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Human Factors in Practice
Concepts and Applications
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Human Factors in Practice
Concepts and Applications

Edited by
Haydee M. Cuevas
Jonathan Velázquez
Andrew R. Dattel
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4724-7515-2 (Hardback)

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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Munoz Cuevas, Haydee, author. | Velazquez, Jonathan, author. |

Dattel, Andrew R., author.
Title: Human factors in practice : concepts and applications / Haydee M. Cuevas,
Jonathan Velazquez, Andrew Dattel.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis
imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F
Informa, plc, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017012378 | ISBN 9781472475152 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315587370 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Human engineering.
Classification: LCC T59.7 .M855 2017 | DDC 620.8/2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017012378

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
This book is dedicated to the many past pioneers and current leaders
in the field of human factors. Their accomplishments have and will
continue to inspire us to achieve greatness in our own research.
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contents
Foreword....................................................................................................................ix
Editors........................................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii

Chapter 1 Editors’ Introduction.............................................................................1

Haydee M. Cuevas, Jonathan Velázquez, and Andrew R. Dattel

Section I  Operator-Specific Considerations

Chapter 2 Senses in Action....................................................................................7

Lauren Reinerman-Jones, Julian Abich, and Grace Teo

Chapter 3 Cognition in Action............................................................................. 23

Shanqing Yin

Chapter 4 Measuring Human Performance in the Field...................................... 37

Igor Dolgov, Elizabeth K. Kaltenbach, Ahmed S. Khalaf,
and Zachary O. Toups

Chapter 5 Situation Awareness in Sociotechnical Systems................................. 55

Nathan Lau and Ronald Boring

Section II  System and Environmental Considerations

Chapter 6 Automation in Sociotechnical Systems............................................... 73

Stephen Rice and Rian Mehta

Chapter 7 User-Centered Design in Practice....................................................... 89

Raegan M. Hoeft and Debbie Ashmore

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 8 Workspace Design............................................................................. 107

Caroline Joseph

Chapter 9 Training Design................................................................................. 123

Joseph R. Keebler, Elizabeth H. Lazzara,
and Deborah DiazGranados

Section III  Putting Human Factors into Practice

Chapter 10 Looking Ahead: Human Factors in Sociotechnical Systems............ 139

Dan Nathan-Roberts and David Schuster

Index....................................................................................................................... 155
Foreword
I write this Foreword with a great deal of delight and humility. I am delighted to
have the opportunity to introduce readers to a number of up-and-coming stars of our
profession who write elegantly about our field. I am humbled by their willingness to
ask me to write the Foreword.
Although a number of books providing an overview of human factors/ergonomics
are available on the market, this one is unique—in two very different ways. First, one
of the goals of this book is to highlight the work of early career professionals. The
bright young minds who edited the book and authored the chapters were all within
10 years of earning their degrees when beginning this endeavor. This gives a voice
to a fresh and more modern perspective on many topics within the field.
Second, this book is targeted at practitioners. That is, the book is not designed to
be appealing to academics as an intellectual exercise, as many texts of this sort are.
Rather, it is designed to illustrate how theories, principles, and concepts have been
applied in a number of different domains. To that end, each chapter follows the same
structure, with an introduction followed by fundamentals, methods, application of
the methods, and future trends. In addition to the reference list, they also provide a
list of key terms.
The book opens with a brief overview of human factors, followed by a descrip-
tion of our sensory modalities and our information processing capabilities. The book
then describes methods for measuring human performance, which are key to under-
standing whether our designs will improve or hinder performance. For example,
the chapter on situation awareness describes the challenges in using measurement
techniques to understand the extent to which individuals are able to interpret the
information they are receiving at any given time to assess the current situation and
make decisions based on that assessment. The following chapter, on automation, also
illustrates the difficulties in applying standard measurement techniques in deciding
what level of automation could, or should, be used for a given system.
From there, the book goes on to explore the history of user-centered design,
which initially developed out of work in the 1980s on human–computer interaction.
This work, which was being done in psychology and computer science departments,
morphed into the field currently known as user experience. The book then discusses
the design of the workspace within which those humans and systems interact, with a
focus on the individual, physical, psychosocial, and environmental factors that affect
performance.
Within any application domain, it is important to be able to train users of the
systems. The chapter on training design discusses what practitioners must know to
develop, implement, and validate their organization’s training programs. Finally, the
book concludes with a look at a higher level of analysis, with a focus on sociotechni-
cal systems, also known as macroergonomics.

ix
x Foreword

Taken together, these chapters provide an introduction to many of the most impor-
tant concepts in our field. I hope you enjoy reading it and find the guidance provided
by the authors useful and applicable to your work.

Deborah A. Boehm-Davis
Dean of the College of Humanities and Social Sciences
George Mason University
Editors
Haydee M. Cuevas, PhD, is an assistant professor in the College of Aviation, School
of Graduate Studies at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach,
Florida. Prior to joining Embry-Riddle, she worked for over seven years as a research
scientist at SA Technologies, Inc. She earned her PhD in applied experimental and
human factors psychology from the University of Central Florida.

Jonathan Velázquez, PhD, is an associate professor and assessment coordinator for

the Inter American University of Puerto Rico. He earned his PhD in aviation from
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University and a master’s in educational arts in univer-
sity teaching from the Inter American University of Puerto Rico.

Andrew R. Dattel, PhD, is an assistant professor in the College of Aviation,

School of Graduate Studies at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in Daytona
Beach, Florida, where he also is the director of the Cognitive Engineering Research
in Transportation Systems (CERTS) Lab. He earned his PhD in human factors from
Texas Tech University.

xi
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contributors
Julian Abich, PhD, is a senior human factors engineer at Quantum Improvements
Consulting, Inc. He earned his PhD in modeling and simulation from the University
of Central Florida.

Debbie Ashmore, MS, MA, is a senior human factors engineer at Lockheed Martin
Mission Systems and Training in Moorestown, New Jersey, currently supporting
Aegis Modernization Human Systems Integration and the EADGE-T program.
During her time at Lockheed Martin, she has been applying human factors engineer-
ing on efforts for the U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, and U.S. Marines and several com-
mercial aviation and maritime projects. She earned an MS in aeronautical science
and human factors engineering from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University and an
MA in communications from Colorado State University.

Ronald Boring, PhD, is a human factors scientist at Idaho National Laboratory,

where he has worked as principal investigator on research projects for the U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NASA, the U.S. Department of Energy, the
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, the Joint Warfare Analysis Center, and the
Norwegian Research Council.

Deborah DiazGranados, PhD, is an assistant professor in the School of Medicine

of Virginia Commonwealth University. With more than 10 years of research and
consulting experience, she has focused on teamwork, leadership, and team/leader
effectiveness. She earned her PhD in industrial/organizational psychology from the
University of Central Florida.

Igor Dolgov, PhD, is an associate professor of psychology at New Mexico State

University, where he leads the Perception, Action, and Cognition in Mediated,
Artificial, and Natural Environments (PACMANE) Laboratory. He earned his PhD
in psychology (cognition, action, and perception) and arts, media, and engineering
from Arizona State University.

Raegan M. Hoeft, PhD, is the director for Design Interactive’s Federal Solutions divi-
sion. Prior to joining Design Interactive, she spent six years working in the Human-
Centered System Division at Lockheed Martin Mission Systems and Sensors and three
years working at Electronic Ink, a design consulting firm. She earned a PhD in Applied
Experimental and Human Factors Psychology from the University of Central Florida.

Caroline Joseph, PhD, is a professional engineer with a background in both mechanical

and industrial engineering (ergonomics). She previously worked as a safety supervisor
at Mortenson Canada Corporation and has experience in manufacturing, construction,
and research settings. She earned a PhD in industrial engineering with a concentration
in ergonomics from the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York.

xiii
xiv Contributors

Elizabeth K. Kaltenbach, MA, is a user research specialist with Sonos, Inc., with a
background in human factors and engineering psychology. Her interests include
acoustics, networked products, interaction and interface design, human–computer
interaction, trust in automated systems, decision making, human performance, and
video games.

Joseph R. Keebler, PhD, is an assistant professor of human factors and systems at

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. He has over 10 years of experience in con-
ducting experimental and applied research in human factors, with a specific focus
on training and teamwork in military, medical, and consumer domains. He earned
his PhD in applied experimental and human factors psychology from the University
of Central Florida.

Ahmed S. Khalaf, MA, is currently a PhD student in computer science at New

Mexico State University, working under the supervision of Dr. Zachary O. Toups. His
research focuses on developing wearable interface designs to direct agent teams with
adaptive autonomy. He also works as a lecturer at Al-Baha University, Saudi Arabia.

Nathan Lau, PhD, is assistant professor at the Grado Department of Industrial and
Systems Engineering at Virginia Tech. He has published more than 30 research
articles on interface design and human performance for the nuclear, medical, and
petrochemical industries. He earned his PhD from the University of Toronto.

Elizabeth H. Lazzara, PhD, is an assistant professor of human factors and systems

at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. She researches teamwork, team training,
simulation-based training, performance assessment, and training evaluation in high-
stakes domains. She earned her PhD in applied experimental and human factors
psychology from the University of Central Florida.

Rian Mehta, MA, is working toward his PhD in aviation sciences with a special-
ization in human factors from the College of Aeronautics at the Florida Institute of
Technology. He earned a master’s in applied aviation safety. His publication research
areas have focused on consumer perceptions and cockpit configurations.

Dan Nathan-Roberts, PhD, is an assistant professor in industrial and systems engi-

neering at San José State University. His research is focused on human–computer
interaction and ergonomics. He earned his PhD in industrial and operations engi-
neering from the University of Michigan.

Lauren Reinerman-Jones, PhD, is the Director of Prodigy at the University of

Central Florida’s Institute for Simulation and Training, where she leads an inter-
disciplinary team of 35+ focusing on assessment for understanding, improving, and
predicting human performance and system design. She earned her PhD in human
factors psychology from the University of Cincinnati.
Contributors xv

Stephen Rice, PhD, is an associate professor of human factors at Embry-Riddle

Aeronautical University. His research interests include automation, trust, model-
ing, and consumer perceptions. He earned his PhD in aviation psychology from the
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.

David Schuster, PhD, is an assistant professor of psychology at San José State

University. His research centers on understanding individual and shared cognition
in complex environments. He earned his PhD in psychology specializing in applied
experimental and human factors psychology from the University of Central Florida.

Grace Teo, PhD, is a faculty research associate at the University of Central Florida’s
Institute for Simulation and Training focusing on advancing assessment by connect-
ing theory and application with particular attention to closed-loop human–robot
teaming. She earned her PhD in human factors psychology from the University of
Central Florida.

Zachary O. Toups, PhD, is an assistant professor of computer science at New

Mexico State University, directing the Play and Interactive Experiences for Learning
(PIxL) Lab. He earned his PhD in computer science from Texas A&M University.

Shanqing Yin, PhD, is a senior principal human factors specialist at KK Women’s

& Children’s Hospital in Singapore. His current role focuses on the application of
human factors principles and methodologies toward improving patient safety as well
as clinical efficiency. He earned a BSc in psychology from the University of Illinois
at Urbana–Champaign and a PhD in Human Factors & Systems Engineering from
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
http://taylorandfrancis.com
 1 Editors’ Introduction
Haydee M. Cuevas, Jonathan Velázquez,
and Andrew R. Dattel

Simply stated, the field of human factors facilitates the interactions between humans
and technology. More formally, human factors, frequently used interchangeably with
the term ergonomics, can be defined as “the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and
the profession that applies theory, principles, data, and other methods to design in
order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance” (International
Ergonomics Association, 2017). Human factors traces its origins to World War II
(WWII), when advanced instruments were being installed in complex aircraft and
continues to be a critical component for promoting human performance in complex
domains (for a brief retrospective, see Roscoe, 1997).
World War I brought a need for sophisticated technology and equipment.
Although many advances during this period were made in aeromedical research,
testing, and measurement, prior to WWII, the focus was on designing the human
to fit the machine instead of designing the machine to fit the human. After WWII,
technological advances focused more attention on the human element and design-
ing for people’s capabilities and limitations. The decades following WWII saw a
prolific array of military-­sponsored and academic research. This newfound interest
in human factors brought forth advancements in our understanding of the factors
influencing performance, r­anging from human error and safety to team dynamics
and organizational culture. Indeed, programs such as Crew Resource Management
and Safety Management Systems both have their roots in human factors research
(Velazquez & Bier, 2015).
Human factors practitioners analyze the factors (e.g., human information process-
ing, situation awareness, mental models, workload and fatigue, human error) that
influence decision making and apply this knowledge to identify potential hindrances
to successful task performance, at both the individual and team level. They also eval-
uate how the design of advanced technology (e.g., automation, unmanned systems)
can improve safety and performance but can also lead to unforeseen consequences,
including changes in operator roles and responsibilities and the nature of their work.
Several books on human factors already exist in the literature (e.g., Helander,
2005; Lehto & Landry, 2012; Proctor & Van Zandt, 2008; Remington, Boehm-
Davis, & Folk, 2012; Salvendy, 2012; Wickens, Gordon-Becker, Liu, & Lee, 2004).
However, these in-depth volumes may be too advanced for the non–human fac-
tors reader and some are targeted at a specific discipline (e.g., aviation, engineer-
ing, human–­computer interaction). In contrast, this edited book provides a succinct
review of fundamental human factors concepts, presented at a level that can be easily

1
2 Human Factors in Practice

understood by practitioners with no prior knowledge or formal education in human

factors.
Thus, our book is targeted at practitioners rather than academics—a resource to
be read at the workplace rather than used as a textbook in the classroom. The goal
is to illustrate the authors’ diverse perspectives on the application of human factors
to address real-world problems across a variety of domains. The multidisciplinary
background of the authors and the range of topics discussed are intended to increase
the usefulness of this book to a wide audience of practitioners.
All chapters in this book address a common overarching theme (application of
human factors theories, principles, and concepts to tackle real-world problems) and
follow a similar structure (with the exception of the concluding chapter) to ensure
consistency across chapters. The major sections in each chapter are listed in Table 1.1.
The chapters in this book are organized into two major parts. Section I focuses on
operator-specific considerations and is comprised of four chapters: Senses in Action,
Cognition in Action, Measuring Human Performance in the Field, and Situation
Awareness in Sociotechnical Systems. Section II addresses system and environmen-
tal considerations and is comprised of four chapters: Automation in Sociotechnical
Systems, User-Centered Design in Practice, Workspace Design, and Training Design.
Our book concludes with Section III, a broader perspective on human factors in

TABLE 1.1
Chapter Section, Description, and Question Answered
Section Description Question Answered
Introduction Concise description of the topic’s importance Why should I care?
and relevance to the real world.
Fundamentals Discussion of relevant human factors concepts, What do I need to know?
theories, and principles.
Methods Description of relevant human factors methods What tools can I use?
as well as guidance on useful resources to
obtain more detailed information.
Application Using a case study approach, this section will How can human factors solve
succinctly demonstrate the application of the some of these real-world
human factors concepts presented in the problems?
Fundamentals section to address the current
real-world problems described in the
Introduction.
Future Trends Implications for future research in this area as What is trending/what is next in
well as new domains to be explored. this area?
Conclusion Succinct wrap-up of the chapter. What is the take-home message?
References List of all references cited. Who/what are your sources?
Key Terms List of 6–10 key terms and definitions to What human factors concepts did
enhance the reader’s understanding of the I learn?
chapter’s content.
Editors’ Introduction 3

sociotechnical systems. Two appendices at the end of Chapter 10 provide useful tips
and supplemental resources for the human factors practitioner.
Human factors remains a multidisciplinary profession and is likely to spread to
new occupations as complex technology becomes more ubiquitous across domains.
Today, individuals from a variety of fields such as psychology, engineering, and com-
puter science can apply these skills to improve how people interact with systems and
services. We hope you will find this book useful by providing practical informa-
tion about human factors concepts relevant to the types of real-world problems you
encounter in your work.

REFERENCES
Helander, M. (2005). A guide to human factors and ergonomics (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press-Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 9780415282482.
International Ergonomics Association (IEA). (2017). What is ergonomics? Retrieved from
http://www.iea.cc/whats/index.html
Lehto, M. R., & Landry, S. J. (2012). Introduction to human factors and ergonomics for
engineers (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press-Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN
9781439853948.
Proctor, R. W., & Van Zandt, T. (2008). Human factors in simple and complex systems (2nd
ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press-Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN: 978-0805841190.
Remington, R. W., Boehm-Davis, D. A., & Folk, C. L. (2012). Introduction to humans in engi-
neered systems. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-0470548752.
Roscoe, S. N. (1997). The adolescence of engineering psychology. In S. M. Casey (Ed.).
Human factors history monograph series (Vol. 1, pp. 1–9). Retrieved from http://www​
.hfes.org/Web/PubPages/adolescence.pdf
Salvendy, G. (Ed.) (2012). Handbook of human factors and ergonomics (4th ed.). Hoboken,
NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-0-470-52838-9.
Velazquez, J., & Bier, N. (2015). SMS and CRM: Parallels and opposites in their evolution.
Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education & Research, 24(2), 55–78.
Wickens, C. D., Gordon-Becker, S. E., Liu, Y., & Lee, J. D. (2004). An introduction to human
factors engineering (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ISBN:
978-0131837362.
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Section I
Operator-Specific Considerations
http://taylorandfrancis.com
 2 Senses in Action
Lauren Reinerman-Jones,
Julian Abich, and Grace Teo

CONTENTS
Introduction.................................................................................................................7
Fundamentals..............................................................................................................8
What Are the Senses?.............................................................................................8
Sight (Vision, Ophthalmoception).....................................................................9
Hearing (Audition, Audioception)..................................................................... 9
Touch (Somatosensation, Tactition, Mechanoreception, Kinesthesia,
Tactioception)....................................................................................................9
Smell (Olfaction, Olfacoception).................................................................... 10
Taste (Gustation, Gustaoception).................................................................... 10
Additional Senses............................................................................................ 10
Senses in Human Performance Theory................................................................ 11
Theory of Information Processing................................................................... 12
Theories of Attention and Mental Resources.................................................. 12
Signal Detection Theory.................................................................................. 13
Change Detection............................................................................................ 14
Grouping Principles......................................................................................... 14
Methods..................................................................................................................... 15
Subjective............................................................................................................. 15
Objective.............................................................................................................. 16
Application................................................................................................................ 17
Holographs Displays............................................................................................ 18
Human–Robot Teaming....................................................................................... 18
Future Trends............................................................................................................ 19
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 19
References.................................................................................................................20
Key Terms.................................................................................................................20

INTRODUCTION
In one way or another, human factors specialists and researchers are either directly
or indirectly assessing the human senses in order to determine the optimal ways
of designing a system or device that will meet the limitations of those senses or
help expand them beyond their natural state. For example, mobile devices are one
of the most common forms of global technology. Many mobile device companies
have leveraged the guidelines and principles from the human factors discipline to

7
8 Human Factors in Practice

determine the physical size and shape of the device, how and where icons should
appear on the device, the types of feedback presented to the user, and a multitude
of other important questions that helps inform the most efficient, effective, and safe
ways of interacting with the device. All of the answers to these questions require an
understanding of how the human senses work, what their limitations are, and how to
get the most out of them in terms of attention and information processing.

FUNDAMENTALS
The traditional approach to understanding the human senses concentrated on five
primary senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Extensive research has found
that many more senses actually exist, and each has its own mechanisms through
which we perceive the world and ourselves. Some senses focus on external stimuli,
such as perceiving temperature, while others are geared to internal responses, such
as hunger. Some would argue we have more than 20 distinct senses. The first part
of this chapter, “What Are the Senses?” will first focus on a brief overview of
the five basic senses and touch upon the many others that have been identified.
Next, “Senses in Human Performance Theory” describes the theoretical contribu-
tion of the senses in regard to human information processing and performance.
Following, the Method section takes a human factors approach to describing assess-
ments of the senses in terms of human performance. Finally, the chapter presents a
couple of examples illustrating human factors applications geared toward assessing
the senses.

What Are the Senses?

Aristotle is credited with traditional classification of the five sense organs. Humans
have five main sense organs: eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue, which have evolved
over time to preserve and protect the species. It is through receptors in these sense
organs that stimuli are transformed to signals, either chemical, electrical, neurologi-
cal, or a combination thereof, and transmitted to the brain for further processing. It
is within the brain that meaning is associated with these signals. In other words, the
information out in the world is quite meaningless until a human interprets it in a way
that can be used in a meaningful way. The stimuli can usually be quantified objec-
tively without human assistance, but it is in the brain that quality is associated with
the signal. It is a phenomenon that occurs in most cases to preserve the species and
assist with human evolution. For example, the concentration of sugar in a fruit juice
can be measured by determining the ratio of sugar to water in a specified amount
of juice extracted from a fruit, but determining whether it is sweet requires the ratio
to exceed a threshold that a human will register as sweet after the concentration has
triggered a response in the brain. The concentration is quantifiable, but the sweetness
is assessed qualitatively.
Let us now turn to each of the five main human senses and discuss each indi-
vidually. We are not going to delve into great detail about the anatomical structures
or process through which stimuli are converted into brain signals since there are a
plethora of textbooks that explain this more eloquently. Instead, we shall focus more
Senses in Action 9

on making sure we have a common understanding of the senses in order to discuss

them from a human factors perspective. We will end this section with a quick refer-
ence to other body senses that have been identified over the past decades.

Sight (Vision, Ophthalmoception)

Sight is the most dominant sense, with about 80% of cortical neurons responding
to stimulation of the eyes. It refers to the ability to capture, perceive, identify, and
discriminate images and colors through the eyes. When a stimulus in the environ-
ment is attended to, the image is projected through multiple layers and fluid in the
eye onto the retina (the back lining of the eye that contains light-sensitive receptors
and other neurons). The dominant neurons that line the retina consist of two photo-
receptors: rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to light, do not distinguish colors, and
are in higher abundance than cones (approximately 120 million). Cones are sensitive
to color, are much more concentrated in an area called the macula (the center of
which is called the fovea centralis and does not contain rods), and are more scarce
than rods (approximately 6 to 7 million). Through transduction (conversion from one
form of energy to another), the neurons that line the retina transform the external
image into an electrical signal. This activation sets off a network of interconnected
neurons that communicate with each other to send this electrical signal to the visual
processing areas of the brain through the optic nerve (the head of which is called the
optic disk and is considered the blind spot of the eye because it does not contain any
photoreceptors).

Hearing (Audition, Audioception)

Hearing refers to the ability to capture, perceive, identify, and discriminate sounds.
Sounds waves are funneled in by the outer ear (pinna) and travel through the ear
canal to the ear drum, where they are transformed into mechanical vibrations. These
vibrations travel through the hearing bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) in the middle
ear to the fluid-filled chambers of the inner ear (cochlea). The cochlea contains the
sensory hearing cells, the primary two being the outer and inner hair cells. The outer
hair cells soften or amplify sounds while the inner hair cells transfer sound infor-
mation to the auditory nerve, which then transfers this information to the various
regions of the brain that process sound.

Touch (Somatosensation, Tactition, Mechanoreception,

Kinesthesia, Tactioception)
Touch refers to the ability to capture, perceive, identify, and discriminate physical
sensations. The skin contains about 5 million receptors and is the primary organ
through which the sense of touch begins. As an external stimulus comes in con-
tact with the skin (epidermis and dermis), mechanoreceptors (sensory neurons)
transform mechanical stimulation (pressure, stretching, vibration) into an electrical
signal that is transmitted through the peripheral nervous system to the central ner-
vous system (brain and spinal cord), where a response to the stimulus is generated
and sent back to the muscles through motor neurons. Four main mechanoreceptors
are found in the skin: Merkel receptor, Meissner corpuscle, Ruffini cylinder, and
Pacinian corpuscle.
10 Human Factors in Practice

Other mechanoreceptors called nociceptors are responsible for the sensation of

pain and are more than just the overloading of sensors. Some respond to extreme
temperatures (thermal nociceptors), chemical irritants (chemical nociceptors), or
excessive pressure (mechanical nociceptors). Nociceptors are also found within the
body (bones, joints, organs) and account for internal pain sensation.
Most touch sensory information travels to the brain, but at times, where an imme-
diate response is needed to avoid injury, the spinal cord can send a motor signal to
the muscles directly. This is referred to as the Spinal Reflex Arc, which is a reflexive
response from the spinal cord to information received from the nociceptors that con-
stitute an immediate response. These are generally triggered by nociceptors (pain
sensors).

Smell (Olfaction, Olfacoception)

Smell refers to the ability to capture, perceive, identify, and discriminate smells or
scents. Smell is one of two chemical senses (the other is taste). Unlike sight, hearing,
and touch, which all are results of nerve endings responding to stimuli, chemical
senses are unique in that they require the body to take in molecules. These senses
are sometimes referred to as “gatekeepers” because they protect the body by distin-
guishing among potential harmful substances. As odorant molecules pass into the
nose, the molecules encounter the olfactory mucosa (where the olfactory sensory
neurons and receptors are located). When an odorant molecule binds with a receptor
(and there are over 350 different types), just like the other senses, the information is
transformed into an electrical signal that activates the sensory neurons. The signal
then reaches the olfactory bulb (which is part of the brain), where it accumulates
signals from many neurons and then transmits them to the other olfactory processing
areas within the brain. Again, it is within the brain that we are able to make sense of
the signal to recognize and identify odors.

Taste (Gustation, Gustaoception)

Taste refers to the ability to capture, perceive, identify, and discriminate flavors.
This is the second chemical sense as described before when discussing olfaction.
A substance first comes in contact with the tongue, which is covered with small
bumps called papillae. These papillae are found on the tongue, palate, and epiglottis.
It is within three of the four types of papillae that the taste buds lie (about 10,000 of
them). Each taste bud contains about 50–100 taste cells, which have pores (recep-
tor sites). When these sites are activated by chemical substances, a transformed
electrical signal is generated and transmitted through many different nerves from
the tongue to many areas in the brain, even some that share connections with the
olfactory pathway. The taste buds allow us to detect sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and
umami (a Japanese term that has no direct synonym in the English language but is
described as “savory”).

Additional Senses
The five senses model is the one often taught in school, but many psychologists,
philosophers, and physiologists purport many more. Some argue that humans have
Senses in Action 11

some 20+ senses and more yet to be discovered. Here are some commonly accepted
additional senses.

• Proprioception: awareness of the body parts and in relation to each other

• Equilibrioception: Sense of balance. Vestibular system. Although this may
not have much to do with hearing, it does have to do with a combination of
the sight, inner ear, and various body senses (e.g., proprioception, tension
sensors, etc.)
• Tension sensation: monitor muscle tension
• Stretch reception: sense dilation of blood vessels, often involved in
headaches
• Chemoreception: the medulla detects blood-borne hormones and drugs,
and is involved in vomit reflex
• Magnetoreception: Ability to detect magnetic fields. Fairly weak in humans,
but do have some sense of magnetic fields
• Time: Debated because no single mechanism found that allows humans to
perceive time. What little we know about this makes it difficult to assess
how perception of time affects human performance, especially during high
stress and long duration tasks

Senses in Human Performance Theory

Immanuel Kant: Our knowledge of the outside world is dependent on our modes of
perception. Sensation and perception are interrelated processes that work together
to allow humans to extract or append meaning to external and internal stimuli
(Goldstein, 2007). Sensation refers to the accumulation and processing of informa-
tion from stimuli (physical and imaginative) that impinge on the sense receptors.
This information is sent to the brain for perceptual processing to take place, but the
sensation alone cannot effectively drive human performance. It is the perception of
the sensation that contributes to the meaning and action of human behavior.
Perception refers to the conscious experience generated from the interaction
among the processed sensation and the brain’s neural network. It is the way we inter-
pret the sensations and gives way for recognition to occur. If a fire alarm is triggered,
the raw sound that is heard does not mean anything except it is a loud noise that
may be bothersome. The perceptual process is where the meaning of the sound is
connected, such as “a fire is present and I need to leave the building.” This mean-
ing can be gathered from information from the signal itself and is built up from the
components of the signal or other related signals, such as people running toward an
exit. This is referred to as bottom–up processing. Conversely, if the signal sent from
the sensory receptors is diminished, then previous experience, knowledge, or expec-
tations may help determine what the signal means. This is referred to as top–down
processing. Both are important aspects of human information processing that affect
human performance. Taking into account the concepts of sensation and perception,
some human factors theories and models have been proposed to designate their
roles in supporting human performance.
12 Human Factors in Practice

Many human factors interaction models have been proposed, each having their
merits, but the essential components in all of them involve a closed-loop system
between a human and a system or machine. Information is processed through the
human sensory systems which inform the appropriate action to be taken. The human
then takes action on a system, the system processes that action and displays the
results, closing the loop and providing the human with sensory information and thus
the cycle repeats until a goal is achieved. These models clearly illustrate the impor-
tance of the human sensory system to initiate or facilitate this sequence of inter-
actions. Without acquisition of information from the environment (or internally),
cognitive processing would literally be senseless. The following section will focus
on describing some human performance models and theories and the role the human
sensory systems play to support efficient, safe, and successful interactions.

Theory of Information Processing

The Human Information Processing model (for full description, see Wickens
& Hollands, 2000) integrates commonly agreed upon structures for information
processing gathered from extensive research and it provides a useful framework
for performance prediction. This closed-loop model does not designate a speci-
fied starting point because information processing could occur at any state, such
as in response to an environmental stimulus or from voluntary activation. For the
purposes here, we will focus on information processing with respect to sensory
stimulation.
As described in the previous section covering the human senses, the receptors
capture and transform stimulus information into a message (neural activation) that
is processed through sensory pathways to processing centers in the body where per-
ception occurs. Each sense has an associated storage capacity and duration (termed
short-term memory store) that indicates how long information could be retained by
the sensory receptors. The allocation of attentional resources to the signals gener-
ated by the sensory receptors determines which information is further processed,
but the quality of information to be transmitted greatly depends on the receptor’s
capabilities to capture stimulus information, which in turn affects the level of atten-
tion allocated to a stimulus.

Theories of Attention and Mental Resources

Humans have limited attentional capacity and resources. It is self-evident by the
inability to attend to every single conversation in a crowded area. It is therefore
important for a human to attend to the most important information presented in the
environment, but this poses a challenge as well because attention to more than one
source of information may be necessary or a salient signal may be distracting.
Resource theory suggests that humans have a single-pool of undifferentiated
resources available to support information processing and humans are limited in
their capacity to process information (Kahneman, 1973). However, there is flexibil-
ity in the ways that these resources are distributed to meet the demands of a task.
The Multiple Resources Theory takes this a step further and suggests that there
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 COMPÔTE OF BARBERRIES FOR DESSERT.

When this fruit is first ripe it requires, from its excessive acidity,
nearly its weight of sugar to render it palatable; but after hanging
some time upon the trees it becomes much mellowed in flavour, and
may be sufficiently sweetened with a smaller proportion. According
to the state of the fruit then, take for each pound (leaving it in
bunches) from twelve to sixteen ounces of sugar, and boil it with
three-quarters of a pint of water until it forms a syrup. Throw in the
bunches of fruit, and simmer them for five or six minutes. If their
weight of sugar be used, they will become in that time perfectly
transparent. As all vessels of tin affect the colour of the barberries,
they should be boiled in a copper stewpan, or in a German
enamelled one, which would be far better.
Barberries, 1 lb.; sugar, 12 to 16 oz.; water, 3/4 pint; fruit simmered
in syrup, 5 to 6 minutes.
 BLACK CAPS PAR EXCELLENCE.

(For the Second-course, or for Dessert.)

Cut a dozen fine Norfolk biffins in two without paring them, scoop
out the cores, and fill the cavities with thin strips of fresh lemon-rind
and with candied orange-peel. Cover the bottom of a flat shallow tin
with a thick layer of fine pale brown sugar, press the two halves of
each apple together, and place them closely in the tin; pour half a
bottle of raisin or of any other sweet wine over them, and be careful
to moisten the tops of all; sift white sugar thickly on them, and set the
tin into a very hot oven at first, that the outsides of the apples may
catch or become black; then draw them to the mouth of the oven,
and bake them gently until they are soft quite through. The Norfolk
biffin answers for this dish far better than any other kind of apple, but
the winter queening, and some few firm sorts beside, can be used
for it with fair success. These for variety may be cored without being
divided, and filled with orange marmalade. The black caps served
hot, as a second-course dish, are excellent.
Norfolk biffins, 12; rinds fresh lemons, 1 to 2; candied orange-rind,
2 to 3 oz.; pale brown sugar, 3/4 lb.; raisin or other wine, 1/2 bottle;
little sifted sugar: 3/4 to 1 hour, or more.
Obs.—The apples dressed as above resemble a rich confection,
and will remain good for ten days or a fortnight; sometimes much
longer even. The receipt is an admirable one.
 GATEAU DE POMMES.

Boil together for fifteen minutes a pound of well-refined sugar and

half a pint of water; then add a couple of pounds of nonsuches, or of
any other finely-flavoured apples which can be boiled easily to a
smooth pulp, and the juice of a couple of small, or of one very large
lemon. Stew these gently until the mixture is perfectly free from
lumps, then boil it quickly, keeping it stirred, without quitting it, until it
forms a very thick and dry marmalade. A few minutes before it is
done add the finely grated rinds of a couple of lemons; when it
leaves the bottom of the preserving-pan visible and dry, press it into
moulds of tasteful form; and either store it for winter use, or if wanted
for table, serve it plain for rice-crust, or ornament it with spikes of
blanched almonds, and pour a custard round it for a second-course
dish (entremets).
Sugar, 1 lb.; water, 1/2 pint: 15 minutes. Nonsuches or other
apples, 2 lbs.; juice, 1 large or 2 small lemons: 2 hours or more.
 GATEAU OF MIXED FRUITS. (GOOD.)

Extract the juice from some fresh red currants by simmering them
very gently for a few minutes over a slow fire: strain it through a
folded muslin, and to one pound of it add a pound and a half of
nonsuches or of freshly gathered codlings, pared, and rather deeply
cored, that the fibrous part of the apple may be avoided. Boil these
quite slowly until the mixture is perfectly smooth, then, to evaporate
part of the moisture, let the boiling be quickened. In from twenty-five
to thirty minutes draw the pan from the fire, and throw in gradually a
pound and a quarter of sugar in fine powder: mix it well with the fruit,
and when it is dissolved continue the boiling rapidly for twenty
minutes longer, keeping the mixture constantly stirred; put it into a
mould, and store it, when cold, for winter use, or serve it for rice-
crust, or for the second course: in the latter case decorate it with
spikes of blanched almonds, or pistachio-nuts, and heap solid
whipped cream round it, or pour a custard into the dish. For rice-
crust it may be garnished with dice of the palest apple-jelly.
Juice of red currants, 1 lb.; nonsuches, or codlings (pared and
cored), 1-1/2 lb.: 25 to 30 minutes. Sugar, 1-1/2 lb.: 20 minutes.
Obs.—A portion of raspberries, if still in season, may be mixed
with the currants for this gâteau, should the flavour be liked.
For other and excellent varieties of gâteaux of fruit, see Newton
solid, and damson solid, Chapter XXIV. Ripe peaches and
nonsuches will likewise do well for it. Codlings answer perfectly for
the preceding receipt, and the preparation is of fine colour and very
pleasant flavour: it ought to cut in clear firm slices. Other varieties of
fruit can be mingled in the same manner.
 JELLIES.

CALF’S FEET JELLY. (ENTREMETS.)

We hear inexperienced
housekeepers frequently
complain of the difficulty of
rendering this jelly perfectly
transparent; but by mixing with
the other ingredients, while quite
cold, the whites, and the
crushed shells of a sufficient
number of eggs, and allowing
the head of scum which gathers
on the jelly to remain Modern Jelly Mould.
undisturbed after it once forms,
they will scarcely fail to obtain it
clear. It should be strained through a thick flannel, or beaver-skin,
bag of a conical form (placed before the fire, should the weather be
at all cold, or the mixture will jelly before it has run through), and if
not perfectly clear it must be strained, again and again, until it
becomes so; though we generally find that once suffices. Mix
thoroughly in a large stewpan five half-pints of strong calf’s feet stock
(see page 453), a full pint of sherry, half a pound of sugar roughly
powdered, the juice of two fine lemons, the rind of one and a half cut
very thin, the whites and shells of four large eggs, and half an ounce
of isinglass. Let these remain a few minutes off the fire, that the
sugar may dissolve more easily; then let the jelly be brought to boil
gradually, and do not stir it after it begins to heat. When it has boiled
gently for sixteen minutes, draw it from the fire, and let it stand a
short time before it is poured into a jelly-bag, under which a bowl
should be placed to receive it. When clear and cool, put it into
moulds which have been laid for some hours in water: these should
always be of earthenware in preference to metal. If to be served in
glasses, or roughed, the jelly will be sufficiently firm without the
isinglass, of which, however, we recommend a small quantity to be
thrown in always when the jelly begins to boil, as it facilitates the
clearing.
Calf’s feet stock, 2-1/2 pints; sugar, 1/2 lb.; sherry, 1 pint; juice of
lemons, 2 large; rind of 1-1/2; whites and shells of eggs, 4 large, or 5
small: 16 minutes.
Obs. 1.—After the jelly has dropped through the bag, an
exceedingly agreeable beverage may be obtained by pouring in
some boiling water; from one to three half pints, according to the
quantity of jelly which has been made. The same plan should be
pursued in making orange or lemon jelly for an invalid.
Obs. 2.—As it is essential to the transparency of calf’s feet jelly of
all kinds that the whole of the ingredients should be quite cold when
they are mixed, and as the stock can only be measured in a liquid
state, to which it must be reduced by heating, the better plan is, to
measure it when it is first strained from the feet, and to put apart the
exact quantity required for a receipt; but when this has not been
done, and it is necessary to liquefy it, it must be left until quite cold
again before it is used. For the manner of preparing and clarifying it,
see the beginning of this chapter.
 ANOTHER RECEIPT FOR CALF’S FEET JELLY.

To four calf’s feet well cleaned and divided, pour a gallon of water
and let them stew until it is reduced to rather less than two quarts; or
if, after the flesh has quite fallen from the bones, the liquor on being
strained off should exceed that quantity, reduce it by rapid boiling in
a clean uncovered pan over a very clear fire. When it is perfectly firm
and cold, take it clear of fat and sediment, and add to it a bottle of
sherry, which should be of good quality (for poor, thin wines are not
well adapted to the purpose), three-quarters of a pound of sugar
broken small, the juice of five large or of six moderate-sized lemons,
and the whites, with the shells finely crushed, of seven eggs, or of
more should they be very small. The rinds of three lemons, pared
exceedingly thin, may be thrown into the jelly a few minutes before it
is taken from the fire; or they may be put into the jelly-bag previously
to its being poured through, when they will impart to it a slight and
delicate flavour, without deepening its colour much. If it is to be
moulded, something more than half an ounce of isinglass should be
dropped lightly in where the liquid becomes visible through the head
of scum, when the mixture begins to boil; for if not sufficiently firm, it
will break when it is dished. It may be roughed, or served in glasses
without this addition; and in a liquid state will be found an admirable
ingredient for Oxford, or other punch.
Calf’s feet, 4; water, 1 gallon: to be reduced more than half.
Sherry, 1 bottle; sugar, 3/4 lb. (more to taste); juice of 5 large
lemons, or of six moderate-sized; whites and shells of 7 eggs, or
more if small; rinds of lemons, 3 (for moulding, nearly 3/4 oz. of
isinglass): 15 to 20 minutes.
Obs.—An excellent and wholesome jelly for young people may be
made with good orange or raisin wine, instead of sherry; to either of
these the juice of three or four oranges, with a small portion of the
rind, may be added instead of part of the lemons.
 MODERN VARIETIES OF CALF’S FEET JELLY.

In modern cookery a number of excellent jellies are made with the

stock of calves’ feet, variously flavoured. Many of them are
compounded entirely without wine, a small quantity of some fine
liqueur being used as a substitute; and sometimes cinnamon, or
vanilla, or Seville orange-rind with a slight portion of acid, takes
place of this. For aristocratic tables, indeed, it is the present fashion
to serve them very lightly and delicately flavoured. Their cost is thus
materially diminished. Fresh strawberries dropped into clear calf’s
feet jelly just before it sets, impart a delicious fragrance to it, when
they are of a choice kind; and other fruit is mingled with it often; but
none has so good an effect, though many sorts when tastefully
employed give an excellent appearance to it. The Belgrave mould, of
which the description will be found at page 470, is well adapted for
highly ornamental jellies; and we recommend its adoption for this
class of dishes.
 APPLE CALF’S FEET JELLY.

Pour a quart of prepared apple-juice (see page 456), on a pound

of fresh apples pared and cored, and simmer them until they are well
broken; strain the juice, and let it stand until cold; then measure, and
put a pint and a half of it into a stewpan with a quart of calf’s feet
stock (see page 453), nine ounces of sugar broken small, or roughly
pounded, the juice of two fine lemons, and the thin rinds of one and
a half, with the whites and shells of eight eggs. Let it boil gently for
ten minutes, then strain it through a flannel-bag, and when cool put it
into moulds. It will be very clear, and firm, and of pleasant flavour.
Apples of good quality should be used for it, and the quantity of
sugar must be regulated by the time of year, as the fruit will have lost
much of its acidity during the latter part of the season. This receipt,
which is the result of our own experiment, and which we have found
very successful, was first tried just after Christmas, with pearmains
and Ripstone pippins. A little syrup of preserved ginger, or a small
glass of fine white brandy, would, perhaps, to some tastes, improve
the jelly; but we give it simply as we have had it proved ourselves.
Prepared apple juice, 1 quart; fresh apples, 1 lb.: 1/2 to 3/4 hour.
Strained juice, 1-1/2 pint; calf’s feet stock, 1 quart; sugar, 9 oz.; juice
of lemons, 2; rind of 1-1/2; whites and shells of eggs, 8: 10 minutes.
Obs.—We would recommend the substitution of quinces for
apples in this receipt as likely to afford a very agreeable variety of
the jelly: or equal portions of the two fruits might answer well. Unless
the stock be very stiff, add isinglass to this, as to the calf’s feet jelly,
when it is to be moulded.
 ORANGE CALF’S FEET JELLY.

(Author’s Receipt.)
To a pint and a half of firm calf’s feet stock, put a pint of strained
China-orange juice mixed with that of one or two lemons; add to
these six ounces of sugar, broken small, the very thin rinds of three
oranges and one lemon, and the whites of six eggs with half the
shells crushed small. Stir these gently over a clear fire until the head
of scum begins to form, but not at all afterwards. Simmer the jelly for
ten minutes from the first full boil; take it from the fire, let it stand a
little, then pour it through a jelly-bag until perfectly clear. This is an
original, and entirely new receipt, which we can recommend to the
reader, the jelly being very pale, beautifully transparent, and delicate
in flavour: it would, we think, be peculiarly acceptable to such
invalids as are forbidden to take wine in any form.
The proportions both of sugar and of lemon-juice must be
somewhat varied according to the season in which the oranges are
used.
Strong calf’s feet stock, 1-1/2 pint; strained orange-juice, mixed
with a small portion of lemon-juice, 1 pint; sugar, 6 oz.; rinds of
oranges, 3; of lemon, 1: 10 minutes.
Obs.—A small pinch of isinglass thrown into the jelly when it
begins to boil will much assist to clear it. When the flavour of Seville
oranges is liked, two or three can be used with the sweet ones.
 ORANGE ISINGLASS JELLY.

To render this perfectly transparent the juice of the fruit must be

filtered, and the isinglass clarified; but it is not usual to take so much
trouble for it. Strain as clear as possible, first through a sieve or
muslin, then through a thick cloth or jelly bag, one quart of China
orange-juice, mixed with as much lemon-juice as will give it an
agreeable degree of acidity, or with a small proportion of Seville
orange-juice. Dissolve two ounces and a half of isinglass in a pint of
water, skim it well, throw in half a pound of sugar, and a few strips of
the orange-rind, pour in the orange-juice, stir the whole well together,
skim it clean without allowing it to boil, strain it through a cloth or
through a muslin, many times folded, and when nearly cold put it into
the moulds.[159] This jelly is sometimes made without any water, by
dissolving the isinglass and sugar in the juice of the fruit.
159. In France, orange-jelly is very commonly served in the halved rinds of the
fruit, or in little baskets made as we shall hereafter direct, page 466.

Orange-juice, 1 quart; water, 1 pint; isinglass, 2-1/2 oz.; sugar, 1/2

lb.
 VERY FINE ORANGE JELLY.

(Sussex Place Receipt.)

On two ounces and a half of the finest isinglass, pour a full but an
exact pint of spring water; press down the isinglass and turn it over
until the whole is well moistened; then place it over a gentle fire and
let it dissolve gradually; remove the scum after it has simmered for
two or three minutes, then pour it out, and set it aside to cool. In
another pint of spring water boil a pound of highly refined sugar for
five or six minutes; turn this syrup into a bowl, and when it is only just
warm, throw into it the very thinly pared rinds of two fine lemons, of
two Seville oranges, and of two China oranges, with the juice of five
China, and of two Seville oranges, and of three lemons. When this
mixture is cold, but not beginning to thicken, mix it well with the liquid
isinglass, and strain it through a fine lawn sieve, or through a square
of muslin folded in four; pour it into moulds which have been laid in
cold water, and when wanted for the table, loosen it from them by
wrapping about them, closely, a cloth which has been dipped into
boiling water, and by passing a knife round the edges.
Nothing can be more refined and delicate in flavour than the
above; but the appearance of the jelly may be improved by clarifying
the isinglass, and its colour by boiling the fruit-rinds in the syrup for
three or four minutes, and by leaving them in it until it is strained.
The oranges and lemons, if good, will yield from two-thirds to three-
quarters of a pint of juice, and the quantity of jelly will be sufficient to
fill one large high mould, or two smaller ones which contain about a
pint and a quarter each.
When the isinglass is clarified, allow half an ounce more of it; take
about a teaspoonful of the white of a fresh egg, beat it a little, add
the pint of cold water to it, whisk them together for a minute or two,
and then pour them on the isinglass; stir it occasionally as it is
heating, but not after the head of scum is formed: boil it gently for
two or three minutes, skim, and strain it. The oranges and lemons
should be dipped into fresh water and wiped dry before they are
pared; and should a muslin strainer (that is to say, a large square of
common clean muslin) be used for the jelly, it should be laid after
being washed in the usual manner into plenty of hot water, and then
into cold, and be well rinsed in, and wrung from each.
 ORANGES FILLED WITH JELLY.

This is one of the fanciful

dishes which make a pretty
appearance on a supper table,
and are acceptable when much
variety is desired. Take some
very fine China oranges, and
with the point of a small knife cut
out from the top of each a round
about the size of a shilling; then
with the small end of a tea or an
egg spoon, empty them entirely,
taking great care not to break
the rinds. Throw these into cold
water, and make jelly of the juice, which must be well pressed from
the pulp, and strained as clear as possible. Colour one half a fine
rose colour with prepared cochineal, and leave the other very pale;
when it is nearly cold, drain and wipe the orange rinds, and fill them
with alternate stripes of the two jellies; when they are perfectly cold
cut them into quarters, and dispose them tastefully in a dish with a
few light branches of myrtle between them. Calf’s feet or any other
variety of jelly, or different blancmanges, may be used at choice to fill
the rinds; the colours, however, should contrast as much as possible.
 TO MAKE ORANGE BASKETS FOR JELLY.

The oranges for these should be large. First, mark the handle of
the basket evenly across the stalk end of the fruit with the back of a
small knife, or with a silver one, and let it be quite half an inch wide;
then trace a line across from one end of the handle to the other
exactly in the middle of the orange, and when the other side is
marked in the same way, cut just through the rind with the point of a
penknife, being careful not to pierce the fruit itself; next, with a tea or
dessertspoon, take of the quartered rind on either side of the handle;
pass a penknife under the handle itself; work the point of a spoon
gently between the orange and the basket, until they are separated
in every part; then take the fruit between the thumb and fingers, and
press it carefully out through one of the spaces on either side of the
handle.
Baskets thus made may be filled with any of the jellies of which the
receipts are given here: but they should be nearly cold before they
are poured in; and they ought also to be very clear. Some of the
baskets may be filled with ratifias, and dished alternately with those
which contain the jelly.
 LEMON CALF’S FEET JELLY.

Break up a quart of strong calf’s feet stock, which should have

been measured while in a liquid state; let it be quite clear of fat and
sediment, for which a small additional quantity should be allowed;
add to it a not very full half-pint of strained lemon-juice, and ten
ounces of sugar, broken small (rather more or less according to the
state of the fruit), the rind of one lemon pared as thin as possible, or
of from two to three when a full flavour of it is liked, and the whites
with part of the shells crushed small, of five large or of six small
eggs. Proceed as for the preceding jellies, and when the mixture has
boiled five minutes throw in a small pinch of isinglass; continue the
boiling for five or six minutes longer, draw the pan from the fire, let it
stand to settle; then turn it into the jelly-bag. We have found it always
perfectly clear with once passing through; but should it not be so,
pour it in a second time.
Strong calf’s feet stock, 1 quart; strained lemon-juice, short 1/2
pint; sugar, 10 oz. (more or less according to state of fruit); rind of
from 1 to 3 large lemons; whites and part of shells of 5 large or 6
small eggs: 5 minutes. Pinch of isinglass: 5 minutes longer.
Obs.—About seven large lemons will produce the half pint of juice.
This quantity is for one mould only. The jelly will be found almost
colourless unless much of the rinds be used, and as perfectly
transparent as clear spring water: it is also very agreeable in flavour.
For variety, part of the juice of the fruit might be omitted, and its
place supplied by maraschino, or any other rich white liqueur of
appropriate flavour; and to render it safer eating, some syrup of
preserved ginger would be an excellent addition.
 CONSTANTIA JELLY.

Infuse in a pint of water for five minutes the rind of half a Seville
orange, pared extremely thin; add an ounce of isinglass; and when
this is dissolved throw in four ounces of good sugar in lumps; stir
well, and simmer the whole for a few minutes, then mix with it four
large wineglassesful of Constantia, and strain the jelly through a fine
cloth of close texture; let it settle and cool, then pour it gently from
any sediment there may be, into a mould which has been laid for an
hour or two into water. We had this jelly made in the first instance for
an invalid who was forbidden to take acids, and it proved so
agreeable in flavour that we can recommend it for the table. The
isinglass, with an additional quarter of an ounce, might be clarified,
and the sugar and orange-rind boiled with it afterwards.
Water, 1 pint; rind, 1/2 Seville orange: 5 minutes. Isinglass, 1 oz.;
sugar, 4 oz.: 5 to 7 minutes. Constantia, 4 large wineglassesful.
 RHUBARB ISINGLASS JELLY.

(Author’s Original Receipt. Good.)

A jelly of beautiful tint, and excellent flavour, may be made with
fresh young rhubarb-stems, either of the giant or dwarf kind, if they
be of a bright pink colour. Wash, and drain or wipe them; slice
without paring them, taking them quite free from any coarse or
discoloured parts. Put two pounds and a half, and a quart of water
into an enamelled stewpan, which is more suitable to the purpose
than any other; throw in two ounces of sugar in lumps, and boil the
rhubarb very gently for twenty minutes, or until it is thoroughly
stewed, but not sufficiently so to thicken the juice. Strain it through a
muslin folded in four; measure a pint and a half of it; heat it afresh in
a clean pan; add an ounce and a half of the finest isinglass, and six
ounces or more of the best sugar in large lumps; stir it often until the
isinglass is entirely dissolved, then let it boil quickly for a few minutes
to throw up the scum; clear this off carefully, and strain the jelly twice
through a muslin strainer,[160] folded as the first; let it cool, and
mould it as usual.
160. These muslin strainers should be large, as it is necessary to fold them in
general to a quarter of their original size, to render them sufficiently thick for
clearing juice or jelly.
 STRAWBERRY ISINGLASS JELLY.

A great variety of equally elegant and excellent jellies for the table
may be made with clarified isinglass, clear syrup, and the juice of
almost any kind of fresh fruit; but as the process of making them is
nearly the same for all, we shall limit our receipts to one or two,
which will serve to direct the makers for the rest. Boil together
quickly for fifteen minutes one pint of water and three-quarters of a
pound of very good sugar; measure a quart of ripe richly-flavoured
strawberries without their stalks; the scarlet answer best, from the
colour which they give: on these pour the boiling syrup, and let them
stand all night. The next day clarify two ounces and a half of
isinglass in a pint of water, as directed at the beginning of this
chapter; drain the syrup from the strawberries very closely, add to it
two or three tablespoonsful of red currant juice, and the clear juice of
one large or two small lemons; and when the isinglass is nearly cold
mix the whole, and put it into moulds. The French, who excel in
these fruit-jellies, always mix the separate ingredients when they are
almost cold; and they also place them over ice for an hour or so after
they are moulded, which is a great advantage, as they then require
less isinglass, and are in consequence much more delicate. When
the fruit abounds, instead of throwing it into the syrup, bruise lightly
from three to four pints, throw two tablespoonsful of sugar over it,
and let the juice flow from it for an hour or two; then pour a little
water over, and use the juice without boiling, which will give a jelly of
finer flavour than the other.
Water, 1 pint; sugar, 3/4 lb.: 15 minutes. Strawberries, 1 quart;
isinglass, 2-1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint (white of egg, 1 to 2 teaspoonsful);
juice, 1 large or 2 small lemons.
 FANCY JELLIES.

Description of
Belgrave Mould.
Figure No. 1,
represents the
mould in its
entireness. No. 2,
shows the interior
of it (inverted). A is
a thin metal plate
which when turned
downwards forms
the bottom of the
No. 1. mould, and which No. 2.
is perforated in six
places to permit
the fluted columns B to pass through it. There is also a larger
aperture in the middle to admit the centre cylinder. The plate is fixed,
and the whole is held in its place by the part which folds over the
larger scallop D at either end. There is also a cover which fits to the
mould, and which is pressed on it before it is dipped into water, to
prevent its getting into the cylinders.
Transparent jelly is shown to much
advantage, and is particularly brilliant in
appearance, when moulded in shapes
resembling that of the engraving here,
which are now very commonly used for the
purpose.
The centre spaces can be filled, after the
jelly is dished, with very light whipped
cream, coloured and flavoured so as to eat
agreeably with it, and to please the eye as well: this may be
tastefully garnished with preserved, or with fresh fruit; but one of