men, though she had never seen any,
saving her father. She dwelt in a tower next to her father’s house, ten
stories high, which contained everything that the eye could desire,
and also idols in gold and silver, which she daily worshipped.
Asenath was as tall as Sarah, as comely as Rebekah, and as
beautiful as Rachel.