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Engineering Materials
Pietro Pedeferri
Corrosion
Science and
Engineering
Edited by Luciano Lazzari and
MariaPia Pedeferri
The “Engineering Materials” series provides topical information on innovative,
structural and functional materials and composites with applications in optical,
electronical, mechanical, civil, aeronautical, medical, bio and nano engineering.
The individual volumes are complete, comprehensive monographs covering the
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This multidisciplinary series is devoted to professionals, students and all those
interested in the latest developments in the Materials Science field.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4288

Pietro Pedeferri
Corrosion Science
and Engineering
Edited by Luciano Lazzari and MariaPia Pedeferri
In Cooperation with Marco Ormellese, Andrea Brenna,

Silvia Beretta, Fabio Bolzoni, Maria Vittoria Diamanti
123
Pietro Pedeferri (Deceased)
Politecnico di Milano
Milan, Italy
ISSN 1612-1317 ISSN 1868-1212 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-97624-2 ISBN 978-3-319-97625-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97625-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018950812
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

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of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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Preface
This Pedeferri’s Corrosion Science and Engineering textbook is the English edition
of Pietro Pedeferri’s Corrosione e Protezione dei Materiali, Polipress, Milano
(2007), with many integrations made by his collaborators of the PoliLaPP, the
Laboratory of Corrosion of Materials that Pedeferri founded. The main goal while
translating and integrating the original Italian book, so far very appreciated in Italy
with about 2000 copies printed, is to give a modern and updated handbook on
corrosion and corrosion prevention for a twofold use: as a teaching textbook and a
modern, technical support for industrial applications. This textbook stands as an
ideal learning resource for students of corrosion courses in chemical, mechanical,
energy and materials engineering at graduate and advanced undergraduate levels, as
well as a valuable reference for engineers.
This English edition, integrated and updated, contains 30 chapters, dealing with
corrosion theory (9 chapters), forms of corrosion (7), corrosion control and pre-
vention methods (3), applications in different environments as waters, air, soil,
concrete (4), and industrial applications as petrochemical plants, refinery and high
temperature (2) as well as corrosion of implants in the human body. Four chapters
are dedicated to design, corrosion monitoring, laboratory tests and the statistical
processing of corrosion data. Chapters dedicated to the on-field applications pro-
pose an overview of the most used metals and relevant case histories. Emphasis has
been devoted to cathodic protection and corrosion of reinforced concrete to give
merit to the pioneering works carried out by Pietro Pedeferri. Each chapter is
enriched by pictures of corrosion case studies analysed by PoliLaPP; most of the
samples are actually available at the “Corrosion Museum”, where Pietro Pedeferri
and his school have collected the most significant corrosion case studies.
The book offers the reader and the user many case histories and an important
number of questions and exercises to help check the acquired knowledge. Questions
and exercises included in each chapter represent the experience gathered by
Pedeferri and his school over the last 50 years as a fruit of teaching, research,
consultancy on material selection, failure analysis and corrosion engineering.
Answers and solutions of exercises for readers will be available on PoliLaPP
website (http://polilapp.chem.polimi.it).
v
vi Preface
Finally, a warm thank to all collaborators Andrea Brenna Silvia Beretta, Fabio
Bolzoni, Maria Vittoria Diamanti for their hard, precious and tenacious work in
contributing to the translation, integration and revision of the chapters and the effort
spent on collecting more than 300 exercises. Special mention to Marco Ormellese
for the unparalleled contribution. Thanks to Roberto Chiesa for reviewing the
chapter related to corrosion in the human body, Giorgio Re for the suggestions on
chapters dedicated to environmental-assisted cracking, Eleonora Faccioli for the
drawing of figures and tables and Davide Prando for the collection of the original
pictures.
Milan, Italy Luciano Lazzari

June 2018 MariaPia Pedeferri
Contents
1 General Principles of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Corrosion as Metallurgy in Reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Economic Impact of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Corrosion Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Uniform or Generalized Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Localized Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Corrosion Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 Uniform Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Corrosion Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Electrochemical Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Electrochemical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Evans’s Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Local Cell Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Mixed Potential Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Corrosion Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.1 Anodic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.2 Cathodic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.3 Other Cathodic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.4 Complementary Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Stoichiometry (Faraday Law) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.1 Corrosion Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Change of the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
vii
viii Contents
3 Thermodynamics of Aqueous Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.1 Driving Voltage and Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Corrosion and Immunity Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Standard Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4 Potential of an Electrochemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.5 Potential of Metal Dissolution Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5.1 Corrosion and Immunity Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Potential of Cathodic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6.1 Potential of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction . . . . . . . . 46
3.6.2 Potential of Oxygen Reduction Reaction . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.3 Applications of Thermodynamic Criteria . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Insoluble Products and Complexing Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.8 Reference Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.9 Electrochemical Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.9.1 Concentration Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Pourbaix Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 Oxygen Reduction and Hydrogen Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2 Metal Immunity, Corrosion and Passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.1 Equilibrium Between Immunity and Corrosion . . . . . 59
4.2.2 Equilibrium Between Immunity and Passivation . . . . 61
4.2.3 Equilibrium Between Corrosion and Passivation . . . . 62
4.3 Amphoteric Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.1 Electrochemical Dissolution in Alkaline Solution . . . 63
4.3.2 Chemical Dissolution in Alkaline Solution . . . . . . . . 64
4.4 Pourbaix Diagrams of Some Metals at 25 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.5 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 Kinetics of Aqueous Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Driving Force and Corrosion Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2 Dissipations in Corrosion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3 Activation Overvoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3.1 Exchange Current Density and Tafel Law . . . . . . . . 76
5.3.2 Potential-Current Density Diagrams (or
Characteristic Curves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3.3 Oxidation or Reduction of a Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3.4 Hydrogen Evolution (Activation Overvoltage) . . . . . 82
5.3.5 Oxygen Reduction (Activation Overvoltage) . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Concentration Overvoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.1 Oxygen Reduction: Limiting Current . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Contents ix
5.4.2 Total Oxygen Overvoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5.5 Other Cathodic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.6 Passivation and Passivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.6.1 Film Formation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.6.2 Oxide Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.6.3 Active-Passive Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.6.4 Passivity-Related Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6 Evans Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 103
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 104
6.2 Evans Diagrams of Active Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 104
6.3 Corrosion Conditions in the Presence of an Ohmic Drop . . . . . 108
6.4 Multiple Cathodic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 110
6.5 Imposed Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 111
6.6 Experimental Polarization Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 112
6.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 115
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . 118
7 Corrosion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.1 Metal Affecting Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.1.1 Modification of Metal Surface Composition . . . . . . . 120
7.1.2 Nobility by Alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.1.3 Overvoltage of Cathodic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.1.4 Cathodic Alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.1.5 Reduction of Anodic Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.1.6 Passivation Induced by Alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2 Environment Affecting Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2.1 Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.2.2 pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.2.3 Differential Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.2.4 Salt Formation/Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.2.5 Cation Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.2.6 Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3 Metal/Environment Affecting Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.3.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.3.2 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.3.3 Corrosion Products and Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.3.4 Flow Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.3.5 Active–Passive Related Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
x Contents
8 Uniform Corrosion in Acidic and Aerated Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.2 Acidic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.2.1 Strong Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.2.2 Carbonic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.2.3 Hydrogen Sulphide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.4 Organic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.2.5 Corrosion of Passive Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.3 Aerated Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.3.1 Oxygen Limiting Diffusion Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.3.2 Presence of Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.3.3 Dimensionless Number Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.3.4 Corrosion of Noble Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.3.5 Corrosion of Non-noble Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.3.6 Corrosion of Passive Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9 Macrocell Corrosion Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.1 Electrical Field in Uniform Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.2 Electrical Field in a Macrocell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.2.1 Pure Ohmic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.2.2 Two-Electrode Macrocell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.3 Current Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.3.1 Primary Current Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.3.2 Secondary Current Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.4 Throwing Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.5 Typical Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.5.1 Inside a Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.5.2 Outside a Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.5.3 On a Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.6 Maximum Surface Area Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10 Galvanic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.1 Effects on Metal Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.2 Galvanic Effects on Less Noble Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.3 Galvanic Effects on More Noble Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.4 Galvanic Coupling Representation by Evans Diagrams . . . . . . 192
10.5 Four Main Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.5.1 Practical Nobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.5.2 Cathodic Overvoltage on More Noble Metal . . . . . . 197
10.5.3 Surface Area Ratio and Maximum
Corrosion Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Contents xi
10.5.4 Electrolyte Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

10.5.5 Geometry of the Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.6 Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11 Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.1 Pitting Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.2 Pitting Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.2.1 Pit Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
11.2.2 Propagation of Stable Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
11.2.3 Corrosion Rate of Stable Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11.3 Pitting on Stainless Steels in Chloride-Containing
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.3.1 PREN Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.3.2 Free Corrosion Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
11.3.3 Pitting Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
11.3.4 Repassivation Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
11.3.5 Pedeferri’s Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.3.6 Pitting Induction Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.4 Pitting Susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.4.1 Critical Pitting Temperature and Critical
Pitting Chloride Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.5 Pitting on Carbon Steel in Chloride-Contaminated
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.6 Pitting on Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.7 Pitting as Markovian Process or Prevention of Pitting . . . . . . . 225
11.8 Prevention of Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11.9 Applicable Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
12 Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
12.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.2 Crevice Critical Gap Size (CCGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.3 Mechanism of Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.3.1 First Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
12.3.2 Second Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
12.3.3 Third Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
12.4 Metal Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.5 Environmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.6 Prevention of Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
12.7 Crevice-Like Corrosion of Active Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
xii Contents
12.7.1 Corrosion Under Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

12.7.2 Automotive Related Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12.7.3 Riveted Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.7.4 Stored Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.8 Filiform Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
13 Stress Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion-Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
13.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
13.2 SCC Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
13.3 Morphology and Conditions of Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.3.1 Crack Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.3.2 Crack Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.4 Mechanical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13.4.1 Stress Intensity Factor, KI, and Fracture
Toughness, KIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
13.4.2 Crack Growth and KISCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
13.4.3 Crack Growth Rate and KI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
13.4.4 Crack Growth and Strain Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
13.4.5 Test Methods—SSRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
13.5 Environment-Related Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
13.6 Metallurgical Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.6.1 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.6.2 Mechanical Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
13.6.3 Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
13.7 SCC Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
13.7.1 Reduction of Stress and Defect Size . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.7.2 Control of Environment, Metallurgy
and Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.8 Corrosion-Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
13.8.1 Mechanical Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
13.8.2 Influencing Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
13.8.3 Corrosion-Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . 265
13.8.4 True Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
13.8.5 Stress Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
13.8.6 Prevention of Corrosion-Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
13.9 Some Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Contents xiii
14 Hydrogen-Induced Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

14.1 Hydrogen Induced Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
14.1.1 Adsorption, Dissolution and Trapping . . . . . . . . . . . 276
14.1.2 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
14.1.3 Atomic Hydrogen Produced by a Cathodic
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.1.4 Decomposition and Solubility of Hydrogen
at High Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
14.2 HT-HID or Hydrogen Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
14.3 LT-HID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.3.1 Delayed Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
14.3.2 HIC and Blistering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.3.3 HE Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14.3.4 Failure Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
14.3.5 HE by Hydrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
14.3.6 Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14.4 Prevention of LT-HID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14.4.1 Prevention of HIC and Blistering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
14.4.2 Materials for Sour Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15 Intergranular and Selective Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.1 Impurities and Segregations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
15.2 Sensitization of Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
15.3 Corrosion Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.4 Prevention of Intergranular Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
15.5 Weld Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
15.5.1 Knife-Line Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.6 Intergranular Corrosion of Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.7 Intergranular Corrosion Without Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.8 Exfoliation of Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.9 Intergranular Corrosion Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.10 Selective Corrosion of an Alloying Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.10.1 Dezincification of Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.10.2 Cast Iron Graphitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16 Erosion-Corrosion and Fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
16.1 Erosion-Corrosion Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
16.1.1 Corrosion by Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
xiv Contents
16.1.2 Cavitation Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

16.1.3 Metal Affecting Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
16.1.4 Environment Affecting Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
16.1.5 Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
16.2 Fretting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
16.2.1 Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
16.2.2 Main Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
16.2.3 Fretting Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
16.2.4 Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
16.2.5 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
17 Corrosion Prevention by Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
17.1 Metallic Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.1.1 Coating Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.1.2 Cathodic Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.1.3 Anodic Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
17.1.4 Multilayer Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
17.1.5 Methods for Obtaining Metallic Coatings . . . . . . . . . 333
17.1.6 Zinc Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
17.1.7 Tin Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
17.1.8 Nickel Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
17.1.9 Chromium Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
17.1.10 Copper Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
17.1.11 Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
17.2 Conversion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
17.2.1 Phosphate Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
17.2.2 Chromate Filming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
17.2.3 Anodic Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
17.3 Other Inorganic Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
17.3.1 Hot Enamels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
17.3.2 Thick Cementitious Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
17.3.3 Thick Corrosion Resistant Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
17.4 Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
17.4.1 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
17.4.2 Corrosion Under Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
17.4.3 Protective Action of Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
17.4.4 Paint Film Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
17.4.5 Painting Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
17.4.6 Pre-treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.4.7 Paint Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Contents xv
17.4.8 Painting Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

17.4.9 Threats at the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
18 Environmental Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
18.1 pH Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
18.2 Oxygen Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
18.3 Corrosion Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
18.3.1 Classification of Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
18.3.2 Cathodic Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
18.3.3 Anodic Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
18.3.4 Mixed Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
18.3.5 Inhibitor Adsorption Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
18.3.6 Adsorption Isotherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
18.3.7 Inhibitor Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
18.4 Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
19 Cathodic and Anodic Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
19.1 Cathodic Protection (CP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
19.1.1 Protection Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
19.1.2 Thermodynamic Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19.1.3 Kinetic Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19.1.4 Protection Criteria and Overprotection . . . . . . . . . . . 386
19.1.5 Protection Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
19.1.6 Anodic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
19.1.7 Coatings and Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
19.1.8 Current Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
19.2 CP Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
19.2.1 Galvanic Anodes Cathodic Protection Systems
(GACP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
19.2.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems
(ICCP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
19.2.3 CP Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
19.3 Anodic Protection (AP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
19.3.1 Electrode Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
19.3.2 AP Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
19.3.3 AP Versus Active-Passive Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
19.3.4 Throwing Power of AP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
19.3.5 Potentiostatic Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
19.3.6 CP-AP Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
xvi Contents

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
20 Corrosion in Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
20.1 Types of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
20.2 Factors Influencing Corrosion Likelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
20.2.1 Oxygen Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
20.2.2 Water Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
20.2.3 Scaling Tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
20.2.4 Water Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
20.2.5 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
20.2.6 Other Cathodic Reactant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
20.3 Uniform Corrosion Rate Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
20.4 Metals for Freshwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
20.4.1 Steel and Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
20.4.2 Galvanized Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
20.4.3 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
20.4.4 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
20.5 Brackish Water and Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
20.5.1 Corrosion Zones in Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
20.5.2 Materials for Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
20.6 Applicable Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
21 Corrosion in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
21.1 Soil Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
21.2 Corrosion in Aerated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
21.2.3 Corrosion Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
21.2.4 Differential Aeration Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
21.2.5 Galvanic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
21.2.6 Effect of Soil Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
21.3 Microbial Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
21.4 Corrosion by Stray Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
21.4.1 Electrochemical Reactions on the Interfered
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
21.4.2 Interference Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
21.4.3 Interference assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
21.4.4 Criteria for Interference Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
21.4.5 Prevention and Control of Stray Current
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Contents xvii
21.4.6 Alternating Current Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

21.4.7 Typical Cases of Improbable Interference . . . . . . . . . 474
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
22 Atmospheric Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
22.1 Liquid Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
22.2 Factors Affecting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
22.2.1 Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
22.2.2 Time of Wetness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
22.2.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
22.2.4 Atmosphere Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
22.2.5 Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
22.3 Classification of Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
22.3.1 Microenvironments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
22.3.2 Classification of Atmospheric Corrosiveness . . . . . . . 487
22.3.3 Indoor Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
22.4 Corrosion Behaviour of Most Used Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
22.4.1 Carbon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
22.4.2 Weathering Steels (Cor-Ten) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
22.4.3 Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
22.4.4 Copper and Copper-Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
22.4.5 Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
22.4.6 Other Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
22.5 Corrosion and Protection of Metallic Cultural Heritage . . . . . . 505
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
23 Corrosion in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
23.1 Initiation, Propagation and Morphology of Corrosion . . . . . . . 510
23.2 Corrosion by Carbonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
23.2.1 Carbonation Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
23.2.2 Corrosion Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
23.3 Chloride-Induced Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
23.3.1 Corrosion Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
23.3.2 Structures at a Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
23.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
23.5 Corrosion by Stray Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
23.6 Prevention of Reinforcement Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
23.6.1 Quality of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
23.6.2 Cover Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
23.6.3 Common Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
xviii Contents
23.7 Additional Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

23.7.1 Concrete Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
23.7.2 Corrosion Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
23.7.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
23.7.4 Galvanized Steel Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
23.7.5 Cathodic Prevention (CPrev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
23.7.6 Comparison of Additional Protections . . . . . . . . . . . 535
23.7.7 Evaluation of service life by performance based
methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
23.8 Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
23.8.1 Concrete Cover Thickness Measurements
and Rebar Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
23.8.2 Analysis of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
23.8.3 Electrochemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
23.9 Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
23.9.1 Traditional Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
23.9.2 Electrochemical Repair Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
24 Corrosion in Petrochemical Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
24.1 Petrochemical Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
24.2 The Corroding Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
24.3 Water Wetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
24.4 Corrosion Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
24.5 CO2-Related Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
24.5.1 Corrosion Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
24.5.2 Corrosion Rate Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
24.5.3 Metals for Sweet Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
24.6 H2S-Related Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
24.6.1 Corrosion Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
24.6.2 Generalized Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
24.6.3 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
24.6.4 Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
24.6.5 Metals for Sour Service Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
24.7 Downstream Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
24.7.1 Corrosion by S/H2S Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
24.7.2 Corrosion by Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
24.7.3 Corrosion by H2/H2S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
24.7.4 Corrosion by Naphthenic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
24.7.5 Hydrogen Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
24.7.6 Organic Acid Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
24.7.7 Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . 570
Contents xix
24.7.8 High Temperature Sulphidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

24.8 International Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
25 Corrosion in the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
25.1 Characteristics of Metals for Orthopaedic Purpose . . . . . . . . . . 576
25.1.1 Mechanical Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
25.1.2 Fatigue Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
25.1.3 Resistance to Generalized Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
25.1.4 Resistance to Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
25.1.5 Resistance to Fretting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
25.1.6 Corrosion for Galvanic Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
25.1.7 Biocompatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
25.2 Classes of Metals Employed in Orthopaedics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
25.2.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
25.2.2 Cobalt Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
25.2.3 Titanium and Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
25.3 Surface Finishing Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
25.3.1 Barrel Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
25.3.2 Electropolishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
25.3.3 Passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
25.3.4 Titanium Anodising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
26 High Temperature Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
26.1 Corrosive Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
26.2 Thermodynamics and Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
26.3 Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
26.3.1 Non Protective Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
26.3.2 Protective Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
26.4 Wagner Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
26.4.1 Oxide Conductivity and Lattice Defects . . . . . . . . . . 595
26.5 Morphology of Oxide Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
26.6 Oxidation of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
26.7 Oxidation of Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
26.7.1 Oxidation of Only One of Two Metals
in Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
26.7.2 Oxidation of Both Metals in Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
26.8 Other Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
26.8.1 Sulphidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
26.8.2 Carburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
26.8.3 Halogenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
xx Contents
26.9 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

26.9.1 Oxygen and Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
26.9.2 Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
26.9.3 Sulphur Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
26.9.4 Combustion Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
26.9.5 Nitridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
26.10 Materials for Use at High Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
27 Prevention of Corrosion in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
27.1 Design Life and Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
27.1.1 How to Choose Reliability and Related
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
27.2 Prevention in Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
27.2.1 Evaluation of Aggressiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
27.2.2 Reduction of Aggressiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
27.2.3 Local Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
27.2.4 Homogeneity Is Preferred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
27.2.5 Change of Aggressiveness in Space
and with Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
27.3 Metal Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
27.3.1 Basic Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
27.3.2 Technological Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
27.4 Some General Features of Used Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
27.4.1 Carbon and Low Alloy Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
27.4.2 Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
27.4.3 Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
27.4.4 Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
27.4.5 Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
27.4.6 Titanium and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
27.5 General Philosophy for Metal Selection in Industry . . . . . . . . . 622
27.5.1 Alkaline Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
27.5.2 Chloride-Free Acidic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
27.5.3 Chloride-Containing Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
27.6 Prevention by Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
27.7 Prevention in Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
27.8 Prevention in Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
27.9 Commissioning and Start-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
27.10 Prevention During Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
27.11 Planned Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Contents xxi
28 Monitoring and Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635

28.1 Corrosion Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
28.1.1 Selection of Monitoring Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
28.2 Common Monitoring Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
28.2.1 Corrosion Coupon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
28.2.2 Corrosion Spool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
28.2.3 Electrical Resistance Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
28.2.4 Linear Polarisation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
28.2.5 Galvanic Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
28.2.6 Potential Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
28.2.7 Bio-probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
28.2.8 Hydrogen Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
28.3 Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
28.3.1 Electrochemical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
28.3.2 EIS (Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy) . . . . 646
28.3.3 Acoustic Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
28.4 Plant Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
28.4.1 Liquid Penetrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
28.4.2 Magnetic Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
28.4.3 Radiographic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
28.4.4 Ultrasonic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
28.4.5 Eddy Current Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
29 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
29.1 Test Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
29.2 Accelerated Tests and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
29.3 Exposure Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
29.3.1 Mass Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
29.3.2 Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
29.3.3 Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
29.3.4 Galvanic Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
29.3.5 Integranular Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
29.3.7 Erosion, Cavitation and Fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
29.3.8 Artificial Atmosphere—Cabinet Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
29.4 Electrochemical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
29.4.2 Pitting Potential and Repassivation Potential . . . . . . 672
29.4.3 Galvanic Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
29.4.4 Intergranular Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
xxii Contents

29.4.6 Other Electrochemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
30 Statistical Analysis of Corrosion Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
30.1 Fundamentals of Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
30.1.1 Mean and Variability of Data Distribution . . . . . . . . 680
30.1.2 Statistical Distributions of Scatter Data . . . . . . . . . . 681
30.1.3 Reliability and Hazard Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
30.2 Probability Distributions Observed in Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . 682
30.2.1 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
30.2.2 Lognormal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
30.2.3 Poisson and Exponential Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . 685
30.2.4 Generalized Extreme Value Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
30.2.5 Gumbel Extreme Value Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
30.2.6 Weibull Extreme Value Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
30.3 Sample Size and Curve Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
30.3.1 Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
30.3.2 Curve Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
30.4 International Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
About the Author
… ‘I see that water, nay, I see

that fire and air and earth, and all their mixtures
become corrupt, and but a little while
endure; and yet created things were these!
Dante, The Divine Comedy, Paradise VII
Born “valtellinese”, adopted “milanese”, with heart

and spirit in Nestrelli
Pietro Pedeferri
Pietro Pedeferri was a Full Professor in Corrosion and

Protection of Materials at the School of Engineering at
Politecnico di Milano, Italy.
He graduated in chemical engineering (cum laude) at
Politecnico di Milano as Montecatini gold medal holder
and won the De Nora Award with a thesis on electro-
chemistry under the supervision of Professor Roberto
Piontelli. His career started and continued at Politecnico
di Milano, as an Assistant Professor first and then Full
Professor in electrochemistry and later in corrosion and
protection of materials. In 1968, he was appointed as
lecturer of the first ever course on corrosion and pro-
Pietro Pedeferri (1938–2008) tection at an Italian university. He was a Visiting
Professor at the University of Cambridge, UK, and the
University of Connecticut, USA. From 1993 to 1999,
he was Head of the Department of Applied Physical
Chemistry at the Politecnico di Milano.
His first academic activity was electrochemistry
research; then, in the 1963, he moved on to the corro-
sion field focusing on industrial and engineering
aspects. His topics of study in electrochemistry were
overvoltage in sulphamic solutions, anodic effects in Al
production cells, anodic oxidation of Ti and so-called
xxiii
xxiv About the Author
valve metals and relevant chromatic effects. His

research in corrosion started with cold-worked stainless
steels and continued with implanted metals in simulated
physiological solutions, corrosion of bronze artefacts
and cathodic protection. Since 1985, he dealt with
corrosion of steel reinforcements in concrete, indicating
factors and conditions for initiation and propagation. In
1991, he invented and proposed a new technique called
cathodic prevention for concrete structures destined to
be chloride contaminated, nowadays included in oper-
ative international standards. From the study of the
corrosion behaviour of stainless steel reinforcements,
he proposed a potential-to-chloride diagram for inter-
pretation: this diagram is now called the Pedeferri
Diagram.
Meanwhile, he continued his studies on Ti colour-
ing, winning an award in 1988 in Paris, within the
international event Science pour l’art, and displaying
his work in the Fondazione Corrente Gallery in Milan,
Italy. He revisited the publications of Alessandro Volta
and Leopoldo Nobili and then rewrote several chapters
of the history of electrochemistry. Some of the
Pedeferri’s findings on Volta priorities in corrosion are
reported in this book.
He published 388 papers and 34 books, and took out
8 patents.
Symbols and Abbreviations
aMz þ Activity (or concentration) of ions of metal M in a solution (mol/L)

a Coefficient (adimensional)
b Tafel slope (module) (V/decade)
ba Tafel slope of the anodic curve (module) (V/decade)
bc Tafel slope of the cathodic curve (module) (V/decade)
bFe Tafel slope of iron dissolution reaction (V/decade)
bH 2 Tafel slope of hydrogen evolution reaction (V/decade)
bO 2 Tafel slope of oxygen reduction reaction (V/decade)
C Concentration (mol/L)
Crate Corrosion rate (mm/y)
Crate,m Mass loss rate (mdd)
CCGS Critical crevice gap size (µm)
CCT Critical crevice temperature (°C)
CIPP Close interval potential profile
CP Cathodic protection
CPrev Cathodic prevention
CPCC Critical pitting chloride concentration
CPT Critical pitting temperature (°C)
CSE Saturated copper sulphate electrode (+0.32 V SHE)
d Distance (m)
deq Diameter of the coating equivalent defect (m)
D Diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
DL Design life
d Diffusion layer thickness (m)
e− Electron
E Electrode potential (V)
EXY Potential difference between electrode X and Y (V)
E0 Standard potential (V)
Ea Anodic potential (V)
Ec Cathodic potential (V)
xxv
xxvi Symbols and Abbreviations
Ecorr Free corrosion potential (V)

Eeq Equilibrium potential given by Nernst equation (V)
EIR-free Potential free of the ohmic drop in CP applications (V)
Eoff Off-potential in CP applications (V)
Eon On-potential in CP applications (V)
Ep Passivation potential (V)
Epit Pitting potential or passivity breakdown potential (V)
Epp Primary passivation potential (V)
Eprot Protection potential (V)
Erp Repassivation potential (V)
Etr Transpassive potential (V)
EMF Electromotive force (V)
DE Driving voltage or potential difference (V)
e Efficiency (unitary fraction)
F Faraday constant (96,485 C)
FEM Finite element method
/ Diameter (m)
G Gibbs free energy (J/mol)
GACP Galvanic anode cathodic protection
c Mass density (g/cm3)
DG Standard Gibbs free energy variation (J/mol)
H Activation energy (J/mol)
HE Hydrogen embrittlement
HIC Hydrogen-induced cracking
HID Hydrogen-induced damage
g Overvoltage (with respect to the equilibrium potential) (V)
ga Anodic overvoltage (V)
gact; O2 Activation overvoltage of oxygen reduction (V)
gc Cathodic overvoltage (V)
gconc; O2 Concentration overvoltage of oxygen reduction (V)
gH2 Activation overvoltage of hydrogen evolution reaction (V)
gM Activation overvoltage of metal dissolution reaction (V)
gO2 Overvoltage of oxygen reduction (V)
i Current density (mA/m2)
ia Anodic current density (mA/m2)
ic Cathodic current density (mA/m2)
icorr Corrosion current density (mA/m2)
icp Critical passivation current density (mA/m2)
iGC Current density in galvanic coupling (mA/m2)
iL Oxygen limiting current density (mA/m2)
i0 Exchange current density (mA/m2)
i0; H2 Exchange current density of hydrogen evolution (mA/m2)
i0,M Exchange current density of metal M (mA/m2)
Symbols and Abbreviations xxvii
i0; O2 Exchange current density of oxygen (mA/m2)

ip Passivity current density (mA/m2)
iprot Protection current density (mA/m2)
I Current (A)
Ia Anodic current (A)
Ic Cathodic current (A)
Ie External current (A)
Iel Current in the electrolyte (A)
Iinterf Interference current (A)
Iprot Protection current (A)
ICCP Impressed current cathodic protection
k Constant (generic)
j Conductivity of an electrolyte (S/m)
Ks Complex stability constant
L Length (m)
Lmax Throwing power (m)
LSI Langelier saturation index
m Mass (g)
M Generic metal, less noble metal in a coupling
Mz+ Oxidised metal species
MIC Microbiologically influenced corrosion
MOB Manganese oxidising bacteria
MMO Mixed metal oxides (of noble metals Ir, Rh, Ru)
MW Atomic or molecular weight (g/mol)
N More noble metal in a coupling
Na Anode number
p Porosity of a scale (unitary fraction)
pCO2 Partial pressure of CO2 (bar)
pH 2 S Partial pressure of H2S (bar)
P Pressure of a gas (bar)
PREN Pitting resistance equivalent number
Q Flux of electrical charges (C)
R Generic ohmic resistance (X)
R Gas constant (1.987 cal/mol K = 8.314 J/mol K)
R0 Coating insulation resistance (X m2)
Ra Anode resistance (X)
Rc Cathode resistance (X)
Rcable Resistance of feeding cables (X)
Rtot Total resistance (X)
RH Relative humidity
RSI Ryznar saturation index
q Resistivity (X m)
qel Electrolyte resistivity (X m)
qmet Metal resistivity (X m)
xxviii Symbols and Abbreviations
s Thickness (m)
S Surface (m2)
Sa Anodic surface (m2)
Sc Cathodic surface (m2)
SM Surface of the less noble metal in a coupling (m2)
SN Surface of the more noble metal in a coupling (m2)
SHE Standard hydrogen electrode
SCC Stress corrosion cracking
SCE Saturated calomel electrode (+0.24 V SHE)
SOHIC Stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking
SRB Sulphate-reducing bacteria
SSC Silver/silver chloride reference electrode (+0.25 V SHE)
SSC Sulphide stress cracking
r Conductivity (S/m)
t Time (s)
T Temperature (°C; K)
T/R Transformer/rectifier
TDS Total dissolved solids or salinity (g/L or mg/L)
v Velocity (m/s)
V Voltage or feeding voltage (V)
DV Voltage drop or ohmic drop (V)
n Coating efficiency (unitary fraction)
w Anode consumption (kg/A y)
w Polarisation or potential shift from the free corrosion potential (V)
w* Thermodynamic and kinetic contribution of electrode reactions (V)
z Valence, number of electrons in an electrodic reaction (adimensional)
ZN Zinc/sea water reference electrode (−0.8 V SHE)
Units
A Ampere
cal Calorie
C Coulomb
°C Degree centigrade
h Hour
J Joule
K Degree Kelvin
L Litre
m Metre
M Molar
mol Mole
X Ohm
s Second
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cabin for the officers, and be sea sick, and wash dishes and wait on
table, and feed cattle, and do everything anybody told me to do.
After a few days I mutinied, and went to the captain and complained.
He was an English nobleman, and after hearing my tale of woe, he
told me if I didn’t like it I could go to ’ell, and I went down cellar to the
cook room, which was the nearest to ’ell I could go on that vessel. I
found the man that hired me, and told him I seemed to be doing the
most of the work on the excursion, and that I wanted an assistant.
He said if I thought I was working much now, I better wait until we
run into a storm, when I would not only have to be cook and waiter
and chamber maid to the steers, but I would have to be trained nurse
down in the cattle regions, for when the steers began to be sea sick
that was a time when any man who had a heart could use it to the
best advantage, for there was nothing more pitiful than a steer with a
pain under his belt. He said steers were not at all like the Irishman
who was on the bow of the boat on the last trip, feeding the fish,
when the captain came along and said, “Pat, your stomach seems to
be weak,” and Pat said, “O, I dunno, I am throwing it as far as any of
them.” He said when there was a storm at sea the animals acted
perfectly human. They would get down on their knees and roll their
eyes heavenward, and moan, and cry, and tears would be in their
eyes, but they never lost their cud, only they swelled up and
bellowed.
Well, it wasn’t an hour before a storm came from towards Cuba, and
the boat was rocking and pitching, and the captain blew three
whistles, which was a signal for all hands to go below and nurse the
steers, and we all made a rush down to the very bowels of the ship,
where the cattle were, and such a sight I never saw.
Every steer was standing on one leg and then another, pitching
forward into the manger, and then back against the bar that held
them in the stall, and all bellowing as though their hearts would
break, and the duty of the crew was to go in the stalls and throw the
cattle down on their sides, and tie their legs so they couldn’t get up,
when they could lie there and ride easy.
They sent me into a stall where a steer was slowly dying by inches,
with instructions to hold up his left foreleg, so they could throw him,
and just as I had raised the leg they threw him onto me, and went on
to the next stall, leaving me with the wind all jammed out of me, and
the haunch of the steer holding me down.
They went all through the lower deck, got the steers down, and went
off and left me there to die, never seeming to miss me. I have slept
with a good many different kinds of people and things in my time. I
have had a porcupine crawl into bed with me when camping in the
North woods, and he was rough enough, for sure. I once had a
skunk come into a tent where some of us boys were camping, and
when the skunk found out who we were he didn’t do a thing and all
the boys said it was me, and they kicked me out, and made me
sleep with the dogs, until the dogs struck, when I was lonely enough.
Once I had a snake get under my blanket and shake his rattles, and I
got out of the tent so quick the snake never knew I was there, but in
my wildest moments of seeking for new experiences, I never thought
I should be a pillow for the stomach of a sea sick thousand-pound
steer.
When I got my breath so I could yell it was night, and I had probably
been under that steer for several hours. I tried to kick the steer in a
vital part, where ox drivers kick oxen to make them “haw” and “gee,”
but the steer had gone to sleep and never paid any attention to me.
I guess everybody had gone to sleep on the ship, except the
watchman and the pilot, but I could lay there all night, so I began to
make a noise like a ghost, and I wailed so the watchman heard me,
and he peered down the hatch, and I mumbled, “I am thy father’s
ghost,” and I rubbed some phosphorus I had in my pocket on the
hair of the steer that was acting as my bed clothes. The man
skipped, and pretty soon he came back with the English captain,
who had told me if I didn’t like my job I could go to ’ell, and when he
saw the shining steer with the phosphorus on its hair, I wailed and
said, “This is ’ell, come in, the water is fine, and I smell the blood of
an Englishman.”
“I Am Thy Father’s Ghost!—Come on in, the Water’s Fine!—
I Smell the Blood of an Englishman!”
Well, the captain weakened, and wouldn’t come down, but I heard
bells ringing all over the boat, like a fire alarm, and pretty soon the
whole crew came down cellar with hose and began to squirt water on
the steer and me, and the steer was so scared it broke the rope on
its legs and got up off me, and then the animal stampeded out of the
stall and charged the firemen, and rubbed its phosphorus side
against the English captain, and he thought he was in hell, for sure,
and he made them turn the hose on him, and then a man hit the
steer in the head with an ax, and the trouble was over, except that
the captain laid it all to me, and told the crew I was a “’oodoo,” and
they searched me and found my phosphorus, and that settled it with
me.
They were ordered to put me in the dungeon, and when they were
going up stairs I heard the captain say, “At daylight ’oist it h’out of the
’old, and chuck it h’over board to feed the sharks,” so I guess I can
see my finish all right.
CHAPTER VIII.
The Boy Dresses Up in His Sunday Clothes and Tells the Captain He
Is Ready to Die—The Crew Throw a Steer Overboard to Feed a
School of Sharks—The Boy Produces His New Electric Battery—The
Bad Boy Makes a Trip to France to Meet His Pa.
I never slept a wink that night after the phosphorus episode, which I
painted the wild steer so it looked like a four-legged ghost, and
scared the crew so they nearly deserted the ship, because the
captain ordered, as I supposed, that I be cast overboard the next
morning, to give the sharks a meat sandwich, and all night I tried to
prepare myself for death, though I could not help thinking that in
some way I would escape.
The next morning I got up and collected all the shoes of the officers
and got a blacking brush and began blacking them. Soon there was
trouble, because every man missed his shoes, and they began to
hunt for them, and they found me working at the shoes and singing,
“Pull for the shore, brother,” and such pious hymns.
I was dressed up in my Sunday clothes, and when the captain got
his shoes he wanted to know what was the meaning of my sudden
industry, and the funeral aspect all around, and I told him I had heard
him tell the crew to chuck me overboard, and I was preparing myself
for death, and I gave him a letter to mail to Pa, after I was gone, and
told the captain I was ready. “Why, you dumb fool,” said the captain,
“it was not you I meant to throw overboard, but that phosphorus
steer that we killed last night. They are hauling it up out of the hold
now with the tackle. We will save you for a worse fate.”
Well, I never felt so happy in my life as I did when that dead steer
came up through the hatchway, and was launched over the side, and
when I saw the flock of sharks jump on the steer and begin to hunt
for the tenderloin, I let out a yell for joy that sounded like the cry of a
timber wolf.
Then I got what was coming to me. The captain gave me a swat
across the jaw for making noise enough to scare the crew into
mutiny, the mate gave me a kick when I started for the cook’s galley,
and several of the under officers hit me, and by the time I got my
apron on to help cook dinner I was bruised and mad, and decided to
get even with the captain. I am a peaceful citizen until somebody
walks on my frame, then I become a terror to the foe.
When we began to fry the beef for dinner I told one of the crew that it
was a shame to feed men on steer meat, when the steer had died in
its stall of Texas fever or rhinderpest, and before we got the meat
cooked, ready for the dinner of the officers and crew, every man but
the officers had talked over the dead steer, and resolved that they
would not eat it, and when they sat down to the table, and I began to
bring in the meat, they all looked like a mob of anarchists ready to
murder somebody, and I helped all I could by saying in a whisper,
“This is perfectly good meat, but this is a good day to fast, and you
will live longer.” The officers at the other end of the cabin were eating
the steer all right, but the crew never touched it, confining
themselves to the bread and coffee, and pretty soon one of the crew
proposed that they show their displeasure by taking the meat and
throwing it at the officers.
Well, if I live a million years I will never have so much fun again.
About thirty men got up and grabbed the meat I had put on their
plates, and began to throw it at the captain and mate, and all the
officers, and of all the greasy mess I ever saw, that was the worst.
The captain got up on a chair and pulled a revolver, and asked what
was the cause of the assault, and was going to shoot, when the crew
drew revolvers and told him that if he pulled a trigger they would
annihilate every officer on the boat, and take charge of it themselves,
and run it into the first port. He said the crew could stand anything
except eating diseased cattle, and that they drew the line at steers
that had died of rhinderpest.
The Captain Got Up on a Chair and Pulled a Revolver and

Was Going to Shoot.
The captain was stunned, and said the beef flying through the air
was good, and he got it from cold storage in Baltimore, and asked
that a committee go with him down in the hold and see the evidence,
and a committee was appointed to go down and see about it.
When they came back they were satisfied, and the captain asked
them how they got the idea the meat was bad, and when it came to
that I felt as though some one would squeal on me, and as I started
to make a get away, and hide somewhere until the storm blew over,
one of the crew took me by the neck and said to the captain, “This
young man told us about the meat.”
The captain told the fellow that had me collared to take me to his
cabin, and he came in pretty mad, and called in a few officers, and
they were getting ready to kill me, when I thought of the little electric
battery in my pistol pocket.
It is one I got in St. Louis to scare people with. I can turn a button,
and the battery will send electricity into my arm and through my
body, and I turned the dingus, and felt the electricity going through
me like ginger ale up your nose, and when they had got ready to
maul me I began to weep, and told the captain I was no saint, but I
wanted a quiet life, and all the fun I could have, and I asked him as a
special favor to allow me to shake his hand before I died, as I knew
my earthly career was about done for, and by that time the battery
was buzzing, and I reached out my hand to shake his. He gave me
his hand, and when I began to squeeze his hand the electricity went
up his arm so he turned pale, and I hung on and he yelled to the
officers to take me off, as I was killing him, and the sweat stood out
on his face.
I Gave Him a Squeeze That Sent a Shock Through Him That
Loosened His Teeth.
The mate grabbed hold of me and I gave him my other hand and he
began to dance, and the three of us were as full of electricity as a
trolley wire. I hung on and made them get down on their knees and
swear they would not lick me, and then I let go of them and began to
weep again, and they were sorry for me.
Then they made me tell them who I was, and that I was going to
France to meet Pa, and monkey with air ships, and when they were
sure I was Peck’s Bad Boy they said I could have the free run of the
ship and that I had the right to play all the tricks on anybody that I
wanted to.
They made me show them how I worked my little pocket battery and
then they wanted me to shake hands with all the crew so they got
the whole bunch in the cabin and the captain said they had been
entertaining an angel unawares, and that I was the original Bad Boy,
who had traveled all over Europe and met the crowned heads, and
he wanted to introduce me to each member of the crew personally,
as a distinguished guest who honored the ship by being on board.
Then he began to pass them up to be shook by the great and only.
The first fellow to put out his hand was a Greek, who drew a knife on
me once because the coffee was weak, and I gave him a squeeze
that sent a shock through his system that loosened his teeth, and
when the captain alluded to me as the angel child who was loaded
for fear, and who had a charmed life that could not be destroyed by
knives or guns, the Greek looked at me in a respectful way as
though he didn’t want to have any more truck with me.
Then a big Welshman came up and shook my hand, and when I
gave him the third degree he let go and jumped out of the window of
the cabin, on deck, and began to use language that was equal to
Russian, and then a Swede came bowing to me, thinking I must be
at least a crown prince, and when I squeezed his hand he looked at
his fingers and his arm, and trembled and squirmed and said, “Ah
tank a got yim yams,” and he lit out in a hurry.
A small Irishman came next, and as he was the one who promised to
cut my ears off to serve on toast, I gave him the limit, and he curled
up like a German dockshound and laid down to the mat, making
motions with his mouth as though he was repeating poetry, and he
said, “Kape away from me, ye hoodoo,” and he crawled out so quick
it almost broke the door.
The captain and mate laughed every time I shook hands with any of
the crew, and when I had paralyzed them all, and got them so scared
they would come to me if I whistled, and eat out of my hand, the
captain said I was worth more towards maintaining discipline on the
boat than a whole police force, and he wanted me to do something
every day to keep the crew from being lonely, so that night at supper
time I charged all of the steel knives and forks with electricity and got
two nigger chasers ready for business.
It was to be the last night before we landed in France, and I was
prepared to make it a meal long to be remembered. I sat next to the
captain, and that brought me right close to the crew’s table, and
when the crew filed in and took their places, they all looked at me as
though I was the devil instead of an “angel child.”
I had a match all ready and when the supper was put on and the
crew grabbed their knives and forks they were shocked real hard,
and they dropped them and yelled something like the swear words of
each nationality, and then I put my nigger chasers down on the floor,
headed for the crew’s table, and lit the fuse.
Well, you know how nigger chasers will chase. Gee, but they went
under the crew’s table, smoking and hissing, the sparks flew, and the
brave crew got up and run out on deck yelling “fire,” and “murder,”
and “dam that boy,” and the man in charge of the fire hose turned it
into the cabin and drowned everything out, and the crew run away
and hid, and when things cleared off the captain said, “Boy, I like a
joke as well as anybody, but you have overdone this thing, and I am
mighty glad we land tomorrow, and you can go to your Pa and his
confounded airships, and may the Lord have mercy on him.”
Then we went to bed, and I expected some of the crew would stab
me before morning, but I guess they were too much rattled.
Gee, but I am dying to see Pa, and help him spend government
money for eatings, seems as though I haven’t had a square meal
since my chum and I struck that community near St. Louis, as
escaped balloonaticks.
Pa has had the hardest time of his life in Paris, and if I ever pitied a
man it was Pa.
You see, that last fly in the airship pretty near caused him to cash in
his chips, and go over the long road to the hereafter, cause he got
blood poison from the thorns that run into him where he landed in the
top limbs of the thornapple tree, and he sprained his arm and one
hind leg while being taken down with a derrick, and then before we
left the country town for Paris he drank some goat’s milk, which gave
him ptomaine poison in his inside works, and a peasant woman who
sewed up his pants where they were torn on the tree pricked him
with a needle, and he swelled up so he was unable to sit in a car
seat, and his face was scratched by the thorns of the tree and there
were blotches all over him, so when we got to Paris the health
officers thought he had smallpox and sent him to a pest house, and
they wouldn’t let me in, but vaccinated me and turned me loose, and
I went to the hotel and told about where Pa was, and all about it, and
they put our baggage in a sort of oven filled with sulphur and
disinfected it, and stole some of it, and they made me sleep in a dog
kennel, and for weeks I had to keep out of sight, until Pa was
discharged from the hospital, and the friends of Pa out at the airship
club in the country got Pa’s airship that he bought for a government
out of the tree and took it to the club and presented a bill for two
hundred dollars, and I only had seven dollars, so they held it for
ransom.
Pa’s Face Was Scratched So They Sent Him to the Pest
House.
Gee, but I worried about Pa!

Well, one day Pa showed up at the hotel looking like he had been in
a railroad wreck, and he was so thin his clothes had to be pinned up
with safety pins, and he had spent all his money, and was bursted.
The man who hired Pa in Washington to go abroad and buy airships
for the government told Pa to use his own money for a month or two
and then draw on the secretary of the treasury for all he needed, so
before Pa went to the hospital he drew on his government for ten
thousand dollars, and when he came back there was a letter for him
from the American Consul in Paris telling him to call at the office, so
Pa went there and they arrested him on the charge of skull dugging.
They said he had no right to draw for any money on the government
at Washington. Pa showed his papers with the big seal on, and the
consul laughed in Pa’s face, and Pa was hot under the collar and
wanted to fight, but they showed him that the papers he had were no
good, and that he had been buncoed by some fakir in Washington
who got five hundred dollars from Pa for securing him a job as
government agent, and all his papers authorized him to do was to
travel at his own expense, and to buy all the airships he wanted to
with his own money, and Pa had a fit. All the money he had spent
was a dead loss, and all he had to show for it was a punctured
airship, which he was afraid to ride in.
Pa swore at the government, at the consul, and at the man who
buncoed him, and they released him from arrest, when he promised
that he would not pose any more as a government agent, and we
went back to the hotel.
“Well, this is a fine scrape you have got me in,” says Pa, as we went
to our room.
“What in thunder did I have to do about it?” says I, just like that. “I
wasn’t with you when you framed up this job and let a man in
Washington skin you out of your money by giving you a soft snap
which has exploded in your hands. Gee, Pa, what you need is a
maid or a valet, or something that will hold on to your wad.” Pa said
he didn’t need anybody to act as a guardian to him, cause he had all
the money he needed in his letter of credit to the American Express
Company in Paris, and he knew how to spend his money freely, but
he did hate to be buncoed and made the laughing stock of two
continents.
So Pa and I went down to the Express Office, and Pa gave the man
in charge a paper and the grand hailing sign of distress, and he
handed out bags of gold and bales of bills, and Pa hid a lot in his
leather belt, and put some in his pockets, and said, “Come on,
Henry, and we will see this town, and buy it if we like it.”
Well, we went out after dark and took in the concert halls and things,
and Pa drank wine and I drank nothing but ginger ale, and women
who waited on us sat in Pa’s lap and patted his bald head, and tried
to feel in his pockets, but Pa held on to their wrists and told them to
keep away, and he took one across his knees and slapped her
across the pajamas with a silver tray, and I thought Pa was real
saucy.
A head waiter whispered to me and wanted to know what ailed the
old sport, and I told him Pa was bitten with a wolf in our circus last
year, and we feared he was going to have hydrophobia, and always
when these spells come on the only thing to do was to throw him into
a tank of water, and I should be obliged to them if they would take Pa
and duck him in the fountain in the center of the café, and save his
life.
Pa was making up with the girl he had paddled with the silver tray,
buying champagne for her and drinking some of it himself out of her
slipper, when the head waiter called half a dozen Frenchmen who
were doing police duty, and told them to duck Pa in the fountain, and
they grabbed him by the collar and the pants and made him walk
turkey towards the fountain, and he held on to the girl, and the
Frenchmen threw Pa and the girl into the brink with a flock of ducks,
and they went under water, and Pa came up first yelling murder, and
then the girl came up hanging to Pa’s neck, and she gave a French
yell of agony, and Pa gave the grand hailing sign of distress, and
yelled to know if there was not an American present that would
protect an American citizen from the hands of a Paris mob. The
crowd gathered around the circular fountain basin and one drunken
fellow jumped in the water and was going to hold Pa’s head under
water while the girl found his money, when Pa yelled “Hey, Rube,”
the way they do in a circus when there is a fight, and by ginger it
wasn’t a second before half a dozen old circus men that used to
belong to the circus when Pa was manager in the States made a
rush for the fountain, knocked the Frenchmen galley west, and
pulled Pa out of the water and let him drain off, and they said, “Hello,
old man, how did you happen to let them drown you?” and Pa saw
who the boys were and he hugged them, and invited them to all take
something and then go to his hotel.
After Pa Had Been Ducked in the Fountain They Charged

for Two Ducks He Killed by Falling on Them.
When Pa paid the check for the drinks they charged in two ducks
they said Pa killed in the tank by falling on them. But Pa paid it and
was so tickled to meet the old circus boys that he gave the girl he
went in swimming with a twenty-franc note, and after staying until
along towards morning we all got into and on top of a hack and went
to the hotel and sat up till daylight talking things over.
We found the circus boys were on the way to Germany to go with the
Hagenbach outfit to South Africa to capture wild animals for circuses,
and when Pa told the boss, who was one of Hagenbach’s managers,
about his airship and what a dandy thing it would be to sail around
where the lions and tigers live in the jungle, and lasso them, from up
in the air, out of danger, he engaged Pa and me to go along, and I
guess we will know all about Africa pretty soon.
The next day we went out to the club where Pa keeps his airship,
with the boss of Hagenbach’s outfit and a cowboy that used to be
with Pa’s circus, to practice lassoing things. They got out the
machine and Pa steered it, and the boss and I were passengers, and
the cowboy was on the railing in front with his lariat rope, and we
sailed along about fifty feet high over the farms, until we saw a big
goat. The cowboy motioned for Pa to steer towards the goat, and
when we got near enough the cowboy threw the rope over the goat’s
horns and tightened it up, and Mr. Goat came right along with us,
bleating and fighting. We led the goat about half a mile over some
fences, and finally came down to the ground to examine our catch,
and we landed all right, and Hagenbach’s boss said it was the
greatest scheme that ever was for catching wild animals, and he
doubled Pa’s salary, and said we would pack up the next day and go
to the Hagenbach farm in Germany and take a steamer for South
Africa in a week.
They were talking it over, and the cowboy had released the goat,
when that animal made a charge with his head on our party. He
struck Pa below the belt, butted the boss in the trousers until he laid
down and begged for mercy, stabbed the cowboy with his horns, and
then made a hop, skip and jump for the gas bag, burst a hole in it,
and when the gas began to escape the goat’s horns got caught in
the gas bag and the goat died from the effects of the gas, and we
were all glad until about fifty peasant women came across the fields
with agricultural implements, and were going to kill us all.
Pa said, “Well, what do you know about that?” but the women were
fierce and wanted our blood. The boss could talk French and he
offered to give them the goat to settle it, but they said it was their
goat anyway, and they wanted blood or damages.
Pa said it was easier to give damages than blood, and just as they
were going to cut up the gas bag the boss settled with them for
about twenty dollars, and hired them to haul the airship to the
nearest station, and we shipped it to Berlin, and got ready to follow
the next day.
Pa says we will have a high old time in Africa. He says he wants to
ride up to a lion’s den in his airship and dare the fiercest lion to come
out and fight, and that he wouldn’t like any better fun than to ride
over a royal Bengal tiger in the jungle, and reach down and grab his
tail, and make him snarl like a tom cat on a fence in the alley.
He talks about riding down a herd of elephants, and picking out the
biggest ones, and roping them; and the way Pa is going to scare
rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses and make them bleat like calves
is a wonder.
I think Pa is the bravest man I ever saw, when he tells it, but I
noticed when we had that goat by the horns and he was caught in a
barbed wire fence, so the airship had to slow down until he came
loose, Pa turned as pale as a sheet, and when the goat bucked him
in the stomach Pa’s lips moved as though he was praying. Well,
anyway, this trip to Africa to catch wild animals is going to show what
kind of sand there is in all of us.
CHAPTER IX.
The Bad Boy Arrives in France—The Boy’s Pa Is Suspected of Being
an Anarchist—The Boy Finds Pa Seated at a Large Table Bragging
About America—He Told Them the Men in America Were All
Millionaires and Unmarried.
The greatest relief I ever experienced was getting off of that cattle
ship, which I did somewhere in France, because the ship had
become so foul smelling that one had to stay on deck to breathe,
and there was no more fun to have, cause the officers and crew got
on to me, and everyone expected to be blown up or electrocuted if
they got near to me, and the last three days they wouldn’t let me eat
in the cabin or sleep in my hammock, so I had to go down with the
cattle and eat hot bran mash, and sleep in the hay. Gee, but when
you eat hot bran mash for a few days you never want to look at
breakfast food again as long as you live.
I traded my electric battery to a deck hand for a suit case, and so I
looked like a tourist, because I went to a hotel and got a square
meal, and had a porter paste some hotel ads. on my suit case, and I
took a train for Paris, looking for Pa, cause I knew he wouldn’t be far
away from the bullyvards.
I left my baggage at a hotel where we stopped when we were in
Paris before, and the man who spoke shattered English told me Pa
was rooming there, but he was not around much, because he was
being entertained by the American residents, and had some great
scheme that took him away on secret expeditions often, and they
thought he was either an anarchist or grafter, and since the
assassination of the king and crown prince of Portugal the police had
overhauled his baggage in his room several times, but couldn’t find
anything incriminating, so I had my baggage sent to Pa’s room, and
went out to find Pa, and pick up something that would throw
suspicion on him if he showed any inclination to go back on me
when I found him.
It was getting along towards dark when I walked down a bullyvard
where Pa used to go when we were in Paris before, and as I came to
a café where there was a sign, English spoken, I saw a crowd out on
the sidewalk surrounding tables, eating and drinking, and there was
one big table with about a dozen men and women, Americans,
Frenchmen and other foreigners, listening to an elderly man
bragging about America, and I saw it was Pa, but he was so
changed that but for his bald head and chin whiskers I would not
have known him.
He had on French clothes, one of those French silk hats that had a
flat brim and a bell crown, and he had a moustache that was pointed
at the ends and was waxed so it would put your eyes out.
Pa was telling them that all the men in America were millionaires and
unmarried, and that all of them came abroad to spend money and
marry foreign ladies, to take them back to America and make queens
of them, and he looked at a French woman across the table with
goo-goo eyes, and she said to the man next to her, “Isn’t he a dear,
and what a wonder he is not married before,” and Pa smiled at her
and put his hand on his watch chain, on which there hung gold
nuggets as big as walnuts, and he fixed a big diamond in his scarf,
so the electric light would hit it plenty.
They ate and drank and the party began to break up, when Pa and
the beautiful woman were alone at the table, and they hunched up
closer together, and Pa was talking sweet to her, and telling her that
all wives in America had special trains on railroads, and palaces in
New York, and at Newport and in Florida, and yachts and gold
mines, and she could be the queen of them all if she would only say
the word, and she was just going to say the word, or something, and
had his fat, pudgy hand in both of hers, and was looking into his

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Corrosion Science and Engineering

Corrosion Science and Technology, Third Edition Talbot

Corrosion Preventive Materials and Corrosion Testing

Corrosion Analysis Michael Dornbusch

Hydrostatic Testing, Corrosion, and Microbiologically

Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering Guang

Computer Science and Engineering Theory and

Arthroscopy Basic to Advanced 1st Edition Pietro

Hydrogeology goundwater science and engineering First

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4288

In Cooperation with Marco Ormellese, Andrea Brenna,

ISSN 1612-1317 ISSN 1868-1212 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018950812

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

Milan, Italy Luciano Lazzari

1 General Principles of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 Thermodynamics of Aqueous Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.4.2 Total Oxygen Overvoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

8 Uniform Corrosion in Acidic and Aerated Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

10.5.4 Electrolyte Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

12.7.1 Corrosion Under Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

14 Hydrogen-Induced Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

16.1.2 Cavitation Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

17.4.8 Painting Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

19.4 Applicable Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

21.4.6 Alternating Current Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

23.7 Additional Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

24.7.8 High Temperature Sulphidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

26.9 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

28 Monitoring and Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635

29.4.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

… ‘I see that water, nay, I see

Born “valtellinese”, adopted “milanese”, with heart

Pietro Pedeferri was a Full Professor in Corrosion and

valve metals and relevant chromatic effects. His

aMz þ Activity (or concentration) of ions of metal M in a solution (mol/L)

Ecorr Free corrosion potential (V)

i0; O2 Exchange current density of oxygen (mA/m2)

The Captain Got Up on a Chair and Pulled a Revolver and

Gee, but I worried about Pa!

After Pa Had Been Ducked in the Fountain They Charged

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