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Absorption and Utilization
of
Amino Acids
Volume II
Editor
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The eyes of all look to you expectantly, and you give them their food when it is due. You give it openhandedly,
feeding every creature to its heart’s content.
PREFACE
Twenty naturally occurring amino acids and several hundred amino acid derivatives formed
in vivo post-translationally in plants and animals and in vitro during food processing play a
fundamental role in nutrition and other aspects of human and animal health. The general
requirements are adequate amounts of the essential amino acids with a reasonable balance
among all.
The nutritive value of a specific amino acid depends on its physiological availability,
which in turn, is governed by its absorption, transport, and utilization. Bioavailability and
biological utilization of amino acids vary widely and depend on source, chemical and
metabolic interactions, and on the diet and health of the consumer.
Scientists from many disciplines, including biochemists, physiologists, pharmacologists,
physicians, nutritionists, dieticians, animal scientists, veterinarians, and food scientists, need
to understand the factors which influence the utilization of amino acids. The widest possible
interaction of viewpoint and expertise is needed to transcend present limitations. Results
from different species, including humans, need to be compared. Results from in vitro studies
need to be related to in vivo data. The roles of amino acids other than as nutrients need to
be defined.
For this volume, therefore, invited contributors were asked to develop at least one of the
following overlapping topics:
The response was positive and enthusiastic, as evidenced by the fact that authors from
twelve countries contributed manuscripts covering the above topics.
This book should catalyze progress and permit the widest possible interaction of viewpoints
and expertise on amino acid utilization. It contains contributions from different disciplines
with a common concern for theoretical and practical consequences of the nutritional, phar
macological, and medical functions of amino acids. The most important function of this
volume, I believe, is dissemination of insights and exchange of ideas so as to permit
synergistic interaction among related disciplines. This volume brings together elements
needed for such interaction.
I am grateful to all contributors for their help in bringing this volume to fruition.
Mendel Friedman, Ph.D., is a research leader in the Food Safety Research Unit of the
Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Albany, California.
Dr. Friedman graduated from the University of Illinois, Chicago Health Sciences Center,
in 1954 with a B.S. degree in Pharmacy. After a tour of duty with the U.S. Army, he
received his Ph.D. degree in Organic Chemistry at the University of Chicago. He then spent
a post-doctoral year at the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Wis
consin, Madison, before joining the Department of Agriculture in 1962.
Dr. Friedman is a member of the American Chemical Society, American Society for
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, American Institute of Nutrition, American Association
for the Advancement of Science (fellow), and the International Study Group for Tryptophan
Research.
Dr. Friedman has published about 150 research papers. He is also the author of one book
and the editor of several others in protein chemistry, food safety, and nutrition and serves
on the Editorial Boards of the Journal of Protein Chemistry and the Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry. His research interests include formation and inactivation of antinutrients
and food toxicants, food chemistry, food toxicology, and nutrition.
CONTRIBUTORS, VOLUME II
Chapter 1
Dispensable, Indispensable, and Conditionally Indispensable Amino Acid Ratios
in the Diet.............................................................................................................................. 1
L. Preston Mercer, S. J. Dodds, and D. I. Smith
Chapter 2
Subdividing Amino Acid Requirements into Portions for Maintenance and
Growth................................................................................................................................. 15
F. N. Owens and J. E. Pettigrew
Chapter 3
Efficiency of Utilization of Amino A cids......................................................................... 31
J. Heger and Z. Frydrych
Chapter 4
Regulation of Intestinal Amino Acid Transport................................................................. 57
E. Scharrer
Chapter 5
Measurement of Protein Synthesis in Animal Tissue In Vivo........................................... 69
S. R. Davis, P. M. Harris, and A. L. Schaefer
Chapter 6
Carbon-11 Labeled Amino Acid Analogs as Imaging Agents for In Vivo Study of
Amino Acid Transport in Tumors and Organ Systems.....................................................81
P. S. Conti, H. F. Starnes, and J. R. Bading
Chapter 7
Absorption and Metabolism of Amino Acids Studied In Vitro, In Vivo, and with
Computer Simulations......................................................................................................... 93
J. R. Reichl
Chapter 8
Methionine, Homocyst(e)ine, Cysteine—Metabolic Interrelationships........................... 157
L. A. Smolin and N. J. Benevenga
Chapter 9
Histidine-Methionine Metabolic Interrelationships........................................................... 189
L. Preston Mercer, C. D. Gifford, and S. J. Dodds
Chapter 10
Taurine in Biology and Nutrition...................................................................................... 199
I. Zelikovic and R. W. Chesney
Chapter 11
Interactions among Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine with Special Reference to
the Branched-Chain Amino Acid Antagonism................................................................. 229
K. P. Block
Index...................................................................................................................................245
TABLE OF CONTENTS, VOLUME II
Chapter 1
Biological Utilization of Basic Amino Acids and Cations.................................................. 1
L. Lougnon and T. Kiener
Chapter 2
Arginine: A Dietary Modifier of Ammonia Detoxification and
Pyrimidine Biosynthesis...................................................................................................... 25
J. A. Milner
Chapter 3
Lysine-Camitine Conversion in Rat and M a n ................................................................... 41
L. Khan-Siddiqui
Chapter 4
Leucine-Tryptophan-Niacin Interrelationships................................................................... 59
C. Umezawa
Chapter 5
Amino Acid Metabolism in Total Parenteral Nutrition during Development................... 71
D. K. Rassin
Chapter 6
Comparative Utilization from Enteral Formula Diets by Humans
of Intact Proteins..................................................................................................................87
C. Kies
Chapter 7
Amino Acid Derivatives as a Source of Amino Acids in Parenteral Nutrition................ 97
M. Neuhauser-Berthold
Chapter 8
Methionine Derivatives as a Nutritional Source of Methionine...................................... 117
M. Friedman and M. R. Gumbmann
Chapter 9
Enzyme Digestion and Biological Utilization of Poly-L-Methionyl Proteins..................133
H. F. Gaertner, P. Brachet, and A. J. Puigserver
Chapter 10
Availability of Amino Acids in Some Tripeptides and Derivatives Present in Dietary
Proteins........ ....................................................... .............................................................147
G. Sarwar and A. Paquet
Chapter 11
Species and Isomeric Variation in the Utilization of Amino A cids................................ 155
B. S. Borg and R. C. Wahlstrom
Chapter 12
Dietary Significance of d - Amino A cids........................................................................... 173
M. Friedman and M. R. Gumbmann
Chapter 13
Effect of Dietary Protein Value on Lactation...................................................................191
G. R. Jansen
Chapter 14
Influence of Protein Type in Nutritionally Adequate Diets on the Development of
Immunity............................................................................................................................ 219
G. Bounous and P. A. L. Kongshavn
Chapter 15
Dietary Protein in Atherosclerosis.................................................................................... 235
D. A. Kritchevsky
Chapter 16
Dietary Protein Modulation in Serum Cholesterol: The Amino Acid Connection..........247
A. Sanchez and R. W. Hubbard
Chapter 17
Endogenous Hypercholesterolemia and Dietary Amino Acids: Sulfur Amino Acids and
Glycine............................................................................................................................... 275
K. Yagasaki
Index.................................................................................................................................. 289
TABLE OF CONTENTS, VOLUME III
Chapter 1
Altered Methionine Metabolism and Unbalanced Methylation: A Possible Basis for the
Dynamic Phenotype of Cancer.............................................................................................1
R. M. Hoffman
Chapter 2
Determination of Histidine, 1-Methylhistidine and 3- Methylhistidine in Biological Samples
by HPLC; Clinical Application of Urinary 3-Methylhistidine in Evaluating the Muscle
Protein Breakdown in Uremic Patients................................................................................ 9
G. Ali Qureshi, A. Gutierrez, A. Alvestrand, and J. Bergstrom
Chapter 3
Role of Glutathione and N-Acetylcysteine as Inhibitors of Mutagenesis and
Carcinogenesis.....................................................................................................................19
S. De Flora, C. Bennicelli, D. Serra, A. Izzotti, and C. F. Cesarone
Chapter 4
Dietary Amino Acids, Eating Behavior, and Trichothecene Mycotoxicoses................... 55
T. K. Smith, K. R. Cavan, and E. J. MacDonald
Chapter 5
Amino Acid Precursors of Biogenic Amines.....................................................................67
B. O. Eggum, N. E. Hansen, and H. Sorensen
Chapter 6
Absorption and Metabolism of Heated Protein-Carbohydrate Mixtures in Humans........ 91
H. F. Erbersdobler, A. Gross, U. Klusmann, and K. Schlecht
Chapter 7
Effect of Heat on Tryptophan in Food: Chemistry, Toxicology, and Nutritional
Consequences.....................................................................................................................103
J. L. Cuq and M. Friedman
Chapter 8
Methods for Determining Bioavailability of Amino Acids for Poultry........................... 129
M. E. Whitacre and H. Tanner
Chapter 9
Kinetics of Protein Degradation in the R um en................................................................ 143
G. A. Broderick
Chapter 10
Transport of Nitrogenous Compounds by the Gastrointestinal Tract.............................. 159
C. R. Baumrucker, F. Guerino, and G. B. Huntington
Chapter 11
The Utilization of Free and Protein-Bound Lysine..........................................................175
J. Leibholz
Chapter 12
Rumen Protected Amino Acids in Ruminant Nutrition........................ .......................... 187
S. C. Loerch and B. O. Oke
Chapter 13
Amino Acid Digestibility in Pigs as Affected by Diet Composition.............................. 201
L. A. den Hartog, M. W. A. Verstegen, and J. Huisman
Chapter 14
Considerations in Methodology for the Determination of Amino Acid Digestibilities in
Feedstuffs for P ig s.............................................................................................................217
W. Sauer, M. Dugan, K. de Lange, M. Imbeah, and R. Mosenthin
Chapter 15
A Comparison of In Vitro Enzymatic and Rat Balance Methods for Measuring Digestibility
of Protein and Amino Acids in Foods.............................................................................. 231
G. Sarwar, L. Savoie, R. W. Pearce, and G. Parent
Chapter 16
The Resistance to Proteolytic Breakdown of Some Plant (Seed) Proteins and Their Effects
on Nutrient Utilization and Gut Metabolism.....................................................................243
R. Begbie and A. Pusztai
Chapter 17
Chemistry and Analysis of Amino Acids......................................................................... 265
B. O. Eggum and H. S0rensen
Index................................................................................................................................... 297
Volume II 1
Chapter 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction................................................................................................................2
VI. Summary................................................................................................................. 20
References.............................................................................................................................21
2 Absorption and Utilization of Amino Acids
I. INTRODUCTION
Since Wilcock and Hopkins1 specified that a certain number of amino acids were essential
in protein nutrition, an enormous amount of research has concentrated on these constituents
of natural proteins. After the work of Osborne and Mendel, Lewis2 was the first to link the
biological value of protein to the proportion of its constituent amino acids. Thus, he em
phasized the importance of balance in protein nutrition. This notion of balance has sometimes
been overlooked by the numerous researchers who have studied and specified the amino
acid requirements of animals. Research has concentrated on certain of these amino acids
(namely sulfur-containing amino acids and lysine), both because they were most likely to
be the limiting factor of the protein fraction of diets, and also because they could be
industrially produced at a competitive price. The tendency toward a reduction of protein
levels in diets has recently led to a greater reconsideration of the balance among amino acids
and among other constituents of the diet.
Several methods of classifying amino acids have been proposed. One of these is based
upon the notion of acidity and leads to a distinction of: neutral amino acids (monoaminos,
monocarboxylates), acidic amino acids (diacids), and basic amino acids (diamino mono-
carboxylates). Among the basic amino acids (Figure 1), the essential amino acids are arginine
(a-amino-8-guanidine-valeric acid), histidine (a-amino-P-imidazole-propionic acid), and lysine
(a-e-diamino-caproic acid). The other basic amino acids, which are nonessential, are cit-
rulline, hydroxylysine, and ornithine. The metabolism of arginine and lysine has been
simplified by Austic3 (Figures 2 and 3).
The interactions among amino acids have been studied by Harper,4*5 who divides them
into four categories. The most simple case is that of deficiency, i.e., the absence or shortage
of one amino acid when there is a sufficient quantity of all others in the diet. There is an
imbalance when the secondary limiting amino acid or other amino acids are added to a diet.
The symptoms (primarily a reduction of food intake) can only be corrected by the addition
of the primary limiting amino acid. Antagonism can be defined as an interaction between
amino acids with similar chemical structures. In practice, an excess of one of these amino
acids brings about an increase in the requirement of one or more of the antagonists. There
is toxicity when an excess of one amino acid cannot be corrected for by addition to the diet
of other amino acids. Amino acid interactions were first demonstrated by Krehl et al.6 As
Austic3 has stated, the potential sites of interactions between amino acids are numerous
(Table 1).
In the case of antagonism, an imbalance exists but the mechanisms are more complex,
and effects are seen not only on food intake but also on the food conversion efficiency.7
Two cases of amino acid antagonism have been especially described and studied, namely,
the antagonism among isoleucine, leucine, and valine (“ branched-chain amino acids” ) and
the antagonism between lysine and arginine (basic amino acids). Described by Spolter and
Harper,8 the antagonism among isoleucine, leucine, and valine has been the subject of
numerous experiments, essentially with rats and poultry. The results do not provide a
completely satisfactory explanation of the mechanisms involved in this antagonism. One
manifestation of antagonism is a decrease in food intake.
Volume II
Volume II 3
3
ARG~
HISTIDINE
LYSINE
CITRULLINE
HYDROXYL YSINE
ORNITHINE
FIGURE 2.
FIGURE 2. Arginine metabolism
Arginine metabolism (simplified
(simplified by
by Austic3
Austic 3).
).
Table 1
POTENTIAL SITES OF AMINO ACID
INTERACTIONS
Appetite
Transport phenomena
Intestinal absorption
Renal reabsorption
Transport into cells, tissues
Catabolism of amino acids
Protein synthesis
Rate of protein degradation
Synthesis of essential metabolites
Formation of toxic metabolites
Table 2
INFLUENCE OF THE RATIO OF ARGININE TO LYSINE ON
CHICK PERFORMANCE
Data from Anderson, J. O. and Dobson, D. C., Poultr. Sci., 38, 1140, 1959.
Table 3
COMPARISON OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR LYSINE AND
ARGININE FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT
MONOGASTRICS
a Females 25 to 60 kg.
b 0 to 4 weeks — diet at 2800 kcal ME/kg.
c 0 to 4 weeks — diet at 3000 kcal ME/kg.
d Young 4 to 11 weeks.
Table 4
ARGININE/LYSINE RATIO IN THE MAIN
RAW MATERIALS
Examination of these ratios enables some general rules to be made on the likely occurrence
of an imbalance problem. Such work has been conducted by feeding diets based on casein,
in which the supply of arginine is comparatively less than that of lysine. The observations
of Fisher et al.12 have been confirmed by those of Jones13 and of Kadirvel et al.14 Other
more normal raw materials, such as those used as a single source of nitrogen, have confirmed
6 Absorption and Utilization of Amino Acids
Table 5
EFFECT OF EXCESS LYSINE ALONE OR IN COMBINATION WITH
SUPPLEMENTAL ARGININE ON GROWTH OF CHICKS FED A
CRYSTALLINE AMINO ACID DIET
Data from Dean, W. F. and Scott, H. M., Poult. Sci., 47, 341, 1968.
Table 6
EFFECT OF EXCESSES OF DIETARY LYSINE ON
GROWTH OF CHICKS FROM HA AND LA STRAINS
HA LA
Diet Avg wt 28 d (g) Avg wt 28 d (g)
Note: HA, high requirement for arginine; LA, low requirement for arginine.
the relation between their relatively low content of arginine and their poor biological value
(improved by the addition of arginine), for instance: fish meal (Miller and Kifer),15 rapeseed
meal (Leslie and Summers),16 and yeast (D’Mello).17
1. Poultry
The results of trials by Anderson and Dobson9 are shown in Table 2. Since then, several
other publications have contained similar observations. Dean and Scott18 (Table 5) dem
onstrated the improvement of performance by the addition of higher doses of arginine to a
diet which had an excess of lysine. Nesheim19 has shown the influence of genetic factors
on the effects of an excess of lysine in the broiler (Table 6). Animals with a high requirement
for arginine (HA) were more sensitive to a small supplement of lysine than those animals
with a low requirement for arginine (LA). Several experiments have been carried out by
D’Mello and Lewis.20 The results of one of these are shown in Table 7. They show the
Volume II 7
Table 7
EFFICACY OF ARGININE IN ALLEVIATING THE GROWTH DEPRESSION BY
EXCESS LYSINE
Data from D’Mello, J. P. F. and Lewis, D., Br. Poult. Sci., 11, 299, 1970.
Table 8
EFFECT OF EXCESS DIETARY LYSINE ON ARGININE EFFICACY
a X1 and X2 = L-arginine consumed at dietary L-lysine level of 0.95 and 1.95%, respectively. Y =
average weight gain.
Data from Allen, N. K., Baker, D. H., Scott, H. M., and Norton, H. W., J. Nutr., 102, 171, 1972.
influence of arginine-lysine antagonism on weight gain, feed efficiency, and nitrogen re
tention. Allen et al.21 have related weight gain to the level of dietary arginine at two levels
of dietary lysine (Table 8). The arginine/lysine ratio has been shown to affect, not only the
weight gain, but also feed consumption. The influence of lysine-arginine imbalance on
consumption has also been underlined by trials of Austic and Scott23 (Table 9).
2. Pigs
One of the first hypotheses concerning the existence of antagonism between lysine and
arginine in pig performance is attributed to Cardona,24 who showed that a diet based on
maize supplemented with lysine was not improved by adding arginine, whereas this addition
was beneficial in the case of the rat. The results of Cheeke and Stangel25 do not give a
precise conclusion. Tyupaev and Kalenyuk26 found that nitrogen retention was optimal in
piglets consuming a diet containing 0.63% of arginine and 0.74% of lysine (arginine/lysine
= 0.85), and superior to that obtained with higher rates of arginine. Harmon27 was the first
to propose that an increase in arginine/lysine ratio would bring about a reduction in feed
efficiency and weight gain. He based his opinion on results achieved from experiments
8 Absorption and Utilization of Amino Acids
Table 9
EFFECT OF GRADED LEVELS OF LYSINE ON GROWTH
AND FEED CONSUMPTION
Data from Austic, R. E. and Scott, R. L., J. Nutr., 105, 1122, 1975.
Table 10
EFFECT OF ARGININE-LYSINE RATIO ON PERFORMANCE OF GROWING
SWINE27,28
Basal diets
Arginine/lysine ratio 2.08 2.00 1.66 1.61 1.57 1.50 1.36 1.18
Feed/gain 2.93 2.90 2.83 2.84 2.55 2.55 2.65 2.54
Basal + 0.4% lysine
Arginine/lysine ratio 1.25 1.21 1.00 0.97 0.95 0.89 0.82 0.71
Feed/gain 2.39 2.45 2.45 2.40 2.33 2.24 2.34 2.44
which, in general, had different objectives. The most demonstrative work is probably that
of Batterham et al.28 with growing pigs. They compared eight different proteins, supple
mented into a wheat-based diet (for growing pig) to provide equal quantities of lysine.
Differences in the availability of this amino acid more than the arginine/lysine ratio seem
to explain the variations in the level of animal performance (Table 10). Similar criticisms
can be made of the conclusions obtained by Ajeani et al.29 or Erickson et al.,30 who used
experimental diets of variable composition. The results of Miller et al.31 seem to have little
significance.
The majority of results enable us to conclude that on the contrary, minor nutritional effects
of the arginine/lysine ratio were obtained when free arginine was added to a basal diet,
whether it be with young pigs32 33 or growing pigs.34’35 This is the case in our own obser
vations,36 summarized in Table 11. Similar results have been achieved by Anderson and
Lewis,37 in which the arginine/lysine ratio varied according to the nature of the protein
sources (Table 12). When attempts have been made to make more qualified conclusions
(Easter and Baker,38 Hagemeier et al.39), a deleterious effect of too high an arginine/lysine
ratio only occurs when there is a deficiency of lysine in the diet. In conclusion, it is noteworthy
that Southern and Baker40 found performance was only affected if this ratio reached a higher
value than two. A reduction in growth rate was affected essentially by the feed intake with
little modification to the feed-conversion efficiency. The same conclusions have been made
from recent trials by Edmonds and Baker,41 in which an excess of lysine in a diet marginal
in arginine brought about a reduction in weight gain due, essentially, to reduced feed intake.
In the light of these different experimental results we can conclude that:42
I. Great excesses of supplemental arginine are growth depressing for young pigs, pri
marily because of reduced feed intake as opposed to decreased feed utilization.
L Great excesses of supplemental lysine are not growth depressing.
Volume II 9
Table 11
INFLUENCE OF THE LEVELS OF LYSINE AND ARGININE ON
THE PERFORMANCE OF GROWING PIGS
Data from Lougnon, J., J . Recherche Porcine en France, 16, 361, 1984.
Table 12
EFFECT OF ARGININE/LYSINE RATIO ON PIG PERFORMANCE AND
CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS*
Avg daily
Arg/Lys ratio Avg daily feed intake Backfat Lean
Diet Grower Finisher gain (lb) 0b) Feed/gain (in.) (in.2)
Data from Anderson, L. C. and Lewis, A. J., Nebraska Swine Report, 1982, 3.
3. Feed utilization is not impaired by either dietary arginine or by excess dietary lysine.
4. Great excesses of dietary arginine increase plasma arginine, but a plateau in plasma
arginine concentration seems to occur at only 0.67% supplemental arginine, with no
further increases ocurring beyond this point. Excess arginine does decrease plasma
lysine, but the fact that plasma histidine also decreases when excess arginine is fed
suggests the phenomenon may be general rather than specific, i.e., arginine-lysine
antagonism.
3. Other Species
As previously mentioned,24 the rat seems to respond better than the pig to a nutritional
imbalance between lysine and arginine. In a situation of free choice, this animal is scarcely
attracted to gluten supplemented by lysine; addition of arginine did not change the response.44
For the rabbit, the requirement for arginine is similar to that of the broiler and much
greater than that of the rat or pig. This has prompted Cheeke45 to suggest that the imbalance
between this amino acid and lysine may explain the detrimental influence on growth of an
10 Absorption and Utilization of Amino Acids
Table 13
EFFECT OF THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LEVELS OF ARGININE AND LYSINE
ON THE GROWTH AND NITROGEN BALANCE IN THE RABBIT
Statistical
Lysine 0.71% of diet Lysine 1.50% of diet
significance
Note: NS, nonsignificant; * >0.05; ** >0.01. Means with different superscripts differ significantly ip <0.05).
A, arginine effect; L, lysine effect; I, interaction effect.
excess of lysine. However, a specific experiment on this subject has brought no proof.46
The works of Colin47 (Table 13) indicated that the increased need of arginine by the rabbit
was independent of the lysine ratio; the highest arginine ratio (0.93%) ensured the best rates
of weight gain, feed-conversion efficiency, and nitrogen retention, whether the supply of
lysine in the diet was 0.71 or 1.50%.
The antagonism between lysine and arginine seems evident in the dog, according to
experiments by Czamecki et al.48 Classic symptoms of deficiency in arginine were found
in the puppy fed a diet containing an excess of lysine; an improvement in growth was
obtained by the addition of arginine to this diet. The same antagonism exists in the guinea
pig.49
Table 14
EFFECT OF LYSINE AND ARGININE SUPPLEMENTATION ON LEVELS OF
SELECTED AMINO ACIDS IN PLASMA (p-mol/lOO ml)
Basal diet 4.5 19.0 28.5 39.8 11.5 16.8 74.3 128.9
Basal diet + 0.3% l- 18.6 13.2 34.4 44.0 11.3 14.5 83.0 83.7
arginine
Basal diet + 0.6% l- 4.2 12.4 46.8 20.4 8.6 14.1 46.9 92.4
lysine
Basal diet + lysine + 4.8 8.3 69.2 21.0 8.0 12.3 42.9 86.6
arginine
Data from D’Mello, J. P. F. and Lewis, D., Br. Poult. Sci., 11, 299, 1970.
Table 15
EFFECT OF EXCESS LYSINE AND ARGININE ON PERFORMANCE ON
PLASMA AMINO-ACID CONCENTRATIONS
Plasma (pmol/ml)
Daily gain* Daily feed*
Diet (g) (g) Gain/feed Lysineb Arginine0 Ornithinec
Data from Baker, D. H., 43rd Minnesota Nutrition Conference, 1982, 156.
acid in the plasma and a decrease in the level of lysine; an excess of lysine produced a
significant increase in its level while that of arginine (and ornithine) was not significantly
altered.
Hagemeier et al.39 observed that an increase of the arginine level in food produced a rise
in the plasma level of this amino acid and of ornithine, without modifying the lysine level.
The minimal influence of the arginine content of the food on the plasma lysine has been
confirmed by Anderson et al.57,58 These authors concluded that the relationship between an
excess of lysine and arginine was more attributable to a classic imbalance than to an antag
onism. Recently, Edmonds and Baker41 made similar conclusions.
It should be added that variations in the level of amino acids observed in the blood plasma
can also be found in other tissues, in particular in the brain, which might explain the influence
of imbalances on consumption. Tews et al.,59 working with rats, demonstrated that the
reduction of growth due to an excess of arginine is accompanied by an increase of the
arginine and ornithine level in the tissues, and by a significant decrease of the level of lysine
in the brain.
Table 16
ARGINASE ACTIVITY
Data from Smith, G. H. and Lewis, D., Br. J. Nutr., 17, 433,
1963.
of lysine in the presence of a deficit in arginine. Jones13 has mentioned some abnormalities
in the composition of the bones. In various species, other symptoms, related more to a
deficiency in arginine, have been noted by different authors.48,60'62 One such symptom is
reduction in the formation of urea and hyperammonemia.
1. Intestinal Absorption
The antagonism between lysine and arginine could be the result of a competition at the
level of intestinal absorption. However, several works in poultry seem to refute this hy
pothesis.63 65 In the case of the pig, studies by Buraczewski et al.66 have shown competition
for absorption of the two amino acids; an excess of lysine proved to be less harmful to the
absorption of arginine than an excess of arginine was to the absorption of lysine. In the
dog, the level of lysine does not seem to affect absorption of arginine.48
Table 17
EFFECT OF EXCESSES OF DIETARY LYSINE ON GROWTH OF CHICKS
FROM HA AND LA STRAINS
HA LA
Kidney arginase activity Kidney arginase activity
Avg wt (jimol urea/g Avg wt (ftmol urea/g
2 8 d (g ) fresh tissue/hr) 2 8 d (g ) fresh tissue/hr)
Note: HA, high requirement for arginase; LA, low requirement for arginase.
Table 18
EFFECT OF DIETARY LYSINE ON PLASMA LYSINE AND LIVER LYSINE-
KETOGLUTARATE REDUCTASE OF CHICKS FROM HA AND LA STRAINS
Plasma
Body lysine Saccharopine formed
weight (g) (pg/ml) (pmol/h/g liver) HA/LA
HA LA HA LA HA LA (ratio)
Basal diet (0.9% L-lysine) 147 121 139 116 4.13 ± 0.61 7.07 ± 1.06 0.58
+ 1% L-lysine HC1 228 216 163 132 7.01 ± 0.53 10.24 ± 0.61 0.68
+ 2% L-lysine HC1 188 201 290 195 8.41 ± 0.69 10.16 ± 1.00 0.83
Data from Wang, S. H. and Nesheim, M. C., J. Nutr., 102, 583, 1972.
3. Kidney Reabsorption
According to Nesheim,19 the effect of the lysine-arginine antagonism could be explained
by an increase of the urinary excretion of arginine owing to an overloading of the system
of kidney reabsorption in the presence of an excess of lysine. Boorman73 has shown that an
intravenous infusion of lysine brings about an increased excretion of lysine and arginine and
attributed this phenomenon to an inhibition of arginine reabsorption. Lee74 observed that the
oral administration of lysine produced significant increases in arginine, ornithine, and ty
rosine excretion in chickens. A similar administration of arginine produced an increase in
the excretion of lysine, ornithine, tyrosine, histidine, threonine, serine, and glycine. In the
latter case the effect was considerably more marked than in the former. The specific antag
onism between lysine and arginine cannot be attributed to competition at the level of reab
sorption, because arginine has a favorable effect in the case of an excess of other amino
acids, apart from lysine.65 Ornithine does not seem to have a detoxification role.
4. Degradation of Lysine
Some experiments have shown that an excessive supply of lysine could bring about a
saturation of the activity of lysine-ketoglutarate-reductase in the liver.75,76 This enzyme is
the first involved in the process of degradation of lysine and results in the formation of
saccharopine (Figure 3). The aforementioned authors have shown a connection between the
activity of lysine-ketoglutarate-reductase and the requirement for arginine in two strains of
chicks. Table 18 shows that the animals having a high requirement for arginine (HA) have
a much poorer activity of this enzyme, which increases when the level of lysine is increased
in the diet.
14 Absorption and Utilization of Amino Acids
Table 19
EFFECT OF ARGININE AND VARIOUS SALTS ON
GROWTH RATE OF CHICKS FED A CASEIN-BASED
DIET
Data from Stutz, M. W., Savage, J. E., and O’Dell, B. L., J. Nutr., 101,
377, 1971.
One of the properties of the basic amino acids (lysine, arginine, and histidine) is that they
react in the same way as cations to a physiological pH. For this reason their metabolism
tends to interact with that of the mineral cations. Thus, lysine can be substituted for potassium
intracellularly, catabolism of lysine and arginine can be modified by mineral cations, and
the transfer of amino acids into cells can be stimulated by potassium.
The principal mineral cations are sodium and potassium. In the intracellular fluids, po
tassium is the main cation. It plays an important role in regulating the osmotic and basic
acid equilibrium. In the extracellular fluids, sodium is the main cation. Potassium is present
here in lower amounts but plays an important role in muscular activity and nervous excit
ability. From a zootechnical viewpoint, the amino acid-cation interaction can assume two
modes. The first is a reduction of the effects of lysine-arginine antagonism by the mineral
cations. This interaction, demonstrated in poultry, is now recognized by several scientists.
The second mode is a saving of lysine by the cations (notably potassium). This interaction,
observed in the pig, is, however, debatable.
Table 20
EFFECT OF INCREASING DIETARY CHLORIDE OF
CHICKS FED LYSINE-LIMITING, ADEQUATE, OR LYSINE-
ARGININE ANTAGONIZED DIETS
Treatment (%)
Arg Lys Cl Avg daily gain* Feed/gain
* g/chick/day.
Data from Calvert, C. C. and Austic, R. E., Poult. Sci., 60, 1468, 1981.
2. Metabolic Consequences
Stutz et al.78 carried out an experiment to determine the consequences of the basic amino
acid x cation interaction on the content of free amino acids in the plasma and muscle tissue
(Table 21). In the plasma, the concentrations of threonine, serine, and lysine were reduced
by the addition of potassium or arginine. The reduction was increased by the addition of
the two ingredients. On the other hand, the level of arginine in the plasma was increased
either by the addition of arginine or of potassium. Variations in levels of free amino acids
in muscle tissue were in general agreement with these data. Although the concentration of
lysine was not reduced by the addition of arginine, it was reduced by the addition of potassium
and even more so by both. Stutz et al.79 have demonstrated the same effect of an addition
of arginine or potassium on the levels of free amino acids in the kidney. The same observations
concerning the variations in the plasma of the concentration of free amino acids have been
published by Stutz et al.,80 Scott and Austic,82 and Austic and Calvert.83
The mechanism explaining the basic amino acid x cation interaction in poultry is not
clear. However, it would seem that the supply of significant quantities of potassium decreases
16 Absorption and Utilization of Amino Acids
Table 21
FREE AMINO ACIDS IN PLASMA AND MUSCLE OF CHICKS FED
DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS OF ARGININE AND POTASSIUM ACETATE
Plasma Muscle
None KAc Arg Arg + KAc None KAc Arg Arg + KAc
Data from Stutz, M. W., Savage, J. E., and O’Dell, B. L., J. Nutr., 101, 377, 1971.
kidney arginase activity,78 increases hepatic lysine a-ketoglutarate reductase activity,82 and
decreases bacterial urease activity.79 However, the conclusions vary. Thus, according to
Stutz et al.,80 the response to an increased level of potassium is explained by an anabolic
utilization of the lysine (synthesis of proteins), whereas, according to Scott and Austic,82
this response is explained by an increase of the catabolism of lysine.
Hän lähti tänään ulos ensi kerran senjälkeen kuin oli huoneeseen
muuttanut. Kevein askelin hän kiiruhti kapeita portaita alas, ohi
avoimen ravintolahuoneen oven, josta häntä vastaan tuoksahti
lautasten kolina ja ruuanhaju, sekä jatkoi matkaansa portin kautta
kadulle.
Hanna punastui.
»No, no, älkää olko levoton, neiti hyvä; voihan sattua, ettette halua
ilmaista nimeänne. Naisilla on useinkin syynsä hankkia hiukan rahaa
tuntemattomana. Minä ummistan tällä kertaa silmäni. Jättäkää
korunne tänne, ja minä uhraan kaksisataa guldeniani ja jätän teidät
rauhaan kauniitten kasvojenne takia.»
»Mutta ellen halua myydä medaljonkiani?»
»Niin kutsun poliisin.» Hanna ymmärsi nyt, että mies tahtoi hyötyä
hänen kustannuksellaan. Mutta summa oli hänestä toistaiseksi kyllin
suuri — ja mieluummin näin kuin joutua vieraitten ihmisten
kyseltäväksi.
»No mitä te tiedätte kertoa, neiti Milli? Ette kai te vain ole paikatta?
Minulle on sanottu, että Itävallan, Pietarin ja Amerikan saksalaiset
teatterit kiistelevät teistä.»
»Voi teitä härnäilijää», vastasi Milli neiti Wienin murteella. »Te
tiedätte kyllin hyvin, etten pitkiä aikoja kestä samassa paikassa. Olen
taas purkanut tirehtöörini kanssa. Saako tavata tohtoria?»
Hän jatkoi:
Tämän hän esitti paremmin, sillä hän sai laulussa esiin omat
surunsa. Resitatiivin yli hän pääsi onnellisesti. Lyhyiden,
katkonaisten lauseiden välissä oli laulajattarella tilaisuus hengähtää
ja korkean pitkän fissin lauseessa: »Wie schön ist diese Nacht»,
lauloi hän kauniilla, sointuvalla äänellä.
Mutta andante:
Ja vielä kerran:
»Was doch das Herz — Aphroditens be — (korkea fiss)
weeegt…» — mikä viehkeys — »Dass sie der Tugend, der
Tugend» — oi veitikkaa — »nur Fall.»
»No, tämä saa riittää, minun pitää jo lähteä», sanoi hän pannen
hatun päähänsä. »Minulla on niin paljon toimitettavaa. Hyvästi,
lapset!»