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 CONSTRUCTED
SUBSURFACE WETLANDS
Case Study and Modeling
 CONSTRUCTED
SUBSURFACE WETLANDS
Case Study and Modeling

Abdel Razik Ahmed Zidan, PhD, and

Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Hady, PhD
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Zidan, Abdel Razik Ahmed, author

Constructed subsurface wetlands : case study and modeling / Abdel Razik Ahmed Zidan, PhD,
and Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Hady, PhD.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-463-1 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-315-36589-3 (PDF)
1. Constructed wetlands--Case studies. I. Hady, Mohammed Ahmed Abdel, author II. Title.
TD756.5.Z53 2017 333.91'8 C2017-902582-1 C2017-902583-X
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Zidan, Abdel Razik Ahmed, author. | Hady, Mohammed Ahmed Abdel, author.
Title: Constructed subsurface wetlands : case study and modeling / Abdel
Razik Ahmed Zidan, PhD, and Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Hady, PhD.
Description: Toronto ; Waretown, NJ, USA : Apple Academic Press, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017017445 (print) | LCCN 2017019984 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315365893
(ebook) | ISBN 9781771884631 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Constructed wetlands--Case studies. | Constructed wetlands--Simulation methods.
Classification: LCC TD756.5 (ebook) | LCC TD756.5 .Z53 2017 (print) | DDC 628.1/68--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017017445

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CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations .................................................................................. vii

List of Symbols ............................................................................................ ix
List of Chemical Compounds and Elements................................................xv
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................... xvii
Preface ...................................................................................................... xix
About the Authors ...................................................................................... xxi
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
2. Literature Review....................................................................................... 7
3. Field and Experimental Works ............................................................... 69
4. Theoretical Approach .............................................................................111
5. Field and Experimental Results ............................................................ 129
6. Set Up Stage Analysis ............................................................................. 181
7. Steady Stage Analysis............................................................................. 229
8. ANNs Modeling and SPSS Analysis ..................................................... 357
9. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ................................. 515
References ................................................................................................ 527
Appendices ............................................................................................... 539
Index ......................................................................................................... 651
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrometer

ANNs Artificial Neural Networks
APHA American Public Health Association
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BP Back Propagation
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CWs Constructed Wetlands
D.F. Degree of Freedom
DFID Department For International Development
DO Dissolved Oxygen
E-JUST Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FC Fecal Coliforms
FG Fine Gravel
FHL First Hidden Layer
GBH Gravel Bed Hydroponics
ICSBE International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment
I/O Input/Output
HC Hydraulic Conductivity
HSSF Horizontal Subsurface Flow
LE Egyptian Pounds
LECA Light Expanded Clay Aggregated
MFFNNs Multi-Feed Forward Neural Networks
ML Marquardt-Levenberg
MLP Multi-Layer Perceptron
MPN Most Probable Number
MRA Multiple Regression Analysis
MSE Mean Square Error
NAWQAM National Water Quality and Availability Management
PCA Principle Component Analysis
PFD Plug Flow with Dispersion
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RBFN Radial Basis Function Network
viii List of Abbreviations

RE Removal Efficiency
RFCW Reciprocating Flow Constructed Wetlands
RTM Regional Technical Meeting
RZM Root Zone Method
S.D. Standard Deviation
SF Surface Flow
SHL Second Hidden Layer
SOP Soluble Organic Phosphorus
SPSS Stochastic Package for Social Since
SS Suspended Solids
SSF Subsurface Flow
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TC Total Califorms
TIS Tanks-In-Series
TKN Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
TN Total Nitrogen
TOC Total Organic Carbon
TP Total Phosphorus
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
USA United States of America
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USBR United States Bureau of Reclamation
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
UV Ultra Violet
VF Vertical Flow
WLCS Water Level Control System
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant
LIST OF SYMBOLS

A wetland top surface area, L2

Aactive area of wetland containing water in active flow, L2
Ac cross-sectional area, L2
Ap surface area of sphere, L2
As specific surface area, L–1
Asix surface area of media (i = media type and x = distance from
cell inlet), L2
B local bed bottom elevation, L
bi constant, D.L.
B(x) elevation of bed bottom, L
C pollutant concentration, M/L3
CANN artificial neural network output concentration. M/L3
CExp experimental measured output concentration. M/L3
Ct sorting coefficient, D.L.
CSPSS regression equation output concentration. M/L3
C(x) concentration at length (x), M/L3
C* background concentration, M/L3
C*BOD background concentration for BOD pollutant, M/L3
C*COD background concentration for COD pollutant, M/L3
C*TSS background concentration for TSS pollutant, M/L3
Cd coefficient of discharge, D.L.
Ci influent concentration, M/L3
Ci1 influent concentration for run number 1, M/L3
Co effluent concentration, M/L3
Coix effluent concentration (i = media type and x = distance from
cell inlet), M/L3
d1 first media bucket, at distance 2.5 m from inlet
d2 second media bucket, at distance 5.5 m from inlet
d3 third media bucket, at distance 7.5 m from inlet
d10 effective grain diameter, L
d20 grain diameter for which 20% of sample are finer than, L
d50 median grain diameter, L
x List of Symbols

d60 diameter through which no more than 60% of sample

passes, L
dp particle diameter, L
Da Damköhler number, D.L.
Ds dispersion coefficient, L2/T
En ANN percentage error, D.L.
Es SPSS percentage error, D.L.
ET evapotranspiration rate, L/T
g acceleration of gravity, L/T2
G(x) elevation of bed surface, L
h wetland water depth, L
hi water elevation at inlet, L
ho water elevation at outlet, L
h(x) water depth, L
H elevation of water surface, L
Hd head over the notch, L
H(x) elevation of water surface at distance x, L
Io intercept of line formed by d50 and d10 with grain size axis,
L
J removal load, M/L2T
k removal rate constant, L/T
K half-saturation constant, M/L3
k20 first-order areal rate constant at 20°C, T–1
Kc media hydraulic conductivity, L/T
kT first-order areal rate constant at T°C, T–1
kv volumetric rate constant, T −1
L wetland length, L
La first layer, 16.7 cm height
Lb first and second layers, 33.3 cm height
Lc the three layers, 50 cm height
Li influent loads, M/L2T
Lo effluent loads, M/L2T
Lr load removal, M/L2T
Lt total film thickness, L
m number of contact points, D.L.
mi specific inlet mass loading, M/L2T
mo specific outlet mass loading, M/L2T
Mi inlet mass loading, M/T
List of Symbols xi

n porosity, D.L.
n1 porosity at time To1, D.L.
n2 porosity at time To2, D.L.
navg average porosity, D.L.
ncg porosity of course gravel. D.L.
ng porosity of gravel media, D.L.
ni porosity at time Toi, D.L.
nm porosity of used media, D.L.
np porosity of plastic media, D.L.
nr porosity of rubber media, D.L.
N number of tanks in series, D.L.
N1 number of neurons in the first hidden layers, D.L.
N2 number of neurons in the second hidden layers, D.L.
Ni number of input variables, D.L.
No number of output variables, D.L.
pH hydrogen ion, D.L.
P apparent number of TIS, D.L.
Pe Peclet number, D.L.
Pr precipitation rate, L/T
qxi loading rate (x = distance from cell inlet and i = media
type), M/L
Q hydraulic loading rate, L/T
Q discharge, L3/T
Qact actual discharge, L3/T
Qavg average discharge, L3/T
Qb Bank loss rate, L3/T
Qc Catchment’s runoff rate, L3/T
Qgw infiltration to groundwater, L3/T
Qi inlet flow rate, L3/T
Qo outlet flow rate, L3/T
Qth theoretical discharge, L3/T
R water recovery fraction, D.L.
R2 determination coefficient, D.L.
Re Reynolds number, D.L.
RE pollutant removal efficiency, D.L.
Rs rate of sediment storage, M/L.T.
RExg removal efficiency of gravel cell at distance x, D.L.
RExp removal efficiency of plastic cell at distance x, D.L.
xii List of Symbols

RExr removal efficiency of rubber cell at distance x, D.L.

S water slope, D.L.
S1 sampling point at distance of 2 m from inlet (right)
S2 sampling point at distance of 2 m from inlet (middle)
S3 sampling point at distance of 2 m from inlet (left)
S4 sampling point at distance of 5 m from inlet (right)
S5 sampling point at distance of 5 m from inlet (middle)
S6 sampling point at distance of 5 m from inlet (left)
S7 sampling point at distance of 8 m from inlet (right)
S8 sampling point at distance of 8 m from inlet (middle)
S9 sampling point at distance of 8 m from inlet (left)
Sb bottom slope, D.L.
Se effluent water samples
Si influent water samples
t time, T
T desired temperature, D.L.
Ti inlet flow-basedTr, T
To time from start of operation, T
Toi in-between time from start of operation, T
To1 time from start of operation for run number 1, T
To2 time from start of operation for run number 2, T
Tr hydraulic retention time, T
Ts time from start of sampling, T
u average water velocity, L/T
us superficial velocity, L/T
U grain uniformity coefficient, D.L.
v actual water velocity, L/T
vxi actual water velocity (x = distance from cell inlet and
i = media type), L/T
V water volume in wetlands, L3
Vactive volume of wetland containing water in active flow, L3
Vb volume of buckets, L3
Vd the space volume between 6 inch pipe and bucket, L3
Vm1 volume of coarse gravel, L3
Vm2 volume of surface media, L3
Vm3 volume of used media, L3
Vp volume of 6 inch pipes, L3
Vs volume of sphere, L3
List of Symbols xiii

Vu total volume considering contact points, L3

Vv volume of media voids, L3
Vw volume of added water, L3
Vw2 water volume at the first 2 m, L3
Vw5 water volume at the first 5 m, L3
Vw8 water volume at the first 8 m, L3
Vw10 water volume in the wetland cell, L3
Vwx volume of water inside cell at distance x, L3
W wetland width, L
W1 weight the dried filter paper, ML/T2
W2 weight the paper, ML/T2
Wi inlet weight of suspended solids, M/T
Wo outlet weight of suspended solids, M/T
x longitudinal distance, L
xi inlet distance, L
xo outlet distance, L
X independent variable
y transverse distance, L
Y dependent variable
Z constant
αm backing factor, D.L.
β constant
θ apex angle of V-notch, D.L.
θt empirical temperature coefficient, D.L.
δ bed depth, L
δb thickness of the biofilm, L
δw thickness of the stagnant boundary layer, L
μ viscosity of water, M/LT
ρ density of water, M/L3
ω constant depends on media type and discharge
LIST OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
AND ELEMENTS

Al aluminum
Alkali sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Azide sodium azide, NAN3
B boron
C carbon
C9H17N5S ametryn
Ca calcium
CaCl2 calcium chloride
CaCO3 calcium carbonate
Cd cadmium
Cr chromium
Cu copper
Fe iron
FeCl3 ferric chloride
H2SO4reagent sulfuric acid + silver sulphate, Ag2SO4
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
HgI2 mercuric iodide
HNO3 nitric acid
Iodide sodium iodide, NaI
K2Cr2O7 potassium di-chromate
K2HPO4 di-potassium hydrogen orthophosphate anhydrous
KH2PO4 potassium di-hydrogen orthophosphate
KI potassium iodide
MgSO4 magnesium sulphate
M molar
Mn manganese
MnSO4 manganese(II)-sulfate-1-hydrate
N nitrogen
Na2HPO4 di-sodium hydrogen orthophosphate anhydrous
Na2S2O3 sodium thiosulfate
NaOH sodium hydroxide
Nessler HGI2 + KI + NaOH
xvi List of Chemical Compounds & Elements

NH3 ammonia
NH4 ammonium
NH4Cl ammonium chloride
Ni nickel
P phosphorus
Pb lead
Phosphate buffer KH2PO4 + K2HPO4 + Na2HPO4 + NH4Cl
PO4 phosphate
Reagent 1 stannous chloride, SnCl2.2H2O
Reagent 2 ammonium molybidate, (NH4)6 MO7O24.4H2O
Zn zinc
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Prof. Dr. Ahmed Ali Rashed, Head of
Drainage Studies Department, Drainage Research Institute (NWRC),
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt, for his efforts. His coop-
eration, valuable comments, and help in the construction of subsurface wet-
lands are greatly appreciated. Thanks are due to Dr. Ahmed Yousef Hatata,
faculty of engineering, Mansoura University, for his help in carrying out the
ANNs Models.
The assistance given by the Dakahlia company for potable water and
domestic sewage, Egypt, is acknowledged for the company’s financial sup-
port, preparing the research site at Samaha wetland for constructing the
subsurface wetlands, carrying out the experimental work, and analyzing
of collected samples in the company laboratories. Thanks are due to the
Ex-Chairman of the company, Lt. Gen. Eng. Ahmed Abdeen, as well as to
the company team, Eng. Mohamed Ragab El-Zoghby and Dr. Mohamed
Ibrahem.
PREFACE

The last few decades witnessed a sharp focus on environmental pollution

and its impact on life and nature. Scientists and engineers have studied the
water treatment effect of natural wetlands for many years, resulting in the
development of constructed wetlands (CWs) for treating wastewater.
A constructed wetland is an engineered sequence of water bodies designed
to filter and treat waterborne pollutants found in sewage, industrial effluent
or storm water runoff. Constructed wetlands are used for wastewater treat-
ment for gray water and can be incorporated into an ecological sanitation
approach. They can be used after septic tank for primary treatment in order
to separate the solids from liquid effluent. The application of CWs for waste-
water treatment was recently introduced in Egypt. Studies on removal rates
and using different bed media are, therefore, required in order to model the
behavior and estimate removal constants for different contaminants in waste-
water and the optimum bed media to use.
Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment are an extensively used
technology for the treatment of different types of wastewaters in the last
decades. Sanitary service in the Egyptian rural areas lags far behind the
potable water supply. Only urban centers and some larger rural villages have
wastewater treatment facilities. Domestic wastewater of many rural areas is
typically discharged directly or indirectly to drains, causing degradation of
drainage water quality against its reuse plans. The concern for the deteriorat-
ing quality of the environment has been increasing in recent years, and there
is a need to apply the simple technology with low cost and very minimum
controls, which is CW.
The Irrigation and Hydraulics Department at the Faculty of Engineering,
Mansoura University established the early milestone of research and inves-
tigation at the CW fields. Free surface CW drain water treatment facility
in Lake Manzala, NE Egypt, was tested, evaluated and modeled in early
2000, followed by this intensive study about subsurface CW treating munic-
ipal wastewater of a crowded Nile Delta village that was carried out during
2010–2013. Several ministries, universities and research centers have fol-
lowed these goals in several locations of the Delta and valley of the Nile
River and its deserts fringes. Such efforts help in adopting the fundamental
xx Preface

of CW to cope with the arid and semiarid climate conditions of Egypt and
the surrounding Middle East countries.
As the CW growing knowledge base leads to proving how complex treat-
ment wetlands are due to a variety of internal and external ecological cycles,
the assumptions that simplify the analysis of treatment reactors can no longer
be justified. Wetland design factors and performance continues to develop,
as much effort is being applied, to understand both setup and steady cycles
within CW operation, and much more effort is still required in such fields.
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of hori-
zontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands in treating domestic wastewa-
ter to the limit that can be safely discharged to agricultural drains. Two-step
procedures were used for the preparation of this book. The first one was the
construction of an experimental project using three media (rubber, gravel,
and plastic) and the analysis of the treated water samples. Statistical analysis
using a stochastic package for a social science (SPSS) program showed that
a significant difference between these three media for the treatment of most
pollutants. The second step was the design of artificial neural network models
(ANNs) using the Matlab software to simulate some of the experimental data
and to generate the parameters output concentration.
The ability of the ANN model to predict results close to the measured ones
was demonstrated. The plastic media gave the best treatment performance,
better than both gravel and rubber media by percentages that varied between
5.3 and 11.6% (more than gravel) and between 10.9 and 19.5% (more than
rubber). The wetland systems appear to have an ability to deal with various
pollutants with different concentrations and return the treated water to the
standard limits.
The intent of this book is to represent current information and provide
guidance on the construction, performance, operation, and maintenance of
subsurface flow constructed wetlands of domestic and municipal wastewaters.
This book is based on the thesis of Dr. Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Hady
for his doctor of philosophy at the faculty of engineering at Mansoura
University, Egypt. This work was suggested and guided in close cooperation
by the principal supervisor Prof. Dr. Abdel Razik Ahmed Zidan, Professor of
Hydraulics. Co-supervisors were Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Mohamed El-Gamal,
Professor of Irrigation Works Design, and Associate Prof. Ahmed Ali
Rashed, Head of Drainage Studies Department, Drainage Research Institute
(NWRC), Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egypt.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Abdel Razik Ahmed Zidan, PhD

Professor, Hydraulics and Water Resources, Mansoura University, Egypt

Prof. Abdel Razik Ahmed Zidan, PhD, is currently a professor of hydraulics

and water resources at Mansoura University, Egypt. Dr. Zidan has super-
vised more than 25 MSc and PhD theses in the field of hydraulics, water
resources, irrigation, and wetlands. He is a member of the permanent scien-
tific committee of water resources for promotion to the professorship, Egypt;
a peer reviewer of more than 15 international journals, and a peer reviewer
of national and international projects presented to the Academy of Scientific
Research, Egypt, in the field of water resources. Dr. Zidan is member of
the editorial board of the Journal of Earth Science and Engineering and
Associate Editor-in-Chief of the International Water Technology Journal
(IWTJ). He is the chairperson of the scientific committee of the International
Water Technology Conferences. Dr. Zidan was an external examiner for
PhD theses at Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands, and for MSc
and PhD theses presented to Egyptian Japanese University of Science and
Technology (E-JUST). He is an author of several books, such as Breakwaters
Effect on Wave Energy Dissipation and Numerical Modeling of Rivers Using
Turbulence Models. He was a visiting professor at Salford University,
UK, and Delft University of Technology, and also worked as a consultant
engineer at the Dakahlia company for potable water and domestic sewage,
Egypt. Prof. Zidan holds BSc and PhD degrees in civil engineering, obtained
respectively from Cairo University, Egypt, and Strathclyde University, UK.

Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Hady, PhD

Assistant Professor, Irrigation and Hydraulics Department,
Mansoura University, Egypt

Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Hady, PhD, is currently an assistant profes-

sor of irrigation and drainage engineering at the Irrigation and Hydraulics
Department at Mansoura University, Egypt. Dr. Abdel Hady earned his doc-
tor of philosophy in subsurface constructed wetlands. He holds BSc, MSc,
and PhD degrees in civil engineering from Mansoura University, Egypt.
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1
1.2 Goals and Objectives ...........................................................................2
1.3 Scope of the Study ...............................................................................3
1.4 Layout of the Book ..............................................................................3
Appendices....................................................................................................4
Keywords ......................................................................................................5

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Every community needs to treat its wastewater because of the serious health
problems it can cause. Although this may seem obvious, untreated waste-
water is still the root cause of much environmental damage and human ill-
ness, misery, and death around the world. Egypt, like most of the developing
countries is facing an increase of the generation of wastes and of accompa-
nying problems with the disposal of these wastes. Total untreated municipal
wastewater in Egypt is about 10.7 million m3/d (1.3 mm3/d for urban zone
and 9.4 mm3/d for rural zone) so, it is clear that a wastewater treatment prob-
lem concentrated in rural areas (El-Zoghby, 2010).
Conventional wastewater treatment plants involve large capital invest-
ments and operating costs, and could be economically unsustainable for
small or medium communities. So constructed wetland systems offer a suit-
able social economic alternative to the classic wastewater treatment plants
for small and medium rural communities areas. The horizontal subsurface
2 Constructed Subsurface Wetlands

flow (HSSF) wetlands are biological porous media systems, colonized with
emergent plants, which use the physical, chemical, and biological processes
to remove wastewater pollutants. The focus is on the standard water quality
variables as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand
(COD), total suspended solids (TSS), in addition to ammonia (NH3), phos-
phate (PO4), dissolved oxygen (DO), fecal coliforms (FC), and concerned
selected elements of heavy metals.

1.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The main goals of the present book are: (i) developing a physical model
that can be used as a planning tool for the design and investigate the perfor-
mance of the HSSF constructed wetlands using three bed substrates, since
natural gravel, shredded tires pieces, and plastic pipes pieces differ in their
porosity then their purification efficiency may be different to choose the
effective one for treating domestic wastewater in a village represents the
Egyptian rural areas, and (ii) the design and training of artificial neural
networks (ANNs) and statistical models to represent the field data of the
study. In order to achieve these goals, several specific objectives have to
be formulated:
• Planning and constructing HSSF treatment cells using three different
media.
• Determining the concentrations of the selected parameters to study
their variation with distance and discharge.
• Examining the removal rates for each of the wetland cells.
• Determining the major role of media type on pollutants removal
performance during operation.
• Measuring the treatment media porosity and computing the media sur-
face area.
• Calculating pollutants removal rate constants applying the currently
used plug and mixed flow first order empirical design equations for
HSSF constructed wetlands in Egypt treating primary treated munici-
pal wastewater.
• Evaluating the proposed ANNs models for treatment of some water
parameters.
• Establishing linear and nonlinear regression models to represent a sim-
ple treatment tool of water parameters using SPSS statistical software.
• Using statistical analysis to differentiate between the three media
under study.
Introduction 3

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The experimental work was carried out using four main intervals. The first
was the construction period of physical model which took about 18 months.
The second was the preparation period which took about one month after the
complete of project construction. The third was the set up stage, continued
about five months after the preparation time. Finally, the fourth interval was
the steady stage which took about six months. The following items were
involved in the experimental work to study the performance evaluation for
horizontal subsurface flow constructed treatment wetland systems:
• Cells set up adoption including adjustment of water depth, discharge,
and monitoring of plants and harvesting.
• Hydraulic loading rate, porosity for used media, and media sur-
face area.
• Water quality sampling and hydraulic retention time.
Three artificial neural networks programs were designed, the first for set
up stage (Program No. 1) which represents the three pollutants in this stage
(BOD, COD, and TSS). For steady stage, which consists of 12 parameters, the
second program was designed to represent BOD, COD, and TSS (Program
No. 2); and the third one was for the residual parameters (Program No. 3).
The field data for set up and steady stages were statistically modeled by using
stochastic package for social science (SPSS) program version 17 for windows.

1.4 LAYOUT OF THE BOOK

The structure of the book includes nine chapters and five appendices and is
given as follows:
Chapter 1: Presents a general introduction, objectives and scope of the
study for which this book was prepared.
Chapter 2: Provides the background information on models used to
predict constructed wetlands performance, various wetland
types, and wetland components. The function and values as
well as wetland hydraulics are presented. Also, applications
of neural networks; and statistical modeling and compari-
sons in constructed wetlands are given.
Chapter 3: Encompasses a complete description of the experimental
facilities, planting in wetland cells, field sampling. The differ-
ent methodologies and measuring devices are also given.
4 Constructed Subsurface Wetlands

Chapter 4: Presents the hydraulic representation of the physical

model, removal rate constants, and a brief description
for ANNs. The SPSS software is used to deduce a set of
regression equations to represent the experimental data.
Also contains the preparation of the data. Finally, the cali-
bration and validation processes for the obtained models.
Chapter 5: Contains the experimental results represented by tabular
forms and graphs. The chapter also includes the computa-
tion of removal efficiencies for different pollutants and the
values of measured media porosities.
Chapter 6: Displays the performance evaluation for treatment of the
studied pollutants through the three bed media and its
variation with length, loading rate, hydraulic retention
time, and the time progression through set up stage.
Chapter 7: Gives the performance evaluation for studied pollutants
treatment through the three bed media and its variation with
length, loading rate, hydraulic retention time, and discharge
through steady stage.
Chapter 8: Exhibits both applications of the artificial neural networks
and SPSS models, which simulates the performance of
the set up and steady stages in horizontal subsurface flow
constructed wetlands. A comparison study was performed
between these models outputs and the corresponding
experimental results. Also, statistical analysis was per-
formed to differentiate between the used media and
models.
Chapter 9: Highlights summary of the book outcomes, conclusions,
and recommendations for future research.

APPENDICES

Appendix I: Lists tables of the porosity.

Appendix II: Shows results of water samples analysis.
Appendix III: Gives the ANNs programs and results.
Appendix IV: Exhibits the tables of the statistical analysis.
Appendix V: Presents a glossary of terms.
Introduction 5

KEYWORDS

• Egypt
• horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF)
• media surface area
• plastic pipes
• shredded tires
• wastewater treatment
Another random document with
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thousand Hunanese troops at Hami, and twenty thousand more
under General Liu[140] at Kashgar. One of his Generals was that
Tung Fu-hsiang who subsequently became known to the world as
the leader of the bloodthirsty Kansuh soldiery at Peking in 1900; at
the taking of Khotan he laid the foundations of his reputation for
truculent ferocity. Tso firmly believed that his Hunanese were the
finest fighting men in the world, and was most anxious to use them,
in 1879, in trying conclusions with the Russians, boasting that with
two hundred thousand of them he would easily march to St.
Petersburg and there dictate a peace which should wipe out the
humiliating concessions negotiated by Ch’ung Hou in the Treaty of
Livadia. Fortunately for him, his patriotic ambitions came to the ears
of the Empress Dowager, who, desiring no more complications,
recalled him in hot haste to Peking, where she loaded him with
honours and rewards.
His was the simple nature of the elementary fighter, inured to the
hard life of camps. He knew little of other lands, but professed the
greatest admiration for Bismarck, chiefly because of the enormous
indemnity which the German conqueror had exacted as the price of
victory, Tso’s own troops being accustomed to live almost exclusively
on the spoils of war. He despised wealth for himself, but loved
plunder for his men.
Upon his triumphant return to Peking he was informed that the
Palace authorities expected him to pay forty thousand taels as “gate-
money” before entering the capital. Tso flatly refused. “The Emperor
has sent for me,” he said, “and I have come, but I will not pay a cash.
If he wishes to see me, he must either obtain for me free entry or pay
the gate-money himself.” He waited stolidly five days and then had
his way, entering scot-free. Later, when the Empress Dowager made
him a present of ten thousand taels, he divided the money between
his soldiers and the poor.

SUN CHIA-NAI
 This official, chiefly known to fame among his countrymen as one
of the tutors of His Majesty Kuang-Hsü, was a sturdy Conservative of
the orthodox type, but an honest and kindly man. His character and
opinions may be gauged from a well-known saying of his: “One
Chinese character is better than ten thousand words of the
barbarians. By knowing Chinese a man may rise to become a Grand
Secretary; by knowing the tongues of the barbarians, he can at best
aspire to become the mouth-piece of other men.”
 Ceiling and Pillars of the Tai Ho Tien.

Photo, Ogawa, Tokio.

In his later years he felt and expressed great grief at the condition
of his country, and particularly in regard to the strained relations
between the Empress Dowager and the Emperor. He traced the first
causes of these misfortunes to the war with Japan, and never
ceased to blame his colleague, the Imperial Tutor Weng T’ung-ho,
for persuading the Emperor to sign the Decree whereby that war was
declared, which he described as the act of a madman. Weng,
however, was by no means alone in holding the opinion that China
could easily dispose of the Japanese forces by land and by sea. It
was well-known at Court, and the Emperor must have learned it from
more than one quarter, that several foreigners holding high positions
under the Chinese Government, including the Inspector-General of
Customs (Sir Robert Hart), concurred in the view that China had
practically no alternative but to declare war in view of Japan’s high-
handed proceedings and insulting attitude. Prestige apart, it was
probable that the Emperor was by no means averse to taking this
step on his own authority, even though he knew that the Empress
Dowager was opposed to the idea of war, because of its inevitable
interference with the preparations for her sixtieth birthday; at that
moment, Tzŭ Hsi was living in quasi-retirement at the Summer
Palace. After war had been declared and China’s reverses began,
she complained to the Emperor and to others, that the fatal step had
been taken without her knowledge and consent, but this was only
“making face,” for it is certain that she had been kept fully informed
of all that was done and that, had she so desired, she could easily
have prevented the issue of the Decree, and the despatch of the
Chinese troops to Asan. Sun Chia-nai’s reputation for sagacity was
increased after the event, and upon the subsequent disgrace and
dismissal of Weng T’ung-ho he stood high in Her Majesty’s favour.
Nevertheless his loyalty to the unfortunate Emperor remained
unshaken.
In 1898, his tendencies were theoretically on the side of reform,
but he thoroughly disapproved of the methods and self-seeking
personality of K’ang Yu-wei, advising the Emperor that, while
possibly fit for an Under-Secretaryship, he was quite unfitted for any
high post of responsibility. When matters first approached a crisis, it
was by his advice that the Emperor directed K’ang to proceed to
Shanghai for the organisation of the Press Bureau scheme. Sun,
peace-loving and prudent, hoped thereby to find an outlet for K’ang
Yu-wei’s patriotic activities while leaving the Manchu dovecots
unfluttered. Later, after the coup d’état, being above all things
orthodox and a stickler for harmonious observance of precedents, he
deplored the harsh treatment and humiliation inflicted upon the
Emperor. It is reported of him that on one occasion at audience he
broke down completely, and with tears implored the Empress
Dowager not to allow her mind to be poisoned against His Majesty,
but without effect.
Upon the nomination of the Heir Apparent, in 1900, which he, like
many others, regarded as the Emperor’s death sentence, he sent in
a strongly worded Memorial against this step, and subsequently
denounced it at a meeting of the Grand Council. Thereafter, his
protests proving ineffective, he resigned all his offices, but remained
at the capital in retirement, watching events. At the commencement
of the Boxer crisis, unable to contain his feelings, he sent in a
Memorial through the Censorate denouncing the rabid reactionary
Hsü T’ung, whom he described as “the friend of traitors, who would
bring the State to ruin if further confidence were placed in him.”
Throughout his career he displayed the courage of his convictions,
which, judged by the common standard of Chinese officialdom, were
conspicuously honest. He was a man of that Spartan type of private
life which one finds not infrequently associated with the higher
branches of Chinese scholarship and Confucian philosophy; it was
his boast that he never employed a secretary, but wrote out all his
correspondence and Memorials with his own hand.
A pleasing illustration of his character is the following: He was
seated one day in his shabby old cart, and driving down the main
street to his home, when his driver collided with the vehicle of a well-
known Censor, named Chao. The police came up to make enquiries
and administer street-justice, but learning that one cart belonged to
the Grand Secretary Sun, they told his driver to proceed. The
Censor, justly indignant at such servility, wrote a note to Sun in which
he said: “The Grand Secretary enjoys, no doubt, great prestige, but
even he cannot lightly disregard the power of the Censorate.” Sun,
on receiving this note, proceeded at once on foot in full official dress
to the Censor’s house, and upon being informed that he was not at
home, prostrated himself before the servant, saying: “The nation is
indeed to be congratulated upon possessing a virtuous Censor.”
Chao, not to be outdone in generosity, proceeded in his turn to the
residence of the Grand Secretary, intending to return the
compliment, but Sun declined to allow him to apologise in any way.

TUAN FANG
In 1898, Tuan Fang was a Secretary of the Board of Works; his
rapid promotion after that date was chiefly due to the patronage of
his friend Jung Lu. For a Manchu, he is remarkably progressive and
liberal in his views.
In 1900, he was Acting-Governor of Shensi. As the Boxer
movement spread and increased in violence, and as the fears of
Jung Lu led him to take an increasingly decided line of action against
them, Tuan Fang, acting upon his advice, followed suit. In spite of
the fact that at the time of the coup d’état he had adroitly saved
himself from clear identification with the reformers and had penned a
classical composition in praise of filial piety, which was commonly
regarded as a veiled reproof to the Emperor for not yielding implicit
obedience to the Old Buddha, he had never enjoyed any special
marks of favour at the latter’s hands, nor been received into that
confidential friendliness with which she frequently honoured her
favourites.
In his private life, as in his administration, Tuan Fang has always
recognised the changing conditions of his country and endeavoured
to adapt himself to the needs of the time; he was one of the first
among the Manchus to send his sons abroad for their education. His
sympathies were at first unmistakably with K’ang Yu-wei and his
fellow reformers, but he withdrew from them because of the anti-
dynastic nature of their movement, of which he naturally
disapproved.
As Acting-Governor of Shensi, in July, 1900, he clearly realised
the serious nature of the situation and the dangers that must arise
from the success of the Boxer movement, and he therefore issued
two Proclamations to the province, in which he earnestly warned the
people to abstain from acts of violence. These documents were
undoubtedly the means of saving the lives of many missionaries and
other foreigners isolated in the interior. In the first a curious passage
occurs, wherein, after denouncing the Boxers, he said:

“The creed of the Boxers is no new thing: in the reign of

Chia-Ch’ing, followers of the same cult were beheaded in
droves. But the present-day Boxer has taken the field
ostensibly for the defence of his country against the foreigner,
so that we need not refer to the past. While accepting their
good intentions, I would merely ask, is it reasonable for us to
credit these men with supernatural powers or invulnerability?
Are we to believe that all the corpses which now strew the
country between Peking and the sea are those of spurious
Boxers and that the survivors alone represent the true faith?”

After prophesying for them the same fate which overtook the
Mahomedan rebels and those of the Taiping insurrection, he
delivered himself of advice to the people which, while calculated to
prevent the slaughter of foreigners, would preserve his reputation for
patriotism. It is well, now that Tuan Fang has fallen upon evil days, to
remember the good work he did in a very difficult position. His
Proclamation ran as follows:—

“I have never for a moment doubted that you men of Shensi

are brave and patriotic and that, should occasion offer, you
would fight nobly for your country. I know that if you joined
these Boxers, it would be from patriotic motives. I would have
you observe, however, that our enemies are the foreign
troops who have invaded the Metropolitan province and not
the foreign missionaries who reside in the interior. If the
Throne orders you to take up arms in the defence of your
country, then I, as Governor of this province, will surely share
in that glory. But if, on your own account, you set forth to slay
a handful of harmless and defenceless missionaries, you will
undoubtedly be actuated by a desire for plunder, there will be
 nothing noble in your deed, and your neighbours will despise
you as surely as the law will punish you.
“At this very moment our troops are pouring in upon the
capital from every province in the Empire. Heaven’s avenging
sword is pointed against the invader. This being so, it is
absurd to suppose that there can be any need for such
services as you people could render at such a time. Your
obvious and simple duty is to remain quietly in your homes,
pursuing your usual avocations. It is the business of the
official to protect the people, and you may rely upon me to do
so. As to that Edict of Their Majesties which, last year,
ordered the organisation of trained bands, the idea was
merely to encourage self-defence for local purposes, on the
principle laid down by Mencius of watch and ward being kept
by each district.”

A little later the Governor referred to that Decree of the Empress

Dowager (her first attempt at hedging) which began by quoting the
“Spring and Autumn Classic” in reference to the sacred nature of
foreign Envoys, and used it as a text for emphasising the fact that
the members of the several missionary societies in Shensi had
always been on the best of terms with the people. He referred to the
further fact that many refugees from the famine-stricken districts of
Shansi, and numbers of disbanded soldiers, had crossed the borders
of the province, and fearing lest these lawless folk should organise
an attack upon the foreigners, he once more urged his people to
permit no violation of the sacred laws of hospitality. The province had
already commenced to feel the effects of the long drought which had
caused such suffering in Shansi, and the superstitious lower classes
were disposed to attribute this calamity to the wrath of Heaven,
brought upon them by reason of their failure to join the Boxers. Tuan
Fang proceeded to disabuse their minds of this idea.

“If the rain has not fallen upon your barren fields,” he said,
“if the demon of drought threatens to harass you, be sure that
it is because you have gone astray, led by false rumours, and
 have committed deeds of violence. Repent now and return to
your peaceful ways, and the rains will assuredly fall. Behold
the ruin which has come upon the provinces of Chihli and
Shantung; it is to save you from their fate that I now warn you.
Are we not all alike subjects of the great Manchu Dynasty,
and shall we not acquit ourselves like men in the service of
the State? If there were any chance of this province being
invaded by the enemy, you would naturally sacrifice your lives
and property to repel him, as a matter of simple patriotism.
But if, in a sudden access of madness, you set forth to
butcher a few helpless foreigners, you will in no wise benefit
the Empire, but will merely be raising fresh difficulties for the
Throne. For the time being, your own consciences will accuse
you of ignoble deeds, and later you will surely pay the penalty
with your lives and the ruin of your families. Surely, you men
of Shensi, enlightened and high-principled, will not fall so low
as this? There are, I know, among you some evil men who,
professing patriotic enmity to foreigners and Christians, wax
fat on foreign plunder. But the few missionary Chapels in this
province offer but meagre booty, and it is safe to predict that
those who begin by sacking them will certainly proceed next
to loot the houses of your wealthier citizens. From the burning
of foreigners’ homes, the conflagration will spread to your
own, and many innocent persons will share the fate of the
slaughtered Christians. The plunderers will escape with their
booty, and the foolish onlookers will pay the penalty of these
crimes. Is it not a well-known fact that every anti-Christian
outbreak invariably brings misery to the stupid innocent
people of the district concerned? Is not this a lamentable
thing? As for me, I care neither for praise nor blame; my only
object in preaching peace in Shensi is to save you, my
people, from dire ruin and destruction.”

Tuan Fang was a member of the Mission to foreign countries in

1905 and has received decorations and honours at the hands of
several European sovereigns. In private life he is distinguished by
his complete absence of formality; a genial, hospitable man, given to
good living, delighting in new mechanical inventions and fond of his
joke. It is he who, as Viceroy of Nanking, organised the International
Exhibition now being held in that city. As Viceroy of Chihli, he was in
charge of the arrangements for the funeral of the Empress Dowager
in November of last year, and a week after that impressive ceremony
was denounced for alleged want of respect and decorum. It was
charged against him that he had permitted subordinate officials to
take photographs of the cortège and that he had even dared to use
certain trees in the sacred enclosure of the Mausolea as telegraph
poles, for which offences he was summarily cashiered; since then he
has lived in retirement. The charges were possibly true, but it is
matter of common knowledge that the real reason for his disgrace
was a matter of Palace politics rather than funereal etiquette, for he
was a protégé of the Regent and his removal was a triumph for the
Yehonala clan, at a time when its prestige called for a demonstration
of some sort against the growing power and influence of the
Emperor Kuang-Hsü’s brothers.
 FOOTNOTES
[1] As an example of unbalanced vituperation, uttered in good
faith and with the best intentions, vide The Chinese Crisis from
Within by “Wen Ching,” republished from the Singapore Free
Press in 1901 (Grant Richards).
[2] About £120.
[3] The same euphemism was employed to describe the Court’s
flight in August 1900.
[4] Grandfather of Na T’ung, the present head of the Waiwupu.
[5] “Yi” and “Cheng” are honorific names, meaning respectively
“harmonious” and “sedate.”
[6] The expression has reference to the fact that the Empresses
Regent are supposed to be concealed from the sight of Ministers
at audience by a curtain suspended in front of the Throne.
[7] The age of the Emperor was less than six, but the solemn
farce of his alleged acts and opinions is solemnly accepted by the
Chinese as part of the eternal order of things.
[8] To allow women privily to accompany the Imperial cortège is
a crime punishable by law with the penalty of the lingering death.
[9] The Prison of the Imperial Clan Court.
[10] Poetical term for Purgatory.
[11] Hereditary titles in China usually descend in a diminishing
scale.
[12] He was the father of that Marquis Tseng who, as Minister
to England (1878), lived to be credited by the British press with
literary abilities which he did not possess and liberal opinions
which he did not share. His grandsons, educated partly in
England, have lately been distinguished for that quality of patriotic
Conservatism which prides itself on having no intercourse with
foreigners.
[13] A short biographical note on Tso Tsung-t’ang, the hero of
the Mahomedan rebellion who gained distinction under Tseng
against the Taipings, is given in the appendix.
[14] So called because they declined to plait the queue, as a
sign that they rejected Manchu rule.
[15] His younger brother, subsequently made an earl and
Viceroy of Nanking for many years.
[16] This is merely figurative, referring to an ancient and
obsolete custom.
[17] So named because, before becoming a eunuch at the age
of sixteen, he was apprenticed to a cobbler at his native place,
Ho-Chien fu, in Chihli, from which district most of the eunuchs
come.
[18] This form of argument, under similar conditions, obtains all
over the Empire. “How could I possibly squeeze my master?”
says the servant.
[19] Quotation from the Book of Changes, implying a sense of
impending danger.
[20] Chinese pamphleteers in Canton record the event with
much detail, and state that this son is alive to-day under the name
of Chiu Min.
[21] A fantastic account of this mission is contained in an
imaginative work recently published (La Vie Secrète de la Cour de
Chine, Paris, 1910), where the Chief Eunuch’s name is given as
“Siao.” This curious blunder is due to the fact that the Eunuch’s
nickname, on account of his stature, was “Hsiao An’rh” (little An),
just as Li hien-Ying’s is “P’i Hsiao” Li all over China.
[22] The Phœnix flag signified that he was sent by the
Empresses Regent.
[23] The same expression is used of a novice taking the vows
of Buddhist priesthood.
[24] Tzŭ Hsi was fond of masquerading with her favourite, till
well advanced in years. One photograph of her is on sale in
Peking, wherein she is posing as the Goddess of Mercy (Kuanyin)
with Li in attendance as one of the Boddhisatvas.
[25] A term of humility.
[26] This Kuei Ching was an uncle of Tuan Fang, recently
Viceroy of Chihli, and a man generally respected.
 [27] This disease is regarded amongst the Chinese as one of
good omen, especially if the symptoms develop satisfactorily.
[28] The annual and seasonal sacrifices at the ancestral
Temple and at the Imperial tombs involve “kowtowing” before
each tablet of the sacred ancestors, and this cannot be done in
the presence of one of the same generation as the last deceased,
much less by him.
[29] Prince Kung was the sixth, Prince Ch’un the seventh, in
order of seniority.
[30] On the occasion to which the Memorialist refers, the lawful
heir to the Throne committed suicide. The allusion would be
readily understood (if not appreciated) by the Empress Dowager,
whose irregular choice of Kuang-Hsü and violation of the dynastic
laws had certainly led to the death of A-lu-te. Looked at from the
Chinese scholar’s point of view, the innuendo was in the nature of
a direct accusation.
[31] The writer refers to the united action of the Manchu Princes
and nobles who assisted in the establishment of law and order,
and the expulsion of the Chinese rebels and Pretenders, during
the troublous time of the first Regency (1644) and the minority of
the infant Emperor, Shun-Chih.
[32] The burial place was close to, but necessarily outside, the
large enclosed park which contains the Imperial mausolea.
[33] Burial clothes should all be new and clean—by cutting
away the soles, his boots would look less shabby.
[34] I.e. by causing the Empresses to have his corpse
mutilated.
[35] About £10.
[36] The point whence, according to legend, the Yellow
Emperor ascended to heaven and where his clothes were buried.
[37] A quotation from Tseng Tzu, one of the most noted
disciples of Confucius.
[38] A sort of Chinese Mr. Malaprop, known to history as one
who invariably spoke at the wrong time.
[39] It is curious to note how frequently the Imperial tombs have
been the scene of such unseemly wrangles, wherein grievances
and passions, long pent up within the Palace precincts, find
utterance. A case of this kind occurred in 1909, on the occasion
of the burial of Tzŭ Hsi, when the surviving consorts of T’ung-Chih
and Kuang-Hsü, having quarrelled with the new Empress
Dowager (Lung Yü) on a similar question of precedence, refused
to return to the City and remained in dudgeon at the tombs until a
special mission, under an Imperial Duke, was sent humbly to beg
them to come back, to the no small scandal of the orthodox.
[40] This title was originally given to an infamous eunuch of the
Court of the Ming Emperor Chu Yü-hsiao, who, because of his
influence over his dissolute master, was canonised by the latter
after his death. The same title was claimed and used by the
Eunuch An Te-hai, vide supra, page 90.
[41] See above, page 93.
[42] Tzŭ Hsi had no love for this official, for it was he who
drafted Hsien-Feng’s valedictory Decree, at the dictation of Su
Shun, in 1861. Vide page 33.
[43] Sun remained in high favour until December 1894, when
the Emperor was induced by Weng T’ung-ho to dismiss him. At
that time the Empress was taking little active part in the direction
of affairs, occupying her time with theatricals and other diversions
at the Summer Palace, and playing a watching game in politics,
so that for a while Sun’s life was in real danger.
[44] Apricot yellow is a colour reserved, strictly speaking, for the
use of the Throne.
[45] In that event it would not be the Yehonala clan alone which
would benefit, as the present Emperor’s grandmother (who was
one of Prince Ch’un’s concubines) is still alive and would
necessarily share in any honours posthumously conferred on her
husband, whilst Kuang-Hsü’s mother would be excluded.
[46] The results of the Prince’s eminent services in naval and
military reorganisation were demonstrated three years later, not
entirely to the nation’s satisfaction, in the war with Japan.
[47] From a sentence in the Book of Rites, which means “to
give rest and peace to Heaven-sent old age.”
[48] Sir Walter Hillier, appointed by Yüan Shih-k’ai to be foreign
adviser to the Grand Council in 1908. When Yuan was compelled
to flee from Seoul before the advance of the Japanese, he was
escorted to Chemulpo by a guard of blue-jackets.
[49] i.e. the Japanese (literal translation).
 [50] At present Chinese Minister in London.
[51] Now known as the Empress Dowager Lung Yü.
[52] Kang Yi was a bigoted reactionary and the arch instigator
of the Boxer movement at the capital. Young China has carefully
preserved one of his sayings of that time: “The establishment of
schools and colleges has only encouraged Chinese ambitions
and developed Chinese talent to the danger of the Manchu
Dynasty: these students should therefore be exterminated without
delay.”
[53] In 1901, this official begged Tzŭ Hsi, just before her
departure from K’ai-Feng fu for Peking, not to return thither, on
the ground that her Palace had been polluted by the presence of
the foreign barbarians.
[54] The Emperor prided himself on being a great stickler in
such matters, and many of the younger officials feared him on
account of his quick temper and martinet manner in dealing with
them.
[55] K’ang’s subsequent escape under British protection, in
which one of the writers was instrumental, is graphically
described in despatch No. 401 of Blue Book No. 1 of 1899.
[56] She was thrown down a well, by Tzŭ Hsi’s orders, as the
Court prepared for flight after the entrance of the allied forces into
Peking. (Vide infra.)
[57] It is interesting to note that this Manchu Prince (Tsai Ch’u)
was released from prison by the present Regent, the Emperor’s
brother, and was appointed to the command of one of the Manchu
Banner Corps on the same day, in January 1909, that Yüan Shih-
k’ai was dismissed from the viceroyalty of Chihli. The Emperor’s
party, as opposed to the Yehonala Clan, heartily approved of his
reinstatement.
[58] Vide Blue Book China No. I. of 1899, letters Nos. 266, 401,
and 426.
[59] As an example of Chinese official methods: the Shanghai
Taotai when requesting the British Consul-General’s assistance to
arrest K’ang Yu-wei, did not hesitate to say that the Emperor was
dead, murdered by the Chief Reformer. Vide Blue Book No. I of
1899; letter No. 401.
[60] From The Times of 31st March, 1899.
 [61] Chang Yin-huan, who had been created a Knight
Commander of St. Michael and St. George in connection with
Queen Victoria’s Jubilee celebration, was subsequently put to
death, after banishment to Turkestan. An order given by Prince
Tuan at the commencement of the Boxer crisis was the
immediate cause of his execution.
Another reformer named Hsü Chih-ching was condemned to
imprisonment for life in the Board of Punishments under this
same Decree; he was released by the Allies in August 1900,
when he proceeded at once to T’ai-Yüan fu, and handed himself
over to justice, disdaining to accept his release at the hands of
foreigners. This incident is typical of the Chinese officials’ attitude
of mind and of their reverence for the Decrees of the head of the
State.
[62] On the occasion of her seventieth birthday (1904), the
Empress Dowager promulgated a general amnesty for all those
who had taken part in the Reform Movement of 1898, excepting
only the leaders K’ang Yu-wei and Liang Ch’i-ch’ao, who were
expressly excluded from grace, and Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who was a
fugitive from justice on other counts.
[63] Li Tuan-fen returned from exile in Turkestan under the
amnesty of 1904.
[64] Weng T’ung-ho has been posthumously restored to his full
rank and titles by a Decree of the present Regent. Thus is the
Emperor tardily justified and the pale ghosts of his followers
continue to suffer, even in Hades, the chances and changes of
Chinese official life!
[65] This official was eventually decapitated by the allies, as
one of the originators of the Boxer rising.
[66] This Prefect of Hsüanhua was subsequently promoted by
the Empress Dowager, when passing through that city, at the
beginning of the flight from Peking.
[67] Hsü, to whom Jung Lu was writing, was a Cantonese by
birth, and was at this time Viceroy of Foochow.
[68] A note on the career and character of this courageous
official is given in the Appendix.
[69] The Decree is given at the end of this chapter.
[70] The victim was British, not French—viz., the Rev. Mr.
Brooks, killed on 31st December, 1899, just after Yu Hsien’s
removal had been arranged.
[71] Between January and June the entries are of no particular
interest.
[72] The Supreme Deity of the Taoists and tutelary spirit of the
Boxers.
[73] A nickname of An Te-hai, vide supra, p. 90 et seq.
[74] The Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, Mr. Sugiyama.
[75] This was a forgery.
[76] A quotation from the “Book of Odes.”
[77] This man’s subsequent arrest and execution are described
in a Censorate memorial at the end of this chapter.
[78] Mr. (later Sir Harry) Parkes.
[79] Professor James.
[80] Mentioned above under full name of Chi Shou-ch’eng. Chi
Pin was his “hao” or intimate personal name.
[81] Ching Shan’s house was just inside the Tung An Gate of
the Imperial City, about a quarter of a mile to the north of the
present Legation area boundary.
[82] This favourite companion of Tzŭ Hsi was really Jung Lu’s
secondary consort, who was only raised to the rank of la première
légitime after his first wife’s death in September, 1900. She
survived him and continued to exercise great influence with the
Old Buddha.
[83] A short biographical note on Chang Chih-tung will be found
in the Appendix.
[84] Vide under June 20th.
[85] A quotation from Mencius.
[86] Quotation from Mencius.
[87] History of events under the Chou dynasty, by Confucius;
one of the Five Classics.
[88] How well and successfully she did it, has been told in Miss
Catherine A. Carl’s book, With the Empress Dowager of China.
The painting of her portrait for the St. Louis exhibition was in itself
an example of Tzŭ Hsi’s “cardinal virtues of government,” which
she practised with conspicuous success on the simple-minded
wife of the American Minister, Mrs. Conger. (Vide Cordier,
Relations de la Chine, Vol. III., p. 423.)
[89] The second character of Prince Tuan’s name contained the
radical sign for dog, and was given him by the Emperor Hsien-
Feng, because he had been begotten during the period of
mourning for his parent Tao-Kuang; it being an offence, under
Chinese law, for a son to be begotten during the twenty-seventh
months of mourning for father or mother.
[90] A classical allusion, in common use, equivalent to “Ne
sutor ultra crepidam.”
[91] A traitor whose crime and punishment are recorded in the
Spring and Autumn Annals.
[92] A classical expression, meaning the Spirit-world.
[93] Referring to his part in the coup d’état of 1898.
[94] The expression is figurative.
[95] A species of owl—classical reference.
[96] Consort of Kuang-Hsü, now Empress Dowager, known by
the honorific title of Lung-yü.
[97] Prince Ch’un subsequently married Jung Lu’s daughter, by
special command of the Empress Dowager.
[98] This Memorial was never published officially, and Tzŭ Hsi
refrained from issuing a Rescript thereto; it was forwarded by an
official with the Court at Hsi-an to one of the vernacular papers at
Shanghai, which published it.
[99] A lane four hundred yards north of the glacis which now
surrounds the Legation quarter.
[100] Quotation from Confucius.
[101] Tzŭ Hsi was addicted to gentle sarcasm of this kind in
Decrees.
[102] Admiral Seymour’s expedition.
[103] See Dr. Smith’s “China in Convulsion,” page 361.
[104] The North Gate of the Imperial City.
[105] At that time Governor-designate of Shensi. He had come
north with troops to defend the capital.
 [106] Tutor of the Heir Apparent, father-in-law of the Emperor
T’ung-Chih, his daughter, the Empress Chia-Shun (A-lu-te), had
committed suicide in 1875 (vide supra).
[107] An allusion to Kuang-Hsü’s order for Jung Lu’s summary
execution in September 1898.
[108] See biographical note, infra (Appendix).
[109] Deceased, 26th August 1910.
[110] As he had done for Tzŭ Hsi’s son, the Emperor T’ung-
Chih.
[111] Amongst Chinese officials no characteristic is more
common than their jealousy of each other and their promiscuous
habit of backbiting and slandering.
[112] It was because of Tung Fu-hsiang’s great popularity in
Kansu that Her Majesty, fearing another rebellion, hesitated to
order his execution.
[113] This sentence is equivalent to imprisonment for life.
[114] See Ching Shan’s Diary, page 258; also cf. page 324.
[115] The Empress Dowager was from the outset most anxious
to screen and protect this official, for whom she had a great
personal regard. On reviewing his case in the light of later
information and current public opinion, it would appear that most
of his actions were instigated, if not ordered, by Kang Yi, and that
the decision of the foreign Ministers to insist upon his death was
taken without any very definite information as to his share of guilt.
[116] In accordance with prescribed custom.
[117] He was directly descended from Nurhachu, the conqueror
of the Mings.
[118] This was no empty boast. Yü Hsien, cold-blooded fanatic
that he was, bore a most honourable name for absolute integrity
and contempt for wealth. He died in poverty, so miserable, that
amongst all his clothes there was not one suit new enough to be
fittingly used for his burial robes. His name is still held in high
honour by the people of Shansi, who sing the praises of his
Governorship, and who claim that his proud spirit it was which
protected their Province from being invaded by the foreigners.
They erected a shrine to his memory, but it was demolished to
appease the foreign Powers.
 [119] The Chinese rendering of a German name.
[120] This is the Chinese date; the day of the audience was the
4th September.
[121] Wen T’i had been a censor in 1898, but was cashiered by
the Emperor for being reactionary. Tzŭ Hsi restored him to favour
after the coup d’état.
[122] Precisely the same quotation was used by Ch’ung Hou in
a despatch to the British Minister (Mr. Wade) in 1861, under
somewhat similar circumstances. Since that date the most
frequent criticism of foreign observers on the subject has been
“plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose.”
[123] The literal translation of the Chinese is, “She has eaten
her meal at sunset, and worn her clothes throughout the night.”
[124] Ginseng, the specific remedy of the Chinese
pharmacopœia for debility, supposed to possess certain magical
qualities when grown in shapes resembling the human form or
parts thereof. The best kind, supplied as tribute to the Throne,
grows wild in Manchuria and Corea.
[125] This house-law was made by the Emperor Ch’ien Lung to
prevent his Court officials from intriguing for the favour of the Heir
Apparent.
[126] The chief eunuch in reality objected to the Buddhist pontiff
on his own account, for the Lama’s exactions from the
superstitious would naturally diminish his own opportunities.
[127] He had succeeded Jung Lu as custodian of the
mausolea.
[128] The Imperial Mausoleum lies about ninety miles to the
east of Peking, covering a vast enclosure of magnificent approach
and decorated with splendid specimens of the best style of
Chinese architecture. It consists of four palaces, rising one behind
the other, and at the back of the fourth and highest stands the
huge mound classically termed the “Jewelled Citadel,” under
which lies the spacious grave chamber.
[129] Vide Biographical Note in the Appendix.
[130] 2nd January, 1909.
[131] Vide the Diary of Ching Shan, page 259.
[132] Grant Richards, 1901.