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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 812

Jyotsna Kumar Mandal

Devadatta Sinha
J. P. Bandopadhyay Editors

Contemporary
Advances in Innovative
and Applicable
Information
Technology
Proceedings of ICCAIAIT 2018
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 812

Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory,
applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all
disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics,
business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the
areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing
including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms,
social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuroscience, artificial life, virtual worlds and
society, cognitive science and systems, Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems,
self-organizing and adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics including
human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning paradigms, machine ethics, intelligent
data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent agents, intelligent decision making and support,
intelligent network security, trust management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily proceedings
of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover significant recent developments in the
field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is
the short publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of
research results.

Advisory Board
Chairman
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
e-mail: nikhil@isical.ac.in
Members
Rafael Bello Perez, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
e-mail: rbellop@uclv.edu.cu
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
e-mail: escorchado@usal.es
Hani Hagras, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
e-mail: hani@essex.ac.uk
László T. Kóczy, Széchenyi István University, Győr, Hungary
e-mail: koczy@sze.hu
Vladik Kreinovich, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, USA
e-mail: vladik@utep.edu
Chin-Teng Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
e-mail: ctlin@mail.nctu.edu.tw
Jie Lu, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: Jie.Lu@uts.edu.au
Patricia Melin, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
e-mail: epmelin@hafsamx.org
Nadia Nedjah, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
e-mail: nadia@eng.uerj.br
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
e-mail: Ngoc-Thanh.Nguyen@pwr.edu.pl
Jun Wang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
e-mail: jwang@mae.cuhk.edu.hk

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Jyotsna Kumar Mandal Devadatta Sinha
•

J. P. Bandopadhyay
Editors

Contemporary Advances
in Innovative and Applicable
Information Technology
Proceedings of ICCAIAIT 2018

123
Editors
Jyotsna Kumar Mandal J. P. Bandopadhyay
Department Computer Science Institute of Radio Physics
and Engineering and Electronics
University of Kalyani University of Calcutta
Kalyani, West Bengal, India Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Devadatta Sinha
Department Computer Science
and Engineering
University of Calcutta
Kolkata, West Bengal, India

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-981-13-1539-8 ISBN 978-981-13-1540-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1540-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018948690

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
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Singapore
Preface

First International Conference on Contemporary Advances in Innovative and

Applicable Information Technology (ICCAIAIT 2018) has been organized during
24–25 March 2018 at the college campus of Kingston Educational Institute,
Berunanpukuria, Barasat, Kolkata 700126, West Bengal, India. The conference was
organized in collaboration with Computer Society of India (CSI), Division IV
(Communication), which was the technical sponsor of the event. The technical
co-sponsors were the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Kolkata Section. The
proceedings of the conference is published by Springer, the publication partner
of the event in the AISC series of Springer Nature.
There were tutorials, keynote addresses, invited talks and general speeches of
interest, talks from industries, paper presentations and panel discussions in
multiple/track sessions, covering diverse topics of interest. The proceedings of the
selected and presented papers is published in this AISC series of Springer Nature by
Springer at free of cost. We are thankful to the authority of Springer for their active
association with CSI.
The papers are checked for similarities multiple times through iThenticate, for
which access is provided by Springer, followed by updation by the author and
double-blind reviews. EasyChair scoring scheme has been adopted to select 23
quality papers based on reviews and EasyChair scoring. We received papers from
various premier institutes as well as some papers from the USA and UK. The
presented papers were modified as per suggestions from session adjudicators, and
tailored papers were uploaded to Springer after checking similarities again. Springer
scrutinized all uploaded papers, and finally, they selected the papers for publication.
We are grateful to the contributors and reviewers for their effort.
The single volume of this proceeding contains chapters like computational
intelligence, data analytics, nature-inspired computing, circuit system and devices,
wireless, mobile and cloud computing and social network.
Some papers in this volume are hierarchical image cryptosystem, intelligent Web
service searching, computational intelligence-based neural session key generation,
computation of peak tunnelling current density in resonant tunnelling diode,

v
vi Preface

organic electricity from Zn/Cu-PKL electrochemical cell, investigation of data set

from diabetic retinopathy, probabilistic sink placement strategy in wireless sensor
network, social media activity of local traffic police department, potential customer
base identification in social media, etc.
We hope this volume will be useful and contributes actively towards the holistic
progress of the civilization. This volume will be value-added bits and pieces for
academicians, researchers and young promising engineers.

Kalyani, India Jyotsna Kumar Mandal

Professor, CSE, University of Kalyani
Kolkata, India Devadatta Sinha
Former Professor, CSE, University of Calcutta
Kolkata, India J. P. Bandopadhyay
Emeritus Professor, University of Calcutta
List of Committee Members

Chief Patron
Smt. Uma Bhattacharjee, Secretary, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Patron
Mr. Tipam Bhattacharjee, President, Kingston Educational Institute, India
General Chair
Prof. Dilip Kumar Sinha, Former Vice Chancellor of Visva Bharati, India
Editorial Board
Dr. Jyotsna Kumar Mandal, University of Kalyani (Corresponding Editor), India
Dr. Devadatta Sinha, Former Professor of CSE, University of Calcutta, India
Prof. J. P. Bandopadhyay, Emeritus Professor, University of Calcutta; Academic
Chairman, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Organizing Chairs
Prof. J. P. Bandopadhyay, Emeritus Professor, University of Calcutta; Academic
Chairman, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Devaprasanna Sinha, RVP—Region-II, CSI, India
Prof. Asish Mukhopadhyay, Ex-Group Director, SRGI, Jhansi; Advisor, Kingston
Polytechnic College
Organizing Co-chairs
Dr. Manishankar Chakraborty, Advisor, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Prof. Diptarup Bandyopadhyay, Principal, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. S. C. Rudra, Former Director, All India Radio, Akashvani Bhavan, Kolkata
International Advisory Committee
Dr. Takaaki Goto, Ryutsu Keizai University, Ryugasaki, Japan
Dr. Amlan Chatterjee, California State University, USA

vii
viii List of Committee Members

Dr. Sanjay Mahapatra, National President of CSI, India

Dr. Goutam Mahapatra, Vice President of CSI, India
Dr. A. K. Nayak, Secretary of CSI, India
Dr. Nabendu Chaki, Calcutta University, India
Dr. Amit Banerjee, Shizuoka University, Japan
Dr. Soumya Sen, Calcutta University, India
Dr. Durgesh Misra, Chairman, Div IV of CSI, India
Dr. Vipin Tyagi, RVP—Region-III, CSI, India
Dr. Paramartha Dutta, Visva Bharati, India
Dr Amlan Chakrabarti, Calcutta University, India
Dr. Sankhayan Choudhury, Calcutta University, India
Dr. Achintya Das, Kalyani Government Engineering College, India
Dr. Siddheswar Maikap, Chang Gung University, Taiwan, R.O.C
Dr. Qing Hao, The University of Arizona, USA
Dr. Gora Chand Dutta, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Somnath Chattopadhyay, California State University, Northridge, USA
Dr. Pierre Mialhe, University of Perpignan, France
Dr. Gautam Kumar Dalapati, IMRE, A*Star, Singapore
Prof. Hiroshi Inokawa, Shizuoka University, Japan
Dr. Al-Sakib Khan Pathan, School of IT, Geelong Waurn, Malaysia
Dr. Toni Janevski, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Macedonia
Dr. Sunil Kumar Jha, University of Information Science and Technology,
Macedonia
Dr. Rudra Dutta, North Carolina State University, USA
Dr. P. T. Kulkarni, Pune Institute of Computer Technology, India
Conference Chairs
Dr. Anirban Basu, President of CSI, India
Mr. Sanjoy Mahapatra, Vice President of CSI, India
Organizing Secretaries
Mr. Partha Ghosh, Asst. Prof., Kingston School of Management & Science, India
Mr. Rajib Kr. Sanyal, Asst. Prof., Kingston School of Management & Science,
India
Mr. Naba Kr. Bera, Administrative Officer, Kingston Law College, India
Joint Organizing Secretaries
Mr. Sovonesh Pal, Dean, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Kingston
Polytechnic College, India
Smt. Priyanka Bhattacharya, Asst. Prof., Kingston School of Management &
Science, India
List of Committee Members ix

Technical Programme Committee

Technical Programme Committee Chairs
Dr. Jyotsna Kumar Mandal, University of Kalyani, India
Prof. Dr. Devadatta Sinha, Professor of CSE, University of Calcutta, India
Dr. Dharm Singh, Professor, Computer Science, Namibia University of Science and
Technology, Namibia
Technical Programme Committee Co chair
Dr. Joyanta Kr. Roy, Technical Consultant (Automation), GKW Consult GmbH,
India
Committee Members
Dr. S. K. Muttoio, University of Delhi, India
Mr. P. K. Hazra, University of Delhi, India
Prof. Vasudha Bhatnagar, University of Delhi, India
Prof. Sajal Saja, Kaziranga University, Jorhat, India
Dr. Partha Pratim Bhattacharya, Mody University, India
Dr. Sibaram Khara, Galgotias University, Noida, India
Dr. Santi Prasad Maity, IISET (BESU), Shibpur, India
Dr. P. K. Jana, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad, India
Dr. Debaprasad Mukherjee, Dr. B.C. Roy Engineering College, Durgapur, India
Dr. Saradindu Panda, Narula Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India
Dr. Raju Dutta, University of Calcutta, India
Dr. Bikramjit Sarkar, JIS College of Engineering, Kalyani, India
Dr. Arunava Dey, Professor, K.L. University, Guntur (AP), India
Dr Anirban Ghatak, Narula Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India
Dr. Punam Bedi, University of Delhi, India
Dr. Neelima Gupta, University of Delhi, India
Dr. Naveen Kumar, University of Delhi, India
S. Arun Kumar, IIT Delhi, India
Amitabha Bagchi, IIT Delhi, India
M. Balakrishnan, IIT Delhi, India
Subhashis Banerjee, IIT Delhi, India
Sorav Bansal, IIT Delhi, India
Naveen Garg, IIT Delhi, India
Rahul Garg, IIT Delhi, India
Ragesh Jaiswal, IIT Delhi, India
Prem Kalra, IIT Delhi, India
Saroj Kaushik, IIT Delhi, India
Amit Kumar, IIT Delhi, India
Anshul Kumar, IIT Delhi, India
Subodh Kumar, IIT Delhi, India
Mausam, IIT Delhi, India
Preeti R. Panda, IIT Delhi, India
x List of Committee Members

Kolin Paul, IIT Delhi, India

Sanjiva Prasad, IIT Delhi, India
Vinay Joseph Ribeiro, IIT Delhi, India
Maya Ramanath, IIT Delhi, India
Huzur Saran, IIT Delhi, India
Smruti Ranjan Sarangi, IIT Delhi, India
Aaditeshwar Seth, IIT Delhi, India
Sandeep Sen, IIT Delhi, India
Sayan Ranu, IIT Delhi, India
Shyam Gupta, IIT Delhi, India
S. N. Maheswari, IIT Delhi, India
Amey Karkare, IIT Kanpur, India
Anil Seth, IIT Kanpur, India
Biswabandan Panda, IIT Kanpur, India
Dheeraj Sanghi, IIT Kanpur, India
Dr. Phalguni Gupta, IIT Kanpur, India
Prof. R. B. Mishra, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Bhaskar Biswas, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Ravi Shankar Singh, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Anil Kumar Singh, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Vinayak Srivastava, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Ravindranath Chowdary, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Sukomal Pal, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Ruchir Gupta, IIT BHU, India
Dr. K. Lakshmanan, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Hari Prabhat Gupta, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Tanima Dutta, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Amrita Chaturvedi, IIT BHU, India
Dr. Vandana Bhattacharjee, BIT, India
K. K. Bharadwaj, JNU, Delhi, India
C. P. Katti, Professor, JNU, Delhi, India
S. Balasundaram, JNU, Delhi, India
N. Parimala, JNU, Delhi, India
Sonajharia Minz, JNU, Delhi, India
Prof. (Dr.) Pallav Banerjee, IIT Kharagpur, India
Prof. (Dr.) Brijesh Kumbhani, IIT Roper, India
Prof. K. Mazumdar, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad, India
Prof. (Dr.) M. K. Das, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad, India
Prof. (Dr.) A. K. Bhattyacharya, NIT Durgapur, India
Prof. (Dr.) A. K. Chakraborty, NIT Durgapur, India
Prof. (Dr.) Monojit Mitra, IIEST, Shibpur, India
Prof. (Dr.) S. R. Bhadra Chaudhuri, IIEST, Shibpur, India
Prof. (Dr.) S. Mandal, NIT Durgapur, India
Prof. (Dr.) C. K Sarkar, Jadavpur University, India
Prof. (Dr.) M. K. Naskar, Jadavpur University, India
List of Committee Members xi

Prof. (Dr.) M. Biswas, Jadavpur University, India

Prof. (Dr.) A. Choudhury, Jadavpur University, India
Prof. (Dr.) S. Mandal, NIT Durgapur, India
Prof. (Dr.) P. P. Sarkar, Kalyani University, India
Prof. Dr. Sourangshu Mukhopadhyay, University of Burdwan, India
Dr. Athitheyan, DG, MEDCOS DRDO, New Delhi, India
Dr. Arindam Dasgupta, DRDO, Hyderabad
Mr. Sandesh B. J., PESIT South Campus, India
Dr. Sudarshan T. S. B., PESIT South Campus, India
Dr. Annapurna, PESIT South Campus, India
Dr. Gowri Srinivasa, PESIT South Campus, India
Dr. Sarasvathi V., PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Pooja Agarwal, PESIT South Campus, India
Mr. Sajeevan K., PESIT South Campus, India
Kanthimathi S., PESIT South Campus, India
Mr. K. S. V. Krishna Srikanth, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Keerti G. Torvi, PESIT South Campus, India
Ms. Bhuvaneswari K. J., PESIT South Campus, India
Ms. Sudeepa Roy Dey, PESIT South Campus, India
Ms. Sai Prasanna M. S., PESIT South Campus, India
Ms. Swati S. Gambhire, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Neeta Ann Jacob, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Shubha Raj K. B., PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Jermin Jeaunita T. C., PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Shanthala P.T., PESIT South Campus, India
Mr. Hanumanth Pujar, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Sangeetha R., PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Surabhi Agrawal, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Vandana M. Ladwani, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Bidisha Goswami, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Sudha.Y., PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Preethi Sangamesh, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Rakhi Mittal Rathor, PESIT South Campus, India
Mrs. Ciji K. R., PESIT South Campus, India
Prof. Chittaranjan Hota, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Prof. R. Gururaj, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Prof. N. L. Bhanu Murthy, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Prof. Anand M. Narasimhamurthy, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Prof. Tathagata Ray, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Dr. G. Geethakumari, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Dr. Aruna Malapati, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Dr. Barsha Mitra, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Dr. Suvadip Batabyal, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Dr. Subhrakanta Panda, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Dr. Sudeepta Mishra, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
xii List of Committee Members

Ms. Neha Bharill, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India

Mr. Gokul Kannan Sadasivam, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad, India
Shweta Agrawal, IIT Madras, India
Sutanu Chakraborti, IIT Madras, India
Timothy A. Gonsalves, IIT Madras, India
D. Janakiram, IIT Madras, India
Anurag Mittal, IIT Madras, India
Hema A. Murthy, IIT Madras, India
V. Krishna Nandivada, IIT Madras, India
Meghana Nasre, IIT Madras, India
Registration Chairs
Mr. Asit Mukherjee, Students’ Welfare Officer, Kingston Polytechnic College,
India
Mr. Arun Kr. Dasgupta, Principal in-charge, Kingston School of Management &
Science, India
Dr. Kartik Kumar Kundu, Principal, Kingston College of Science
Smt. Sikha Mukhopadhyay, Director, Kingston Model School
Publicity Chairs
Dr. Suman Gupta Sharma, Principal, Kingston Law College, India
Mr. Tapan Roychowdhury, Treasurer, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Saugata Chakraborty, Training Placement Officer, Kingston Educational
Institute, India
Organizing Committee Members
Dr. P. K. Chottopadhyay, Former Professor, Jadavpur University; Mentor, Kingston
Polytechnic College, India
Prof. Dipak Kr. Bandyopadhyay, Former Professor, Jadavpur University; Mentor,
Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Dr. B. P. Chottopadhyay, Former Professor, Jadavpur University; Mentor, Kingston
Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Katia Routh, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Timir Chakraborty, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Dhiman Basu, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Utpal Dutta, Sasken Technology, India
Dr. Subhasis Sarkar, Kingston College of Science, India
Dr. Ipshita Haldar, Kingston College of Science, India
Mr. Deep Sadhu, Kalyani Government Engineering College, India
Mr. Arup Dutta, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Ms. Anwesha Nag, Kingston School of Management & Science, India
Ms. Shrabana Chottopadhyay, Kingston Law College, India
Mr. Sougata Sheet, University of Calcutta
Mr. Amit Saha, University of Calcutta
Mr. Mukul Banerjee, Kingston Educational Institute, India
List of Committee Members xiii

Dr. Sumit Kumar Dey, Kingston College of Science, India

Mrs. Nibedita Kundu, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Arvin Bera, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Molay Kr. Giri, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sanjoy Kundu, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Ms. Jhilam Mukherjee, University of Calcutta
Mr. Abhik Ram Mondal, Kingston College of Science, India
Mrs. Ankita Marik, Kingston College of Science, India
Mr. Nilendu Chatterjee, Kingston College of Science, India
Mr. Partha Sarathi Kundu, Kingston College of Science, India
Krishnendu Guha, University of Calcutta
Mr. Prithwijit Chakroborty, Kingston Law College, India
Bulbul Roychowdhury, Kingston Law College, India
Ms. Riya Vijayan, Kingston Law College, India
Mr. Sandip Chanda, Kingston Law College, India
Mr. Tushar Kanti Dey, Kingston Law College, India
Ms. Mithu Mallick, Kingston Law College, India
Ms. Srabanti Kundu, Kingston Law College, India
Ms. Sumita Bhattacharjee, Kingston Law College, India
Mr. Nihar Ranjan Banarjee, Kingston School of Management & Science, India
Mr. Nirup Seal, Kingston School of Management & Science, India
Mr. Sumit Chakraborty, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Samadrita Chakraborty, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Ishani Dutta, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Babul Chakraborty, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Souvik Roy, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Syed Ariful Islam, Kingston School of Management & Science, India
Mr. Koushik Roy, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Raju Biswas, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Soumen Bera, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Subir Das, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mrs. Barnali Bhattacharjee, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Ms. Chumki Biswas, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Mr. Surajit Paul, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Munmun Bhowmick, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Arup kr. Goswami, Kingston Model School, India
Ruma Bhattacharjee, Kingston Model School, India
Mahua Mitra, Kingston Model School, India
Sayonika Dhar, Kingston Model School, India
Abhijit Tripathy, Kingston Model School, India
Sumantra Dey, Kingston Model School, India
Hospitality Committee
Mr. Anirban Sarkar, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mrs. Sudipta Ghosh, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
xiv List of Committee Members

Mr. Dipankar Chakraborty, Kingston Polytechnic College, India

Mr. Tapomoy Guha, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Anower Hossain Gayen, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Aurobinda Roy, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Roneeta Purkayastha, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Arunava Chakraborty, Kingston School of Management & Science, India
Mr. Arup Das, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Maheswar Das, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Mrinmoy Samanta, Kingston Educational Institute, India
Ms. Manashi De, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Basudev Pal, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Rabindranath Nath Jana, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Soyeta Basak, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Pritam Bhattacharyya, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Tanmoy Biswas, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Aratrika Maitra, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Himadri Mitra, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Nandadulal Chakraborty, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Bikash Roy, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Kartik Maity, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sauradeep Roy, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Santu Maity, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Debnarayan Chakraborty, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Kiranmoy Samanta, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Swapan Kr. Ghosh, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Tanmoy Kundu, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Liton Biswas, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. P. K. Basu, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mrs. Rupa Ganguly, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sourav Kundu, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Souvik Mukherjee, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Subha Mondal, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mrs. Debjani Bhattacharya, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Papri Dhar Roy, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Asmita Das, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Priyanka Ghosh, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Indodeep Chakraborty, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Diptesh Ghosh, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Harasit Basak, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sruti Sundar Bhowmick, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Rominul Haque, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Basudev Saha, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Subhasis Maity, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Titas Bhaumik, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mrs. Sutapa Biswas, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
List of Committee Members xv

Mr. Kaushik Nath, Kingston Polytechnic College, India

Ms. Jayeta Chakraborty, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Saikat Chatterjee, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Santu Sikdar, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Pujayita Saha, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Amit Kr. Das, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sourav Pal, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Ramkamal Adhikary, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mrs. Debarati De, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Subhasish Nath, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Arunava Rano, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Gopi Kanta Nath, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Abhishek Roy, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Ananya Das, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Kalyan Mukherjee, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Amar Kumar Samanta, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Parimal Chandra Guha, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Dibyendu Bairagi, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Arnab Saha, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Mainak Biswas, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sukriti Dan, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Debkumar Das, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Koushik Debnath, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Prithagni Pal, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Md. Tarik, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Siddhartha Halder, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Munmun Sarkar, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Subhasree Poddar, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Anup Sahoo, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Subrata Roy, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Ahasanul Haque Khan, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sreeparna Bhaumik, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Sushmita Kanjilal, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Pradip Kumar Pal, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Debasis Bhattacharya, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Tumpa Jana, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Ms. Sudipa Hazari, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Tanmoy Maji, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Suvankar Dutta, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Biswajit Das, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mr. Nirupom Som, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mrs. Mithu Saha, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Mrs. Manika Bhattacharjee, Kingston Polytechnic College, India
Puja Sharma, Kingston Model School, India
Aparna Pal, Kingston Model School, India
xvi List of Committee Members

Debi Biswas, Kingston Model School, India

Anindita Bagchi, Kingston Model School, India
Rupa Bachar, Kingston Model School, India
Soumendu Sahoo, Kingston Model School, India
Sanju Kumari Prajapati, Kingston Model School, India
Contents

Part I Computational Intelligence

A Hierarchical Image Cryptosystem Based on Visual Cryptography
and Vector Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Surya Sarathi Das, Kaushik Das Sharma, Jayanta K. Chandra
and J. N. Bera
Intelligent Web Service Searching Using Inverted Index . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sinthia Roy, Arijit Banerjee, Partha Ghosh, Amlan Chatterjee
and Soumya Sen
Computational Intelligence Based Neural Session Key Generation
on E-Health System for Ischemic Heart Disease
Information Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Arindam Sarkar, Joydeep Dey, Anirban Bhowmik, Jyotsna Kumar Mandal
and Sunil Karforma

Part II Circuit System and Devices

Computation of Peak Tunneling Current Density in Resonant
Tunneling Diode Using Self-consistency Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Arpan Deyasi, Biswarup Karmakar, Rupali Lodh and Pradipta Biswas
Computing Surface Potential and Drain Current in Nanometric
Double-Gate MOSFET Using Ortiz-Conde Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Krishnendu Roy, Anal Roy Chowdhury, Arpan Deyasi
and Angsuman Sarkar
Comparative Studies on the Performance Parameters of a P-Channel
Tunnel Field Effect Transistor Using Different Channel Materials
for Low-Power Digital Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Jayabrata Goswami, Anuva Ganguly, Anirudhha Ghosal and J. P. Banerjee

xvii
xviii Contents

Implementation of Toffoli Gate Using LTEx Module

of Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Chiradeep Mukherjee, Dip Ghosh, Sayan Halder, Sambhu Nath Surai,
Saradindu Panda, Asish Kumar Mukhopadhyay and Bansibadan Maji
Study on Localized Surface Plasmon to Improve Photonic
Extinction in Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Partha Sarkar, Sambhu Nath Surai, S. Panda, B. Maji
and A. K. Mukhopadhyay
Organic Electricity from Zn/Cu-PKL Electrochemical Cell . . . . . . . . . . 75
K. A. Khan, M. S. Bhuyan, M. A. Mamun, M. Ibrahim, Lovelu Hassan
and M. A. Wadud

Part III Nature Inspired Computing

Investigation of Dataset from Diabetic Retinopathy Through
Discernibility-Based k-NN Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Rajesh Prasad Sarkar and Ananjan Maiti
Malignant Melanoma Detection Using Multi Layer Perceptron
with Optimized Network Parameter Selection by PSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Soumen Mukherjee, Arunabha Adhikari and Madhusudan Roy
A New Search Space Reduction Technique
for Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Amit Kumar Das and Dilip Kumar Pratihar

Part IV Data Analytics

Reducing Computational Complexity of Skyline by the Use of Logical
and Physical Bucket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Partha Ghosh, Leena Jana Ghosh, Subhajit Guha, Narayan C. Debnath
and Soumya Sen
An Integrated Blood Donation Campaign Management System . . . . . . . 133
Lalmohan Dutta, Giridhar Maji, Partha Ghosh and Soumya Sen
Comparative Study and Improvement of Various Clustering
Techniques in Statistical Programming Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Arup Kumar Bhattacharjee, Mantrita Dey, Debalina Dutta, Sudeepa Sett,
Soumen Mukherjee and Arpan Deyasi
Context-Based Multi-document Summarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Sheetal Sonawane, Archana Ghotkar and Sonam Hinge
Contents xix

Part V Wireless, Mobile and Cloud Computing

Probabilistic Sink Placement Strategy in Wireless Sensor Network . . . . 169
Krishnendu Saha, Jayanta Aich, Sumana Chakraborty and Sayan Bose
Continuous Monitoring of Railway Tracks with Speed Control
of Rail Wirelessly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Sayan Paramanik, Krishna Sarker and Biswajit Mahanty
Secure Anonymous Session Key Agreement Between Trusted Users
in Global Mobility Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Prasanta Kumar Roy, Sathi Ball and Krittibas Parai
Comparative Performance Analysis of DTN Routing Protocols
in Multiple Post-disaster Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Amit Kr. Gupta, Jyotsna Kumar Mandal and Indrajit Bhattacharya
Unique Approaches of Process Modeling for First-Order- and
Second-Order System with Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Diptarup Bandyopadhyay

Part VI Social Network

Study of Social Media Activity of Local Traffic Police Department:
Their Posting Nature, Interaction, and Reviews of the Public . . . . . . . . 221
Mohammed Allama Hossain, Rashika Daga, Saptarsi Goswami
and Satyajit Chakrabarti
Sentiment Analysis Based Potential Customer Base Identification
in Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Sanjay Goswami, Satrajit Nandi and Sucheta Chatterjee
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
About the Editors

Prof. Jyotsna Kumar Mandal graduated from University of Burdwan with

physics honours and did his post-graduation from Jadavpur University in physics
and then M.Tech. in computer science and engineering from University of Calcutta
in 1987. He did his Ph.D. in the field of computer science and engineering from
Jadavpur University in 2000 and started his teaching career at North Bengal
University. Currently, he is Professor at University of Kalyani. He was Visiting
Professor at Vidyasagar University and Tripura University. He has also been a part
of building academic programmes for different graduate and post-graduate levels at
different universities. He has actively published in different journals and interna-
tional conferences. He has also actively reviewed papers for many journals and
conferences. He has guided research students for Ph.D. in computer science and
engineering and M.Tech., B.Tech. and M.Sc. students for their dissertations. He
was also in the editorial boards of different journals and conferences. He is an active
member of different academic bodies in different institutions.

Prof. Dr. Devadatta Sinha graduated from Presidency College with mathematics
honours and did his post-graduation in applied mathematics and then in computer
science. He did his Ph.D. in the field of computer science from Jadavpur University
in 1985. He started his teaching career in the Department of Computer Engineering
at BIT Mesra, Ranchi, then at Jadavpur University and at Calcutta University from
where he retired as Professor in the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering. He also served as Head of the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering. He also served as Convener, Ph.D. Committee in Computer Science
and Engineering and in Information Technology, University of Calcutta. He also
served as Vice-Chairman, Research Committee in Computer Science and
Engineering, West Bengal University of Technology. During his career, he has
written a number of research papers in national and international journals and
conference proceedings. He has also written a number of expository articles in
periodicals, books and monographs. His research interests include software engi-
neering, parallel and distributed algorithms, bioinformatics, computational intelli-
gence, computer education, mathematical ecology, networking. He has guided

xxi
xxii About the Editors

research students for their Ph.D. in computer science and engineering and M.Tech.,
B.Tech. and M.Sc. students for their dissertations. He has a total teaching/research
experience of more than 38 years. He was also in the editorial boards of different
journals and conference proceedings. He also served in different capacities in the
programme committees and organizing committees of different national and
international conferences. He was Sectional President, Section of Computer
Science, Indian Science Congress Association, during the year 1993–1994. He is an
active member of different academic bodies in different institutions. He is Fellow
and Senior Life Member of CSI and has been involved in different activities
including organization of different computer/IT courses since a long time. He is also
adjudged Distinguished Speaker by Computer Society of India.

Prof. J. P. Bandyopadhyay is Former Professor and UGC Emeritus Fellow in the

Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics, University of Calcutta. He is also
Former Director of the Centre of Millimeter Wave Semiconductor Devices and
Systems (CMSDS), University of Calcutta. He has a long and successful teaching
and research career of about four decades in the Institute of Radio Physics and
Electronics, University of Calcutta. His research interests cover semiconductor
microwave and terahertz devices and photonic and quantum effect devices. He has
published 184 research articles in peer-reviewed journals, several of which are
highly cited. He has authored five textbooks in the field of electronics and
telecommunication engineering for UG and PG students, some of which are rec-
ommended in the prescribed syllabus of various Indian universities as textbooks.
He was the principal investigator of several R&D projects funded by DRDO, MIT,
AICTE, CSIR, UGC, DST and DOE in the field of microwave and millimetre-wave
semiconductor devices in the University of Calcutta. He has supervised the Ph.D.
theses of a large number of students of Calcutta University. He was honoured
several times to deliver invited talks in various research seminars, symposia and
conferences held in India and abroad in the area of his teaching and research
expertise. He has also chaired the technical sessions of various international con-
ferences. He has been serving the cause of higher education, both teaching and
research, by participating in Ph.D. committees and Board of higher studies as an
external expert member of different premier institutes in India.
 Part I
Computational Intelligence
A Hierarchical Image Cryptosystem
Based on Visual Cryptography
and Vector Quantization

Surya Sarathi Das, Kaushik Das Sharma,

Jayanta K. Chandra and J. N. Bera

1 Introduction

Today, the explosive growth in use of Internet is mainly involved in sharing of

information which includes text data, audio, video, image, etc. Thus the confi-
dentiality of information during transmission has turned into a major challenge
nowadays. To avoid huge computation as in the standard encryption techniques like
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Data Encryption Standard (DES), etc.
Shamir and Naor [1] in 1994 proposed a simple image encryption technique for
binary image called (k, n)-threshold visual cryptography scheme (VCS). As in [1],
the basic (k, n)-threshold scheme visually encrypts a binary image into n number of
images called shares. The security of the scheme is ensured by the condition that
secret image is only recoverable if as a minimum k (k
n) shares are available.
When k numbers of shares or more are stacked, the visual system of a human helps
to identify the secret image by looking at the stacked shares, without any mathe-
matical computation. Later, VCS becomes popular in various application fields [2]
and several researches can be found in the way to find VCS for grayscale images
[3–5] and color images [6–8]. Another problem of pixel expansion in the basic
formulation of VCS [1] instigated several researches [9–11] aiming to reduce pixel
expansion. The shares generated in VCS are meaningless as it formed with some
random pixel values. Thus it possesses a serious threat to be captured during

S. S. Das (&)
Department of Computer Application, Kalyani Government Engineering College,
Kalyani 741235, India
e-mail: suryasarathi.das@gmail.com
K. Das Sharma  J. N. Bera
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700009, India
J. K. Chandra
Department of Electrical Engineering, Ram Krishna Mahato Government Engineering
College, Purulia 723103, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 3

J. K. Mandal et al. (eds.), Contemporary Advances in Innovative and Applicable
Information Technology, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 812,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1540-4_1
4 S. S. Das et al.

transmission over any public network by curious hackers and secret image can be
revealed by stacking them. Several researches [12, 13] may also be found to
generate meaningful shares or innocent-looking shares to evade hackers. Thus, to
devise a VCS that suits for (a) all kinds of images (b) with no pixel expansion and
that (c) avoids the problem of meaningless share becomes a motivation of the
research work presented in this paper. The authors of this present paper previously
proposed a VCS employing a framework based on quantum signal processing [14].
The scheme in [14] works for the images of all kind viz. binary, grayscale and color
images and does not involve any pixel expansion. The current paper is firstly
focused to resolve the problem of meaningless shares. Hierarchically, in the first
level, the QSP based VCS is used to generate shares. The meaningless shares are
further encoded, in the next level, using a secret sharing technique derived from
Shamir’s scheme [15]. One of the pioneers of VCS, Adi Shamir [15], proposed in
1979, a (k, m) threshold scheme to share a secret based on a method of polynomial
interpolation. The scheme in [15] divides any secret data into m parts, out of which
minimum k parts are needed to rebuild the secret data. As the pixels of each share
are encoded into m number of pieces, during transmission, even though hackers
capture all the shares, it is not possible to reconstruct the secret image by stacking
them as in VCS. But Shamir’s scheme increases the data volume m-fold after
encryption. This instigates the second objective of this present work to reduce the
data volume overhead during transmission and thus to reduce the transmission
delay. Vector quantization (VQ) [16] is a traditional quantization method mainly
applied in signal processing, image processing and data compression. In the third
level of the proposed scheme, VQ is used to lower the size of the encrypted data
just before the transmission takes place. The complete block diagram of the pro-
posed cryptosystem is shown in Fig. 1.
Thus the proposed scheme designs a image cryptosystems in its three-levels of
hierarchy: (1) meaningless shares are generated using QSP based VCS, (2) to evade
hackers, the meaningless shares are further encoded using Shamir’s Scheme and
finally (3) the encoded data volume is lowered using VQ to reduce transmission
overhead.

Fig. 1 The block diagram of the proposed cryptosystem

A Hierarchical Image Cryptosystem … 5

The paper is organized as: Sect. 2 describes proposed cryptosystem. The per-
formance indices to evaluate the proposed scheme are described in Sect. 3. Results
and performance analysis of the proposed cryptosystem are given in Sect. 4.
Section 5 concludes the paper.

2 Proposed Cryptosystem

In this section, a detail step–by-step method is given to explain the proposed

cryptosystem as follows:
Step 1: (2, 2)-QSP based VCS of grayscale image
The QSP based VCS [14] uses the notion of quantum mechanics to design a
QSP framework. A QSP framework is designed with input mapping, then QSP
measurement and finally output mapping. The framework processes an input image
as a signal and applies the encryption algorithm to generate unexpanded shares.
Here, in this paper, the simplest (2, 2)-QSP based VCS is used on a grayscale image
I and two unexpanded shares S1 and S2 are generated. For the standard grayscale
image “Lena”, Fig. 2 shows both shares and the resultant image.
Step 2: Employing Shamir’s (k, m)-threshold scheme on each share
In the first step of a (k, m)-threshold scheme, a polynomial function of degree
k − 1 is chosen as follows:

f ðxÞ ¼ ða0 þ a1 x þ    þ ak1 xk1 Þ mod p; ð1Þ

where a0 is the secret s to be secured and p is prime number large enough than s.
Then the value of the function f, say z, for m different values of x is calculated.
These m numbers of z values correspond to the m different pieces in which the
secret data s is encrypted. Out of these m pieces only k pieces suffice the recon-
struction of the secret.
In the reconstruction phase, k pieces are randomly chosen. These k pieces are
used to rebuild the coefficients of the polynomial function f(x). Here, Lagrange

Fig. 2 QSP based (2, 2)-VCS: a Input image. b Share 1. c Share 2. d Resultant image
6 S. S. Das et al.

interpolation method is used find the Lagrange basis polynomial and the formula
used is as follows:

Y k
x  xj
li ¼ ð2Þ
x  xj
j¼1;i6¼j i

Thus the polynomial function is reconstructed as:

X
k
f ðxÞ ¼ ðli  zi Þ mod p ð3Þ
i¼1

And finally, the secret s is retrieved by calculating the value of f(0).

In this present paper, as an instance, the value of k and m are taken as 3 and 6
respectively to encrypt each of the pixel values for both the shares S1 and S2. It may
be noted that, the size of each share S1 (or S2) generated after applying (2, 2)-QSP
based VCS is same as the original image I, say M  N. Thus after applying
Shamir’s scheme, two sets of data E1 and E2 of size M  N  6 are generated
corresponding to two shares. Obviously, this step increases the volume of encrypted
data in a much greater scale.
Step 3: Compression using Vector Quantization
Vector quantization [16] is traditional quantization technique mainly used in
signal processing and image processing. VQ takes a large set of input values and
divides into groups. For an n-dimensional VQ, an n-dimensional grid pattern where
the centroid of each cell is represented by n values is considered. Accordingly,
n consecutive input values are considered at a time to map into index having nearest
centroid value.
Here, three-dimensional VQ is used to encode E1 and E2 of size M  N  6.
Thus it reduces the volume of the encoded data by one-third. The codebooks C1 and
C2, corresponding to two shares, generated after VQ, are transmitted to the receiver.
Step 4: Decoding of codebook
At the receiving end, the received codebooks C1 and C2 are decoded according
to the vector de-quantization process. This decoding results in regeneration of E1
and E2 of size M  N  6 at the receiving end.
Step 5: Regeneration of shares
In this phase, shares S1 and S2 are regenerated from E1 and E2 respectively. As
because (3, 6)-threshold scheme is used here, only three values corresponding to
each pixel from E1 (and E2) are randomly chosen. For each pixel, Lagrange basis
polynomials are computed, polynomial function f(x) is determined and pixel is
regenerated. Then, after retrieving all M  N pixels, the share S1 (and S2) are
reconstructed. Finally, both the shares S1 and S2 are stacked following the principle
of VCS and secret image is regenerated.
A Hierarchical Image Cryptosystem … 7

3 Performance Indices

Following performance indices are used to evaluate the performance of the pro-
posed cryptosystem:
Correlation Coefficient
The quality of resultant image is calculated here using correlation coefficient (CC)
with respect to input image. The resultant image becomes qualitatively better when
the value of the correlation coefficient is higher.
Information Entropy
How much the system is efficient to defy the security attacks can be measured by a
parameter named Information entropy. Information entropy, introduced by Shannon
in 1949, of an image represents the distribution of intensity levels. A truly random
distribution of encrypted data is indicated by the entropy value near to eight.
Image encryption quality
It is a metric to determine the figure of merit of an image encryption technique.
When an encryption technique is applied to an image, changes take place in pixels
due to encryption process. The irregularity of such change is the measure of
Encryption Quality. Higher value of Encryption Quality indicates greater quality of
the image encryption technique.
Correlation between adjacent pixels
The correlation amongst the pixels in any image signifies the predictability of the
image content. Low correlation value between adjacent pixels indicates random
behavior of image and hence become unable to predict. The pair of adjacent pixels
may be chosen from any orientation-horizontal, vertical or diagonal.
NPCR and UACI: parameters to evaluate the influence of differential attack
A good cryptosystem must be very sensitive to a small change made to the original
image. An attacker may change plain image slightly, preferably one pixel change,
to observe the changes in the encrypted image and thus to find a meaningful
transition from original image to encrypted image. The influence of this differential
attack can be quantified and parameters used for that are: Number of Pixel Change
Rate (NPCR) and Unified Average Changing Intensity (UACI). NPCR measures
the rate of change of number of pixels in encrypted image and UACI finds the
average of intensity differences between two encrypted images. Higher value of
NPCR indicates better randomization in the pixel distribution of the encrypted
image.
8 S. S. Das et al.

4 Results and Performance Analysis

The cryptosystem proposed here is applied on three grayscale benchmark images-

“Lena”, “Mandrill”, and “Woman darkhair” [17], each of size 100  100 and
results are shown in Table 1. The comparative analysis of correlation coefficient
and values of Information Entropy, Encryption Quality, NPCR and UACI are listed
in Table 2. Table 3 lists the original image size, size of encoded data after Shamir’s
scheme applied, size of the codebook. Table 3 also lists the percentage of change in
size amongst them. Table 4 lists the correlation coefficient between adjacent pixels.

Table 1 Results obtained

Original Image Share # 1 Share # 2 Resultant Image

Table 2 Performance and security analysis

Image name Correlation coefficient Information Image NPCR UACI
Method as Proposed entropy encryption
in [1] scheme quality
Lena 0.7158 0.7184 7.9522 73.6641 89.7400 33.5308
Mandrill 0.6890 0.6966 7.9807 73.4961 89.8700 33.0681
Woman 0.7554 0.7622 7.9536 73.6909 89.0900 32.8129
darkhair [17]
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
length, and their reproduction is as clear as that of any phonograph,
indeed in many respects it is considerably more perfect.
Another electrical apparatus for recording speech may be
mentioned. This rejoices in the uncouth name of the
Photographophone, and it is the invention of Ernst Ruhmer, a
German. Its working is based upon the fact that the intensity of the
light of the electric arc may be varied by sound vibrations, each
variation in the latter producing a corresponding variation in the
amount of light. In the photographophone the light of an arc lamp is
passed through a lens which focuses it upon a moving photographic
film. By speaking or singing, the light is made to vary in brilliance,
and proportionate effects are produced in the silver bromide of the
film. On developing the film a permanent record of the changes in
the light intensity is obtained, in the form of shadings of different
degrees of darkness. The film is now moved forward from end to end
in front of a fairly powerful lamp. The light passes through the film,
and falls upon a sort of plate made of selenium. This is a non-
metallic substance which possesses the curious property of altering
its resistance to an electric current according to the amount of light
falling upon it; the greater the amount of light, the more current will
the selenium allow to pass. The selenium plate is connected with a
telephone receiver and with a battery. As the film travels along, its
varying shadings allow an ever-changing amount of light to pass
through and fall upon the selenium, which varies its resistance
accordingly. The resulting variations in the current make the receiver
diaphragm give out a series of sounds, which are exact
reproductions of the original sounds made by the voice. The
reproduction of speech by the photographophone is quite good, but
as a rule it is not so perfect as with the telegraphone.
About ten years ago a German inventor, Professor A. Korn,
brought out the first really practical method of telegraphing drawings
or photographs. This invention is remarkable not only for what it
accomplishes, but perhaps still more for the ingenuity with which the
many peculiar difficulties of the process are overcome. Like the
photographophone, Korn’s photo-telegraphic apparatus utilizes the
power of selenium to alter its resistance with the amount of light
reaching it.
Almost everybody is familiar with the terms “positive” and
“negative” as used in photography. The finished paper print is a
positive, with light and shade in the correct positions; while the glass
plate from which the print is made is a negative, with light and shade
reversed. The lantern slide also is a positive, and it is exactly like the
paper print, except that it has a base of glass instead of paper, so
that it is transparent. Similarly, a positive may be made on a piece of
celluloid, and this, besides being transparent, is flexible. The first
step in transmitting on the Korn system is to make from the
photograph to be telegraphed a positive of this kind, both transparent
and flexible. This is bent round a glass drum or cylinder, and fixed so
that it cannot possibly move. The cylinder is given a twofold
movement. It is rotated by means of an electric motor, and at the
same time it is made to travel slowly along in the direction of its
length. In fact its movement is very similar to that of a screw, which
turns round and moves forward at the same time. A powerful beam
of light is concentrated upon the positive. This beam remains
stationary, but owing to the dual movement of the cylinder it passes
over every part of the positive, following a spiral path. Exactly the
same effect would be produced by keeping the cylinder still and
moving the beam spirally round it, but this arrangement would be
more difficult to manipulate. The forward movement of the cylinder is
extremely small, so that the spiral is as fine as it is possible to get it
without having adjacent lines actually touching. The light passes
through the positive into the cylinder, and is reflected towards a
selenium cell; and as the positive has an almost infinite number of
gradations of tone, or degrees of light and shade, the amount of light
reaching the cell varies constantly all the time. The selenium
therefore alters its resistance, and allows a constantly varying
current to pass through it, and so to the transmission line.
At the receiving end is another cylinder having the same rotating
and forward movement, and round this is fixed a sensitive
photographic film. This film is protected by a screen having a small
opening, and no light can reach it except through this aperture. The
incoming current is made to control a beam of light focused to fall
upon the screen aperture, the amount of light varying according to
the amount of current. In this way the beam of light, like the one at
the transmitting end, traces a spiral from end to end of the film, and
on developing the film a reproduction of the original photograph is
obtained. The telegraphed photograph is thus made up of an
enormous number of lines side by side, but these are so close to one
another that they are scarcely noticed, and the effect is something
like that of a rather coarse-grained ordinary photograph.
It is obvious that the success of this method depends upon the
maintaining of absolute uniformity in the motion of the two cylinders,
and this is managed in a very ingenious way. It will be remembered
that one method of securing uniformity in a number of sub-clocks
under the control of a master-clock is that of adjusting the sub-clocks
to go a little faster than the master-clock. Then, when the sub-clocks
reach the hour, they are held back by electro-magnetic action until
the master-clock arrives at the hour, when all proceed together.
A similar method is employed for the cylinders. They are driven
by electric motors, and the motor at the receiving end is adjusted so
as to run very slightly faster than the motor at the sending end. The
result is that the receiving cylinder completes one revolution a
minute fraction of a second before the transmitting cylinder. It is then
automatically held back until the sending cylinder completes its
revolution, and then both commence the next revolution exactly
together. The pause made by the receiving cylinder is of extremely
short duration, but in order that there shall be no break in the spiral
traced by light upon the film, the pause takes place at the point
where the ends of the film come together. In actual practice certain
other details of adjustment are required to ensure precision in
working, but the main features of the process are as described.
Although the above photo-telegraphic process is very
satisfactory in working, it has been superseded to some extent by
another process of a quite different nature. By copying the original
photograph through a glass screen covered with a multitude of very
fine parallel lines, a half-tone reproduction is made. This is formed of
an immense number of light and dark lines of varying breadth, and it
is printed in non-conducting ink on lead-foil, so that while the dark
lines are bare foil, the light ones are covered with the ink. This half-
tone is placed round a metal cylinder having the same movement as
the cylinders in the previous processes, and a metal point, or “stylus”
as it is called, is made to rest lightly upon the foil picture, so that it
travels all over it, from one end to the other. An electrical circuit is
arranged so that when the stylus touches a piece of the bare foil a
current is sent out along the line wire. This current is therefore
intermittent, being interrupted each time the stylus passes over a
part of the half-tone picture covered with the non-conducting ink, the
succeeding periods of current and no current varying with the
breadth of the conducting and the non-conducting lines. This
intermittent current goes to a similar arrangement of stylus and
cylinder at the receiving end, this cylinder having round it a sheet of
paper coated with a chemical preparation. The coating is white all
over to begin with, but it turns black wherever the current passes
through it. The final result is that the intermittent current builds up a
reproduction in black-and-white of the original photograph. In this
process also the cylinders have to be “synchronized,” or adjusted to
run at the same speed. Both this process and the foregoing one
have been used successfully for the transmission of press
photographs, notably by the Daily Mirror.
Professor Korn has carried out some interesting and fairly
successful experiments in wireless transmission of photographs, but
as yet the wireless results are considerably inferior to those obtained
with a line conductor. For transmitting black-and-white pictures, line
drawings, or autographs by wireless, a combination of the two
methods just mentioned is employed; the second method being used
for sending, and the first or selenium method for receiving. For true
half-tone pictures the selenium method is used at each end.
 CHAPTER XX
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY—
PRINCIPLES AND APPARATUS

Wireless telegraphy is probably the most remarkable and at the

same time the most interesting of all the varied applications of
electricity. The exceptional popular interest in wireless
communication, as compared with most of the other daily tasks
which electricity is called upon to perform, is easy to understand.
The average man does not realize that although we are able to make
electricity come and go at our bidding, we have little certain
knowledge of its nature. He is so accustomed to hearing of the
electric current, and of the work it is made to do, that he sees little to
marvel at so long as there is a connecting wire. Electricity is
produced by batteries or by a dynamo, sent along a wire, and made
to drive the necessary machinery; apparently it is all quite simple.
But take away the connecting wire, and the case is different. In
wireless telegraphy electricity is produced as usual, but instantly it
passes out into the unknown, and, as far as our senses can tell, it is
lost for ever. Yet at some distant point, hundreds or even thousands
of miles away, the electrical influence reappears, emerging from the
unknown with its burden of words and sentences. There is
something uncanny about this, something suggesting telepathy and
the occult, and herein lies the fascination of wireless telegraphy.
The idea of communicating without any connecting wires is an
old one. About the year 1842, Morse, of telegraph fame, succeeded
in transmitting telegraphic signals across rivers and canals without a
connecting wire. His method was to stretch along each bank of the
river a wire equal in length to three times the breadth of the river.
One of these wires was connected with the transmitter and with a
battery, and the other with a receiver, both wires terminating in
copper plates sunk in the water. In this case the water took the place
of a connecting wire, and acted as the conducting medium. A few
years later another investigator, a Scotchman named Lindsay,
succeeded in telegraphing across the river Tay, at a point where it is
over a mile and a half wide, by similar methods. Lindsay appears to
have been the first to suggest the possibility of telegraphing across
the Atlantic, and although at that time, 1845, the idea must have
seemed a wild one, he had the firmest faith in its ultimate
accomplishment.
Amongst those who followed Lindsay’s experiments with keen
interest was the late Sir William, then Mr. Preece, but it was not until
1882, twenty years after Lindsay’s death, that he commenced
experiments on his own account. In March of that year the cable
across the Solent failed, and Preece took the opportunity of trying to
signal across without a connecting wire. He used two overhead
wires, each terminating in large copper plates sunk in the sea, one
stretching from Southampton to Southsea Pier, and the other from
Ryde Pier to Sconce Point. The experiment was successful, audible
Morse signals being received on each side. In this experiment, as in
those of Morse and Lindsay, the water acted as the conducting
medium; but a year or two later, Preece turned his attention to a
different method of wireless communication, by means of induction.
This method was based upon the fact that at the instant of starting
and stopping a current in one wire, another current is induced in a
second wire placed parallel to it, even when the two wires are a
considerable distance apart. Many successful experiments in this
induction telegraphy were made, one of the most striking being that
between the Island of Mull and the mainland, in 1895. The cable
between the island and the mainland had broken, and by means of
induction perfect telegraphic communication was maintained during
the time that the cable was being repaired. Although this system of
wireless telegraphy is quite successful for short distances, it
becomes impracticable when the distance is increased, because the
length of each of the two parallel wires must be roughly equal to the
distance between them. These experiments of Preece are of great
interest, but we must leave them because they have little connexion
with present-day wireless telegraphy, in which utterly different
methods are used.
All the commercial wireless systems of to-day depend upon the
production and transmission of electric waves. About the year 1837 it
was discovered that the discharge of a Leyden jar did not consist of
only one sudden rush of electricity, but of a series of electric
oscillations, which surged backwards and forwards until electric
equilibrium was restored. This discovery was verified by later
experimenters, and it forms the foundation of our knowledge of
electric waves. At this point many readers probably will ask, “What
are electric waves?” It is impossible to answer this question fully, for
we still have a great deal to learn about these waves, and we only
can state the conclusions at which our greatest scientists have
arrived after much thought and many experiments. It is believed that
all space is filled with a medium to which the name “ether” has been
given, and that this ether extends throughout the matter. We do not
know what the ether is, but the important fact is that it can receive
and transmit vibrations in the form of ether waves. There are
different kinds of ether waves, and they produce entirely different
effects. Some of them produce the effect which we call light, and
these are called “light waves.” Others produce the effect known as
heat, and they are called “heat waves”; and still others produce
electricity, and these we call “electric waves.” These waves travel
through the ether at the enormous speed of 186,000 miles per
second, so that they would cross the Atlantic Ocean in about 1/80
second. The fact that light also travels at this speed suggested that
there might be some connexion between the two sets of waves, and
after much experiment it has been demonstrated that the waves of
light and electricity are identical except in their length.
Later on in this chapter we shall have occasion to refer
frequently to wave-length, and we may take this opportunity of
explaining what is understood by this term. Wave-length is the
distance measured from the crest of one wave to the crest of the
next, across the intervening trough or hollow. From this it will be
seen that the greater the wave-length, the farther apart are the
waves; and also that if we have two sets of waves of different wave-
lengths but travelling at the same speed, then the number of waves
arriving at any point in one second will be greater in the case of the
shorter waves, because these are closer together.
A tuning-fork in vibration disturbs the surrounding air, and sets
up air waves which produce the effect called sound when they strike
against the drums of our ears. In a similar way the discharge of a
Leyden jar disturbs the surrounding ether, and sets up electric ether
waves; but these waves produce no effect upon us in the shape of
sight, sound, or feeling. There is however a very simple piece of
apparatus which acts as a sort of electric eye or ear, and detects the
waves for us. This consists of a glass tube loosely filled with metal
filings, and having a cork at each end. A wire is passed through each
cork so as to project well into the tube, but so that the two ends do
not touch one another, and the outer ends of these wires are
connected to a battery of one or two cells, and to some kind of
electrically worked apparatus, such as an electric bell. So long as the
filings lie quite loosely in the tube they offer a very high resistance,
and no current passes. If now electric waves are set up by the
discharge of a Leyden jar, these waves fall upon the tube and cause
the resistance of the filings to decrease greatly. The filings now form
a conducting path through which the current passes, and so the bell
rings. If no further discharge takes place the electric waves cease,
but the filings do not return to their original highly resistant condition,
but retain their conductivity, and the current continues to pass, and
the bell goes on ringing. To stop the bell it is only necessary to tap
the tube gently, when the filings immediately fall back into their first
state, so that the current cannot pass through them.
Now let us see how the “coherer,” as the filings tube is called, is
used in actual wireless telegraphy. Fig. 33a shows a simple
arrangement for the purpose. A is an induction coil, and B the battery
supplying the current. The coil is fitted with a spark gap, consisting of
two highly polished brass balls CC, one of these balls being
connected to a vertical wire supported by a pole, and the other to
earth. D is a Morse key for starting and stopping the current. When
the key is pressed down, current flows from the battery to the coil,
and in passing through the coil it is raised to a very high voltage, as
described in Chapter VIII. This high tension current is sent into the
aerial wire, which quickly becomes charged up to its utmost limits.
But more current continues to arrive, and so the electricity in the
aerial, unable to bear any longer the enormous pressure, takes the
only path of escape and bursts violently across the air gap
separating the brass balls. Surging oscillations are then produced in
the aerial, the ether is violently disturbed, and electric waves are set
in motion. This is the transmitting part of the apparatus.

a. Transmitting. b. Receiving.
Fig. 33.—Diagram of simple Wireless Transmitting and Receiving
Apparatus.
 If a stone is dropped into a pond, little waves are set in motion,
and these spread outwards in ever-widening rings. Electric waves
also are propagated outwards in widening rings, but instead of
travelling in one plane only, like the water waves, they proceed in
every plane; and when they arrive at the receiving aerial they set up
in it oscillations of the same nature as those which produced the
waves. Let us suppose electric waves to reach the aerial wire of Fig.
33b. The resistance of the coherer H is at once lowered so that
current from battery N flows and operates the relay F, which closes
the circuit of battery M. This battery has a twofold task. It operates
the sounder E, and it energizes the electro-magnet of the de-coherer
K, as shown by the dotted lines. This de-coherer is simply an electric
bell without the gong, arranged so that the hammer strikes the
coherer tube; and its purpose is to tap the tube automatically and
much more rapidly than is possible by hand. The sounder therefore
gives a click, and the de-coherer taps the tube, restoring the
resistance of the filings. The circuit of battery N is then broken, and
the relay therefore interrupts the circuit of battery M. If waves
continue to arrive, the circuits are again closed, another click is
given, and again the hammer taps the tube. As long as waves are
falling upon the aerial, the alternate makings and breakings of the
circuits follow one another very rapidly and the sounder goes on
working. When the waves cease, the hammer of the de-coherer has
the last word, and the circuits of both batteries remain broken. To
confine the electric waves to their proper sphere two coils of wire,
LL, called choking coils, are inserted as shown.
In this simple apparatus we have all the really essential features
of a wireless installation for short distances. For long distance work
various modifications are necessary, but the principle remains
exactly the same. In land wireless stations the single vertical aerial
wire becomes an elaborate arrangement of wires carried on huge
masts and towers. The distance over which signals can be
transmitted and received depends to a considerable extent upon the
height of the aerial, and consequently land stations have the
supporting masts or towers from one to several hundred feet in
height, according to the range over which it is desired to work. As a
rule the same aerial is used both for transmitting and receiving, but
some stations have a separate aerial for each purpose. A good idea
of the appearance of commercial aerials for long distance working
may be obtained from the frontispiece, which shows the Marconi
station at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, from which wireless
communication is held with the Marconi station at Clifden, in Galway,
Ireland.
In the first wireless stations what is called a “plain aerial”
transmitter was used, and this was almost the same as the
transmitting apparatus in Fig. 33a, except, of course, that it was on a
larger scale. This arrangement had many serious drawbacks,
including that of a very limited range, and it has been abandoned in
favour of the “coupled” transmitter, a sketch of which is shown in Fig.
34. In this transmitter there are two separate circuits, having the
same rate of oscillation. A is an induction coil, supplied with current
from the battery B, and C is a condenser. A condenser is simply an
apparatus for storing up charges of electricity. It may take a variety of
forms, but in every case it must consist of two conducting layers
separated by a non-conducting layer, the latter being called the
“dielectric.” The Leyden jar is a condenser, with conducting layers of
tinfoil and a dielectric of glass, but the condensers used for wireless
purposes generally consist of a number of parallel sheets of metal
separated by glass or mica, or in some cases by air only. The
induction coil charges up the condenser with high tension electricity,
until the pressure becomes so great that the electricity is discharged
in the form of a spark between the brass balls of the spark gap D.
The accumulated electric energy in the condenser then surges
violently backwards and forwards, and by induction corresponding
surgings are produced in the aerial circuit, these latter surgings
setting up electric waves in the ether.
 Fig. 34.—Wireless “Coupled” Transmitter.

For the sake of simplicity we have represented the apparatus as

using an induction coil, but in all stations of any size the coil is
replaced by a step-up transformer, and the current is supplied either
from an electric light power station at some town near by, or from a
power house specially built for the purpose. Alternating current is
generally used, and if the current supplied is continuous, it is
converted into alternating current. This may be done by making the
continuous current drive an electric motor, which in turn drives a
dynamo generating alternating current. In any case, the original
current is too low in voltage to be used directly, but in passing
through the transformer it is raised to the required high pressure.
The transmitting key, which is inserted between the dynamo and the
transformer, is specially constructed to prevent the operator from
receiving accidental shocks, and the spark gap is enclosed in a sort
of sound-proof box, to deaden the miniature thunders of the
discharge.
During the time that signals are being transmitted, sparks follow
one another across the spark gap in rapid succession, a thousand
sparks per second being by no means an uncommon rate. The
violence of these rapid discharges raises the brass balls of the gap
to a great heat. This has the effect of making the sparking
spasmodic and uncertain, with the result that the signals at the
receiving station are unsatisfactory. To get over this difficulty Marconi
introduced a rotary spark gap. This is a wheel with projecting knobs
or studs, mounted on the shaft of the dynamo supplying the current,
so that it rotates rapidly. Two stationary knobs are fixed so that the
wheel rotates between them, and the sparks are produced between
these fixed knobs and those of the wheel, a double spark gap thus
being formed. Overheating is prevented by the currents of air set up
by the rapid movement of the wheel, and the sparking is always
regular.
 PLATE XIII.

Photo by Daily Mirror.

(a) MARCONI OPERATOR RECEIVING A MESSAGE.

 By permission of The Marconi Co. Ltd.

(b) MARCONI MAGNETIC DETECTOR.

In the receiving apparatus already described a filings coherer

was used to detect the ether waves, and, by means of a local
battery, to translate them into audible signals with a sounder, or
printed signals with a Morse inker. This coherer however is
unsuitable for commercial working. It is not sufficiently sensitive, and
it can be used only for comparatively short distances; while its action
is so slow that the maximum speed of signalling is not more than
about seventeen or eighteen words a minute. A number of different
detectors of much greater speed and sensitiveness have been
devised. The most reliable of these, though not the most sensitive, is
the Marconi magnetic detector, Plate XIII.b. This consists of a
moving band made of several soft iron wires twisted together, and
passing close to the poles of two horse-shoe magnets. As the band
passes from the influence of one magnet to that of the other its
magnetism becomes reversed, but the change takes a certain
amount of time to complete owing to the fact that the iron has some
magnetic retaining power, so that it resists slightly the efforts of one
magnet to reverse the effect of the other. The moving band passes
through two small coils of wire, one connected with the aerial, and
the other with a specially sensitive telephone receiver. When the
electric waves from the transmitting station fall upon the aerial of the
receiving station, small, rapidly oscillating currents pass through the
first coil, and these have the effect of making the band reverse its
magnetism instantly. The sudden moving of the lines of magnetic
force induces a current in the second coil, and produces a click in
the telephone. As long as the waves continue, the clicks follow one
another rapidly, and they are broken up into the long and short
signals of the Morse code according to the manipulation of the
Morse key at the sending station. Except for winding up at intervals
the clockwork mechanism which drives the moving band, this
detector requires no attention, and it is always ready for work.
Another form of detector makes use of the peculiar power
possessed by certain crystals to rectify the oscillatory currents
received from the aerial, converting them into uni-directional
currents. At every discharge of the condenser at the sending station
a number of complete waves, forming what is called a “train” of
waves, is set in motion. From each train of waves the crystal
detector produces one uni-directional pulsation of current, and this
causes a click in the telephone receiver. If these single pulsations
follow one another rapidly and regularly, a musical note is heard in
the receiver. Various combinations of crystals, and crystals and
metal points, are used, but all work in the same way. Some
combinations work without assistance, but others require to have a
small current passed through them from a local battery. The crystals
are held in small cups of brass or copper, mounted so that they can
be adjusted by means of set-screws. Crystal detectors are extremely
sensitive, but they require very accurate adjustment, and any
vibration quickly throws them out of order.
The “electrolytic” detector rectifies the oscillating currents in a
different manner. One form consists of a thin platinum wire passing
down into a vessel made of lead, and containing a weak solution of
sulphuric acid. The two terminals of a battery are connected to the
wire and the vessel respectively. As long as no oscillations are
received from the aerial the current is unable to flow between the
wire and the vessel, but when the oscillations reach the detector the
current at once passes, and operates the telephone receiver. The
action of this detector is not thoroughly understood, and the way in
which the point of the platinum wire prevents the passing of the
current until the oscillations arrive from the aerial is something of a
mystery.
The last detector that need be described is the Fleming valve
receiver. This consists of an electric incandescent lamp, with either
carbon or tungsten filament, into which is sealed a plate of platinum
connected with a terminal outside the lamp. The plate and the
filament do not touch one another, but when the lamp is lighted up a
current can be passed from the plate to the filament, but not from
filament to plate. This receiver acts in a similar way to the crystal
detector, making the oscillating currents into uni-directional currents.
It has proved a great success for transatlantic wireless
communication between the Marconi stations at Clifden and Glace
Bay, and is extensively used.
The electric waves set in motion by the transmitting apparatus of
a wireless station spread outwards through the ether in all directions,
and so instead of reaching only the aerial of the particular station
with which it is desired to communicate, they affect the aerials of all
stations within a certain range. So long as only one station is
sending messages this causes no trouble; but when, as is actually
the case, large numbers of stations are hard at work transmitting
different messages at the same time, it is evident that unless
something can be done to prevent it, each of these messages will be
received at the same moment by every station within range, thus
producing a hopeless confusion of signals from which not a single
message can be read. Fortunately this chaos can be avoided by
what is called “tuning.”
Wireless tuning consists in adjusting the aerial of the receiving
station so that it has the same natural rate of oscillation as that of the
transmitting station. A simple experiment will make clearer the
meaning of this. If we strike a tuning-fork, so that it sounds its note,
and while it is sounding strongly place near it another fork of the
same pitch and one of a different pitch, we find that the fork of similar
pitch also begins to sound faintly, whereas the third fork remains
silent. The explanation is that the two forks of similar pitch have the
same natural rate of vibration, while the other fork vibrates at a
different rate. When the first fork is struck, it vibrates at a certain
rate, and sets in motion air waves of a certain length. These waves
reach both the other forks, but their effect is different in each case.
On reaching the fork of similar pitch the first wave sets it vibrating,
but not sufficiently to give out a sound. But following this wave come
others, and as the fork has the same rate of vibration as the fork
which produced the waves, each wave arrives just at the right
moment to add its impulse to that of the preceding wave, so that the
effect accumulates and the fork sounds. In the case of the third fork
of different pitch, the first wave sets it also vibrating, but as this fork
cannot vibrate at the same rate as the one producing the waves, the
latter arrive at wrong intervals; and instead of adding together their
impulses they interfere with one another, each upsetting the work of
the one before it, and the fork does not sound. The same thing may
be illustrated with a pendulum. If we give a pendulum a gentle push
at intervals corresponding to its natural rate of swing, the effects of
all these pushes are added together, and the pendulum is made to
swing vigorously. If, on the other hand, we give the pushes at longer
or shorter intervals, they will not correspond with the pendulum’s rate
of swing, so that while some pushes will help the pendulum, others
will hinder it, and the final result will be that the pendulum is brought
almost to a standstill, instead of being made to swing strongly and
regularly. The same principle holds good with wireless aerials. Any
aerial will respond readily to all other aerials having the same rate of
oscillation, because the waves in each case are of the same length;
that is to say, they follow one another at the same intervals. On the
other hand, an aerial will not respond readily to waves from another
aerial having a different rate of oscillation, because these do not
follow each other at intervals to suit it.
If each station could receive signals only from stations having
aerials similar to its own, its usefulness would be very limited, and so
all stations are provided with means of altering the rate of oscillation
of their aerials. The actual tuning apparatus by which this is
accomplished need not be described, as it is complicated, but what
happens in practice is this: The operator, wearing telephone
receivers fixed over his ears by means of a head band, sits at a desk
upon which are placed his various instruments. He adjusts the tuning
apparatus to a position in which signals from stations of widely
different wave-lengths are received fairly well, and keeps a general
look out over passing signals. Presently he hears his own call-signal,
and knows that some station wishes to communicate with him.
Immediately he alters the adjustment of his tuner until his aerial
responds freely to the waves from this station, but not to waves from
other stations, and in this way he is able to cut out signals from other
stations and to listen to the message without interruption.
Unfortunately wireless tuning is yet far from perfect in certain
respects. For instance, if two stations are transmitting at the same
time on the same wave-length, it is clearly impossible for a receiving
operator to cut one out by wave-tuning, and to listen to the other
only. In such a case, however, it generally happens that although the
wave-frequency is the same, the frequency of the wave groups or
trains is different, so that there is a difference in the notes heard in
the telephones; and a skilful operator can distinguish between the
two sufficiently well to read whichever message is intended for him.
The stations which produce a clear, medium-pitched note are the
easiest to receive from, and in many cases it is possible to identify a
station at once by its characteristic note. Tuning is also unable to
prevent signals from a powerful station close at hand from swamping
to some extent signals from another station at a great distance, the
nearer station making the receiving aerial respond to it as it were by
brute force, tuning or no tuning.
Another source of trouble lies in interference by atmospheric
electricity. Thunderstorms, especially in the tropics, interfere greatly
with the reception of signals, the lightning discharges giving rise to
violent, irregular groups of waves which produce loud noises in the
telephones. There are also silent electrical disturbances in the
atmosphere, and these too produce less strong but equally weird
effects. Atmospheric discharges are very irregular, without any real
wave-length, so that an operator cannot cut them out by wave-tuning
pure and simple in the way just described, as they defy him by
affecting equally all adjustments. Fortunately, the irregularity of the
atmospherics produces correspondingly irregular sounds in the
telephones, quite unlike the clear steady note of a wireless station;
and unless the atmospherics are unusually strong this note pierces
through them, so that the signals can be read. The effects of
lightning discharges are too violent to be got rid of satisfactorily, and
practically all that can be done is to reduce the loudness of the
noises in the telephones, so that the operator is not temporarily
deafened. During violent storms in the near neighbourhood of a
station it is usual to connect the aerial directly to earth, so that in the
event of its being struck by a flash the electricity passes harmlessly
away, instead of injuring the instruments, and possibly also the
operators. Marconi stations are always fitted with lightning-arresters.
The methods and apparatus we have described so far are those
of the Marconi system, and although in practice additional
complicated and delicate pieces of apparatus are used, the
description given represents the main features of the system.
Although Marconi was not the discoverer of the principles of wireless
telegraphy, he was the first to produce a practical working system. In
1896 Marconi came from Italy to England, bringing with him his
apparatus, and after a number of successful demonstrations of its
working, he succeeded in convincing even the most sceptical
experts that his system was thoroughly sound. Commencing with a
distance of about 100 yards, Marconi rapidly increased the range of
his experiments, and by the end of 1897 he succeeded in
transmitting signals from Alum Bay, in the Isle of Wight, to a steamer
18 miles away. In 1899 messages were exchanged between British
warships 85 miles apart, and the crowning achievement was
reached in 1901, when Marconi received readable signals at St.
John’s, Newfoundland, from Poldhu in Cornwall, a distance of about
1800 miles. In 1907 the Marconi stations at Clifden and Glace Bay
were opened for public service, and by the following year
transatlantic wireless communication was in full swing. The sending
of wireless signals across the Atlantic was a remarkable
accomplishment, but it did not represent by any means the limits of
the system, as was shown in 1910. In that year Marconi sailed for
Buenos Ayres, and wireless communication with Clifden was