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Introduction to Human
Factors and Ergonomics
Fourth Edition
Introduction to Human
Factors and Ergonomics
Fourth Edition
R. S. Bridger
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bridger, R. S., author.

Title: Introduction to human factors and ergonomics / Robert Bridger.
Other titles: Introduction to ergonomics
Description: Fourth edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2018. | Earlier editions published under title: Introduction to
ergonomics. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017023573| ISBN 9781498795944 (hardback) | ISBN
9781498796118 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Human engineering. | Work environment.
Classification: LCC TA166 .B72 2018 | DDC 620.8/2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017023573
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the CRC Press Web site at
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Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................................... xxiii
Author...........................................................................................................................................xxvii
Prologue: Human Factors and Ergonomics in Systems Design and Project Management............xxix
Chapter 1 Human Factors and Ergonomics from the Earliest Times to the Present..................... 1
Core Knowledge: Understanding Human Factors and Ergonomics.............................1
Compatibility: Matching Demands to Capabilities.................................................. 1
Brief History of Ergonomics....................................................................................2
Scientific Management and Work Study.................................................................. 2
Human Relations and Occupational Psychology...................................................... 4
Hawthorne Experiments........................................................................................... 4
Sociotechnical Systems Theory............................................................................... 6
Participation.............................................................................................................. 7
Occupational Medicine............................................................................................. 7
Human Performance Psychology.............................................................................7
Operations Research................................................................................................. 8
Fit the Man to the Job versus Fitting the Job to the Man......................................... 8
Human Factors and Ergonomics..............................................................................9
Will Taylorism Ever Go Away? Modern Work Systems and Neo-Taylorism........ 10
Attempts to Humanize Work.................................................................................. 10
Success of Work Humanization Programs............................................................. 11
The Fourth Industrial Revolution........................................................................... 12
Basic Applications....................................................................................................... 12
Tools and Processes..................................................................................................... 14
HFE Checklists...................................................................................................... 14
Task Analysis.......................................................................................................... 19
Status of Risk Assessment and Design Tools......................................................... 23
Systems Integration.....................................................................................................24
Cost–Benefit Models and Methods.........................................................................24
Oxenburgh Productivity Model..............................................................................24
Prevention is Better Than Cure..............................................................................25
Examples of Industrial Ergonomics Programs.......................................................26
Economics of Participation....................................................................................28
Future Directions for HFE..........................................................................................28
Summary..................................................................................................................... 29
Tutorial Topics............................................................................................................. 29
Essays and Exercises................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 2 The Body as a Mechanical System............................................................................. 31

Core Knowledge: The Human Body as a Mechanical System................................... 31
Postural Stability.................................................................................................... 32
Some Basic Body Mechanics................................................................................. 32
Anatomy of the Spine and Pelvis Related to Posture.............................................34
Spine....................................................................................................................... 35
Pelvis...................................................................................................................... 37
Lumbo-Pelvic Mechanism...................................................................................... 37
v
vi Contents
Standing.................................................................................................................. 38
Understanding Low Back Pain and the Role of HFE............................................. 41
Causes of Low Back Pain....................................................................................... 43
Back Pain and Muscular Fatigue............................................................................ 43
Psychosocial Factors and Physical Stressors.......................................................... 43
Can Low Back Pain Be Prevented?........................................................................44
HFE and the Musculoskeletal System in General..................................................46
Tools and Processes..................................................................................................... 47
Tolerance for Forces of Rapid Onset...................................................................... 47
Falls into Water...................................................................................................... 47
Tolerance for Collisions and Shocks...................................................................... 49
Shock...................................................................................................................... 49
Occupational Exposure to High Forces: How to Calculate Spinal
Compression...................................................................................................... 50
Spinal Compression Tolerance Limits.................................................................... 55
Measurement of Musculoskeletal Pain in the Workplace...................................... 57
System Integration....................................................................................................... 57
Analyze Legacy Data............................................................................................. 57
Proactive Approach to Prevention.......................................................................... 59
High Costs of Injury............................................................................................... 59
Role of Occupational Factors.................................................................................60
Research Directions.................................................................................................... 61
Summary..................................................................................................................... 61
Tutorial Topics............................................................................................................. 61
Essays and Exercises................................................................................................... 62
Chapter 3 Anthropometry, Workstation, and Facilities Design................................................... 65

Core Knowledge: Understanding Human Physical Variability................................... 65
Anthropometry: Definition..................................................................................... 65
Measurements of the Body Used in HFE.......................................................... 65
Functional Anthropometry..................................................................................... 65
Sources of Human Variability...........................................................................66
Factors Influencing the Change in Body Size of Populations........................... 70
The Obesity Epidemic............................................................................................ 71
Anthropometry Surveys......................................................................................... 71
Implications for HFE......................................................................................... 72
Statistical Essentials for Using Anthropometric Data in HFE............................... 72
The Normal Distribution................................................................................... 72
Variability and the “Distance” from the Middle............................................... 73
The Standard Normal Deviate: Z....................................................................... 73
Percentiles to Real Measurements and Back Again.......................................... 74
Estimating the Range......................................................................................... 74
Accuracy of the Measurements......................................................................... 75
Patterns of Variability in Human Body Size and Shape........................................ 76
Design to Fit a Target Population........................................................................... 79
Anthropometry and Clothing Corrections........................................................ 82
How to Deal with Anthropometric Constraints on Product Dimensions............... 82
Find the Minimum Allowable Dimensions....................................................... 82
Find the Maximum Allowable Dimensions....................................................... 83
Contents vii
Tools and Processes.....................................................................................................84

Cost–Benefit Analysis and Trade-Offs................................................................... 85
Digital Human Models........................................................................................... 86
Anthropometric Scaling Techniques...................................................................... 87
Workstation Design and Reach..........................................................................90
Make Different Sizes......................................................................................... 91
Design Adjustable Products...............................................................................92
System Integration....................................................................................................... 93
Understand the Context of Use...............................................................................94
Design from the “Inside Out” Not the “Outside In”..............................................94
Anthropometry, Workstation Design, and Task Analysis......................................94
Space Planning for Offices..................................................................................... 95
“Fit for Use” Surveys and Acceptance Testing......................................................96
Psychosocial Factors: Anthropometry and Personal Space...................................96
Benefits of Protective Clothing That Fits...............................................................97
Industrial Workplace Layout.................................................................................. 98
Adjustability and Adjustment of Office Furniture............................................. 98
Effectiveness of Office HFE Interventions............................................................99
Status of Anthropometry in HFE...........................................................................99
Research Directions.................................................................................................. 102
Summary................................................................................................................... 102
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 103
Essays and Exercises................................................................................................. 103
Chapter 4 Standing and Sitting at Work.................................................................................... 107

Core Knowledge: Understanding Posture and Movement........................................ 107
Anatomy of Human Posture and Its Evolutionary Origins.................................. 107
Posture............................................................................................................. 110
Fundamental Aspects of Sitting and Standing..................................................... 112
Anatomy of Standing....................................................................................... 112
Basic Applications..................................................................................................... 119
Three Steps to Effective Workstation Design...................................................... 120
Visual Requirements....................................................................................... 120
Postural Requirements..................................................................................... 122
Temporal Requirements................................................................................... 123
Holding Times for Static Postures........................................................................ 124
Standing Aids....................................................................................................... 124
Footrests and Footrails.................................................................................... 124
Anti-fatigue Mats............................................................................................. 125
Compression Stockings and Rubber Floor Mats............................................. 125
Toespace.......................................................................................................... 126
Shoes................................................................................................................ 126
Ergonomics of Seated Work................................................................................. 126
How Does a Lumbar Support Work?............................................................... 126
Adjustable Backrests........................................................................................ 129
Getting the Fit Right............................................................................................. 129
Forward Tilting Seats...................................................................................... 129
Dynamic Postures................................................................................................. 129
Foot Pump Devices.............................................................................................. 130
Visual Display Terminals..................................................................................... 130
viii Contents
Standing to Work at VDTs................................................................................... 131

Laptops and Tablets.............................................................................................. 131
Guidance for Office Workstation Design............................................................. 132
Forward Tilting Seats........................................................................................... 133
Lumbar Supports.................................................................................................. 133
Dynamic Sitting............................................................................................... 133
Work Surface Design............................................................................................ 134
Mouse-Intensive Tasks.................................................................................... 135
Tools and Processes................................................................................................... 135
Office Environment.............................................................................................. 135
Static Work-Risk Assessment.......................................................................... 137
Rapid Entire Body Assessment............................................................................ 137
Assessment of Working Posture Using Composite Risk Zone Ratings............... 139
Trunk Inclination.................................................................................................. 141
Consulting Users for Furniture Selection: A Structured Approach..................... 142
System Integration..................................................................................................... 148
Analyze Legacy Data........................................................................................... 148
Workstation Design and Viewing Angles............................................................ 149
Systems Furniture................................................................................................. 149
Cost-Benefit and Payback Analysis................................................................. 150
Improvement of Work Conditions of Data Entry Clerks................................. 150
Ergonomics Program in a Large Company..................................................... 150
Training Programs for VDT Ergonomics............................................................ 150
Workstation Design and Viewing Angles............................................................ 151
Summary................................................................................................................... 151
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 152
Chapter 5 Repetitive Tasks: Risk Assessment and Task Design................................................ 155

Core Knowledge: Functional Anatomy and Epidemiology of Injury Caused
by Repetitive Work.................................................................................................... 155
Specific versus Nonspecific WMSDs................................................................... 156
Risk Factors Associated with Pain and Injury................................................ 157
Models of the Development of WMSDs.............................................................. 160
Review of Tissue Pathomechanics and WMSDs................................................. 160
Muscle Pain..................................................................................................... 160
Tendon Pain..................................................................................................... 162
Injuries to the Upper Body at Work..................................................................... 165
Disorders of the Neck...................................................................................... 166
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome...................................................................................... 168
Evidence for Work Relatedness....................................................................... 168
Possible Causal Pathways................................................................................ 168
Tennis Elbow (Epicondylitis)............................................................................... 169
Disorders of the Shoulder..................................................................................... 170
Lower Limbs......................................................................................................... 173
Contents ix

Hand Tools............................................................................................................ 174
Handle Design................................................................................................. 174
Limits for Hand/Wrist Exertions in Repetitive Work.......................................... 177
Wrist Flexion and Extension................................................................................ 178
Keyboard Design............................................................................................. 178
Cell phones and E-Games.................................................................................... 181
Cursor Control Devices........................................................................................ 182
Identifying Repetitive, Monotonous Work........................................................... 183
The Strain Index (SI): Assessing the Risk of Injury to the Distal
Extremities...................................................................................................... 183
Example........................................................................................................... 184
Preventing Overuse of the Thumb........................................................................ 187
Checklists............................................................................................................. 188
Questionnaires...................................................................................................... 188
Effectiveness and Cost Effectiveness................................................................... 194
Productivity and the Use of Bent-Handled Pliers............................................ 195
Managing Musculoskeletal Pain in Aircraft Assembly................................... 195
Reduction of WMSDs at the Ford Motor Company........................................ 195
Controlling WMSDs in the Telecommunications Industry............................. 196
Training to Prevent WMSDs........................................................................... 197
Shorter Workday.............................................................................................. 198
Summary................................................................................................................... 198
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 198
Chapter 6 Design of Manual Handling and Load Carriage Tasks............................................. 203

Core Knowledge: Functional Anatomy and Biomechanics of Manual Handling
and Load Carriage..................................................................................................... 203
Standing and Walking.......................................................................................... 203
Biomechanics of Human Walking (Gait).............................................................204
Postural Control in Dynamic Tasks.....................................................................205
Other Factors Influencing Postural Stability...................................................205
Effects of Age..................................................................................................205
Attentional Demands of Maintaining Posture.....................................................206
Anatomy and Biomechanics of Manual Handling...............................................206
Back Injuries and Lifting and Carrying..........................................................207
Basic Applications.....................................................................................................209
Foot–Floor Interface: Coefficients of Friction for Safety.....................................209
Slips, Trips, and Falls: Catastrophic Failure of the Erect Position.......................209
Preventing Falls from a Height............................................................................. 210
Abdominal Belts for Manual Handling Safety: Health or Hoax..................... 210
Summary......................................................................................................... 212
Precautions....................................................................................................... 213
Training People to Lift “Safely”........................................................................... 213
Why Is Training in Lifting Technique So Often Ineffective? False
Assumptions about Manual Handling Safety.................................................. 214
Content of Safety Training Programs.............................................................. 216
x Contents
Design of Manual Handing Tasks........................................................................ 216

Task Requirements.......................................................................................... 216
Personal Characteristics of Workers................................................................ 217
Maximum Loads for Lifting and Lowering.................................................... 218
Carrying............................................................................................................... 219
Postural Stability and Postural Control........................................................... 219
Manual Handling Outdoors: Effects of Wind on Postural Stability............... 220
Design of Carrying Tasks................................................................................ 221
Pushing and Pulling............................................................................................. 223
Size–Weight Illusion: Minimize the Amount of Packaging............................224
Tools and Processes...................................................................................................224
Low Back Disorder Models, Risk Assessment, and Task Redesign....................224
The NIOSH Lifting Equation............................................................................... 225
Several Lifting Tasks....................................................................................... 228
Biomechanics of Pushing and Pulling Trucks and Trolleys................................. 231
Implications..................................................................................................... 233
Identify the Risk Factors in Pushing and Pulling................................................ 233
Task-Trolley-Operator Interaction................................................................... 233
Design of Load................................................................................................ 234
Wheels/Castors................................................................................................ 234
Work Environment........................................................................................... 234
Other................................................................................................................ 234
Prevention of Falls................................................................................................ 234
Validity of the Low Back Disorder Model........................................................... 235
Reliability of the NIOSH Equation...................................................................... 235
Validity of the NIOSH Lifting Equation.............................................................. 235
Sensitivity, Diagnosticity, Intrusiveness, and Cost............................................... 235
Does Manual Handling Add Value?................................................................ 236
Basic Ergonomics in Action............................................................................ 236
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 237
Summary................................................................................................................... 238
Tutorial Topics...........................................................................................................240
Essays and Exercises.................................................................................................240
Chapter 7 Work Capacity, Stress, Fatigue, and Recovery.......................................................... 243

Core Knowledge: Fundamentals of Work Physiology.............................................. 243
Muscles, Structure and Function, and Capacity................................................... 243
Energy for Action............................................................................................ 245
Oxygen-Dependent and Oxygen-Independent Systems...................................246
Implications.....................................................................................................246
Efficiency of Muscle Contraction....................................................................246
Muscle Function.............................................................................................. 247
Control of Muscle Function.............................................................................248
Cardiovascular System.........................................................................................248
Blood Pressure................................................................................................. 250
Respiratory System............................................................................................... 250
Physical Work Capacity........................................................................................ 251
Basal Metabolic Rate....................................................................................... 251
Contents xi
Maximum Oxygen Uptake.............................................................................. 252

Factors Affecting Work Capacity......................................................................... 252
Aging Population............................................................................................. 254
Removal of Waste Products............................................................................. 255
VO2 Max and Fatigue...................................................................................... 255
Stress and Fatigue................................................................................................. 256
Stress................................................................................................................ 256
Fatigue............................................................................................................. 257
Biochemistry and Physiology of the Stress Response..................................... 258
Recovery from Work Demands............................................................................ 259
Antecedents of recovery.................................................................................. 259
Immediate Antecedents of Recovery (Initiation of Recovery Process).......... 259
Is Recovery an Automatic Process?.................................................................260
Can Recovery Be Facilitated?.........................................................................260
Dynamics of Recovery.................................................................................... 261
Conceptual Issues in the Identification of Recovery....................................... 261
Heart Rate Recovery and Work Intensity............................................................. 262
Cardiac Stress Index............................................................................................. 262
Evaluation of Nonphysical Stress.................................................................... 263
Fatigue and Discomfort........................................................................................264
Fatigue and Pain................................................................................................... 265
Electromyography................................................................................................. 267
Rest Periods for Static Exertions.......................................................................... 269
Absolute VO2........................................................................................................ 269
Indirect Measures of Energy Expenditure........................................................... 269
Assessment of Physical Work Demands: Ambulatory Monitoring................. 271
Aerobic Capacity of U.S. Workers: NIOSH Guideline........................................ 272
VO2 Max and Industrial Work.............................................................................. 272
Subjective Measures of Physical Effort................................................................ 275
Measuring Recovery from Work..................................................................... 276
Evaluation of Job Aids..................................................................................... 278
Productivity Improvements in Developing Countries.......................................... 278
Pedal Power and Its Uses in Developing Countries............................................. 279
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 279
Summary...................................................................................................................280
Tutorial Topics...........................................................................................................280
Chapter 8 Job Demands, Health, and Well-Being for a Changing Population.......................... 283
Core Knowledge: Workload, Fitness for Work, and Health...................................... 283
Energy Costs of Physical Activities...................................................................... 283
Fitness for Work................................................................................................... 287
Fitness and Health........................................................................................... 287
Metabolic Demands and Food Consumption....................................................... 287
Physical Inactivity: A Major Challenge to Public Health and Employee
Well-Being............................................................................................................ 288
xii Contents
Insulin Resistance................................................................................................. 288

Type II Diabetes................................................................................................... 289
Defining Overweight and Obesity........................................................................ 290
Changes in Work Capacity................................................................................... 290
Psychological Stress and Health........................................................................... 290
Sleep..................................................................................................................... 291
Sleep Quality................................................................................................... 292
Sleep Inertia..................................................................................................... 293
Circadian Rhythms............................................................................................... 293
The Aging Population........................................................................................... 293
Build Movement into Sedentary Jobs................................................................... 294
Exercise Breaks for Visual Display Terminal (VDT) Workers....................... 294
Standing and Moving after Lunch................................................................... 294
Fitting the Job to the Obese Worker..................................................................... 296
Don’t Design an “Obesogenic” Workplace.......................................................... 296
Countering Sleep Disruption................................................................................ 296
Jet Lag.................................................................................................................. 298
Daylight Saving Time........................................................................................... 298
Design of Shiftwork Systems............................................................................... 298
Hours of Work per Day.................................................................................... 299
Hours of Work......................................................................................................300
Accidents and Fatigue.......................................................................................... 301
Regulations Concerning Working Hours........................................................302
Evaluation of Organizational Interventions to Reduce Exposure to
Psychosocial Hazards...........................................................................................302
Computer Stress....................................................................................................302
Methods of Reducing Computer Stress........................................................... 303
Understanding the Risk: Hazard Ratios............................................................... 303
Assessing Fitness for Work..................................................................................304
Assessment of Physical Work Demands: Ambulatory Monitoring.................304
Quick Activity Checklist......................................................................................307
Assessment of Physical Work Demands: MET Tables.........................................307
Work Ability Index..........................................................................................308
Fitness Apps......................................................................................................... 310
Work Hardening Programs................................................................................... 311
Work Hardening Programs and Rehabilitation............................................... 311
Participation in Decision Making......................................................................... 312
Status of Physiological Methods in Risk Assessment and Task Design.............. 312
Target High-Risk Groups................................................................................. 313
Reduce Long Work Hours and Badly Designed Shift Systems....................... 313
Reduce Psychosocial Hazards......................................................................... 313
Participation, Job Enlargement, and More Control.............................................. 313
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 314
Summary................................................................................................................... 315
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 315
Contents xiii
Chapter 9 Working in Hot and Cold Climates........................................................................... 317

Core Knowledge: Fundamentals of Human Thermoregulation................................ 317
Thermal Balance.................................................................................................. 317
Skin Temperature............................................................................................. 319
Units of Clothing Insulation: Clo.................................................................... 319
Dry Bulb Temperature..................................................................................... 320
Relative Humidity and Wet Bulb Temperature............................................... 320
Globe Temperature.......................................................................................... 321
Thermoregulatory Mechanisms........................................................................... 321
Peripheral Vasomotor Tone............................................................................. 321
Countercurrent Heat Exchange........................................................................ 322
Sweating.......................................................................................................... 322
Shivering.......................................................................................................... 323
Heat Tolerance................................................................................................. 323
Age................................................................................................................... 323
Sex................................................................................................................... 324
Physical Fitness................................................................................................ 324
Body Fat........................................................................................................... 324
Work in Hot Climates........................................................................................... 324
Relative Humidity............................................................................................ 324
Heat Acclimatization....................................................................................... 324
Heat Illnesses................................................................................................... 325
Heat Stress Management................................................................................. 326
Work in Cold Climates......................................................................................... 326
Core Temperature in the Cold......................................................................... 327
Peripheral Temperatures and Repetitive Work................................................ 327
Acclimatization to Cold................................................................................... 328
Immersion in Cold Water................................................................................ 328
Perception of Cold........................................................................................... 329
Cold Injury....................................................................................................... 329
Protection against Extreme Climates................................................................... 330
Specify Safe Work–Rest Cycles...................................................................... 330
Design Cool Spots........................................................................................... 330
Issue Protective Clothing................................................................................. 331
Cool the Extremities........................................................................................ 331
Cold Climate Protection.................................................................................. 332
Comfort and the Indoor Climate.......................................................................... 332
Building Design and the Indoor Climate......................................................... 332
Thermal Comfort in Buildings........................................................................ 333
Ventilation............................................................................................................ 335
Thermal Comfort When Sleeping........................................................................ 336
Wet Bulb GT Thermometers................................................................................ 337
Measuring Thermal Comfort.......................................................................... 339
Air Movement and Wind Chill........................................................................ 339
Thermal Comfort, Air Quality, and Sick Buildings............................................. 339
ISO Standards.......................................................................................................340
xiv Contents
Status of Methods Used in Risk Assessment and Task Design............................ 342

Limitations of WBGT...................................................................................... 342
Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness................................................................... 342
Physical Tasks.................................................................................................. 342
Mental Tasks.................................................................................................... 343
Cost-Effective Interventions............................................................................344
Protection against Heat.................................................................................... 345
Ventilation........................................................................................................ 345
Mobile Workforces: Establishing Safe Systems of Work in the Heat............. 345
Research Directions..................................................................................................346
Summary...................................................................................................................346
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 347
Chapter 10 The Visual Environment: Measurement and Design................................................ 349

Core Knowledge: Fundamentals of Vision and Lighting.......................................... 349
Vision and the Eye................................................................................................ 349
Refractive Apparatus of the Eye........................................................................... 349
Blinking................................................................................................................ 351
Accommodation................................................................................................... 352
Optical Defects................................................................................................ 353
Chromatic Aberration........................................................................................... 354
Convergence......................................................................................................... 355
Resting Posture of the Eye.................................................................................... 355
Retina.................................................................................................................... 356
Melanopsin...................................................................................................... 356
Peripheral Vision and the Visual Field of the Stationary Eye.............................. 356
Retinal Adaptation................................................................................................ 357
Color Vision.......................................................................................................... 358
Color Perception................................................................................................... 359
The Purkinje Shift...........................................................................................360
The Pulfrich Pendulum....................................................................................360
Measurement of Light..........................................................................................360
Derivation of Terms.........................................................................................360
General Recommendations for Restful Viewing.................................................. 362
Visual Acuity........................................................................................................ 363
Color and Visual Acuity....................................................................................... 366
Lighting Standards............................................................................................... 366
Contrast and Glare................................................................................................ 368
Visual Fatigue, Eyestrain, and Near Work........................................................... 369
Prevention of Visual and Upper Body Fatigue..................................................... 370
Lighting Design Considerations........................................................................... 371
Illumination Levels............................................................................................... 371
Lighting Surveys................................................................................................... 371
Balance of Surface Luminances........................................................................... 371
Avoidance of Glare............................................................................................... 374
Glare and VDTs.................................................................................................... 375
Temporal Uniformity of Lighting......................................................................... 377
Contents xv
Color Rendering and Artificial Light................................................................... 377

Color Temperature and Color Rendering........................................................ 379
Surveys of Visual Function and VDTs................................................................. 380
Surveying Satisfaction with Lighting.............................................................. 380
Perimetry: Peripheral Vision Testing.............................................................. 381
Psychological Aspects of Indoor Lighting........................................................... 382
Vitamin D and Calcium Metabolism............................................................... 383
Depression............................................................................................................ 383
Status of Methods in Risk Assessment and Task Design..................................... 384
Effects of Controllable Task Lighting on Productivity........................................ 384
Effects of Rest Breaks on VDT Symptoms and Productivity.............................. 385
Safety.................................................................................................................... 385
Illumination Levels............................................................................................... 386
Lines of Sight and Visual Access......................................................................... 386
Benefits of Exposure to Daylight..................................................................... 387
Target Detection When Driving: Center High-Mounted Brake Lights........... 387
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 388
Summary................................................................................................................... 388
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 388
Chapter 11 Hearing, Sound, Noise, and Vibration...................................................................... 391

Core Knowledge: Hearing and Sound....................................................................... 391
Terminology......................................................................................................... 391
Sound Transmission......................................................................................... 392
Frequency Analysis......................................................................................... 393
The Ear................................................................................................................. 394
Outer Ear......................................................................................................... 394
Middle Ear....................................................................................................... 395
Inner Ear.......................................................................................................... 395
Sensitivity of the Ear....................................................................................... 396
Noise-Induced Pathology of the Ear................................................................ 398
Tinnitus............................................................................................................ 398
Psychosocial Aspects of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss and Hearing
Impairment...................................................................................................... 399
Basic Applications.....................................................................................................400
Design of the Acoustic Environment...................................................................400
Specification of Noise Levels at the Design Stage..........................................400
Reverberation................................................................................................... 401
Speech Intelligibility and the Speech Transmission Index.............................402
Auditory Startle Response...............................................................................402
Industrial Noise Control.......................................................................................402
Noise Insulation...............................................................................................404
Screens, Carpets, Curtains, and Tiles.............................................................405
Active Noise Control.......................................................................................405
Noise and Communication...................................................................................405
Outdoor Noise..................................................................................................405
Hearing Protection...............................................................................................406
xvi Contents
Nonlinear Ear Plugs.........................................................................................406

Training in the Use of HPDs...........................................................................408
Measurement of Sound.........................................................................................408
Speech Interference Level...............................................................................409
Several Sound Sources....................................................................................409
Measuring Noise Exposure.............................................................................. 410
Safe Exposure Levels....................................................................................... 411
Noise Dosimeters............................................................................................. 411
Integrating SL Meters...................................................................................... 414
Noise Surveys.................................................................................................. 414
Vibration............................................................................................................... 419
Human Responses to Vibration....................................................................... 419
Vibration and Back Injury............................................................................... 420
Exposure to Shock................................................................................................ 422
Effects of Noise on Task Performance................................................................. 423
Industrial Music............................................................................................... 423
Nonauditory Effects of Noise on Health.............................................................. 423
Noise and Blood Pressure................................................................................ 424
Noise and Stress............................................................................................... 424
Noise and Satisfaction..................................................................................... 425
Vibration and Health....................................................................................... 426
Prevention of VWF.......................................................................................... 427
Vibration and Public Transport....................................................................... 427
Mitigating Exposure to Vibration and Shock.................................................. 427
Status of Methods in Risk Assessment and Task Design................................ 427
Avoidance of Retrofitting................................................................................. 429
Hearing Conservation Programs Do Work...................................................... 429
Costs and Benefits of Hearing Conservation Programs.................................. 429
Cost Effectiveness of Different Noise Control Strategies............................... 430
Noisy Machines are Often Inefficient Machines............................................. 431
Reduced Noise Improves Productivity and Reduces Absenteeism and
Human Error.................................................................................................... 431
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 432
Summary................................................................................................................... 432
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 433
Chapter 12 The Mind at Work: Intention, Action and Interpretation.......................................... 435

Core Knowledge: Processing Information in Everyday Life.................................... 435
Executive Control................................................................................................. 437
Self-Regulation................................................................................................ 438
Self-Regulation and the Role of Glucose......................................................... 438
Fatigue.................................................................................................................. 439
Sustaining Task Performance............................................................................... 439
People Make Errors When System 2 Is Disengaged............................................440
Cognitive Fatigue and Human Performance........................................................ 441
Contents xvii

Human Error......................................................................................................... 443
Perception: How the Design of the World Affects the Ease with Which We
Interact with It...................................................................................................... 443
Keeping Stuff in Your Head: Paying Attention to Short-Term Memory..............444
Chunking......................................................................................................... 445
Attention: A Usable Resource That Gets Used Up..............................................446
How Many Tasks Can We Do Simultaneously?................................................... 447
Should People Be Allowed to Use Cell Phones While Driving?.........................448
Sustained Attention: Vigilance As a Self-Control Problem.................................449
Aiding Vigilance Task Performance.................................................................... 450
LTM: Our Model of the World............................................................................. 450
How to Make Things Easier to Remember and to Recall.................................... 450
Mnemonics, Verbal Elaborative Processing, and Visual Imagery....................... 451
Visual Imagery................................................................................................ 451
Network Theories of Memory.............................................................................. 452
Relationship between STM and LTM.................................................................. 453
Response Selection and Execution....................................................................... 453
Feedback............................................................................................................... 453
Mental Workload.................................................................................................. 454
Factors Affecting Mental Workload................................................................ 455
Modeling the Breakdown of Task Performance................................................... 457
Measuring Mental Workload.................................................................................... 462
Executive Control in Skilled Performance and the “Dysexecutive Syndrome”...464
Behavioral Design: Nudging and Friction............................................................ 467
Learning to Use New Systems.............................................................................469
Massed versus Spaced Practice............................................................................469
Transfer of Learning from One System to Another.............................................469
Demands on Attention of Mobile Electronic Devices.......................................... 470
Preventing Driver Distraction............................................................................... 470
Interacting with Websites Using Passwords......................................................... 471
Attention Restoration Theory: Designing for Recovery of Mental Resources.... 471
Status of Mental Workload Methods Used in Ergonomics.................................. 471
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 472
Summary................................................................................................................... 472
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 473
Pedro Ruiz’s Paella Recipe................................................................................... 474
Chapter 13 Displays and Controls................................................................................................ 477

Core Knowledge: Interaction at the Interface........................................................... 477
Is There Anything There? Signal Detection Theory............................................ 478
Trade-Offs....................................................................................................... 479
Sensitivity........................................................................................................ 479
Reaction Time When a Target Is Detected...........................................................480
Population Stereotypes......................................................................................... 481
Control Order and System Dynamics................................................................... 482
xviii Contents
Automation...................................................................................................... 483
Cursor Control Devices................................................................................... 483
Position Effects When Viewing Simultaneous Displays...................................... 483
Basic Applications: Designing Displays and Controls to Support System 1............ 483
Key Principles for Display Design....................................................................... 483
Design to Promote Figure–Ground Differentiation........................................ 483
Enhance Contours............................................................................................484
Promote Closure..............................................................................................484
Use Skeuomorphs............................................................................................ 486
Grouping.......................................................................................................... 487
Color................................................................................................................ 489
Resolution of Detail: Object Size and Viewing Distance..................................... 490
Color Coding of Dials...................................................................................... 490
Digital Displays............................................................................................... 490
Multiple Displays and Control Rooms............................................................. 491
Guiding Visual Search in Complex Displays....................................................... 492
Maps and Navigation Aids.............................................................................. 492
Three-Dimensional Displays........................................................................... 493
Head-Mounted Displays.................................................................................. 494
HMDs and Space Navigation.......................................................................... 495
Auditory Displays................................................................................................. 495
Synthetic Speech.............................................................................................. 495
Auditory Warnings and Cues.......................................................................... 496
Auditory Cueing in Visual Search................................................................... 497
Advantages of Auditory Displays.................................................................... 497
Voice Warnings................................................................................................ 497
Representational Warnings and Displays........................................................ 498
Auditory Alarms: Compatibility with Other Auditory Displays..................... 498
Haptic (“Tactile”) Displays.............................................................................. 498
Design of Controls................................................................................................ 499
Vehicle Controls.............................................................................................. 499
Control Distinctiveness....................................................................................500
Keyboards........................................................................................................500
Pointing Devices.............................................................................................. 501
Touchscreens.................................................................................................... 503
Voice Control........................................................................................................504
Problems the Voice Recognizer Faces.............................................................504
Hearing Lips and Seeing Voices......................................................................504
Avoid Spatial Transformations.............................................................................509
Control Room Design........................................................................................... 510
Displays and Controls in Complex Systems......................................................... 510
Status of Ergonomic Principles Used in Control and Display Design................. 510
Specialist Soft Keyboards for Improved Productivity.......................................... 511
Warnings............................................................................................................... 512
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 512
Summary................................................................................................................... 513
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 514
Contents xix
Chapter 14 Interactive Devices and the Internet.......................................................................... 517

Core Knowledge: Usability in a World of Intelligent Devices.................................. 517
Cognitive Systems................................................................................................ 518
Mental Models...................................................................................................... 519
Mental Models of the World Wide Web............................................................... 519
Utility of Mental Models...................................................................................... 521
Gaps in Users’ Models of Search Engines........................................................... 522
Modes................................................................................................................... 522
Automated Systems and Mental Models.............................................................. 523
Designing Language: Principles for Comprehension........................................... 523
Sound and Spelling of Words.......................................................................... 523
Normal Meanings of Words............................................................................ 524
Grammatical Rules for Acceptable Utterances............................................... 524
Metaphorical/Idiomatic Usages....................................................................... 525
Contextual Knowledge.................................................................................... 525
General (World) Knowledge............................................................................ 525
Basic Applications: Supporting System 2 in Everyday Life..................................... 525
Design of Visible Language................................................................................. 525
Few Clauses..................................................................................................... 526
Active versus Passive Voice............................................................................. 526
Negative versus Affirmative Sentences........................................................... 527
Concrete versus Abstract Words...................................................................... 527
Instructions and Warnings.................................................................................... 527
Composite Signs Work Better.............................................................................. 528
Designing Codes and Keywords: Keywords and Names Should Reflect
Common Usage.................................................................................................... 529
Design of Alphanumeric Codes....................................................................... 529
Reversal Errors................................................................................................ 529
Code Content................................................................................................... 529
Coding in Errors by Design............................................................................. 530
Communicating with Codes............................................................................ 530
Retrieval Cues for Web Pages.............................................................................. 531
Waiting in the Web: System Response Time........................................................ 531
Designing Icons for Ease of Recognition............................................................. 531
Human–Computer Interaction.............................................................................. 532
Implementation Modes for Human–Computer Interaction............................. 533
Virtual (“Synthetic”) Environments..................................................................... 536
Cyber Sickness................................................................................................. 537
Interacting with VEs........................................................................................ 537
VE Technological Limitations are HFE Issues.................................................... 539
Self-Driving Vehicles........................................................................................... 539
User Consultation.................................................................................................540
Active Involvement of Users and a Clear Understanding of the User and
Task Requirements.......................................................................................... 541
Measuring the Mind: Psychometrics.................................................................... 543
How Do People Think About Cell Phones?.................................................... 543
Data Reduction................................................................................................544
Reducing the Items and Constructing Composite Scales................................ 545
Internal Reliability........................................................................................... 547
xx Contents
Benefits of Using Summative Scales............................................................... 547

External Reliability.......................................................................................... 548
Validity and Standardization........................................................................... 554
Usability Questionnaires...................................................................................... 555
Readability Metrics.............................................................................................. 555
Design Goals for Interactive Systems.................................................................. 556
Summary of Design Guidelines for Usability in HCI..................................... 557
Status of Ergonomic Principles Used in Human–Computer Interaction............. 557
If It’s Hard to Read, It’s Hard to Understand and Hard to Do......................... 558
Making Public Information Easy to Understand............................................. 558
Costs and Benefits of Iterative Usability Testing............................................. 560
VEs for Training.............................................................................................. 560
Research Issues......................................................................................................... 561
Summary................................................................................................................... 562
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 563
Chapter 15 HFE in Accident Investigation and Safety Management.......................................... 567

Core Knowledge: HFE and System Safety............................................................... 567
Risks and Hazards................................................................................................ 567
What is Safety?..................................................................................................... 567
HFE and Safety.................................................................................................... 568
Macroergonomics and Swiss Cheese: Looking Backward and Outward............ 569
Bridging the Microergonomics and Macroergonomic Approaches..................... 569
What is “Human Error”?...................................................................................... 569
Error Categorization........................................................................................ 570
Error Production.............................................................................................. 570
Auto-Detection of Error.................................................................................. 571
“Situational Awareness”?..................................................................................... 572
Heuristics and Biases: Making Life Easier for System 2..................................... 574
Recognition...................................................................................................... 574
Take the Best................................................................................................... 574
Choose the Default.......................................................................................... 574
Tallying............................................................................................................ 574
Representativeness........................................................................................... 575
Availability...................................................................................................... 576
Adjustment and Anchoring.............................................................................. 576
The Dunning–Kruger Effect................................................................................ 577
Heuristics and Biases: Pros and Cons.............................................................. 577
Breakdown of Problem-Solving Behavior............................................................ 577
The Psychology of Violations............................................................................... 578
What Determines the Target Level of Risk?................................................... 579
Is There Such a Thing as Accident Proneness?.................................................... 579
Microergonomics of Safety: Identifying Risk Factors......................................... 580
No Single Point of Failure.................................................................................... 582
Macroergonomics of Safety: Why Were Risk Factors Present?........................... 584
Improving Safety at the Human–Machine Interface............................................ 585
Contents xxi
Provide Decision Support Systems....................................................................... 585

Training................................................................................................................ 587
Support Problem Solving................................................................................. 588
Error or Violation?................................................................................................ 588
Performance Shaping Factors............................................................................... 589
Macroergonomic Investigations........................................................................... 589
Directing Recommendations................................................................................ 590
If Human Factors Contributed to the Accident, What Can We Do to
Remove Them to Prevent Recurrence?............................................................ 590
Building Reliability into Systems......................................................................... 591
Problems in Accident Investigation...................................................................... 594
Methods of Data Capture for the Analysis of Cognitive Tasks............................ 597
Safety Culture....................................................................................................... 599
Measurement of Safety Culture.......................................................................600
Safety Culture Maturity.......................................................................................600
Indicators of Safety Culture Maturity............................................................. 601
Cross-Cultural Considerations.............................................................................602
Social Beliefs and Ergonomic Controls...........................................................603
Effectiveness and Cost Effectiveness...................................................................604
Automatic Teller Machines and Human Error................................................604
Incentive Schemes for Health and Safety Promotion...........................................606
Advanced Driver Training....................................................................................606
Research Issues.........................................................................................................607
Summary...................................................................................................................607
Tutorial Topics...........................................................................................................608
Chapter 16 System Stability and Sustainability........................................................................... 611

Core Knowledge: General Characteristics of Stable and Sustainable Systems........ 611
Humans in Equilibrium with the Rest of the Ecosystem..................................... 611
System Stability.................................................................................................... 612
Inertia............................................................................................................... 612
Resilience......................................................................................................... 612
Succession........................................................................................................ 613
Sensitivity to Feedback.................................................................................... 615
System Evolution............................................................................................. 615
Systems of Systems.............................................................................................. 616
System Sustainability: A User-Centered Approach Is Not Enough..................... 617
Levels of Sustainability................................................................................... 617
Sustainable Organizations Must Be Human-Centered.................................... 617
Domestic Energy Consumption............................................................................ 618
Home Heating.................................................................................................. 618
Using Locally Produced Energy...................................................................... 618
Electric Vehicles: Range Anxiety......................................................................... 619
Human-Centered Organizations...................................................................... 620
Overall Design of the Physical Environment.................................................. 620
Psychosocial Environment................................................................................... 620
xxii Contents
Motivation........................................................................................................ 621
Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment............................................................. 621
Job Enrichment................................................................................................ 621
Job Satisfaction................................................................................................ 622
Evidence for the Effectiveness of Job Design...................................................... 623
Aggregate Levels of Job Satisfaction............................................................... 623
Other Psychosocial Stressors and Stress Buffers................................................. 623
General Principles of Stress Management........................................................... 624
New Ways of Working..................................................................................... 625
Questionnaire Design in HFE.............................................................................. 625
More about Reliability and Validity..................................................................... 626
Assessing Reliability and Validity: Pilot Studies Are Essential.......................... 627
A Structured Approach to Questionnaire Design................................................ 629
Generation of Items for Questionnaires........................................................... 629
Wording of Items............................................................................................. 629
Sources of Bias in the Design of Experiments, Surveys, and Field Trials........... 632
Subject Reactivity............................................................................................ 632
Experimenter Effects....................................................................................... 633
Placebo Effect.................................................................................................. 633
Reduction of Bias in Field Trials, and Surveys.................................................... 634
Survey Design in HFE.......................................................................................... 634
Sample Size and Participant Response Rates....................................................... 634
Reasons for Nonresponse and How to Improve Response Rates.................... 635
Tactics to Maximize Response Rates.............................................................. 635
Reduction of Bias in Surveys........................................................................... 635
How to Deal with Low Response Rates............................................................... 637
The Deterministic Model................................................................................ 637
The Stochastic Model...................................................................................... 638
Multiple Surveys and Repeats.............................................................................. 639
Computer-Administered Questionnaires and Internet Surveys............................ 639
Big Data................................................................................................................640
System Integration.....................................................................................................640
Economic Growth and Environmental Pressure: Putting HFE “Back
in the Box”............................................................................................................ 641
Containerization—A Worked Example........................................................... 642
Influencing What Happens at the End of the Chain............................................. 642
Barriers to Sustainable Behavior: Temporal Discounting.................................... 642
Underweighting the Future.............................................................................. 643
Population Growth and Immigration...................................................................644
Research Directions..................................................................................................644
Summary................................................................................................................... 645
Tutorial Topics........................................................................................................... 645
Appendix A: Probabilities Associated with Values of z in Normal Distribution.................... 649

Glossary......................................................................................................................................... 651
References...................................................................................................................................... 663
Index............................................................................................................................................... 695
Preface
My main objective in writing this new edition has been to put Human Factors and Ergonomics
(HFE) into a bigger box: to provide first-time students with a greater awareness of the systems con-
text in which HFE is used; systems lifecycle concepts such as the CADMID cycle and to make this
book more usable than it was by project teams. To this end, I have added a new Prologue dealing
with system concepts and included more material on general aspects of systems design and evalua-
tion throughout this book. Some key concepts in systems thinking are introduced early on and are
illustrated using HFE examples including gathering and writing requirements; functional design
and allocation of function; and the use of HFE in quality assurance. These ideas have been carried
forward into all of the subsequent chapters, such that the reader can learn how to write specific
requirements in particular domains and carry out acceptance testing to check whether the require-
ments have been met.
Systems design
Integrate Validate
Human factors
and ergonomics
Evaluate Ameliorate
System operation and management
HFE WORKS BEST IN A BIGGER BOX

A human-centered approach has been taken to organize the sequence of chapters in this book, as is
illustrated in the model below. This way of presenting the information reflects the maturity of the
underlying disciplines as reflected in international standards, where our knowledge within a par-
ticular domain is much more developed than our knowledge of the interactions between different
domains. The model also serves to organize the chapters in relation to core scientific concepts and
their basic applications.
A HUMAN–MACHINE MODEL (ADAPTED FROM PREN 14386: 2002(E)

In accordance with the model, there are chapters on body mechanics and dimensions, the senses,
human information processing, and so on. The interactions between these elements of the human
subsystem and the corresponding controls, displays, and other elements of the technical subsystem
are described. Requirements for optimal design of systems are derived from an understanding of the
human/technical subsystem interactions between the different elements.
Each chapter begins with a list of general human requirements that must be met when a system is
designed. These requirements will help HFE specialists put HFE “on the table” early in the design cycle.
Within each chapter, the knowledge is organized using the standard model below in order to
make it easier for readers to navigate HFE across the core disciplines.
xxiii
xxiv Preface
Organisation
General environment
L
E Lighting;
G thermal conditions; noise; vibration
A
E
L
Age; C
Display(s) Sensory O
F (artificial) mechanisms training; S
R Task
Central motivation; Y
A output
processor S
M (real Feedback mental and T
E display) Effector physical E
W Control(s)
Force mechanisms M
O workload
R
K Workplace design; controls and
display design; posture
Immediate environment
Social environment
System integration
Tools and processes
Basic applications
Core knowledge
STANDARD MODEL FOR THE ORGANIZATION

OF HFE MATERIAL IN EVERY CHAPTER
Each chapter begins with a review of the core knowledge concerning the particular human elements,
the scientific terminology, definitions, units and descriptions, and discussions of human physical
and psychological subsystems. Some basic applications of this knowledge are then described fol-
lowed by the tools and processes and a discussion of some of the wider issues of systems integra-
tion, including cost effectiveness and considerations of how the basic concepts of HFE can interact
with each other when systems are put together. From the core knowledge and basic applications,
requirements can be derived and developed and examples are given throughout this book. The
tools and processes can be used for assurance purposes at any point in the system lifecycle, but
Preface xxv
preferably before the system is accepted for use. Cost-effectiveness arguments can be used during
the design process and afterward to promote proper integration of HFE into the system and counter
the arguments that inevitably arise when requirements are “traded-off” against each other.
In revising a textbook such as this, a compromise has to be made between presenting the latest
research, without knowing how long it will be relevant and preserving the best research of the past
without turning this book into a museum. Readers of previous editions will find much that is famil-
iar: a focus on core knowledge across HFE; citations of classic research; examples of statistical;
and other methods such as risk assessment tools—all of which are essential and widely used today.
As core application areas mature and as tools are better validated, the need for lengthy discussions
of supportive research diminishes and the need for explanation and validation of methods increases.
Similarly, changing content reflects a changing world as the need for material on “information
technology” is superseded by the need for more discussion of the Internet and issues such as sustain-
ability; similarly, the traditional emphasis on physically demanding work gives way to the problems
of occupational inactivity and associated problems such as obesity.
INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL, TUTORIAL GUIDE,

AND POWER-POINT PRESENTATIONS
For instructors, the manual is available from the publisher. This gives advice on the preparation of
lectures and demonstrations and it gives the solutions to the problems at the end of the chapters.
There is a new “Tutorial Guide” that gives advice for instructor’s wishing to engage with their
students using the tutorial topics at the end of the chapters. A full set of power point presentations
is available from the publisher.
GUIDANCE FOR READERS

This book can be used in different ways: as a course text, it can be studied in a linear fashion with
students completing some or all of the essays and exercises at the end of each chapter. Chapters
can be studied independently to refresh knowledge of particular topics and it can be used as a
reference text by professionals seeking examples of assessment tools and methods or in support of
HFE requirements or interventions. For this reason, examples of tools, requirements, and so on are
embedded throughout the text in the context of the evidence they are derived from.
HFE is an applied science that is becoming increasingly important in the design of complex systems.
Practitioners need tools to apply the subject and systems developers need assurance that requirements
have been met. Overall, I would like to believe that this book sends out a clear message: modern HFE
has the knowledge, the tools, and the processes to apply them to support the design of future systems.
R. S. Bridger
Consultant in Human Factors and Ergonomics
Hampshire, United Kingdom
www.rsbridger.com
August 8, 2017
Author
Dr. R. S. Bridger is an independent consultant and educationalist in human factors and ergonom-
ics. He is author of more than 250 articles, conference papers and official reports. He acts as an
expert witness in personal injury litigation, provides support in human factors to official inquiries
into major accidents and presents workshops and seminars on his work to international audiences.
To view Dr. Bridger’s profile and services, and to contact him for further advice, please visit his
website: www.rsbridger.com.
To discuss academic support, training courses and workshops contact Mrs. B. E. Parodi at
knowledgesharingevents@gmail.com.
xxvii
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
“One of our troubles is with smuggled liquor. We try especially to
keep it from the Indians, but nevertheless it gets in. In one instance
bottles of whisky were shipped to the Yukon inside the carcasses of
dressed hogs. In another a woman contrived a rubber sleeve, which
she filled with whisky. All one had to do for a drink was to give her
arm a hard squeeze.”
I asked how it was that the Mounted Police are so feared by bad
characters that this whole territory can be controlled by a handful of
them. The officer replied:
“Every man in frontier Canada knows that if he is wanted by the
Mounted Police, they are sure to get him. A fugitive from justice
could very easily kill one of our men sent after him, but he realizes
that if he does so, another will follow, and as many more as are
necessary until he is brought in. I have seen constables arrest men
of twice their weight and strength, and have had one or two men
round up a mob and bring them all to jail. This is true not only of our
own bad men, but also of those who come across from Alaska. They
may be dangerous on the other side of the border, but they are
always gentle enough when they get here.
“The big thing that helps us,” concluded the head of the police,
“is that the government supports us up to the limit. For example, it
cost us two hundred thousand dollars to convict in one famous
murder case, but it was done and the guilty man hanged. Ottawa
always tells us that it is prepared to spend any amount of money
rather than have a murderer go unpunished. It is that policy that
enables us to keep order here.”
THE END
SEEING THE WORLD
WITH
Frank G. Carpenter
Doubleday, Page & Company, in response to the demand from
Carpenter readers, are now publishing the complete story of
CARPENTER’S WORLD TRAVELS, of which this book is the tenth
in the series. Those now available are:
1. “The Holy Land and Syria”

2. “From Tangier to Tripoli”
Morocco, Algeria,
Tunisia, and Tripoli
3. “Alaska, Our Northern Wonderland”
4. “The Tail of the Hemisphere”
Chile and Argentina
5. “From Cairo to Kisumu”
Egypt, the Sudan,
and Kenya Colony
6. “Java and the East Indies”
Java, Sumatra,
the Moluccas, New Guinea,
Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula
7. “France to Scandinavia”
France, Belgium,
Holland, Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden
8. “Mexico”
9. “Australia, New Zealand, and Some Islands of the South
Seas”
Australia, New Zealand,
New Guinea, the Samoas,
the Fijis, and the Tongas
10. “Canada”
and Newfoundland
Millions of Americans have already found Carpenter their ideal

fellow traveller, and have enjoyed visiting with him all the corners of
the globe. He tells his readers what they want to know, shows them
what they want to see, and makes them feel that they are there.
CARPENTER’S WORLD TRAVELS are the only works of their
kind. These books are familiar talks about the countries and peoples
of the earth, with the author on the spot and the reader in his home.
No other one man has visited so much of the globe and written on
the ground, in plain and simple language, the story of what he has
found. CARPENTER’S WORLD TRAVELS are not the casual record
of incidents of the journey, but the painstaking study of a trained
observer, devoting his life to the task of international reporting. Each
book is complete in itself; together they form the most vivid,
interesting, and understandable picture of our modern world ever
published. They are the fruit of more than thirty years of unparalleled
success in writing for the American people, and the capstone of
distinguished services to the teaching of geography in our public
schools, which have used some four million copies of the Carpenter
Geographical Readers.
INDEX
Abitibi, large production of news-print at, 92.

Agriculture, in Newfoundland, 11;
in Quebec, 47, 48;
possibilities of Manitoba, 154.
Air plant, a polar orchid along the Yukon Trail, 236.
Airplanes, fail in attempt to reach Fort Norman, 205.
Alberta, coal deposits estimated to be one seventh of the world’s
total, 200;
extent of pure bred cattle and dairy industries, 208.
Alberta Railway and Irrigation Company, pioneer in Alberta
irrigationwork, 207.
Alfalfa, largely produced in southwestern Saskatchewan, 176.
American “branch plants” in Canada, 104.
American capital and investments in Canada, 105.
American owned pulp-mills and timber tracts in Canada, 96.
Americans, number of, in Canada, 2, 193.
Anderson, Charlie, his lucky strike in the Klondike, 275.
Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia’s apple-growing district, 34.
Anyox, British Columbia, copper mines at, 223.
Apples, largely grown in Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia, 34;
in the Okanagan Valley, 223.
Asbestos, most of world’s supply produced in Thetford district,
Quebec, 47.
Astrophysical Observatory at Victoria, British Columbia, 225.
“Athabaska Trail,” poem by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, 205.
Automobiles, American, in Canada, 104.
Banff, finest mountain resort of Canada, 215.
Bank of Montreal, one of the world’s great banks, 73.
Banks and the banking system of Canada, 69, et seq.
Banting, Dr. F. G., discoverer of Insulin, 99.
Barley, production in the Winnipeg district, 149;
large crops at Edmonton, 200;
in Peace River Valley, 202.
Baseball, popular in Nova Scotia, 35;
in Toronto, 101.
Bassano, great irrigation dam at, 206.
Battleford, Saskatchewan, noted for its fur trade and lumber mills,
179.
Beach, Rex, in the Klondike, 278.
Bears, abundant in the Yukon, 234.
Beatty, E. W., first Canadian-born president of the Canadian Pacific,
165.
Beaver, the first fur exported by the Hudson’s Bay Company, 169;
abundant in the Yukon, 234.
Beck, Sir Adam, at the head of Ontario Hydro-Electric Commission,
110.
Bell Island, visit to the Wabana iron mines on, 26.
Belle Isle, Strait of, 4.
Big game of the Yukon region, 253.
Black, George, demonstrates to Ottawa Parliament possibility of
winter automobile travel in the Yukon, 239.
Bonsecours Market, at Montreal, 66.
Boyle, Joseph W., successful gold-dredging operations in the Yukon,
271;
the story of his career, 281.
Branch plants, American, in Canada, 104.
Bras d’Or Lake, an inland sea, 39.
Bright “Dickie,” a character of old-time Calgary, 211.
British American Nickel Company, operators of mines at Sudbury,
130.
British Columbia, timber resources of, 90;
production of silver in, 124;
agricultural and mineral resources, 220 et seq.
Buffalo, last wild herd reported to be near Fort Vermilion, 202;
largest herd in America at Wainwright Park, Alberta, 217.
Cabbage, as raised at Dawson, Yukon, 265.

Cabot, Sebastian, reported that fish obstructed navigation on
Newfoundland coast, 13.
Cabot Tower, commemorating discovery of Newfoundland, 6.
Calgary, Alberta, huge irrigation works of the Canadian Pacific
Railway at, 206, 207;
the city and its industries, 209.
Camping and hunting in Ontario province, 139.
Canadian Bank of Commerce, established in the Klondike, 280.
Canadian Banking Act, provisions of, 72.
Canadian Banking Association, of semi-official status, 73.
Canadian Klondike Mining Company, established by Joe Boyle, 284.
Canadian National Railways, eastern terminus at Halifax, 31;
extent of, 158;
work abroad to induce immigration, 190;
transcontinental route from Prince Rupert to Halifax, 229.
Canadian Northern Railway, growth of, 162.
Canadian Pacific Railway, eastern terminus at St. John, N. B., 41;
extent of its railroad and steamship service, 158, 160;
work abroad to induce immigration, 190;
begins huge irrigation project near Calgary, 206, 207;
leads in exploiting Canada’s scenic wonders, 218.
Canadian relations with the United States, 85.
Canso, Strait of, railroad trains ferried across, 39.
Cantilever bridge, world’s longest at Quebec, 45.
Cape Breton Island, port of province of Nova Scotia, 38.
Cape Race, chief signal station of the North Atlantic, 3.
Cape Spear, most easterly point of North America, 6.
“Card money,” circulation of, 74.
Caribou, abundant in Newfoundland, 11;
in northern Ontario, 140;
in the Yukon, 234, 253;
meat sold at butcher shops in Dawson, 253.
Carmack, George, discoverer of gold in the Klondike, 274.
Carrots, a successful crop at Dawson, Yukon, 261.
Cartier, Jacques, early explorations of, 45.
Catholicism, Quebec the American capital of French, 57.
Cattalo, cross between buffalo and cattle, raised in large numbers at
Wainwright Park, 218.
Cattle, pure bred, in Alberta, 208;
transportation of, on the Yukon River, 242.
Cattle ranches being supplanted by farms in Alberta, 206.
Château Laurier, government railroad hotel at Ottawa, 81.
Chaudière Falls, source of power for Ottawa manufactures, 80.
Chicken Billy and his ten-thousand-dollar potato patch, 259.
Chinese labourers, not admitted to Canada, 190.
Chippewa, immense hydro-electric development at, 113.
Chisana, abandoned town on the Yukon River, 244.
“Circle tour,” the Canadian Rockies, Yellowstone Park, and Grand
Canyon motor route, 215.
Clay Belt, the Great, agricultural possibilities in, 139.
Clergue steel plant, at Sault Ste. Marie, 135.
Climate, at Edmonton, 200;
at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, 228;
at Dawson, Yukon, 256.
Coaker, Sir William, organizer of Newfoundland Fishermen’s
Protective Union, 21.
Coal, great importance of the Sydney mines, 39;
amount saved by development of Canada’s water-power, 108;
Alberta’s deposits, the greatest in the Dominion, 200;
immense deposits, near Crow’s Nest Pass, 221.
Cobalt, Ontario, world’s richest silver deposits at, 119.
Cobalt, immense production of the mineral at Cobalt, Ontario, 125.
Cochrane, “Billy,” breeder of “wild” cattle at Calgary, 210.
Cochrane, Senator, owner of large cattle ranch in Alberta, 207.
Cod fisheries, of Newfoundland, 13;
of Nova Scotia, 36.
Coffee, George T., lucky miner in the Yukon, 266.
Coke ovens, at the coal deposits near Crow’s Nest Pass, 221.
Columbia River, source of, in the Kootenays, 220.
Conservation of forests in Canada, 89.
Copper, rich deposits in Newfoundland, 12;
in the Kootenay country, 221, 222.
Copper sulphate, by-product of Sudbury mines, 130.
Cornwallis, Lord, city of Halifax, founded by, 32.
“Country banks” of coal, the settler’s recourse, 201.
Creighton Nickel Mine, largest producer in the world, 127.
“Cremation of Sam McGee,” poem by Robert Service, 257.
Crow’s Nest Pass, railway line through, 217, 220;
immense coal deposits near, 221.
Cucumbers, a hot-house crop, at Dawson, Yukon, 261.
Curling, a popular game in Canada, 68.
Dairy cattle and products of Alberta, 208.

Dawson, the capital of the Yukon, 250 et seq.
Deer, plentiful in Nova Scotia, 57.
Divorce, no laws for, in Newfoundland, 9.
Domestic servants, scarcity of, 192.
Dominion Agricultural Department, originates improved wheat
varieties, 183.
Douglas fir, principal timber of British Columbia, 91.
Doukhobors, fanatical colonists from Russia, 194.
Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, poem, “The Athabasca Trail,” 205.
Dredging for gold in the Yukon, 267, 269.
Dunsmore, Lord, as a pioneer names town of Moose Jaw, 179.
Edmonton, Alberta, the gateway to the northwest, 197 et seq.

Electric current, low cost of in southern Ontario, 106, 108, 111.
Electrically heated water for winter mining in the Klondike, 285.
Elevators, how conducted in the Canadian wheat belt, 186.
Farm labour, how obtained for the Canadian wheat fields, 184.
Farmers, American, movement to the Canadian wheat belt, 193.
Farmhouses, well built in Nova Scotia, 38.
Farming, on the edge of the Arctic, Fisheries, of Newfoundland, 13;
of Nova Scotia, 36.
Fisheries of British Columbia, extent of, 230.
Fishermen, Newfoundland, their hard lives and small incomes, 20.
Fishermen’s Protective Union, activities of, 21.
Flax seed, production in the Winnipeg district, 149.
Fleming, Peter, plans harbour development of Montreal, 62.
Floating dry dock, at Prince Rupert, 229.
Flour industry, location of principal mills, 186.
Football, popular in Toronto, 101.
Forest fires and protective measures, 89.
Forest reserves, set aside by government of Ontario, 139.
Forests, denudation of Canadian, 88.
Fort Garry, present site of Winnipeg, 151.
Fort McMurray, on the route to the new oil fields, 203.
Fort Norman, trading post for the new oil region, 203.
Fort Smith, capital of the Northwest Territories, 203.
Fort Vermillion, last herd of wild wood buffalo reported near, 202.
Fort William, the great wheat centre, 135, 141.
Fox, Black, price of fur declining since advent of fur farming, 173.
Fox farms on Prince Edward Island, 40;
near Indian Lorette, Quebec, 44.
Fraser River, gold discoveries on, the first in British Columbia, 223.
Freighters, Lake Superior, 146.
French, dispute British claims to Newfoundland fisheries, 14;
attempts to hold Nova Scotia, 15;
driven from Cape Breton Island, 39.
French, the language of Quebec, 49.
French Canada—Quebec, 42.
French Catholicism, Quebec the American capital of, 57.
Fruit growing in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, 224.
Fundy, Bay of, the forty-foot tides of, 38.
Fur, and the great organizations concerned in its marketing, 166 et
seq.
Gas, natural, at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, 180;

at Medicine Hat and near Edmonton, 201.
Gates, Swift-Water Bill, his great strike in the Klondike, 277;
partnership with Jack London, 278;
partnership with Joe Boyle, 282.
Glace Bay, first transatlantic cable landed at, 39.
Gold, but little found in Labrador, 11;
production of, in the Porcupine district, 125;
in the Kootenay country, 221;
first discovery in British Columbia, on the Fraser River, 223;
supply being exhausted in the Klondike, 250;
the wonders of the Yukon, 266.
Gouin reservoir, immense water-power development in Quebec, 47.
Government ownership of railroads, how brought about, 162.
Governor-General, the, his position in the Canadian government, 84.
Grain-carrying ships, of the Great Lakes, 146.
Grain elevators, at Port Arthur and Fort William, 141 et seq.
Grain sacks, manufacture of, a leading industry of Montreal, 63.
Granby Company, miners and smelters of copper in British
Columbia, 222.
Grand Banks, the cod fishing grounds, 4, 19.
Grand Forks, British Columbia, smelter closed down after a record
production, 222.
Grand Trunk railway, growth of, in Canada, 162.
Grande Prairie, largest town in the Peace River Valley, 202.
Great Divide, crossing the, 213.
Great Slave Lake, on the route to the new oil fields, 204.
Grenfell, Dr., sailors’ mission of, at St. John’s, 8.
Gulf Stream, its influence on Newfoundland, 4, 5.
Halibut, large production of the British Columbia fisheries, 230.

Halifax, chief city and capital of Nova Scotia, 31.
Halifax explosion, one of the greatest ever known, 33.
Hamilton, Ontario, prosperity due to cheap electric power from
Niagara, 117.
Hayward, Edward, his murder near Lesser Slave Lake, and the
running down of his murderer, 295.
Hematite ore, in the Kootenay country, 221.
Hidden Creek copper mines, largest in British Columbia, 223.
Hill, James J., prediction of Canada’s future population, 189.
Hockey, the great game of Canada, 68.
Hogs, raised at Dawson, Yukon, 260, 262.
Hollinger Mine, largest gold mine in North America, 125.
Holt, Renfrew and Company, great furriers at Quebec, 171.
Homesteads in the Yukon, 265.
Horse raising, in Alberta, 209.
Hot-houses for cucumbers and tomatoes at Dawson, Yukon, 261.
Hudson Bay, railways projected to, 155.
Hudson’s Bay Company, history of, 166 et seq.
Hudson Strait, chief difficulty in navigation of Hudson Bay Route,
156.
Hull, wet suburb of dry Ottawa, 80.
Hunting, in Newfoundland, 11.
Hunting and camping in Ontario province, 139.
Hydraulic mining, in the Yukon, 267.
Hydro-electric Commission, work of, in Ontario, 102, 103, 106, 107.
Hydro-electric development in Quebec, 46;
of Niagara Falls, 106;
of Welland River at Niagara Falls, 113;
at Sault St. Marie, 134.
Hydro-electric development and the paper and pulp industry, 96.
Hydro-electric plant, supplying St. John’s, 15.
Hydro-electric project at Ogdensburg proposed for furnishing power
to United States and Canada, 100.
Ibex Range, as seen from the Yukon trail, 236.

Ice Palace, formerly erected each winter at Montreal, 68.
Icelanders, a colony of, near Winnipeg, 152.
Immigration, Canada’s desire for, 188 et seq.
Indian Head, government forestry experiments at, 178.
Insulin, specific for treatment of diabetes, discovered at University of
Toronto, 99.
International Joint Commission, approves project for improvement of
St. Lawrence waterway, 100.
International Nickel Company of Canada, Ltd., owners of rich
Sudbury mines, 127.
Iron, one of the world’s largest deposits in Newfoundland, 12;
the wonderful Wabana mines, 24;
in the Kootenay country, 221.
Irrigation in Alberta, 206;
in the Okanagan Valley, 224.
Japanese labourers, not admitted to Canada, 190.

Jasper Park, greatest of Canada’s western game and forest reserve,
217.
Keeley Mine, rich silver veins of, at Cobalt, 124.
Keno Hill, new silver district in the Yukon, 124.
Kicking Horse Pass, where the railway crosses the Great Divide,
216.
King, Charles, his capture and conviction of murder by the Mounted
Police, 295.
King Solomon’s Dome, in the centre of the Klondike gold region,
274.
Kirkland Lake gold district, production of, 125.
Klondike, the supply of gold being exhausted, 250;
romances of the, 274.
Kootenay country, resources of, 220, 221.
Kootenay Lake, steamer trip through, 221.
Labrador, cod fisheries of, 19.

Labour, how obtained for the Canadian wheat fields, 184.
Lac Beauvert, a mountain resort of the Canadian National Railways,
217.
La Chine Rapids, so-named by Cartier, 61.
Lachine Canal, near Montreal, 64.
Lacrosse, one of the most popular Canadian games, 67.
Lake of the Woods, a beautiful camping and hunting district, 139.
La Rose, discoverer of silver at Cobalt, 122.
Land grants to the Canadian Pacific Railway, 190.
Laurentian Mountains, oldest rock formation of the continent, 48.
Le Roi Copper Mine at Rossland, British Columbia, 222.
Leacock, Stephen, at McGill University, Montreal, 63.
Lead, in the Kootenay country, 221.
Left-hand driving, the custom in Newfoundland, 25.
Life insurance, amount held by Canadians, 78.
Lignite coal, in Saskatchewan, 180.
Live stock, transportation of on the Yukon River, 242.
Live stock production in Newfoundland, 11.
London, Jack, in the Klondike, 278.
London, Ontario, greatly increased consumption of electricity due to
low price, 112.
Louise, Lake, in the Canadian Rockies, 216.
Lumber, production at Sault Ste. Marie, 135;
production of the Saskatchewan province, 176, 179;
immense quantities shipped from Vancouver, 225.
Lumber industry of Canada, the, 88 et seq.
Manitoba, extent of the province, its topography and resources, 154.

Maritime Provinces, of Canada, the, 31.
Marquette, Father, establishes first Jesuit mission in the new world at
Sault Ste. Marie, 135.
Marquis, valuable variety of wheat originated by Dominion
Agricultural Department, 183.
Matches, manufacture of, at Ottawa, 80, 88.
Medicine Hat, natural gas wells at, 201.
Mennonites, at Winnipeg, 153;
colonies of, from Russia, 194, 195.
McGill University, Montreal, 63.
Miller, Joaquin, in the Klondike, 278.
Mine props, cut in Newfoundland for use in English and Welsh
mines, 11.
Mining wonders of the far North, 266.
Mond Nickel Company, operators of mines at Sudbury, 130.
Monel metal, how produced, 129.
Montreal, Canada’s largest city and financial centre, 60 et seq.
Moose, plentiful in Nova Scotia, 37;
in Ontario province, 140;
in the Yukon, 234, 253;
meat sold at butcher shops at Dawson, 253.
Moose Jaw, an important commercial centre of Saskatchewan, 179.
Mosses, along the Yukon trail, 236.
Mother’s pension, in Ontario, 103.
Motor tourists, welcomed in Quebec, 50.
Mountain goats, abundant in the Yukon, 253.
Mountain sheep, abundant in the Yukon, 253.
Mount Robson, highest peak in Canada, 217.
Mount Royal, from which Montreal is named, 61.
Municipal ownership in Port Arthur and Fort William, 143.
Muskrat, a valuable fur when dyed and prepared, 172.
Names, fanciful, in Newfoundland geography, 12.

National debt of Canada, greatly increased during the World War,
188.
Natural gas, at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, 180;
at Medicine Hat, and near Edmonton, 201.
Nelson, British Columbia, in the heart of the mining country, 221.
New Brunswick, its resources and industries, 40.
New Caledonia, nickel production of, 127.
Newfoundland, size and strategic importance, 4;
population, 7;
education and church activities, 7;
political relation to British Empire, 8;
system of government, 9.
Newspapers in the early Klondike days, 280.
News-print, production of the Sault Ste. Marie mills, 134.
Niagara Falls, hydro-electric development of, 106, 113.
Niagara Falls Railway Arch Bridge, cost of lighting American half
more than double Canadian, 108.
Nickel, largest production in the world at Sudbury, Ontario, 127;
the different uses of the metal, 131.
Nickel-steel, the many uses of, 131.
Nipissing silver mine at Cobalt, 122.
Northcliffe, Lord, built plant in Newfoundland for supply of pulp wood
paper, 11.
Northwest Company, opponent of the Hudson’s Bay Company, finally
absorbed, 170.
Notre Dame, Church of, at Montreal, 65.
Nova Scotia, travels, in, 31 et seq.
Oats, production in the Winnipeg district, 149;

large crops at Edmonton, 200;
in Peace River Valley, 202.
Oats hay, a farm crop at Dawson, Yukon, 261.
Ogdensburg, N. Y., site of proposed hydro-electric plant for supplying
Canada and the United States, 100.
Oil fields, the new operations along the MacKenzie, 203 et seq.
Okanagan Valley, famous as fruit-growing region, 223.
Ontario, Province of, richest in mineral and agricultural wealth and
industrial development, 103;
the frontier of the province, 137.
Ontario Hydro-Electric Commission, work of, in Ontario, 102, 103,
106, 107.
Ottawa, capital of the Dominion, 79 et seq.
Paper, Quebec leading producer of, 46;

greatly increased production of, in Canada, 92;
process of manufacture, 93.
Paper mills, at Ottawa, 80, 88.
Parliament buildings, at Ottawa, 82.
Peace River, the town of, 202.
Peace River Valley, agricultural possibilities in, 202.
Petroleum, in Alberta, 201;
the new field along the Mackenzie, 203.
Petty Harbour, typical Newfoundland “outport,” 16.
Phoenix, British Columbia, copper mines at, 222.
Pilgrimages to Ste. Anne de Beaupré, 52.
Porcupine gold district, production of, 125.
Port Arthur, the great wheat centre, 135, 141.
Port Nelson, projected terminus of the Hudson Bay Route, and port
for wheat shipment, 155.
Portage la Prairie, a prosperous farming section, 175.
Potatoes, success with in Dawson, Yukon, 259.
Poultry raising in the Arctic, 260.
Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, noted for its fur trade and lumber mills,
179.
Prince Edward Island, smallest but richest province in the Dominion,
40.
Prince Rupert, northern terminus of Canadian National Railways and
nearest port to the Orient, 226 et seq.
Public ownership, in Toronto, 101 et seq.;
success of the Ontario Hydro-Electric Commission, 107.
Pulp wood, chief product of forests in Newfoundland, 11;
great production of Quebec, 46;
Canada’s resources in, of great importance to the United States,
91, 96.
Pulp mills, at Ottawa, 88;
great increase in numbers of, in Canada, 92;
at Sault Ste. Marie, 134.
Quebec, and its history, 42;

population, 46.
Queenston Chippewa hydro-electric plant below Niagara Falls, 113.
Radio, fisheries of Nova Scotia controlled by, 36.

Rabbits, destruction of trees by, 234.
Railways, in Newfoundland, 10;
transcontinental, of Canada, 157;
government-owned in Canada, 162.
Rainfall, excessive, at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, 229.
Regina, the capital of Saskatchewan, 177.
Religious denominations in Newfoundland, 7.
Remittance men, in Calgary, 210.
Revillon Frères, chief competitor to the Hudson’s Bay Company, 170.
Rideau Canal, at Ottawa, 80, 81.
Rideau Hall, residence of the Governor-General, at Ottawa, 84.
Rockies, Canadian, beauty of the, 213.
Rocky Mountain Park, finest mountain resort of Canada, 215.
Royal Bank of Canada, connections abroad, 77.
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, training camp at Regina, 177;
district headquarters at Dawson, 251;
the story of the service, 288 et seq.
Russian church, at Winnipeg, 153.
Rye, production in the Winnipeg district, 149.
St. Boniface, old French-Canadian settlement near Winnipeg, 152.

St. Helene Island, once owned by Champlain, 64.
St. James, Cathedral of, at Montreal, 65.
St. John, chief city of New Brunswick, 41.
St. John’s, capital and chief port of Newfoundland, 3, 5;
around about the city, 8.
St. Lawrence River, International plans for improvement of, 99.
St. Mary’s River, hydro-electric development of, 134.
St. Paul’s Church, Halifax, first English house of worship in Canada,
35.
St. Pierre Island, headquarters of bootleggers, 15.
Sainte Anne de Beaupré, the Shrine and its miraculous cures, 52.
Salmon fishing, in Newfoundland, 11.
Salmon fisheries of British Columbia, 231.
Sanderson, John, first homesteader at Portage la Prairie, 175.
Saskatchewan, greatest wheat province of the Dominion, 175 et
seq., 181 et seq.
Saskatoon, second largest city of Saskatchewan, 179.
Sault Ste. Marie, hydro-electric development of, 134;
one of the oldest settlements in Canada, 135.
Sealing industry, of Newfoundland, 21.
Selkirk, Lord, his colony in Manitoba the first wheat farmers, 182.
Service, Robert, the poet of the Yukon, 249, 257, 279.
Settlers, Canada’s inducements to, 191.
Shawinigan Falls, hydro-electric development of, 46.
Shaughnessy, Lord, an American boy who became president of the
Canadian Pacific, 165.
Sheep, in southern Alberta, 208.
Silver in the Kootenay country, 221.
Silver mines of northern Ontario, 119.
Slavin, Frank, in the Klondike, 278;
partnership with Joe Boyle, 282.
“Soo” Canal, the waterway and its traffic, 136.
Sports, Canadian, 67;
outdoor games promoted by municipal athletic commission at
Toronto, 101.
Spruce, predominant standing timber of Canada, 91.
Steam thawing of the ground in Yukon mining, 266, 271.
Steel industries developed in Sydney district, Nova Scotia, 39.
Stock raising in southwestern Saskatchewan, 176.
Sudbury, rich nickel deposits at, 126, 127.
Sunlight, hours of, at Dawson, Yukon, 264.
Superior, Lake, the grain-carrying trade through, 141 et seq.
Swift Current, an important commercial centre of Saskatchewan,
179.
Sydney coal mines, of immense importance, 39.
Tahkeena River, crossing of, on the Yukon trail, 235.

The Pas, an undeveloped mineral region, 154.
Thomas, C. A., demonstrates possibility of winter automobile travel
in the Yukon, 239.
Thornton, Sir Henry, in charge of the Canadian national railways,
164.
Three Rivers, Quebec, largest production of paper in the world, at,
47, 92.
Threshing, methods in the Canadian wheat belt, 185.
Tides, forty feet high in Bay of Fundy, 38.
Timber, valuable tracts in Newfoundland, 11.
Timothy hay, large crops at Edmonton, 200.
Tomatoes, a hot-house crop at Dawson, Yukon, 261.
Toronto, the city of public ownership, 97 et seq.
Toronto University, largest in the British Empire, 98.
Transcontinental railway systems of Canada, 157.
Trappists, at Winnipeg, 153.
Truro, Nova Scotia, 38.
Turnips, as a crop, at Dawson, Yukon, 264.
University of Saskatchewan, efforts in behalf of agriculture and

ceramics, 179.
Valley of the Ten Peaks, in the Canadian Rockies, 216.

Vancouver, chief city of British Columbia and Canada’s most
important Pacific port, 224.
Vancouver Island, copper workings on, 223.
Van Horne, Wm., strenuous railroad builder, 165.
Veneer, manufacture of, at Sault Ste. Marie, 135.
Victoria, capital of British Columbia, 225.
Wabana iron mines rich under-sea deposits, 24.

Wainwright Park, Alberta, containing largest herd of buffalo extant,
217.
Waterfalls that work for the people, 106 et seq.
Water-power, great developments in Quebec, 46;
its relation to the paper and pulp industry, 96.
Welland Canal, building of deeper and larger locks, 99.

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Introduction to Human Factors and

Ergonomics, Fourth Edition Robert

Introduction to Human Factors and Ergonomics, Fourth

Fitting the Human: Introduction to Ergonomics / Human

Office ergonomics and human factors: practical

Ergonomics and Human Factors for a Sustainable Future

Advances in Physical Ergonomics and Human Factors:

Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Healthcare

Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Healthcare

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-9594-4 (Hardback)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bridger, R. S., author.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

Chapter 2 The Body as a Mechanical System............................................................................. 31

Chapter 3 Anthropometry, Workstation, and Facilities Design................................................... 65

Tools and Processes.....................................................................................................84

Chapter 4 Standing and Sitting at Work.................................................................................... 107

Standing to Work at VDTs................................................................................... 131

Chapter 5 Repetitive Tasks: Risk Assessment and Task Design................................................ 155

Basic Applications..................................................................................................... 174

Chapter 6 Design of Manual Handling and Load Carriage Tasks............................................. 203

Design of Manual Handing Tasks........................................................................ 216

Chapter 7 Work Capacity, Stress, Fatigue, and Recovery.......................................................... 243

Maximum Oxygen Uptake.............................................................................. 252

Insulin Resistance................................................................................................. 288

Chapter 9 Working in Hot and Cold Climates........................................................................... 317

Status of Methods Used in Risk Assessment and Task Design............................ 342

Chapter 10 The Visual Environment: Measurement and Design................................................ 349

Color Rendering and Artificial Light................................................................... 377

Chapter 11 Hearing, Sound, Noise, and Vibration...................................................................... 391

Nonlinear Ear Plugs.........................................................................................406

Chapter 12 The Mind at Work: Intention, Action and Interpretation.......................................... 435

Basic Applications..................................................................................................... 442

Chapter 13 Displays and Controls................................................................................................ 477

Chapter 14 Interactive Devices and the Internet.......................................................................... 517

Benefits of Using Summative Scales............................................................... 547

Chapter 15 HFE in Accident Investigation and Safety Management.......................................... 567

Provide Decision Support Systems....................................................................... 585

Chapter 16 System Stability and Sustainability........................................................................... 611

Appendix A: Probabilities Associated with Values of z in Normal Distribution.................... 649

System operation and management

HFE WORKS BEST IN A BIGGER BOX

A HUMAN–MACHINE MODEL (ADAPTED FROM PREN 14386: 2002(E)

Tools and processes

STANDARD MODEL FOR THE ORGANIZATION

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL, TUTORIAL GUIDE,

GUIDANCE FOR READERS

1. “The Holy Land and Syria”

Millions of Americans have already found Carpenter their ideal

Abitibi, large production of news-print at, 92.

Cabbage, as raised at Dawson, Yukon, 265.

Dairy cattle and products of Alberta, 208.

Edmonton, Alberta, the gateway to the northwest, 197 et seq.

Gas, natural, at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, 180;

Halibut, large production of the British Columbia fisheries, 230.

Ibex Range, as seen from the Yukon trail, 236.

Japanese labourers, not admitted to Canada, 190.

Labrador, cod fisheries of, 19.

Manitoba, extent of the province, its topography and resources, 154.

Names, fanciful, in Newfoundland geography, 12.