A New Hypothesis on the Anisotropic

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Fluid Mechanics and Its Applications

László Könözsy

A New Hypothesis
on the Anisotropic
Reynolds Stress Tensor
for Turbulent Flows
Volume I: Theoretical Background and
Development of an Anisotropic Hybrid
k-omega Shear-Stress Transport/
Stochastic Turbulence Model
Fluid Mechanics and Its Applications

Volume 120

Series editor
André Thess, German Aerospace Center, Institute of Engineering
Thermodynamics, Stuttgart, Germany

Founding Editor
René Moreau, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Hydraulique,
Saint Martin d’Hères Cedex, France
The purpose of this series is to focus on subjects in which fluid mechanics plays a
fundamental role. As well as the more traditional applications of aeronautics,
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and multiphase fluids, super and hypersonic flows and numerical modelling
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transmit force, therefore fluid mechanics is a subject that is particulary open to cross
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mechanics will be highly relevant in such domains as chemical, metallurgical,
biological and ecological engineering. This series is particularly open to such new
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Indexed by SCOPUS, EBSCO Discovery Service, OCLC, ProQuest Summon,
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5980

László Könözsy

A New Hypothesis
on the Anisotropic Reynolds
Stress Tensor for Turbulent
Flows
Volume I: Theoretical Background
and Development of an Anisotropic Hybrid
k-omega Shear-Stress Transport/Stochastic
Turbulence Model

123
László Könözsy
Centre for Computational Engineering
Sciences
Cranfield University
Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK

ISSN 0926-5112 ISSN 2215-0056 (electronic)

Fluid Mechanics and Its Applications
ISBN 978-3-030-13542-3 ISBN 978-3-030-13543-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13543-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019931536

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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I dedicate this book with all of my respect to
the 88th Birthday of Professor Tibor Czibere
who developed the three-dimensional
similarity theory of turbulent velocity
fluctuations which is the further development,
extension and continuation of Theodore von
Kármán’s unfinished work.
Preface

The first volume of this book gives a mathematical insight—including intermediate

derivation steps—into engineering physics and turbulence modelling related to an
anisotropic modification to the Boussinesq hypothesis (deformation theory) based
on the similarity theory of velocity fluctuations. Through the derivations and their
explanations, the reader will be able to understand new theoretical concepts quickly
including how to put a hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor into
engineering practice. The anisotropic modification to the classical eddy viscosity
hypothesis is in the centre of research interest; however, the unification of the
Boussinesq-type deformation theory and the three-dimensional anisotropic simi-
larity theory of turbulent velocity fluctuations is still missing from the literature.
Therefore, the present work is intended to bring closer a theoretically demanding
and mathematically challenging subject to a wider audience and make it available
for graduate students and researchers who are intended to develop the next gen-
eration of anisotropic turbulence models.
In Chap. 1, a brief literature survey is carried out considering those contributions
which are aligned with the objectives of this book. For the sake of completeness, a
step-by-step full mathematical derivation of the general set of the Reynolds-
averaged governing equations of incompressible turbulent flows is carried out,
because many intermediate derivation steps are omitted in most textbooks. The
understanding of these mathematical derivations is a key to become familiar with
the heart of the closure problem of anisotropic turbulence. For graduate and post-
graduate students, the minimum requirement is to understand the basics of the
vector analysis and tensor calculus. The mathematical way of thinking presented
here is crucial to develop a skill to be able to unify, hybridise and modify different
theories and models, e.g. to propose a new hypothesis on the Reynolds stress tensor
(see Chap. 5). The shortcomings of the generalised Boussinesq hypothesis is dis-
cussed to emphasise the necessity of a new hypothesis on the Reynolds stress
tensor.
In Chap. 2, theoretical principles are derived and discussed which are required to
formulate physically correct mathematical closure equations for modelling turbulent
flows. The importance of the Galilean invariance in the Newtonian physics is

vii
viii Preface

considered here to ensure that the conservation laws of turbulent flow motions
remain the same in any two reference frames. Therefore, we devote a particular
attention to the Galilean transformation and the derivation of the Galilean invari-
ance of the Reynolds momentum equation, the Reynolds stress tensor, the
rate-of-strain (deformation) tensor and the generalised Boussinesq hypothesis on
the Reynolds stresses. In addition to this, the consistency of physical dimensions,
the coordinate system independence of physical laws and the realisability condition
are considered as relevant criteria in the mathematical description of the Reynolds
stress tensor. The derivations included here make an attempt to bring closer a
theoretically demanding advanced subject to a wider audience.
In Chap. 3, the mathematical formulations of Menter’s turbulent kinetic energy k
and specific dissipation rate x Shear-Stress Transport (SST) turbulence model are
considered to provide a closure model to the Boussinesq-type counterparts of the
new hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor proposed in Chap. 5. The
k-x SST model is considered as a baseline closure model, because it is a
well-known fact that the k-x SST formulation is validated against many industrially
relevant turbulent flow problems with great success. It is also assumed that the k-x
SST turbulence model can capture the shear stress distribution correctly in the
boundary layer and it is applicable to adverse pressure gradient flows. However, it
is important to highlight here that any other existing eddy viscosity closure model
can be employed in conjunction with the Boussinesq-type counterparts of the new
hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor proposed in Chap. 5.
In Chap. 4, the three-dimensional anisotropic similarity theory of turbulent
oscillatory motions or Galilean invariant turbulent velocity fluctuations—recently
proposed by Czibere [1, 2]—is discussed in-depth as a necessary theoretical
background and requirement to understand the new hypothesis on the anisotropic
Reynolds stress tensor in Chap. 5. The three-dimensional theory of Czibere intro-
duces an anisotropic similarity tensor—which is related to the dimensionless vector
potential of the mechanically similar local velocity fluctuations—to distribute
anisotropically the principal (dominant) turbulent shear stress in the fluid flow field.
The elements of the similarity tensor can be computed with the use of a stochastic
turbulence model (STM) discussed in this chapter. It is important to mention that
certain components of the anisotropic similarity theory presented here—e.g. the
definition of the unit base vectors of the fluctuating natural coordinate system—are
discussed in a slightly different way compared to the original theory of Czibere. The
reason for that is to introduce a fully Galilean invariant formulation of the aniso-
tropic Reynolds stress tensor in Chap. 5.
In Chap. 5, a new hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor is pro-
posed which is relying on the unification of the generalised Boussinesq hypothesis
(deformation theory) and the fully Galilean invariant version of the three-
dimensional anisotropic similarity theory of turbulent velocity fluctuations dis-
cussed in Chap. 4. In addition to this, a possible anisotropic hybrid k-x
SST/Stochastic Turbulence Model (STM) as a closure approach is proposed related
to the new hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor for incompressible
turbulent flows. The derivation of a possible closure model in conjunction with the
Preface ix

compressible version of the new hypothesis would deserve another in-depth dis-
cussion as the subject of another theoretical book. It is important to emphasise that
the present work does not claim that the proposed anisotropic hybrid k-x SST/STM
turbulence model is better than other existing ones. However, the anisotropic hybrid
formulation of the Reynolds stress tensor in conjunction with the k-x SST/STM
closure model proposed here could be a plausible approach to the mathematical and
physical representation of the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor in the context of
anisotropic eddy viscosity models. Furthermore, the implementation of the final
anisotropic hybrid formulation can be done with a little additional computer pro-
gramming effort compared to the baseline k-x SST formulation of Menter. In the
second volume of this book, each detail of the implementation of the anisotropic
hybrid k-x SST/STM turbulence model—in conjunction with numerical simula-
tions—will be discussed in a way that the reader should be able to implement the
hybrid model in an in-house, open source and/or a commercial CFD software
environment.

Cranfield, UK Dr. László Könözsy

October 2018

References

1. Czibere T (2001) Three dimensional stochastic model of turbulence. J Comput Appl Mech
2(5):7–20
2. Czibere T (2006) Calculating turbulent flows based on a stochastic model. J Comput Appl
Mech 7(2):155–188
Acknowledgements

The author would like to give special thanks to Prof. Tibor Czibere (former Minister
of Education of Hungary, 1988–1989) for the fruitful discussions on the
three-dimensional similarity theory of velocity fluctuations and oscillatory motions
of turbulent flows. Therefore, I would like to dedicate the present work to the 88th
Birthday of Prof. Tibor Czibere with all of my respect. Furthermore, the author
would like to acknowledge the support of Prof. Karl W. Jenkins (Head of Centre for
Computational Engineering Sciences at Cranfield University) who provided a
creative working environment. My special thanks go to one of my former super-
visors, Prof. Árpád Á. Fáy, who gave me invaluable advices during the preparation
of the manuscript. My wife, Mrs. Martina Könözsy-Kovács, my son, Mr. Alexander
Teodor Könözsy, my mother, Mrs. Judit Veress Könözsyné, my father, Mr. László
Könözsy, and my aunt, Dr. Klára Veress, deserve a lots of appreciation for their
encouragement when I was working on the research subject and the manuscript of
this book. My special thanks also go to former Cranfield postgraduate students,
Mr. Adrian Dunne and Mr. Ionut-Andrei Cimpoeru whom worked together with me
on modelling external turbulent flows in conjunction with the application of the
three-dimensional similarity theory of velocity fluctuations and the stochastic tur-
bulence model of Czibere. In addition to my university teaching commitments, I
carried out the present research work at the University of Miskolc, in Hungary, at
the University of Siegen and the Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, in
Germany and at Cranfield University, in the UK, respectively. Therefore, I thank all
of my present and former colleagues and students for their support and encour-
agement which inspired me to write this book.

xi
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.1 Historical Background and Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.2 Governing Equations of Incompressible Turbulent Flows . . . . . .. 8
1.2.1 Mass Conservation (Continuity) Equations in the
Instantaneous, Mean and Fluctuating Velocity Fields . . . .. 8
1.2.2 The Navier–Stokes Momentum Equation in the
Instantaneous Velocity Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
1.2.3 The Reynolds Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
1.2.4 The Reynolds Stress Tensor and Its Relation
to Isotropic and Anisotropic Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . .. 18
1.2.5 Mathematical Derivation of the Turbulent Kinetic
Energy Transport Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
1.2.6 Reynolds-Averaged Governing Equations
of Incompressible Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
1.2.7 The Generalised Boussinesq Hypothesis on the Physical
Description of the Reynolds Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
1.2.8 Reynolds-Averaged Governing Equations Using
the Generalised Boussinesq Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32
1.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
2 Theoretical Principles and Galilean Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
2.2 Basic Principles of Advanced Turbulence Modelling . . . . . . . . .. 45
2.2.1 Galilean Transformation and Invariance of the Reynolds
Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
2.2.2 Galilean and Frame Rotation Invariances of the Mean
Rate-of-Strain (Deformation) Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49

xiii
xiv Contents

2.2.3 Galilean Invariance of the Generalised Boussinesq

Hypothesis on the Reynolds Stress Tensor . . . . . . ...... 51
2.2.4 Realisability Requirement in the Development
of Advanced Turbulence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 52
2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 53
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 54
3 The k-x Shear-Stress Transport (SST) Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Mathematical Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3 Governing Equations of the k-x SST Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.1 Governing Equations with Invariant (Gibbs) Notation . . . . 61
3.3.2 Governing Equations with Cartesian Index Notation . . . . . 62
3.3.3 Governing Equations in Scalar Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Three-Dimensional Anisotropic Similarity Theory of Turbulent
Velocity Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
4.2 Similarity Theory of Turbulent Oscillatory Motions . . . . . . . . . .. 68
4.2.1 Remarks on von Kármán’s (1930) Two-Dimensional
Similarity Theory of Oscillatory Motions . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
4.2.2 Three-Dimensional Similarity Theory of Czibere (2001)
on Turbulent Oscillatory Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
4.2.3 Three-Dimensional Map Space of the Mechanically
Similar Local Velocity Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
4.2.4 Three-Dimensional Vector Potential of Turbulent
Velocity and Vorticity Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
4.2.5 The Differential Equation of the Dimensionless Vector
Potential and Its Solution for Modelling Turbulent
Velocity Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
4.2.6 Relationship Between the Reynolds Stress Tensor
and the Dimensionless Symmetrical Anisotropic
Similarity Tensor of Turbulent Velocity Fluctuations . . . .. 89
4.2.7 The Three-Dimensional Stochastic Turbulence Model
(STM) of Czibere (2001, 2006) for Computing
the Elements of the Anisotropic Similarity Tensor . . . . . .. 93
4.2.8 The Properties of the Coordinate Transformation
of the Deviatoric Anisotropic Similarity Tensor
and Its Relationship with the Reynolds Stress Tensor . . .. 95
4.2.9 Governing Equations of the Three-Dimensional
Anisotropic Similarity Theory of Velocity Fluctuations . .. 99
Contents xv

4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5 A New Hypothesis on the Anisotropic Reynolds Stress Tensor . . . . . 105
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2 The Anisotropic Reynolds Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2.1 A New Hypothesis for Incompressible Turbulent
Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2.2 A New Hypothesis for Compressible Turbulent Flows . . . . 116
5.3 An Anisotropic Hybrid k-x SST/STM Closure Model
for Incompressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.1 The Reynolds Stress Tensor of the Anisotropic
Hybrid k-x SST/STM Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3.2 Derivation of a New Modified Turbulent Kinetic
Energy Production Term PAk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3.3 Derivation of a New Modified Production Term
of the Specific Dissipation Rate PAx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.4 Derivation of a New Turbulent Length Scale . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4 Governing Equations of the Anisotropic Hybrid k-x SST/STM
Closure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4.1 Governing Equations with Invariant (Gibbs) Notation . . . . 124
5.4.2 Governing Equations with Cartesian Index Notation . . . . . 127
5.4.3 Governing Equations in Scalar Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.5 On the Implementation of the Anisotropic Hybrid k-x
SST/STM Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Appendix: Additional Mathematical Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Acronyms

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

CPU Central Processing Unit
DNS Direct Numerical Simulation
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
LES Large Eddy Simulation
RANS Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
RSM Reynolds Stress Model
RST Reynolds Stress Transport
RSTM Reynolds Stress Transport Model
SAS Scale-Adaptive Simulation
SST Shear-Stress Transport
STM Stochastic Turbulence Model
URANS Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes

xvii
Chapter 1
Introduction

Many engineers to-day may consider the problem of turbulence

merely as an interesting chapter of mathematical physics. They
may be right. However, they should remember that if we meet a
practical question in aerodynamic design which we are unable
to answer, the reason that we are unable to give a definite
answer is almost certainly that it involves turbulence
—Theodore von Kármán, 1937

Abstract In this chapter, a brief literature review has been carried out considering
those contributions which are aligned with the objectives of the present book. Since,
there are thousands of works dealing with internal and external turbulent flows, there-
fore, we consider a selection of those contributions which are relevant to the under-
standing of the new hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor in Chap. 5.
For the sake of completeness, the governing equations of incompressible turbulent
flows have been derived in conjunction with the generalised Boussinesq hypothesis
on the Reynolds stress tensor. Intermediate mathematical steps are included in the
derivations to make graduate and postgraduate students familiar with the heart of
the closure problem of anisotropic turbulence. The shortcomings of the generalised
Boussinesq hypothesis have also been discussed to emphasise the necessity of a new
hypothesis on the Reynolds stress tensor.

Keywords Incompressible turbulent flows · Reynolds momentum equation ·

Reynolds stress tensor · Isotropic and anisotropic turbulence ·
Turbulent kinetic energy Transport equation · Generalised Boussinesq hypothesis ·
Reynolds-averaged governing equations

1.1 Historical Background and Literature Review

The origin of the proposal to a new hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress
tensor in this book (see Chap. 5) dates back to the similarity theory of von Kármán
[61–63, 68, 69] and the vorticity transport theory of Taylor [124]. During the 1930s,
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1
L. Könözsy, A New Hypothesis on the Anisotropic Reynolds Stress Tensor
for Turbulent Flows, Fluid Mechanics and Its Applications 120,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13543-0_1
2 1 Introduction

von Kármán [64] worked further on the similarity hypothesis and Taylor [131] further
developed the vorticity transport theory. The homogeneous isotropic simplification
of the mathematical and physical description of turbulent flows was proposed by
Taylor [125–130], which is a significant simplification compared to real turbulent
flows occurring in the nature. The isotropic turbulence approach considers all normal
components of the Reynolds stress tensor are equal to each other and all non-diagonal
shear stress components are assumed to be equal to zero in the Reynolds stress
tensor. Taylor’s isotropic turbulence assumption could be valid far from any solid
wall where the effect of shear stresses is negligible. For turbulent flows, e.g. around
an aircraft wing or e.g. in a three-dimensional channel near to the wall, shear stresses
become dominant in the boundary layer. Therefore, an anisotropic mathematical
description of the Reynolds stress tensor is desirable to predict and model the physics
of turbulence correctly.
Theoretical and experimental investigations of the boundary layer and shear flows
have been in the centre of research interest since the begining of the 20th century
[110]. The semi-empirical analysis of turbulent shear flows originates from the eddy
viscosity hypothesis of Boussinesq [10] and the mixing-length theory of Taylor
[123] and Prandtl [107]. Theoretical analysis on the Reynolds momentum equation
for channel and pipe flows were carried out by Prandtl [107] and von Kármán [61,
63, 65, 68]. Simplified analytical solutions of the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) momentum equations (Reynolds equations) relying on the semi-empirical
theories of turbulence can be found in the book of Shih-I [111]. Due to the mathemat-
ical and physical complexity of the statistical description of anisotropic boundary
layer and shear flows, Taylor [125–130], von Kármán [66, 67, 70], von Kármán and
Howarth [71], Dryden [33], and Heisenberg [47] focused initially on the develop-
ment of the statistical theory of homogeneous isotropic turbulence. Taylor [132],
Kolmogorov [74–76] and von Kármán and Lin [72] investigated the spectrum of tur-
bulence. The two-dimensional similarity theory of von Kármán [61–63, 68, 69] and
its applications to internal flows were further investigated by Goldstein [40] and fur-
ther extended to compressible boundary layer flows over a flat plate by Lin and Shen
[90–92]. A comprehensive introduction to the experimental and theoretical develop-
ments in conjunction with semi-empirical theories of turbulent flows—including the
similarity theory of von Kármán [61–63, 68, 69] and the vorticity transport theory
of Taylor [124]—was given by Goldstein [41, 42]. The theoretical achievements in
the research field of homogeneous isotropic turbulence are discussed in-depth by
Batchelor [9], Shih-I [111], Leslie [89], Davidson [32] and McComb [96].
Note that the classical semi-empirical theories [61–63, 68, 69, 107, 123, 124]
can only be used for two-dimensional boundary layer flows where a simple geometry
is considered. Furthermore, the theoretical results achieved in the research field of
homogeneous isotropic turbulence can be investigated with a great success in grid
generated turbulent flows or in a periodic box mathematical model problem. These
physical circumstances do less likely occur near to the wall of an aircraft wing or
when three-dimensional shear flows in the boundary layer are concerned. Therefore,
the development of three-dimensional advanced turbulence modelling approaches
1.1 Historical Background and Literature Review 3

has to take into account the Reynolds stress anisotropy to make an attempt to capture
internal and external separating flows in a physically correct way.
Turbulent shear flows were investigated theoretically and experimentally by
Townsend [134]. Rotta [109] developed a statistical theory for non-homogenerous
turbulence. The results of the early development on the theory of non-isotropic turbu-
lence is discussed by Hinze [49]. Champagne et al. [18] carried out an experimental
investigation on nearly homogenerous turbulent shear flows. Oberlack [104] stud-
ied anisotropic dissipation in non-homogenerous turbulence. Bradshaw et al. [14]
focused on the boundary layer development through the turbulent energy equation.
Bradshaw [11–13] investigated the structure of boundary layers and shear flows
along with their engineering applications. A theoretical analysis of turbulent bound-
ary layer flows including the study on the governing equations and compressibility
effects was carried out by Cebeci and Smith [16].
The statistical description of turbulent vortical structures has also been in the
centre of research interest since the begining of the the 20th century [94]. Stochastic
mathematical tools in the field of turbulence research can be found in the book of
Lumley [94]. A comprehensive work on statistical mechanics of turbulent flows
was carred out by Monin and Yaglom [101, 102]. The theory of vorticity dynamics
was discussed in-depth by Tennekes and Lumley [133]. Since the wall is a vortex
generator, Smith and Walker [113] investigated the structure of turbulent wall-layer
vorticies. The dynamics and statistics of vortical behaviour of turbulence was studied
by Hunt [50]. Novikov focused on turbulent vortical structures and their modelling
[103].
We can distinguish four main groups of closure models for predicting the ele-
ments of the Reynolds stress tensor. The first group consists of algebraic, one- and
two-equation RANS engineering turbulence models relying on the generalization of
the Boussinesq-hypothesis. The second one is the group of Reynolds stress mod-
els (RSMs) which introduces closure approaches through the solution of Reynolds
stress transport equation to make an attempt to completely abandon the Boussinesq-
hypothesis. The third group could be considered as the mathematical and physical
description of the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor based on the three-dimensional
anisotropic mechanical similarity theory of turbulent oscillatory motions or Galilean
invariant velocity fluctuations (see Chap. 4). The fourth one is the group of hybrid
hypotheses on the Reynolds stress tensor (see Chap. 5).
Launder and Spalding [86] proposed and developed the standard k- two-equation
turbulence model to overcome the difficulties with the classical mixing-length
approaches and they assumed that the eddy viscosity is isotropic. An earlier work of
Jones and Launder [57] focused on the low-Reynolds number phenomena also with
a two-equation turbulence model. Daly and Harlow [31] derived transport equations
for incompressible turbulent flows in conjunction with the Reynolds stress transport
equation. Hanjalić and Launder [45] proposed a Reynolds stress model for com-
puting thin shear flows. Launder et al. [87] developed a Reynolds stress transport
closure model to take into account the Reynolds stress anisotropy which is known
as LRR model. Pope [105] proposed a more general effective-viscosity hypothe-
sis for two-dimensional flows which related the Reynolds stress tensor to a tensor
4 1 Introduction

polynomial through the rate-of-strain (deformation) and vorticity tensors. Hanjalić

and Launder [46] studied low-Reynolds number turbulent flows through a Reynolds
stress closure model. Gibson and Launder [39] investigated the ground effects on
pressure fluctuations in the atmospheric boundary layer through the Reynolds stress
transport differential equation. Speziale [115] introduced non-linear K-l and K-
models to predict the normal Reynolds stresses more accurately than the linear K-l
and K- models taking into account realisability and invariance requirements. Wilcox
[136] carried out a study on the reassessment of the scale-determining equations for
advanced turbulence modelling approaches. Speziale [116] reviewed the past and the
future of turbulence modelling in the end of the 1980s. Speziale, Sarkar and Gatski
[119] proposed a Reynolds stress transport model to take into account the Reynolds
stress anisotropy in the near-wall region which is known as SSG model. Analytical
models in conjunction with the development of Reynolds stress closure models were
reviewed by Speziale [117]. Gatski and Speziale [38] focused on the development
of explicit algebraic stress models for three-dimensional turbulent flows with the
generalization of the models of Pope [105] and Launder, Reece and Rodi [87]. The
theoretical and practical developments on RANS and RSM turbulence models is
discussed by Wilcox [137].
The standard k-ω turbulence model of Wilcox [137] and the k-ω SST formu-
lation of Menter [97, 98] were successfully used for modelling boundary layer
flows for industrial applications. These eddy viscosity RANS turbulence models
employ the Boussinesq-hypothesis for the mathematical description of the Reynolds
stress tensor. In these turbulence models, the eddy viscosity is a scalar quantity and
the Reynolds stress tensor is modelled through the symmetric mean rate-of-strain
(deformation) tensor and the isotropic turbulent kinetic energy tensor. It is a well-
known fact that the Boussinesq-hypothesis [10] itself does not provide an accurate
prediction of Reynolds stress anisotropies from a physical point-of-view. Therefore,
researchers carried out work on modelling the Reynolds stress anisotropy in conjunc-
tion with the Reynolds stress transport (RST) models because the RST modelling can
be considered the most advanced RANS tools nowadays. One can also find relevant
contributions to Reynolds stress modelling within the context of two-equation RANS
turbulence models. Antonia et al. [3] studied the anisotropy of the dissipation tensor
in turbulent boundary layer flows. Craft et al. [20] developed an anisotropic cubic
eddy-viscosity model and they proposed a cubic relationship between the stress tensor
and the rate-of-strain and vorticity tensors to predict the Reynolds stresses accurately
and capture the effect of streamline curvature. An analysis including modelling of
anisotropies in the dissipation rate of turbulent flows was carried out by Speziale and
Gatski [118]. Craft et al. [21] developed a non-linear eddy viscosity model to predict
turbulent flows far from the equilibrium state including the modelling of transition
based on an anisotropic cubic relationship between the stress, rate-of-strain (defor-
mation) and vorticity tensors. Jakirlić and Hanjalić [51] derived a new approach for
modelling near-wall turbulence energy and stress dissipation. A detailed discussion
on second-moment closure turbulence modelling was carried out by Hanjalić and
Jakirlić [44]. Abe et al. [2] investigated near wall-anisotropy expressions and tur-
bulent length scale equations in conjunction with non-linear eddy viscosity models.
1.1 Historical Background and Literature Review 5

Menter and Egorov [99] introduced a scale-adaptive simulation (SAS) modelling

approach based on two-equation turbulence models. Eisfeild and Brodersen [37]
proposed first the SSG/LRR-ω Reynolds stress turbulence model investigating the
DLR-F6 configuration. Liu and Pletcher [93] carried out an investigation on the
anisotropic behaviour of turbulent boundary layer flows. A hybrid RSM closure
model was proposed and developed by Cecora et al. [17] for aerospace applications.
Klajbár et al. [73] proposed a modified hybrid SSG/LRR-ω Reynolds stress model in
conjunction with a simplified diffusion model for three-dimensional incompressible
turbulent flows around bluff bodies. Vitillo et al. [135] proposed and validated an
anisotropic shear stress transport (ASST) formulation related to the two-equation
k-ω SST turbulence model of Menter [97, 98]. One can find more details on the
statistical description of turbulent flows including an overview of classical RANS
and advanced RSM, LES and DNS computational approaches in the book of Pope
[106].
The two-equation k-ω SST turbulence model of Menter [97, 98] and its fur-
ther development including transitional flows brought particular attention amongst
researchers over the past twenty-five years [43, 48, 84, 85, 95, 100, 112, 114].
Hellsten [48] proposed a further improved version of the two-equation k-ω SST
model to take into account the effects of system rotation and streamline curva-
ture, furthermore a modification was introduced to make the original SST model
rotationally invariant. Mani et al. [95] focused on rotation and curvature correction
assessment in conjunction with one- and two-equation RANS engineering turbulence
models. Spalart and Rumsey [114] proposed an approach for effective inflow condi-
tions for turbulence modelling in aerodynamic computations. Smirnov and Menter
[112] carried out investigations on the sensitisation of the SST model to rotation
and curvature taking into account the Spalart-Shur correction term in their mathe-
matical formulations. Langtry [84], and Langtry and Menter [85] developed a local
correlation-based transition model which is the further extenstion of the k-ω SST
formulation to capture transitional flows. The transitional SST model of Langtry and
Menter [85] is a four-equation RANS turbulence model. In addition to the turbu-
lent kinetic energy k and transport of the specific dissipation rate ω equations, the
transitional SST formulation [85] introduces the gamma γ and the Reynolds-theta
Reθ transport equations to capture the flow physics of transitional flows in partic-
ular to aerospace applications. The physically and numerically correct prediction
of transitional flows is amongst the most difficult and challenging scientific and
engineering problems, because transition occurs in most cases due to the presence
of fluid flow instabilities, e.g. Tollmien-Schlichting waves or cross-flow instabili-
ties. The theoretical establishment of physically correct transitional flow modelling
approaches including their accurate mathematical formulations is a state-of-the-art
ongoing research field. Due to the fact that semi-empirical correlations have to be
taken into account in the development of transitional models, therefore, it is diffi-
cult to set up a mathematical formulation for general purposes. Menter et al. [100]
carried out a study on transitional flow modelling for general purpose CFD codes
including investigations on a three-dimensional transonic wing and a full helicopter
configuration. In terms of the development of transitional flow models, another dif-
6 1 Introduction

ficulty is to preserve Galilean invariance of the Reynolds stress tensor due to the
complexity of the concerned flow physics. Langtry and Menter [85] pointed out
that the local correlation-based transition model, the four-equation transitional SST
approach, is not Galilean invariant, because of the mathematical formulation of the
velocity gradient along the streamline at the boundary layer edge. Grabe et al. [43]
proposed a transitional transport modelling approach to an accurate prediction of
the cross-flow transition for three-dimensional aerospace applications. One of their
modelling approach takes into account the local helicity of the fluid flow, therefore,
Grabe et al. [43] emphasized that their local helicity based transitional model is also
not Galilean invariant. Thus, the preservation of the Galilean invariant property of
RANS transitional flow models in their mathematical formulations could still remain
a challenge in their development.
The theorerical development of anisotropic stochastic turbulence modelling
including the investigations on fluctuations is in the scope of the current mainstream
research interest. Bakosi and Ristorcelli [5, 6] proposed and developed a proba-
bility density function (PDF) based method for variable-density turbulent mixing.
They highlighted the importance of the presence of small-scale anisotropy which is
a non-Kolmogorovian feature of turbulent flows under external acceleration forces.
Their approach considers a tensorial diffusion term to capture persistent small-scale
anisotropic fluid flow behaviour. The stochastic diffusion process in conjunction with
conservation law constraints was also investigated by Bakosi and Ristorcelli [7, 8]. It
is important to mention that the investigation of anisotropic properties of astrophysi-
cal turbulent flows is also a current mainstream research area. The spectral anisotropy
in the solar wind was discussed recently by Bruno and Carbone [15]. Theoretical
and practical achievements in the research field of statistical mechanics of turbulent
flows and their advanced modelling approaches were discussed in-depth by Heinz
[1], and Durbin and Pettersson Reif [35]. Statistical turbulence modelling approaches
in conjunction with classical RANS and advanced RSM models—widely used for
solving engineering problems—are discussed by Leschziner [88].
The three-dimensional anisotropic mechanical similarity theory of Czibere [22,
23] on oscillatory motions of turbulent flows is a key component in terms of the
proposal to a new hypothesis on the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor in Chap. 5.
The new hypothesis proposed in this monograph unifies the generalised Boussi-
nesq hypothesis with the mathematical and physical description of the anisotropic
Reynolds stress tensor relying on the three-dimensional similarity theory of the
Galilean invariant velocity fluctuations which leads to a new formulation of the
Reynolds stress tensor (see Chap. 5). The three-dimensional mechanical similar-
ity theory of turbulent oscillatory motions or velocity fluctuations [22, 23] is the
extension of von Kármán’s [61–63, 68, 69] two-dimensional similarity theory to
three-dimensional incompressible turbulent flows which is a completely different
approach compared to other anisotropic eddy viscosity models (see e.g. in [20, 21,
135]). It is important note that Goldstein [41, 42] mentioned in his book—in the
footnote on page 348—that the similarity theory of von Kármán [61–63, 68, 69]
is valid for three-dimensional eddying motion in general and the two-dimensional
description of turbulent oscillatory motions is merely a simplification. However, it
1.1 Historical Background and Literature Review 7

seems that the three-dimensional mathematical formulation of the similarity theory

of oscillatory motions was not derived by other researchers until the begining of
the 21st century. This might be explained by the fact that there are controversial
statements in the literature beside the difficulties of the three-dimensional mathe-
matical formulation of the similarity theory of turbulent velocity fluctuations. Shih-I
[111] stated in his book on page 28 that according to von Kármán, a complete
similarity of turbulent flows considering all fluctuating components is not possible.
According to Taylor [123–131], a general expression for the vorticity fluctuations is
intractable which could also imply that the mathematical formulation of turbulent
velocity fluctuations is intractable. Shih-I [111] and Goldstein [41, 42] also refer to
the intractability of the vorticity fluctuation related to the vorticity transport theory
of Taylor [123, 124, 131]. In the first half of the 20th century, these controversial
statements on the difficulties of the three-dimensional mathematical formulation of
the similarity theory of turbulent velocity fluctuations might be discouraging to carry
out further research on the similarity theory of von Kármán [61–63, 68, 69]. More-
over, there could be another reason why researchers put aside the three-dimensional
further investigation of von Kármán’s similitude of oscillatory motions for a long
time, because the two-dimensional mathematical formulation has a direct connec-
tion with the semi-empirical mixing-length theory. However, the relevance of the
von Kármán similarity theory of oscillatory motions should be more than the deduc-
tion of the von Kármán’s length scale [61, 63, 68]. In fact, the three-dimensional
similarity theory of turbulent oscillatory motions could give a deeper insight into the
internal stochastic mechanism of the mechanically similar local velocity fluctuations,
because a symmetrical anisotropic similarity tensor can be deduced in conjunction
with the anisotropic Reynolds stress tensor as derived by Czibere [22, 23].
The author of this book was working in the research group of Czibere focusing
on stochastic turbulence modelling of internal flows on curvilinear domains from
1999 to 2006 at the University of Miskolc, in Hungary. The Hungarian research
group validated the anisotropic similarity theory for wide range of internal flow
applications [24–30, 52–56, 58, 59, 77–83, 120–122], but not for three-dimensional
external flows. For modelling turbulent shear flows in straight and curved chan-
nels, Janiga [52, 53] developed a computational method for solving the Reynolds
momentum equation in conjunction with the stochastic turbulence model (STM) of
Czibere [22, 23]. In addition to an in-house code implementation, Janiga [54] imple-
mented the algebraic version of the STM in the ANSYS-FLUENT environment.
Könözsy [77, 82, 83] developed a high-order curvilinear mesh generation method
to support the numerical solution of the Reynolds-averaged mean vorticity transport
equation for rotationally-symmetric turbulent shear flows on curvilinear domains
[83]. Kalmár et al. [59] investigated the model parameters of the two-equation ver-
sion of the STM. The Hungarian research project on turbulent internal flows was
sponsored by the DAAD-MÖB German-Hungarian fund in co-operation with the
University of Siegen and the Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Institutes
of Fluid- and Thermodynamics, in Germany. Further practical applications of the
three-dimensional similarity theory [22, 23] related to the numerical simulation of
8 1 Introduction

incompressible external turbulent flows were carried out within postgraduate thesis
projects [19, 34] from 2012 to 2014 at Cranfield University, in the United Kingdom.

1.2 Governing Equations of Incompressible Turbulent

Flows

1.2.1 Mass Conservation (Continuity) Equations in the

Instantaneous, Mean and Fluctuating Velocity Fields

To derive the mass conservation (continuity) equation for incompressible turbulent

flows, the differential form of the instantaneous general mass conservation equation
of turbulent flows has to be considered by

∂ρT
+ ∇ · (ρT uT ) = 0, (1.1)
∂t
where the subscript ‘T ’ denotes an instantaneous value—which notation is consistent
with the notation used in [22, 23]—thus ρT is the instantaneous density of the fluid,
uT is the instantaneous velocity field, and ∇ is the Hamilton (nabla) vector-type
differential operator. For incompressible turbulent flows, the density fluctuation of
the fluid flow ρ  (x, t) is neglected, therefore, the instantaneous density ρT is assumed
to be equal to the density of the fluid ρ which is a constant value. Therefore, the
general mass conservation equation of turbulent flows (1.1) can be written as

∂ρ ∂ρ
+∇ · (ρuT ) = + ρ · (∇ · uT ) + uT · ∇ρ =
∂t ∂t 
 =0
=0
∂ρ
= + ρ · div uT + uT · grad ρ = 0, (1.2)
∂t   
 =0
=0

thus, we can write as follows

ρ · (∇ · uT ) = ρ · div uT = 0, (1.3)

which can be divided by the constant density of the fluid ρ. Consequently, for
incompressible turbulent flows, the mass conservation (continuity) equation holds
the incompressibility (divergence-free) constraint which is assumed to be valid in
the instantaneous (turbulent) velocity field uT as

∇ · uT = div uT = 0. (1.4)
1.2 Governing Equations of Incompressible Turbulent Flows 9

Fig.
 1.1 Reynolds
 decomposition [108] of the instantaneous (turbulent) velocity vector
uT = u + u into the sum of the mean velocity vector u and the fluctuating velocity vector
u at an arbitrarily chosen point ‘P’ in the space of the turbulent flow field near to or far from a
solid boundary: x1 , x2 , x3 are axes of the physical coordinate system

In other words, Eq. (1.4) is the mass conservation (continuity) equation in the instan-
taneous velocity field of incompressible turbulent flows.
According to the Reynolds decomposition [108], each physical quantity in the
instantaneous flow field can be decomposed into the sum of a mean and a fluctuating
component, thus the instantaneous velocity field is
u T = u + u , (1.5)
where u is the mean velocity field and u is the fluctuating velocity field. The Reynolds
decomposition of the instantaneous velocity field (1.5) at an arbitrarily chosen point
‘P’ of the turbulent flow field is shown in Fig. 1.1. Note that Eq. (1.5) follows the
triangle law of vector addition in conjunction with the mean u and the fluctuating
u velocity vectors. Therefore, the velocity triangle of the Reynolds decomposition
(1.5) as shown in Fig. 1.1 may also be called as the Reynolds triangle of the turbulent
velocity field. In other words, the Reynolds triangle is a geometrical representation
of the Reynolds decomposition of the instantaneous (turbulent) velocity field (1.5).
The substitution of the Reynolds decomposition of the instantaneous velocity field
(1.5) into the mass conservation equation (1.4) leads to
10 1 Introduction
 
∇ · uT = ∇ · u + u = ∇ · u + ∇ · u = 0, (1.6)

which is the Reynolds decomposition of the continuity equation (1.4) in the instan-
taneous (turbulent) velocity field (1.5). For incompressible turbulent flows, in order
to satisfy the continuity equation (1.6) in the instantaneous velocity field, the mass
conservation equation must hold the incompressibility (divergence-free) constraint
in the mean velocity field u as

∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3  ∂u i
3
∂u i
∇ ·u= + + = ≡ = 0, (1.7)
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3 i=1
∂ xi ∂ xi

where the equivalent symbol ‘≡’ denotes the use of Einstein’s summation convention
[36] where one can omit the summation symbol using the rules of Cartesian index
notation [4, 60]. The incompressible continuity equation must also be satisfied in the
fluctuating velocity field u as well as

∂u 1 ∂u  ∂u   ∂u  3
∂u 
∇ · u = + 2+ 3 = i
≡ i = 0. (1.8)
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3 i=1
∂ xi ∂ xi

The instantaneous vorticity vector T can easily be defined and introduced by taking
the rotation (curl) of the instantaneous velocity field (1.5) as

T = rot uT = curl uT = ∇ × uT , (1.9)

which can also be written as

 
T = ∇ × uT = ∇ × u + u = ∇ × u + ∇ × u =  +  , (1.10)

thus the Reynolds decomposition [108] is also valid for the instantaneous vorticity
field T , which can also be decomposed into the sum of the mean vorticity field
 and the fluctuating vorticity field  . The mean vorticity vector  is the rotation
(curl) of the mean velocity field u as
∂u 3 ∂u 2
 = rot u = curl u = ∇ × u = − e1 +
∂ x2 ∂ x3
∂u 1 ∂u 3 ∂u 2 ∂u 1 ∂u k
+ − e2 + − e3 ≡ i jk , (1.11)
∂ x3 ∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂x j

and the fluctuating vorticity vector  can be expressed by

∂u 3 ∂u 
 = rot u = curl u = ∇ × u = − 2 e1 +
∂ x2 ∂ x3
∂u 1 ∂u  ∂u 2 ∂u  ∂u k
+ − 3 e2 + − 1 e3 ≡ i jk , (1.12)
∂ x3 ∂ x1 ∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂x j
1.2 Governing Equations of Incompressible Turbulent Flows 11

where i jk is the Levi-Civita permutation symbol which is also known as the alter-
nating symbol [4, 60]. According to the vector analysis and tensor calculus [4, 60],
the divergence of the rotation (curl) of an arbitrarily chosen vector field a is equal to
zero as
div (rot a) = ∇ · (∇ × a) = 0, (1.13)

which implies that the divergence of the instantaneous vorticity field (1.10) is always
equal to zero, therefore we can write
 
∇ · T = ∇ · (∇ × uT ) = ∇ · ∇ × u + u =
 
= ∇ · (∇ × u) + ∇ · ∇ × u = ∇ ·  + ∇ ·  = 0. (1.14)

Relying on Eqs. (1.13) and (1.14), the mean vorticity field (1.11) and the fluctuating
vorticity field (1.12) are always divergence-free (solenoidal) vector fields for both
incompressible and compressible fluid flows as

∇ ·  = div  = 0, and ∇ ·  = div  = 0. (1.15)

The incompressibility of turbulent flows means that the instantaneous, mean and
fluctuating velocity fields relying on Eqs. (1.4), (1.7) and (1.8) are required to be
divergence-free, the fluid density ρ is assumed to be constant, therefore, the density
fluctuation function ρ  (x, t) is equal to zero. Note that the mean velocity vector
u itself is not Galilean invariant, however, the velocity fluctuation vector u and
the instantaneous, mean and fluctuating vorticity fields T ,  and  are Galilean
invariants [35, 96] (see Sect. 2.2).

1.2.2 The Navier–Stokes Momentum Equation

in the Instantaneous Velocity Field

The vectorial form of the Navier–Stokes momentum equation in the instantaneous

(turbulent) velocity field uT can be derived from the instantaneous general Cauchy
momentum equation which can be written as

∂uT
ρ + ρ∇ · (uT ⊗ uT ) = ρg − ∇ pT + ∇ · τT , (1.16)
∂t
where the symbol ‘⊗’ denotes the dyad (tensor) product and the twice underline
‘=’ refers to a second-rank tensor, ρ is the density of the fluid, uT is the instan-
taneous velocity vector, g is the gravitational body force vector, pT represents the
instantaneous pressure field. According to the Navier–Stokes hypothesis on the vis-
cous stress tensor—which was proposed for compressible flows—the instantaneous
viscous stress tensor can be defined by
12 1 Introduction

2
τT = 2μST − μ (∇ · uT ) · I , (1.17)
3
where the dynamic viscosity of the fluid μ is defined by the product of the density ρ
and the kinematic viscosity ν of the fluid as

μ = ρν, (1.18)

and the instantaneous rate-of-strain (deformation) tensor is given by

1
ST = (∇ ⊗ uT ) + (∇ ⊗ uT )T , (1.19)
2
which is a symmetrical tensor defined by the half of the sum of the instantaneous
velocity gradient tensor (∇ ⊗ uT ) and its transpose (∇ ⊗ uT )T . The unit tensor I
can be defined by the sum of the dyad product of each unit vector, and its vectorial,
matrix and Cartesian index notation forms are given by
⎡ ⎤
100
I = (e1 ⊗ e1 ) + (e2 ⊗ e2 ) + (e3 ⊗ e3 ) = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ ≡ δi j , (1.20)
001

where δi j is the Kronecker delta [4, 60]. By taking into account the mass conservation
(continuity) equation (1.4) in the instantaneous velocity field uT for incompressible
turbulent flows, the Navier–Stokes hypothesis on the instantaneous viscous stress
tensor (1.17) will be simplified to

τT = 2μST , (1.21)

which means that the instantaneous viscous stress tensor is proportional to the instan-
taneous rate-of-strain (deformation) tensor (1.19) for incompressible turbulent flows.
To obtain the vectorial form of the Navier–Stokes equations in the instantaneous
(turbulent) velocity field—through the instantaneous general Cauchy momentum
equation (1.16) and the viscous stress tensor (1.21)—the tensor divergence of the
instantaneous viscous stress tensor (1.21) has to be derived. In order to take the tensor
divergence of the viscous stress tensor (1.21), the following vector identity has to be
considered by

∇ · (∇ ⊗ a) + (∇ ⊗ a)T = ∇ 2 a + ∇ (∇ · a) , (1.22)

which is valid for any arbitrarily chosen a vector field, and where ∇ 2 denotes the
scalar-type second-order Laplace differential operator. By setting a = uT and taking
under consideration that the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (1.18) is constant for
incompressible turbulent flows, the tensor divergence of the instantaneous viscous
stress tensor (1.21) can be derived by
1.2 Governing Equations of Incompressible Turbulent Flows 13

   
1
Div τT = ∇ · τT = ∇ · 2μST = ∇ · 2μ (∇ ⊗ uT ) + (∇ ⊗ uT )T =
2
= μ∇ · (∇ ⊗ uT ) + (∇ ⊗ uT )T = μ∇ 2 uT + μ∇(∇ · uT ), (1.23)
  
=0

where the second vector divergence term on the right hand side vanishes due to the
mass conservation (continuity) equation (1.4) or incompressibility (divergence-free)
constraint (1.4) in the instantaneous velocity field uT . Consequently, the tensor diver-
gence of the instantaneous viscous stress tensor (1.23) for incompressible turbulent
flows can finally be written as

Div τT = ∇ · τT = μ∇ 2 uT . (1.24)

The substitution of the tensor divergence (1.24) into the instantaneous general Cauchy
momentum equation (1.16) leads to the vectorial form of the Navier–Stokes equations
in the instantaneous velocity field uT as

∂uT
ρ + ρ∇ · (uT ⊗ uT ) = ρg − ∇ pT + μ∇ 2 uT . (1.25)
∂t
Note that the convective/advective term of the instantaneous Navier–Stokes equation
(1.25) can be written in different mathematical forms. By considering the vector
identity for the conservative mathematical form of the convective term on the left
hand side of the Navier–Stokes equation (1.25) as

∇ · (a ⊗ b) = (∇ · a) b + (a · ∇) b = (∇ · a) b + a · (∇ ⊗ b) , (1.26)

and setting a = b = uT , furthermore, taking into account the mass conservation

(continuity) equation (1.4) of incompressible flows, we can write

∇ · (uT ⊗ uT ) = (∇ · uT ) uT + (uT · ∇) uT =
  
=0
= (uT · ∇) uT = uT · (∇ ⊗ uT ) , (1.27)

thus the vectorial form the instantaneous Navier–Stokes equation (1.25) through the
convective/advective term (1.27) can be expressed by

∂uT
ρ + ρ (uT · ∇) uT = ρg − ∇ pT + μ∇ 2 uT , (1.28)
∂t
which can also be written as
∂uT
ρ + ρuT · (∇ ⊗ uT ) = ρg − ∇ pT + μ∇ 2 uT . (1.29)
∂t
14 1 Introduction

Note that the vector identity (1.26) holds for the mean velocity field u and the
fluctuating velocity field u by taking into account the mass conservation (continuity)
equations (1.7) and (1.8), respectively. Therefore, we can write

∇ · (u ⊗ u) = (∇ · u) u + (u · ∇) u = (u · ∇) u = u · (∇ ⊗ u) , (1.30)
  
=0

and the following identity is also valid as

         
∇ · u ⊗ u = ∇ · u u + u · ∇ u = u · ∇ u = u · ∇ ⊗ u . (1.31)
  
=0

The equalities (1.30) and (1.31) will be employed subsequently when the mathemat-
ical description of the convective term will be considered.

1.2.3 The Reynolds Momentum Equation

For incompressible turbulent flows, Reynolds [108] assumed that the Navier–Stokes
equations are valid in the instantaneous velocity field (1.5). Therefore, taking into
account that the density of the fluid ρ is constant for incompressible flows, the
instantaneous Navier–Stokes momentum equation (1.25) can be written with invari-
ant (Gibbs) notation in the form as

∂ (ρuT )
+ ∇ · (ρuT ⊗ uT ) = ρg − ∇ pT + μ∇ 2 uT . (1.32)
∂t
The Reynolds decomposition [108] is assumed to be valid for the instantaneous
velocity and pressure fields as well as

u T = u + u , and pT = p + p  . (1.33)

The substitution of the Reynolds decomposition of the instantaneous velocity and

pressure fields (1.33) into the vectorial form of the instantaneous Navier–Stokes
momentum equations (1.32), we can write
 
∂ ρ u + u    
+ ∇ · ρ u + u ⊗ u + u =
∂t    
= ρg − ∇ p + p  + μ∇ 2 u + u , (1.34)

which can also be expressed by

1.2 Governing Equations of Incompressible Turbulent Flows 15
 
∂ ρ u + u      
+ ∇ · ρ (u ⊗ u) + ρ u ⊗ u + ρ u ⊗ u + ρ u ⊗ u =
∂t    
= ρg − ∇ p + p  + μ∇ 2 u + u . (1.35)

At this point, the time-averaging procedure of Reynolds [108, 111] has to be used,
which can be denoted with overbars, and the time-averaged form of the momentum
equation (1.35) can be written formally as

∂ ρ(u + u )
+ ∇ · ρ(u ⊗ u) + ρ(u ⊗ u ) + ρ(u ⊗ u) + ρ(u ⊗ u ) =
∂t
= ρg − ∇( p + p  ) + μ∇ 2 (u + u ), (1.36)

where according to the rules of the Reynolds time-averaging procedure [108], a

time-averaged mean value is equal to the mean value itself (u = u), and a time-
averaged fluctuating value is equal to a zero vector (u = 0). Thus, the time-averaged
instantaneous velocity field uT can be written as

uT = u + u = u + 
u = u. (1.37)
=0

The time-averaged dyad (tensor) product of the mean velocity field u in the momen-
tum equation (1.36) can be expressed by

u ⊗ u = u ⊗ u = u ⊗ u, (1.38)

and the second and third tensors on the left hand side of the formally written time-
averaged momentum equation (1.36) are

u ⊗ u = u ⊗ 
u = O, and u ⊗ u = 
u ⊗ u = O, (1.39)
=0 =0

where O is the second-rank zero tensor. The physical meaning of Eq. (1.39) is that
there is no statistical correlation between the time-averaged tensor product of the
mean velocity field u and the fluctuating velocity field u . However, Reynolds [108]
assumed that there is a statistical correlation between the time-averaged tensor prod-
uct of the fluctuating velocity field u , which leads to a second-rank non-zero tensor
by
u ⊗ u = u ⊗ u = O. (1.40)

Furthermore, the time-averaged instantaneous pressure field pT in the momentum

equation (1.36) can also be written as

pT = p + p  = p + p  = p. (1.41)

=0
Another random document with
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again.’ She then drew back and veiled her face as her father
approached, followed by Embarek and the two prisoners.
Addressing the latter, Sheikh Shashon said, ‘At the intercession of
João, whom I take to-morrow to the Court to enter the service of our
Lord and Master, as gunsmith, your lives are spared and your fetters
shall be removed. You will be taken with João to the Sultan, and
upon His Majesty’s decision your fate will depend. I swear, however,
that if you attempt to escape, no mercy shall be shown you.’
‘Take them,’ he continued to the slave, ‘to your hut and lock them
in; but remove their fetters. Let them have food from my kitchen that
they may feel well and strong for the journey to-morrow. Put a couch
for João in the courtyard: he is my guest, free to come and go as he
pleases.’ Then turning towards Rahma, he said, smiling, ‘All this I do
to please you, my loved daughter.’
‘May God bless her!’ cried João and his companions.
Early on the following morning the Sheikh mounted a fine mule,
and the prisoners the animals prepared for them; whilst, destined as
a present to the Sultan, the famous gray mare, adorned with a
handsome headstall, was led by a slave.
Rahma appeared on the threshold, muffled in her ‘haik’; but
before João left she managed, when her father’s back was turned, to
unveil her face, and drawing from her bosom, where she had hidden
them, the silver chain and cross, pressed them to her lips: which
gesture João acknowledged by raising towards heaven the finger
upon which he wore her ring.
Sheikh Shashon despatched a courier to the Court to announce
their advent, and fearing lest some enemy in the village might
forestall him, he wrote to the Uzir that he was bringing the gunsmith
João and two other Nazarenes, prisoners, to deliver them to his Lord
and Master the Sultan, to be dealt with as His Majesty might please.
When within a few hours’ journey of the capital a Kaid of the
Sultan’s body-guard, sent expressly by His Majesty, arrived with an
order to the Sheikh to the effect that every care should be taken of
João, and to inform the latter that a house and forge, where he could
work, had already been prepared for him, and that the two other
prisoners were to be lodged for the present in the same dwelling.
The Kaid also informed the Sheikh that His Majesty commended his
conduct in having brought João safely to the Court, and that the
Sheikh was therefore regarded favourably by his Lord and Master.
On his arrival João was taken before the Sultan, who informed
him that he would be provided with ‘mona’ (provisions), and a
dwelling near the palace; that the implements of a smith and piles of
old horse-shoes were also ready, and that for every gun-barrel João
made, ten ducats would be paid him. The Sultan added, ‘If you will
become one of the Faithful, I have ordered that the garments of a
Moslem be given you.’
João thanked His Majesty and replied, ‘I accept with pleasure
your Majesty’s offer of Moorish garments to replace the tattered
clothing I now wear.’
Whilst thus accepting the Sultan’s offer, João vowed in his heart
that, though assuming the outward garb of a Mohammedan in the
hope of obtaining Rahma hereafter as his wife, he would remain
always a true Catholic, and hope for the day when he would return to
the land of his forefathers.
João was very industrious, and with the assistance only of the two
Portuguese, his fellow-prisoners—for he did not wish the Moors to
discover the secret of his art—he was enabled to manufacture a
number of barrels, even before the Sheikh left the Court.

The Sultan[44], who was interested in every kind of mechanism,

was wont to go to the forge to see João work; gave him the rank of
Kaid, and marked in many ways his satisfaction.
The Sheikh was presented with a horse, with handsome saddle
and bridle, as a mark of His Majesty’s favour, and before leaving the
Court went to see João, and told him of his own good fortune, and
expressed his satisfaction at seeing from his dress that João was
now a Moslem and an officer in high favour with the Sultan.
João shook the Sheikh warmly by the hand, bidding him farewell,
saying, ‘You know that I am indebted for my life to the intercession of
your daughter. I intend to marry and settle here. Will you grant me
the hand of your daughter?’
‘It cannot be,’ answered the Sheikh, ‘I have betrothed her to my
friend Sheikh Amar. The Sultan, now that you are in such high
favour, will bestow on you, if you petition His Majesty, some maiden
with a larger dowry than I can afford to give my daughter.’ He then
departed, leaving João very depressed.
A few days after the Sheikh had left, the Sultan visited the forge of
João and found the young smith hard at work, but looking very wan
and out of spirits. Observing this, the Sultan inquired of João
whether he was unwell, or had cause of complaint against any one
at the Court, and whether the food sent daily from the palace was
plentiful and such as he liked?
João replied that he had no complaint to make against any one,
but that he had a sorrow at heart which he could not make known to
the Sultan, lest it might cause His Majesty’s displeasure.
 ‘Speak,’ said the Sultan; ‘have no fear. Any one who may have
offended you shall be punished. Whatever you ask shall be granted:
what I promise shall be fulfilled. Speak out boldly.’
João obeyed and told the Sultan the story of his capture,
condemnation to death, and release at the intercession of the
Sheikh’s daughter.
When he had concluded his tale, His Majesty exclaimed, ‘Allah
Akbar!’ (God is great!) ‘Had the Sheikh taken your life he would have
forfeited his own. This daughter of his, the maiden who is the cause
of my having you safe here to manufacture guns for the Moslems,
shall be rewarded. What do you desire?’
Throwing himself at the Sultan’s feet João said, ‘She who saved
my life I had hoped might become my wife, but alas! I have learnt
she is betrothed to a friend of the Sheikh, an old chief of a
neighbouring village, named Sheikh Amar. This it is that makes me
miserable.’
‘Before ten days elapse,’ said the Sultan, ‘if this maiden be not
already married to Sheikh Amar, she shall be brought here by her
father and become your wife, and I will give her a dowry.’
The young smith again fell at the feet of the Sultan and expressed
his gratitude.
A Kaid was despatched with all speed to the Sheikh of Beni
M’suar, with the command that he and all his family should be
brought at once to the Court. This officer was directed however to
ascertain, before he executed this order, whether the daughter of the
Sheikh had been lately married; for in such case the Royal command
was not to be carried out.
 The officer departed on his mission and found that the wedding
had not taken place, as old Sheikh Amar had died suddenly shortly
after Sheikh Shashon had left for Fas. Father and daughter were
therefore brought to the Court, and on their arrival were given a
comfortable dwelling near the palace.
Rahma’s heart was filled with joy when she learnt that João was
in high favour with the Sultan, for she remembered his last words to
herself.
The smith hastened to salute the Sheikh. Rahma was not allowed
to enter the room, but she could see her lover through the chinks of
the door, and heard João, after saluting her father, say, ‘Is your
daughter, who saved my life, well? Is she unmarried? If so, I must
not conceal from you that I have petitioned the Sultan that she be
given me as wife. For this His Majesty has been pleased to order
you to come to the Court.’
The Sheikh, who had been in great trepidation, fearing that the
Sultan might have heard of the intention he at one time had of
putting João and the other Portuguese to death, and that His Majesty
had summoned him to the Court to punish him, was greatly relieved,
and replied,—
‘Oh my son! as your garb shows you are now one of the Faithful
and in favour with our Lord and Master, His Majesty’s commands,
whatever they may be, shall be joyfully obeyed.’
The Sultan ordered the Uzir to signify to the Sheikh his Royal
command that his daughter was forthwith to be wedded to João, and
that it was His Majesty’s intention to give her a handsome dowry.
A great feast was prepared by the officers of the Court, at which
the Sheikh attended, whilst Rahma was taken to the harem of the
Hajib (Chief Chamberlain), where the ladies had also prepared a
feast. Beautiful dresses and jewelry were sent by the Sultan to
Rahma, and a marriage contract was drawn up by public notaries,
signed by the Kadi, with a note of the dowry, one thousand ducats,
given her by the Sultan.
On the day of the wedding, the bride, ensconced in a wooden
cage, covered with silk and embroidery, was conveyed on the back
of a mule to João’s house, accompanied by musicians with pipes
and drums and a large troop of men firing guns. The cage was
removed from the back of the mule by four female slaves and
brought into the room, prepared with handsome carpets, where João
awaited her. The slaves assisted her to leave the cage and retired.
As soon as they were alone Rahma threw herself at the feet of
her husband, crying, ‘Oh beloved! God has answered our prayers.
He is merciful, and now I shall be, as long as I live, your faithful,
happy wife. But, João, I beg you to repeat that you believe in God
and the Day of Resurrection. I rejoice to see you in the garb of a
Moslem, and hope you are now really one of the Faithful.’
‘Rahma,’ he said, raising her in his arms, ‘to thee I owe my life; for
thee I shall be ready to lay it down; but I must not deceive thee! I am
not a Moslem, but a Christian, and, as such, I believe in God and the
last Day. I assumed this garb in order that I might be supposed to be
a Mohammedan, and thus be able to petition the Sultan that you
should be my wife.’
Rahma drew away from his arms, saying, ‘I cannot, I must not,
offend God by marrying a Christian.’
João replied, ‘Know you not that your prophet Mohammed
married a Christian woman? Oh loved wife! I shall be a faithful
husband, and when I tell you about my belief and religion, you will
learn that we have the same laws from God, except that we
Christians cannot marry more than one wife. Does such a law
displease you, my Rahma?’
‘Swear,’ she said, ‘that you will never divorce me, never marry
another woman.’
‘I swear,’ he replied, ‘that nought but death shall part us.’
Rahma then threw herself into João’s arms, exclaiming, ‘I am for
ever your loving wife, and shall honour and obey you!’
João and Rahma were very happy. Of an evening, when his work
was done, he taught her to read and write Portuguese, and found
her quick and intelligent in learning. He explained to her the precepts
of the Christian religion, and told her that he hoped the day might
come when he could find some excuse to leave the Moorish Court
and escape with her to Portugal.
When their first child, a girl, was born, Rahma expressed the wish
that her name should be ‘Miriam,’ or Mary, the name of the Mother of
the Saviour of all men, and that she should be brought up in the
Christian faith.
João was very industrious, and continued in high favour with the
Sultan, manufacturing many gun-barrels, upon which, besides his
own name in European characters, he engraved the Arabic word
‘Sidi’ (my Lord), to denote that they were made for the Sultan, and
such barrels are occasionally to be found at the present day.
The Moorish gunsmiths having lost, since João’s arrival at Court,
the Royal custom, took counsel together how they should contrive to
discover the Christian’s secret of forging the twisted barrels; for João
was careful to allow no Moor, except the Sultan, to enter his forge
when he was at work.
 The Portuguese was of very cleanly habits, and had his workshop
whitewashed every month, for which work Jews are usually
employed throughout Morocco. One of the smiths, disguised as a
Jew, offered himself to João to whitewash the forge. He was
engaged, and returned for the same purpose every month.
The sharp-eyed spy watched the operations, and finally learnt so
much of the process as to enable him to imitate it, and he succeeded
so well that he presented a twisted barrel to the Sultan, which His
Majesty considered to be as good as any of João’s make.
The latter was summoned to the Court and asked how it came to
pass that twisted barrels could be made by native gunsmiths. The
unfortunate João declared he had been betrayed by some spy
watching him when at work.
Other Moorish smiths also acquired the art, and, as good barrels
of twisted iron were sold at low prices in Fas, the Sultan discontinued
employing João, and ceased sending him ‘mona’ from the palace.
João, however, had laid by a considerable sum of money, and he
determined to quit the capital with his wife and try to escape to
Tangier. He therefore petitioned the Sultan to be allowed to take his
wife to visit her father, the Sheikh at Beni M’suar.
This was granted, and João bought animals to carry away such
property as he had not been able to dispose of at Fas, and set out
with Rahma and her child for the village of Tsemsalla in the Beni
M’suar mountains.
After remaining some time with his wife at the Sheikh’s house,
where they received a warm welcome, João informed his father-in-
law that he must return to his work. Leaving early one morning with
his wife and child, he proceeded to Tangier, a distance of about
fifteen miles. On arrival at the Portuguese outposts, he was
challenged by a sentry. The soldier proved to be an old comrade
who had heard that João had assumed the disguise of a Moslem,
and, recognising him, allowed him to enter the town, where he was
conducted before the Portuguese Governor, to relate his adventures
and present his wife and child.
The Governor took great interest in João, who had always borne
an excellent character. Rahma, by her husband’s desire, wore the
European dress, and as a Christian no longer veiled her face. The
Governor was much struck by her beauty and gentle manners, and
on learning from her, for she had acquired the Portuguese language,
that she was already converted to the Christian faith and desired to
be baptized by a priest, together with her little girl, he took her to his
wife and daughters, by whom Rahma was made much of. They were
lodged in the Governor’s house, and the baptism was carried out,
with great ceremony, at the Cathedral[45] of Tangier; the child was
christened Miriam.
After a sojourn of some weeks, João and his family were given a
passage in a Government vessel bound to Lisbon, with letters of
recommendation to the King and Queen, to whom their history was
related. The Royal family patronised João, and took especial interest
in pretty Rahma and her daughter as being converts from the
Mohammedan faith.
Being a clever mechanic, João obtained a lucrative employment,
and lived in ease and comfort with his wife, who bore him a large
family.
Rahma wrote to her father and described how happy she and her
husband were, and that they had escaped to the land of the
Nazarenes, as they had feared the jealous and revengeful feelings of
the smiths at the capital; for João, since the betrayal of his secret,
had no longer been shown favour by the Sultan. However, for fear of
causing sorrow to her father, she did not inform him of her
conversion to the Christian faith.
João sent the old Sheikh a beautiful gun, with his own name and
that of Sheikh Shashon engraved on the barrel in letters of gold.
 CHAPTER XIX.

FOURTH MISSION TO MARÁKESH. 1872.

In 1872 Sir John was made Minister Plenipotentiary. This mark of

confidence on the part of Her Majesty’s Government was the more
acceptable as he had recently been attacked in the English press.
The most important of these attacks appeared in the Spectator,
which however afterwards withdrew its charges unreservedly. Unjust
accusations of this nature affected him only for the moment, when
his quick and passionate spirit would fire up under
misrepresentation, for, as he writes: ‘I was lugged out of my little
corner and set on a pedestal to be pelted with dirt—now replaced by
bouquets. I am getting callous to abuse. “Fais ce que dois, advienne
que pourra.”’
In a letter dated September 27, 1872, to Sir Joseph Hooker, he
says:—

They have made me Minister Plenipotentiary, and I am to go to the Moorish

Court to present my new credentials during the winter. The Sultan is at Marákesh,
or will be there when he has ‘eaten up’ a rebel tribe or two. I do not remain
permanently; in fact, I should decline to do so, though I hope the day will come
when we shall have the British Representative resident at the fountain-head, and
thus alone can we hope that the turbid waters may begin to clear.

On March 25, 1873, Sir John, four ladies, and seven gentlemen
embarked on board H.M.S. Lively for Mazagan, en route for
Marákesh. Mazagan, which was reached the following forenoon, has
a picturesque appearance from the sea; but of itself is an
uninteresting town. The country surrounding it is flat and sandy, with
only a few palm-trees and the cupolas of scattered sanctuaries, or
saint-houses, to relieve the monotony of the scenery.
The entrance to the landing-place was by a passage through a
curious old Portuguese breakwater, repaired some years previously
by the Moorish Government at Sir John’s instigation. On landing
under the customary salute, Sir John was welcomed by the
Governor and authorities, who conducted him to the dwelling
prepared for the Mission,—a house standing on what had been,
during the occupation of Mazagan by the Portuguese in the
seventeenth century, the site of a church. Its steeple, now used as a
belvedere, is still standing.
The Sultan had sent a liberal supply of saddle and baggage
animals, and a few extra tents of handsome Moorish make, lined and
decorated within in different coloured cloths. With these were a body
of a dozen ‘fraijia,’ tent-pitchers, attached to his army. These men
proved most efficient and did their work smartly and thoroughly. They
were all, without exception, Bokhári.
The Mission left Mazagan early on the 28th. The escort consisted
of a Kaid Erha and seven officers, with some thirty troopers. ‘Kaid
Erha,’ it may be explained, means ‘the Commander of a Mill,’ as,
during campaigns in Morocco, a hand-mill for grinding corn is allotted
to every thousand men. Hence the title of Kaid Erha given to every
officer in command of a thousand. Kaid el Mia, or Kaid of a hundred,
is the next grade, corresponding to the centurion of the Romans.
Besides this escort, Sir John had with him his own faithful body-
guard of half a dozen men chosen from amongst the Suanni hunters,
men upon whom he could depend in any emergency.
There was no important departure on the journey to Marákesh
from the routine observed on entering the successive provinces. On
each occasion the ‘Bashador’ was received by the Governor or
Khalífa with an escort varying in number, according to the strength
and importance of the province, from about twenty-five to a hundred
men, who invariably indulged in a prolonged display of ‘lab el barod,’
with the inevitable concomitants of dust, noise, and delay. Each
evening too, on arrival in camp, supplies of food in the form of ‘mona’
were brought and presented with the usual formalities. The Sheikh
offered the ‘mona’ in the name of the Sultan, and Sir John always
made a little speech of thanks to the donors.
The route followed for the next two days lay in a south-west
direction, over an undulating country cultivated with wheat, barley,
beans, and maize; and men were ploughing with oxen, or sometimes
even with a camel and donkey yoked together. A little girl followed
each plough dropping ‘dra,’ or millet-seed, into the furrows. Maize is
one of the chiefs exports, since the prohibition of its exportation was
removed at the instance of Sir John in 1871. The soil was a rich,
dark, sandy loam, thickly studded with limestones: these had, in
some parts, been removed and piled up, forming rubble walls round
the crops. Fig-trees and a few palms, scattered here and there,
scarcely relieved the flatness of the landscape.
On entering the hilly country of Erhamna on April 2, two horsemen
of Dukála, with a couple of falcons, joined the cavalcade. They told
Sir John that they had received orders from the Sultan to show him
some sport; but they expressed their fear that the birds would not
strike the game, as it was the moulting season and they were not in
good feather.
A line of horsemen was formed, and, after riding half an hour, a
‘kairwan’ or stone plover was started. The falcon was thrown up, and
soon stooped but missed her quarry. The plover seemed so
paralysed by the attack that it settled in the grass, and was only
compelled with difficulty by the horsemen to rise. In the second flight
the falcon struck the plover, whose throat was cut, and the hawk was
given a few drops of blood. Another trial was made, but the hawks
seemed dull, and only came back and lighted near their masters.
The falconers therefore were dismissed with a gift and many thanks.
Thus the hopes we had entertained of finding a great bustard and
pursuing it with the falcons was not realised, as none were met with.
But, on the return of the sportsmen to the regular track, Miss A. Hay,
who had remained near Lady Hay’s litter, informed them that she
had seen several of these gigantic birds, which had crossed their
path.
Hunting with falcons is in Morocco a Royal sport, and no subject
of the Sultan, unless he be a member of the Royal family, can hunt
with them, without being especially granted the privilege. A few years
before this, the Sultan sent Sir John a gift of two falcons—and with
them a falconer, capable of catching and training others, to instruct
him in the sport. The novelty proved interesting for a time; but in
comparison with pig-sticking, coursing and shooting, it was found
wanting, and the falcons soon ceased to be more than mere pets at
the Legation.
Sir John, who was a great admirer of these birds, used to relate
the following legend and its curious verification in his own personal
experience.

There is a legend that no one of the name of Hay should kill or

injure a falcon. The tradition is founded on the following tale.
At the battle of Loncarty in 980 the Danish army was certainly
routed by the Scots. Yet, at the commencement of this battle, the
Danes had been victorious and drove the Scots before them, pell
mell, towards a narrow pass. Here three stalwart Highlanders, a
father and his two sons, had taken their stand and rallied their
fugitive countrymen. Then, placing themselves at their head, they led
them in an onslaught on the Danes, whom they routed.
Afterwards, the King of the Scots, Kenneth III, sent for the three
men, and, learning from them that they—who were farmers—had
been occupied in ploughing when they saw the Scots in retreat, and
then joined in the fray, he exclaimed, ‘Henceforward you shall be
called Garadh!’ which in Gaelic signifies bulwark or fence. Later this
name was transformed to De la Haye by members of the family who
emigrated to Normandy and, establishing themselves there, joined
the Conqueror when he came to England. Subsequently it was
modified into Hay.
King Kenneth ennobled Garadh, and offered him a grant of land of
his own selection. Garadh prayed the King to grant him whatever
land his falcon might traverse, till it alighted, if thrown off at Loncarty.
His prayer was granted. The falcon flew from Loncarty and alighted
on the Carse of Gowry—as indeed might have been expected, since
Garadh was wont to hunt with falcons and frequently fed his birds on
that height. This large property was long held by the Hay family, but
the greater part passed into other hands during the last century.
My father, who told me this legend, added a caution against ever
injuring the bird which had brought good fortune to the family, and I
bore it in mind, and never fired a shot at any falcon, until one day I
received a letter from a naturalist in England, requesting me to find
some person who would aid him in making a collection of specimens
of birds of prey, as he knew that these birds migrated northwards in
the month of March—when the wind blows from the east—passing
from Morocco, across the Straits, to the Spanish coast, and selecting
generally for the point of their departure the Marshan—a plateau
within a quarter of a mile of Tangier. From here I have seen
hundreds of birds of prey, eagles, falcons, hawks, kestrels, kites and
buzzards cross the Straits during the month of March, flying against
the east wind.
Being desirous of meeting the wishes of my friend the naturalist, I
selected a spot on the Marshan, where, in a dilapidated battery, were
three or four dismounted guns, presented by King George IV to a
former Sultan. Here, ensconced between two of the guns, I waited
the passage of the birds and shot several kites, buzzards, kestrels
and other hawks; but at first, true to my rule, spared the falcons.
It was in the days of muzzle-loaders with copper caps, and I was
not using a gun of English make.
At last, seeing a fine falcon flying towards me, I said to myself,
‘What folly to believe in such silly old-womanish nonsense as that a
Hay must not injure a falcon—I shall test the truth of the legend by
firing at one.’
The bird came towards me, I fired: the gun burst at the breech,
the right-hand nipple flew out, grazing my forehead near my right
eye, and my wrist was burnt. I threw down the gun, exclaiming,
‘Thank God I was not killed! Henceforward I am a believer.’
The falcon was only slightly wounded; some few feathers fell from
the poor bird, and it continued its flight. Had it been killed, I suppose
I should not have lived to tell this story!

Two days later, the party crossed the Beheira u el Gintsor, a

district which, twenty years ago, was uninhabited and full of gazelles,
great bustard, and other game. But the present Sultan had punished
a rebellious tribe by removing them from a rich land and quartering
them on this barren plateau. It is now full of cattle, and patches of
cultivation were to be seen here and there.
The Arabs of the district brought some greyhounds, for the
purpose of hunting hare; but the attempt at sport proved a failure.
Amongst these dogs were two of the native rough-coated breed,
which much resemble the Scotch deer-hound, or sleugh-hound.
Curiously enough, the Arabic word for greyhound (in Morocco) is
slogi or sloki—plural slak. These particular dogs were poor and
stunted in appearance, but sometimes handsome specimens are
met with. They are supposed to be endowed with great powers of
endurance.
 Next day, on ascending the hill of Jebíla, the city of Marákesh
came into view, with its numerous minarets; amongst which towered
the great mosque of the Kutubía—dwarfing all others by comparison.
Through the pass at the foot of the hills, called Birra Burub—
evidently an ancient Berber name—they entered a forest of palms
and crossed the many-arched bridge over the Tensift river. The camp
was pitched on the banks of the river, which, in the swollen torrent,
was racing past—at least a hundred yards wide—carrying with it,
now and then, palm-trees washed away by the flood.
On the 5th of April the Mission entered Marákesh, passing
through the beautiful forest of palms. Soon after leaving camp, they
were met by a body of a hundred cavalry, accompanied by Kaid Bu
Aiesh, the second Chamberlain. He brought a welcome from the
Sultan—‘and a thousand times welcome.’ He added that the troop
which accompanied him was entirely composed of ‘Kaids,’ or
officers, who were sent as a guard of honour to the British
Representative on his entry.
Entering the city by the Bab Hamár, they proceeded to the
summer palace of the Maimunía, where Sir John was received by
the Governor of the city and other officials, and conducted to a
‘kubba’ or small pavilion at the end of a long avenue in the beautiful
garden, or rather orchard, attached to the dwelling. All kinds of fruit-
trees abounded, intermingled with palms and cypresses, and
intersected by broad avenues of large olive-trees. The fragrance of
the orange and lemon-trees in full flower filled the air. The only
flowers were the large white jasmine and the scented single rose of
‘Sigelmasi’—used in making attar of roses; but both these grew in
profusion.
The ‘kubba,’ the Governor said, had been prepared as Sir John’s
bedroom. It was richly carpeted and encircled by divans. A large and
handsome brass bed stood in a recess, while an ugly deal
washstand, apparently made for the occasion, furnished with utensils
of uncouth form and colour, contrasted unfavourably with the
Moorish fittings. After the authorities had taken leave, the other
apartments were investigated and found to be ample and well
furnished in the Moorish style. The doors and ceilings, which were
decorated with arabesque work, carved and coloured, had evidently
been recently repainted. Facing the entrance to the main dwelling
was a beautiful fountain, set in the wall in a horseshoe arch of tiles
and delicate geometric tracery. In the centre of the courtyard, on to
which the rooms opened, was a large marble basin in which bubbled
another jet of water. The archways of the doors were beautifully
decorated with carved filagree work.
On the morning of the 7th, as pre-arranged, Hadj Mohammed Bu
Aiesh, the chief Usher, announced in person that the Sultan would
be prepared to receive Sir John and the members of the Mission at 9
o’clock. This official was attired in the rich dress of a Moorish
courtier. Several coloured cloth caftans, or long tunics, richly
embroidered at the edges and seams with silk, were covered by
another of white cotton with flowing sleeves, and over these was
draped the creamy woollen ‘haik,’ which marks the civilian, of which
the soft folds hung to the ground. His turban of spotless white was
rolled, fold upon fold, above his brow, forming a disk of marvellous
size round the red fez which peeped above it.
Shortly after this announcement, a procession was formed. A
double line of the irregular soldiers in their picturesque and flowing
dress of all the colours of the rainbow, led the way. They were
followed by Sir John, the chief Usher riding on his left, and two
officers of the Askar, or regulars, walking on either side of his horse.
Then came the gentlemen of the Mission, all in uniform. The gates of
the palace precincts had been closed to prevent the mob crowding
in, and were only opened to admit the cortège. In the great court, or
square, were drawn up between three and four thousand Askar, who
presented arms when the ‘Bashador’ appeared.
The scene as usual was brilliant in its barbaric pomp of led horses
handsomely caparisoned, gaily dressed attendants, many-hued
soldiery, and solemn, white-robed officials. But in curious contrast to
the gaiety of his surroundings, stood prominent an old ‘deruish[46],’
with whom no one interfered. He was dirty, ragged and decrepit,
perhaps deranged, for he gazed around with a strange wild air.
During the Sultan’s ceremonious interview with Sir John the ‘deruish’
stood, with uplifted hands, loudly blessing the ‘Prince of believers.’
Next day some of the idlers of the party visited the town.
Accompanied by an escort of fourteen men and an officer, they
made their way to the ‘Mellah’ or Jewish quarter, a horribly dirty
place. The Hebrews of Marákesh are an ugly and apparently
degraded race. To add to their unsightly appearance, the men wear
blue kerchiefs with white spots, tied over their heads and under their
chins. Two long oily curls hang on either side of their faces. Their
greasy cloaks, blue or black, are similar to those worn by the natives
of Sus, and have a curious lozenge-shaped pattern in red and yellow
woven across the back. Tradition relates that these cloaks were first
woven by Spanish captives in the sixteenth century, who worked the
Spanish colours on the back of the cloaks destined for their own use.
The Jewish women, with the exception of a very few young girls,
were no better looking than the men. But their out-door dress is
graceful and pleasing, as they envelop themselves in a large veil of
soft white cotton of native manufacture, bordered with a broad band
of silk—also white—which is arranged to fall in front. Three centuries
ago this veil, with white or coloured silk borders, was worn by the
Moslem women of Marákesh, who now wrap themselves, when they
go abroad, in the more clumsy and less becoming heavy woollen
‘haik.’
The large escort which, when the party started, had been looked
on as an absurd precaution, proved to be really necessary. Though
the people showed no incivility, the pressure of the dense crowds
that thronged after the strangers would have rendered progress
without an escort well nigh impossible.
A few days later the whole party dined at the house of the Hajib—
Sid Musa. They rode thither through the deserted streets in bright
moonlight, which enabled them to avoid the holes and pitfalls
abounding in this decaying town. Well-dressed dependants waited at
Sid Musa’s door to take their horses, and, following a man with a
lantern, they soon found themselves in a small but beautiful court,
with a fountain playing in a marble basin in the centre. Near this
stood five tea-kettles on little charcoal stoves, and as many
diminutive tables, each bearing a tray covered with a silk kerchief—
suggestive of tea. Sid Musa and a Sheríf called the Bakáli, a
favourite of the Sultan, welcomed them, and led the way into a room
furnished with two gorgeous beds, chairs, sofas, and divans covered
with brocade and satin. Handsome mirrors, draped with embroidered
silken scarves, hung round the walls, which were covered with velvet
arras embroidered in gold. These hangings, which cover the lower
portion of the walls of every respectable Moorish dwelling, and vary
in richness of material according to the wealth of the owner, appear
to be a remnant of their ancient life as nomad Arabs. The hanging
resembles the side of the tent still in use among the Moors. The
design is invariably a succession of horse-shoe arches in different
coloured materials and more or less richly embroidered. In mosques
and holy places, and in them alone, mats, often very fine, are used
for the same purpose.
After the guests had been introduced to their hosts and the usual
compliments had passed, in the course of conversation Sir John
expressed to Sid Musa his desire to visit the Atlas Mountains. With
the view of preventing the objections which are often raised by the
Moorish Government when Europeans wish to penetrate into the
more remote regions of Morocco, he observed that he was born and
bred a highlander and that he longed to be once more among
mountains. Sid Musa and the Bakáli, being both mountaineers, quite
concurred in this sentiment and promised to aid in promoting an
expedition.
Dinner was long delayed, and Sid Musa became restless till the
Sheríf informed him that the guest’s servants had been consulted
regarding the feast, and that they had advised the Moorish chef (a
coal-black slave) to reverse the usual order of a native meal; as it
had been intended that the sweet dishes should be served first and
the viands afterwards.