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CRC SERIES IN NUTRITION AND FOOD
Editor-in-Chief

Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr.

Handbook of Nutritive Value for Processed Food

Volume 1: Food for Human Use
Volume II: Animal Feedstuffs

Handbook of Nutritional Requirements

in a Functional Context
Volume 1: Development and Conditions of
Physiologic Stress
Volume II: Hematopoiesis, Metabolic Function, and
Resistance to Physical Stress

Handbook of Agricultural Productivity

Volume 1: Plant Productivity
Volume II: Animal Productivity
 CRC Handbook of
Nutritional
Requirements in a
Functional Context
Volume I
Development and Conditions of
Physiologic Stress

Editor

Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr.

Nutrition Adviser and Chief
Research and Methodology Division
Agency for International Development
U.S. International Development Cooperation Agency
Washington, D.C.

CRC Series in Nutrition and Food

Editor-in-Chief
Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr.

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
First published 1981 by CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

Reissued 2018 by CRC Press

© 1981 by CRC Press, Inc.

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

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Main entry under title:

Handbook of nutritional requirements in a functional

context.

(CRC series in nutrition and food)

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
CONTENTS: v. 1. Development and conditions of
physiological stress.—v. 2. Hematopoiesis, metabolic
function, and resistance to physical stress.
1. Stress (Physiology)—Nutritional aspects—Hand–
books, manuals, etc. I. Rechcigl, Miloslav.
II. Series. [DNLM: 1. Nutrition. QU145 H236]
QP82.2.S8H36   599.01   80-19981
ISBN 0-8493-3956-1 (v. 1.)
ISBN 0-8493-3958-8 (v. 2)

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 PREFACE
CRC SERIES IN NUTRITION AND FOOD

Nutrition means different things to different people, and no other field of endeavor
crosses the boundaries of so many different disciplines and abounds with such diverse
dimensions. The growth of the field of nutrition, particularly in the last 2 decades,
has been phenomenal, the nutritional data being scattered literally in thousands and
thousands of not always accessible periodicals and monographs, many of which, fur-
thermore, are not normally identified with nutrition.
To remedy this situation, we have undertaken an ambitious and monumental task
of assembling in one publication all the critical data relevant in the field of nutrition.
The CRC Series in Nutrition and Food is intended to serve as a ready reference
source of current information on experimental and applied human, animal, microbial,
and plant nutrition presented in concise tabular, graphical, or narrative form and in-
dexed for ease of use. It is hoped that this projected open-ended multivolume compen-
dium will become for the nutritionist what the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Phys-
ics has become for the chemist and physicist.
Apart from supplying specific data, the comprehensive, interdisciplinary, and com-
parative nature of the CRC Series in Nutrition and Food will provide the user with an
easy overview of the state of the art, pinpointing the gaps in nutritional knowledge
and providing a basis for further research. In addition, the series will enable the re-
searcher to analyze the data in various living systems for commonality or basic differ-
ences. On the other hand, an applied scientist or technician will be afforded the oppor-
tunity of evaluating a given problem and its solutions from the broadest possible point
of view, including the aspects of agronomy, crop science, animal husbandry, aquacul-
ture and fisheries, veterinary medicine, clinical medicine, pathology, parasitology, tox-
icology, pharmacology, therapeutics, dietetics, food science and technology, physiol-
ogy, zoology, botany, biochemistry, developmental and cell biology, microbiology,
sanitation, pest control, economics, marketing, sociology, anthropology, natural re-
sources, ecology, environmental science, population, law politics, nutritional and food
methodology, and others.
To make more facile use of the series, the publication has been organized into sepa-
rate handbooks of one or more volumes each. In this manner the particular sections
of the series can be continuously updated by publishing additional volumes of new
data as they become available.
The Editor wishes to thank the numerous contributors many of whom have under-
taken their assignment in pioneering spirit, and the Advisory Board members for their
continuous counsel and cooperation. Last but not least, he wishes to express his sincere
appreciation to the members of the CRC editorial and production staffs, particularly
President Bernard J. Starkoff, Earl Starkoff, Sandy Pearlman, Pamela Woodcock,
Lisa Levine Eggenberger, John Hunter, and Amy G. Skallerup for their encourage-
ment and support.
We invite comments and criticism regarding format and selection of subject matter,
as well as specific suggestions for new data which might be included in subsequent
editions. We should also appreciate it if the readers would bring to the attention of
the Editor any errors or omissions that might appear in the publication.

Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr.

Editor-in-Chief
 PREFACE
HANDBOOK OF NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
IN A FUNCTIONAL CONTEXT

Nutritional requirements of animal organisms, including those of human beings,

vary depending on the physiological state of the organisms. This accounts for vulner-
ability to malnutrition among certain population groups such as pregnant and nursing
women, young infants, children, the aged, and the sick.
Adaptation and resistance to specific climate and environmental stresses is also de-
pendent on the availability of specific nutrients in appropriate amounts. There are also
subtle differences in the nutritional requirements for specific physiological processes
and body functions as there are differences in the requirements for specific nutrients
by different tissues during their development.
The purpose of this Handbook is to bring together all the available information on
the nutr"tional requirements of animal organisms for specific processes and functions.
This is believed to be the first systematic treatment of nutrition in a functional context.
Apart from furnishing specific nutritional data, this Handbook provides a useful
framework for a comparative physiologist or biochemist searching for commonality
or differences among various biological systems.
 THE EDITOR

Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr. is a Nutrition Advisor and Chief of Research and Methodol-
ogy Division in the Agency for International Development.
He has a B.S. in Biochemistry (1954), a Master of Nutritional Science degree (1955),
and a Ph.D. in nutrition, biochemistry, and physiology (1958), all from Cornell Uni-
versity. He was formerly a Research Biochemist in the National Cancer Institute, Na-
tional Institutes of Health and subsequently served as Special Assistant for Nutrition
and Health in the Health Services and Mental Health Administration, U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education and Welfare.
Dr. Rechcigl is a member of some 30 scientific and professional societies, including
being a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Fellow
of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Fellow of the American Institute of Chem-
ists, and Fellow of the International College of Applied Nutrition. He holds member-
ship in the Cosmos Club, the Honorary Society of Phi Kappa Pi, and the Society of
Sigma Xi, and is recipient of numerous honors, including an honorary membership
certificate from the International Social Science Honor Society Delta Tau Kappa. In
1969, he was a delegate to the White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and
Health and in 1975 a delegate to the ARPAC Conference on Research to Meet U.S.
and World Food Needs. He served as President of the District of Columbia Institute
of Chemists and Councillor of the American Institute of Chemists, and currently is a
delegate to the Washington Academy of Sciences and a member of the Program Com-
mittee of the American Institute of Nutrition.
His bibliography extends over 100 publications including contributions to books,
articles in periodicals, and monographs in the fields of nutrition, biochemistry, physi-
ology, pathology, enzymology, molecular biology, agriculture, and international de-
velopment. Most recently he authored and edited Nutrition and the World Food Prob-
lem (S. Karger, Basel, 1979), World Food Problem: a Selective Bibliography of
Reviews (CRC Press, 1975), and Man, Food and Nutrition: Strategies and Technolog-
ical Measures for Alleviating the World Food Problem (CRC Press, 1973) following
his earlier pioneering treatise on Enzyme Synthesis and Degradation in Mammalian
Systems(S. Karger, Basel, 1971), and that on Microbodies and Related Particles, Mor-
phology, Biochemistry and Physiology (Academic Press, New York, 1969). Dr. Rech-
cigl also has initiated a new series on Comparative Animal Nutrition and was Associ-
ated Editor of Nutrition Reports International.
 ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS

E. J. W. Barrington Dorothy Hollingsworth

Cornerways The British Nutrition Foundation
Alderton, Tewkesbury Alembic House
Glascow, Scotland London, England

Charles A. Black B. Connor Johnson

Department of Agronomy Department of Biochemistry and
Iowa State University of Science and Molecular Biology
Technology The University of Oklahoma Health
Ames, Iowa Science Center
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Ricardo Bressani
Division of Agricultural and Food 0. L. Kline
Science American Institute of Nutrition
Institute of Nutrition of Central Bethesda, Maryland
America and Panama (IN CAP)
Guatemala City, Guatemala Gilbert A. Leveille
General Foods Corporation
Sir David Cuthbertson Tarrytown, New York
Department of Pathology and
Chemistry Margaret Mead (deceased)
University of Glasgow The American Museum of Natural
Glasgow, Scotland History
New York, New York
William J. Darby
The Nutrition Foundation, Inc. EmilM. Mrak
New York, New York Department of Food Science
University of California, Davis
Emanuel Epstein Davis, California
Department of Soils and Plant
Nutrition Anthony H. Rose
University of California, Davis School of Biological Sciences
Davis, California University of Bath
Claverton Down
Leon Golberg Bath, England
Chemical Industry Institute of
Toxicology Howerde E. Sauberlick
Research Triangle Park, North Department of Nutrition
Carolina Letterman Army Institute of Research
San Francisco, California
Earl 0. Heady
Center for Agricultural and Rural NevinS. Scrimshaw
Development Department of Nutrition and Food
Iowa State University of Science and Science
Technology Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Ames, Iowa Cambridge, Massachusetts
 ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS (Continued)

Charity Waymouth E. M. Widdowson

The Jackson Laboratory Dunn Nutritional Laboratories
Bar Harbor, Maine Cambridge, England

Dr. S. H. Wittower
Agricultural Experiment Station
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
 CONTRIBUTORS
A. Aschkenasy, M.D., Sc.D.
Centre National de Ia Recherche
Scientifique
Laboratoire d'Hematologie
Nutritionelle
Paris, France
C. H. Barrows, Sc.D.
Section of Comparative Nutrition
Gerontology Research Center
National Institute on Aging
Baltimore City Hospitals
Baltimore, Maryland
T. K. Basu, B.V.Sc., M.S., Ph.D.
Foods and Nutrition Division
Faculty of Home Economics
The University of Alberta
Edmonton, Canada
U.N. Bhuyan, M.D.
Department of Pathology
All-India Institute of Medical Sciences
New Delhi, India
J. G. Brand, Ph.D.
Monell Chemical Senses Center and
Department of Biochemistry
School of Dental Medicine
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsyivania
·:J. A.. Camphr;;l, Ph.D.
Protein Res~·~~~ch Lahc:--ato~y
Veterans Admini5traiion l\kc.!icu\
Center
Bronx, New York
R. K. Chandra, M.D.
Department of Pediatrics
University of Newfoundland
St. John's, Newfoundland
J. W. T. Dickerson, Ph.D.
Division of Nutrition and Food Science
Department of Biochemistry
University of Surrey
Guilford, Surrey, England
C. Eckhert, Ph.D.
School of Public Health
Division of Environmental and
Nutritional Sciences
University of California
Los Angeles, California
V. R. Edgerton, Ph.D.
Brain Research Institute
Department of Kinesiology
University of California
Los Angeles, California
W. P. Faulk, M.D.
Blond Mcindoe Centre for
Transplantation Biology
East Grinstead, Sussex, England
S. Frankova, D.Sc.
Institute of Psychology
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences
Prague, Czechoslovakia
G. Goldspink, Ph.D., Sc.D., F.R.M.S.
Der,a.rt;ncn: ·.'f Zoology
U r::vcrsi~y o; H. u.ll
[( ~:·~6~tOi!-:_; ~on-H1!li, Yo;-kshi!-c
E:cgland
K. Y. Guggenheim, M.D.
Department of Nutrition
Hebrew University-Haddasah Medical
School
Jerusalem, Israel
E. S. E. Hafez, Ph.D.
Departments of Gynecology,
Obstetrics, and Physiology
School of Medicine
Wayne State University
Detroit, Michigan
H. Hagedorn, Ph.D.
Department of Entomology
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
R. E. Hammer, B.Sc.
School of Medicine
Wayne State University
Detroit, Michigan
F. X. Hausberger, M.D., Sc.D.
Department of Anatomical Sciences
Temple University
School of Dentistry
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
W. J. Hayes, Jr., M.D., Ph.D.
Department of Biochemistry
School of Medicine
Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee
E. Hietanen, M.D.
Department of Physiology
University of Turku
Turku, Finland
0. Heroux, Ph.D.
Division of Applied Biology
National Research Council
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
L. S. Hurley, Ph.D.
Department of Nutrition
University of California
Davis, California
D. B. Jelliffe, M.P.H.
School of Public Health
University of California
Los Angeles, California
R. E. Johnson, M.D., D.Phil.
Horn of the Moon Enterprises
Montpelier, Vermont
J. J. Jones, M.D.
3 Esplanade
Liverpool, England
J. Kaltenbach, Ph.D.
Department of Biological Sciences
Mount Holyoke College
South Hadley, Massachusetts
M. Kare, Ph.D.
Monell Chemical Senses Center and
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
H. Karunajeewa, Ph.D.
Department of Agriculture
Animal Research Institute
Werribee, Victoria, Australia
G. T. Keusch, M.D.
Division of Geographic Medicine
Tufts University School of Medicine
New England Medical Center Hospital
Boston, Massachusetts
G. C. Kokkonen, B.A.
Section of Comparative Nutrition
Gerontology Research Center
National Institute on Aging
Baltimore City Hospitals
Baltimore, Maryland
0. Koldovsky, M.D., Ph.D.
Department of Pediatrics
University of Arizona Health Sciences
Center
Tuscan, Arizona
J. LeMagnen, M.D.
College de France
Paris, France
John T. Maher, Ph.D.
Altitude Research Division
U.S. Army Research Institute of
Environmental Medicine
Natick, Massachusetts
M. Nairn, Ph.D.
Faculty of Agriculture
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Rehovot, Israel
A. E. Needham, D.Sc.
Department of Zoology
Oxford University
Oxford, England
Y. Ohira, Ph.D.
Brain Research Institute
Department of Kinesiology
University of California
Los Angeles, California
A. Ornoy, M.D.
Department of Anatomy and
Embryology
Hebrew University-Haddasah Medical
School
Jerusalem, Israel
1. Quarterman, Ph.D., F.R.S.C.,
C.Chem.
Nutritional Biochemistry Department
Rowett Research Institute
Bucksburn, Aberdeen, Scotland
R. Rajalakshmi, Ph.D.
Department of Biochemistry
M.S. University of Baroda
Baroda, India
J. A. F. Rook, Ph.D., D.Sc.
Agricultural Research Council
London, England
M. L. Ryder, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.Biol.
ARC, Animal Breeding Research
Organisation
Edinburgh, Scotland
I. M. Sharman, Ph.D., F.R.S.C.
Dunn Nutritional Laboratory
University of Cambridge and Medical
Research Council
Cambridge, England
W. J. Stadelman, Ph.D.
Department of Animal Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
N.C. Stickland, Ph.D.
Department of Veterinary Medicine
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, Scotland
G. Stirling, M.D.
Department of Pathology
College of Medicine and Allied Sciences
King Abdulaziz University
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
A. J. H. VanEs, M.D.
Institute for Livestock Feeding and
Nutrition Research
Lelystad, The Netherlands
M. Vulterinovna, M.D.
Institute of Clinical Experimental
Medicine
Prague, Czechoslovakia
I. Wolinsky, Ph.D.
Department of Human Development
and Consumer Sciences
University of Houston
Houston, Texas
D. H. Woollam, M.D., Sc.D.
Department of Anatomy
University of Cambridge
Cambridge, England
 DEDICATION

To my inspiring teachers at Cornell University-Harold

H. Williams, John K. Loosli, the late Richard H.
Barnes, the late Clive M. McCay, and the late Leonard
A. Maynard. And to my supportive and beloved
family-Eva, Jack, and Karen.
HANDBOOK OF NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS IN A FUNCTIONAL
CONTEXT

Volume I

Development and Conditions of Physiological Stress

Differentiation and Development

Development of Specific Tissues
Conditions of Physiological Stress

Volume II

Hematopoiesis, Metabolic Function and Resistance to Physical Stress

Hematopoiesis
Digestion and Endocrine Functions
Chemical Senses
Metabolism of Foreign Substances
Physical Performance and Behavior
Adaptation and Resistance to Environmental Stress
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume I

DIFFERENTIATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Nutrition and Differentiation in Animals ...................................... 3
Effects of Nutrition on Metamorphosis ....................................... 81
Nutrition, Regeneration, and Repair ......................................... 97
Nutritional Factors in Teratology .......................................... 113
Nutrition and Cancer. .................................................... 149
Nutrition and Senescence ................................................. 169

DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC TISSUES

Nutrition and Bone Formation ............................................. 209
Nutrition and Development of Connective Tissue: Effects of Protein and
Ascorbic Acid Deficiency ................................................. 257
Effects of Nutrition on the Muscles in Mature Animals ........................ 269
Nutrition and Development of Nervous Tissue ............................... 289
Effect of Nutritional Factors on Development of Adipose Tissue ................ 365

CONDITIONS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS

Nutrition and Maintenance ................................................ 385
Nutrition and Reproduction: Animals ...................................... 397
Nutrition and Reproduction: Man .......................................... 427
Nutrition and Lactation: Animals .......................................... 439
Nutrition and Lactation: Human ........................................... 495
Nutrition and Egg Production ............................................. 503
Nutrition and Wool Growth ............................................... 517

Index .................................................................. 521

Differentiation and Development
 Volume I 3

NUTRITION AND DIFFERENTIATION IN ANIMALS

A. E. Needham

As yet there is relatively little precise information on the relationship between nutri-
tion and differentiation in animals, mainly because of the difficulty in defining differ-
entiation, and so in designing critical experiments and interpreting results. In the ta-
bles, the equation

Differentiation + Growth = Development (Morphogenesis)

is adopted. This implies that differentiation includes all qualitative aspects of devel-
opment, and growth the purely quantitative aspects.
Differentiation includes all differential morphogenetic processes, from the macro-
scopic to the molecular level, including differentially distributed synthesis, production,
cell proliferation, and growth (heterauxesis). It includes all localized processes, such
as differential movements of cells and materials, segregation of constituents, and local
removal of materials, at the various levels. Where possible, the scale of magnitude of
the differentiation, whether at molecular, cellular, tissue, or organ level is specified.
Differentiation occurs at all stages. In most animals even cleavage of the egg is dif-
ferentiative, with virtually no growth. The final phase is sexual differentiation and
reproductive maturation. There are special phases, such as metamorphosis, in some
animals.
There are differentiative components of development in the various types of asexual
reproduction, and in regeneration following trauma, etc. The latter is not sharply dis-
tinguishable, ultimately, from the smaller-scale regenerative processes that maintain
differentiation in animals at all stages of the life cycle. In morphallactic regeneration
there is extensive remodeling of differentiation.
Evidence from situations involving arrest or even reversal of differentiation, e.g.,
neoplasia, is used where instructive.
Nutrients are taken to include all physiologically useful materials, inorganic, and
organic, that must be acquired from outside the animal's synthesizing systems. Also
included, where relevant, are materials that can be synthesized by the animal but are
usually supplemented by contributions from the diet. In such cases, there is no logical
justification for omitting evidence obtained from the internally synthesized quota.
Yolk and other materials stored or sequestered in an egg for the development of the
embryo constitute nutrients for the embryo. In some instances, less sharply segregated
materials also should be considered as nutrients, e.g., in insect metamorphosis, where
no external food is used. Such materials are also relevant because they are the orthodox
nutrients for other stages or for other animals. Most dietary constituents of animals
are materials synthesized and stored by other organisms.
Evidence is used from both orthodox modes of nutrition and from experimental
methods such as injection, immersion, and force feeding. Much of the evidence has
come from studies of deficiency or excess of dietary constituents, individually or col-
lectively. In addition to causing direct deficiency, the use of metabolic antagonists of
specific constituents has been exploited, though there is a risk of actions in addition
to that of the specific antagonism. Also, there is multilateral interaction between die-
tary constituents, the results of which are still not known in detail.
Axenic culture techniques have been used to distinguish or discount contributions
to an animal's diet by gut microsymbionts. As an expedient, meridic and more fully
defined diets have been used as controls in the experiments.
4 Handbook of Nutritional Requirements in a Functional Context

The following classification of types of action of dietary constituents is assumed:

1. As a source of energy (fuel).

2. As building material (fabric).
3. As a controlling agent:
a. Proximately, as constituent of an enzyme.
b. More indirectly, as hormonal type of agent:
i. Triggering a differentiative response.
ii. Mediating an intermediate step in the response.

DEFINITIONS

Achromotrichia- hair deficient in melanin.

Acrodynia- dystrophy of extremities of body.
Alopecia- deficiency or loss of hair.
Anemia- deficiency of erythrocytes (red blood cells) or of hemoglobin, or both.
Anorexia- loss of appetite.
Ascites- excessive fluid in body cavity.
Axenic diet- one completely free of foreign (usually microsymbiotic) organisms.
Blastema- bud: usually applied to epimorphic regeneration.
Cheilosis- fissures through skin at angles of mouth.
Dermatitis- any morphogenetic abnormality of the skin.
Dystrophy- defect of morphogenetic maintenance (literally "bad feeding").
Edema- excessive extracellular fluid.
Encephalomalacia- softening of brain tissues.
Epimorphosis- regeneration from a bud of undifferentiated cells.
Erythraemia- inflammation (here interpreted as due to morphogenetic defects in the
walls of the capillaries).
Holidic diet- one composed entirely of chemically defined constituents.
Homoeorrhesis- ability to return to a genetically determined path of development.
Hyperchromic, hypochromic, and normochromic anemias- anemias in which the
amount of hemoglobin per cell is respectively higher than, lower than,
and equal to, normal.
Hyperkeratosis- excessive production of keratinized epidermal cells.
Inanition- starvation.
Koilonychia- flattening and longitudinal ridging of finger nails.
Kwashiorkor- dystrophies due to deficiency of protein or of particular essential
amino acids.
Laparotomy- surgical opening of abdominal cavity.
Marasmus- wasting due to simple inanition.
Meridic diet- one composed mainly of chemically defined constituents but including
one or more crude, illdefined items.
Micromelia- abnormal shortness of limbs.
Morphallaxis- regeneration by remodeling of the remaining parts of the body.
Oligidic diet- one mainly composed of crude, natural (biological and inorganic) ma-
terials.
Omphalocephaly- indentation of head (literally "navel-headed").
Osteomalacia- softness of the bones.
Osteoporosis- excessive porosity and lack of compactness of bones.
Parakeratosis- excessive production of epidermal cells that retain nuclei and fail to
mature normally.
Paresis- loss of motor control of muscle; sensation normal.
 Volume I 5

Peresis- atrophy of neurons, with increase in glial tissues.

Perosis- deformity of tibiotarsal joint involving displacement of tendon ("slipped
tendon").
Polycytemia- excessive concentration of cells in blood.
Prophylactic- preventive, anticipatory measure to avoid disease.

INTRODUCTORY NOTES TO TABLES 7 to 39

In assessing the action of a particular dietary constituent on specific processes of

differentiation, it may be necessary to discount certain nonspecific actions on, e.g.,
food consumption, digestion, absorption, and utilization, or on metabolic rate, etc.
In many instances, a deficiency of one particular constituent causes anorexia, thus
symptoms of a general rather than specific deficiency may be predominant.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO TABLE 12

Kwashiorkor-A deficiency disease of weaned infants on diets lacking in the total

amount of protein and in relative amounts of essential amino acids. The deficiency
results in loss of appetite (anorexia), and therefore in symptoms of marasmus (general
inanition) as well as in symptoms specific to protein deficiency. However, protein de-
ficiency is responsible for most of the serious symptoms of marasmus. The main dif-
ferentiation abnormalities of kwashiorkor are general retardation or arrest of devel-
opment, hypotrophy of endocrine organs, hyperkeratosis, alopecia,
hypochromotrichia, inflammation of dermis with lesions of the skin, and anemia
(sometimes). A number of the organ systems, including the pancreas and the liver,
first hypertrophy and later hypotrophy; the epidermis and skin melanin also follow
this pattern. The two-phase response could be interpreted as an initial device to com-
pensate for the decrease in performanc of the system, followed by collapse due to
exhaustion. Experimentally, kwashiorkor-symptoms have been induced in rats starved
of only one of a number of the essential amino acids: Trp, ""· " 9 Phe, 159 His, Thr,
Met, 160 Val, or Lys. 161 The symptoms are more pronounced if the animals are force-
fed than when allowed to feed ad lib and so able to refuse gross excess of the other
amino acids (AA).
6 Handbook of Nutritional Requirements in a Functional Context

Table 1
RESPONSE OF DIFFERENTIATION TO VARlO US LEVELS OF FOOD INTAKE

Species Nature of test Result Ref.

High Level of Intake

Man High level during development Accelerated reproductive matura- I, 2

tion
Ambystoma mexican urn Overfeeding during limb regen- Inhibition of histogenesis
(axolotl). eration

High Level at Specific Periods

Pig and other mammals Early postnatal period Promotes muscle production 4,5
Later juvenile period Promotes fat production 4,5
At various periods Differentially increases relative 6, 7
size of organs differentiating in
that period

Different Levels at Specific Periods

Polys tom a (Monoge- Young fluke on young host Rapid maturation as self-fertilizing 8
nea) (abundant food) form
Young fluke on older host, Slower development with change 8
near metamorphosis of site; maturation into cross-fer-
tilizing adult
Ge/is; Pezomachus Larval development in large Macropterous imago with thorax, 9, 10
(Parasitic Hymenop- host(abundantfood) ocelli, etc. different from those of
tera) micropterous form
Development in small host Micropterous form 9, 10
Vespa(wasp) female Low intake early in season Small sterile imagines ("workers") II
larva High intake later in season Large fertile imagines (Queens) 11
Apis(honey bee) female High level (Royal jelly) Large queen imagines 12
larvae throughout
High level for first three days Small sterile workers 12
only
Pheido/e(ant) female Amount of food stored in egg High level: queens; intermediate 13, 14
larvae level: soldiers
Leptothorax(Hyme- High level of larval intake after 940Jo developed into females 15
noptera) hibernation
Low level Only30% developed into females 15
Hirudinaria granulosa Overfeeding on mammalian Failure of reproductive maturation 16
blood of leech
Hirudo medicinalis Undernourishment of young Failure of reproductive maturation 16
Campanularia (Hydro- Overfeeding and underfeeding Both induce casting and regenera- 17
zoa) tive replacement of hydranths
Chrysaora (Scyphozoa) High dietary level, July to Oc- Normal strobilization to produce 18
tober medusae
Subsequent fasting Autotomy of tentacles, each of
which then develops into a minute
new scyphistoma (polyp form)

Note: Caste-determination in Apis and probably in other Hymenoptera depends also on the qualitative
composition of the diet, but at present there is little knowledge of the actions of specific constituents.
The results in items with reference numbers 1 to 9 and 12 are probably direct effects of nutrient level.
In items with reference numbers 10 and 11, the paradoxically similar result of either extreme of
dietary level presumably is an indirect response triggered by any sufficiently unfavorable condition.
 Volume I 7

Table2
DIFFERENTIATION PROCESSES PROMOTED BY LOW LEVELS OF FOOD
INTAKE

Species Nature of test Result Ref.

Development

Lepidodermella (Gas- Deficiency in food supply (ex- Induced production of diapausing 19

trotricha) perimental) (opsiblastic) as opposed to rap-
idly developing (tachyblastic)
type of egg
Drosophila Starvation of larva (experimen- Promoted ommochrome synthesis 20
tal) in eyes of imago of vermillion-
brown genotype
Aphids Starvation (experimental) Promoted parthenogenetic pro- 21
duction of winged forms
Nicoparvata (Aphid) Wilting of host plant Similarly promoted production of 22
winged forms
Drosophila Starvation of larva (experimen- Accelerated pupation and meta- 23
tal) morphosis
Tenebrio Starvation of larva Accelerated metamorphosis and 24
sexual maturation
Various anuran am- Starvation of larva after a cer- Accelerated metamorphosis 25-27
phibia tain stage (experimental)

Regeneration and Remodeling

Planaria Starved (experimental) Regenerated by remodeling (mor- 28

phallaxis)
Well fed Regenerated from a new bud (epi- 28
morphosis)
Head regeneration induced Head differentiation was more 29
during fasting regime rapid than in control fed) individ-
uals
Various Animals Brief fasting immediately after Healing and regeneration acceler- 30
amputation or other injuries ated; in some cases a differential
promotion of differentiation

Asexual Reproductive Development

Ephydatia (freshwater I .0 mg dietary N per ml of me- Gave maximal acceleration of 31

sponge) dium gemmule formation; 5.0 f'g/ml
icss effective
Starved after forming rem·· Induced germination of gemmulcs 31
mules and differenriatio•; o:· cdb
Dicr_vnstcfium ~Ar:rasi­ Exhaustion oi footl available to Triggered fl'rill~.tiou of rtli.~i~i\:eiiu­ 3~. 33
r!caf u'-,~ccllu!ar ~-ha-;e cf !ife cycle i.i.;· L-ui tit~.~ t·:lH.!y bPo!·~·ic...~\oi:)

1\ic. rc: 1\·lost lJ!- ti!e responses are biologically adaptive, t.:.g., (I) tile production of fcr:11'.; c..:.ppro~:;iai~ hl.
tiding over unfavorab:e conditions, (2) the ··cutting of the coat regenerated according to the clot f.",
(3) the induction of metamorphosi' to a iorm exploiting different food materials, and (4) the indu~­
tion of migratory formc. capable of finding new source> of food. All arc likely to be triggered re-
sponses both for thb reason and also because fasting scarcely can directly promote any type of dif-
ferentiation.
8 Handbook of Nutritional Requirements in a Functional Context

Table 3
ANTIDIFFERENTIA TION EFFECTS OF UNDERFEEDING

Species Nature of test Results Ref.

On Development from the Zygote

Anagasta (Ephestia) Larva subjected to low intake Abnormal development of wings 34

(Clothes moth) of food and scales of imago;
hypochromatosis of eyes
Rat (juvenile) Acute or chronic undernutri- Retarded differentiation of testes 35
tion (experimental)
Various Oligochaeta Reduced food supply (experi- Regression of primary and second- 36-38
mental) ary reproductive organs

On Adult Maintenance (By prolonged starvation)

Chrysaora (Scyphozoa) Totally starved (experimental) Regressed to gastula-like body 39

Dugesia (Triclad Tur- Totally starved Degrowth with reversal of differ- 40,41
bellaria) entiation
Lineus (Nemertina) Totally starved Regressed to mere morula of cells 42
or even further
Marine Bryozoa Low level of available food Zooids regressed to "brown bod- 43
ies''
Clavellina (Tunicata) Total starvation Very extensive dedifferentiation 44
Phoxinus (minnow) Starved during regeneration Inhibited histogenesis and organa- 45
genesis in regenerate
Ambystoma (axolotl) Starved during regeneration Inhibited organogenesis but not 46
histogenesis of regenerate

By less severe restriction of food

Mouse Amount of food restricted Atrophy of skin and loss of hair 47

(alopecia)
Various mammals Amount of food restricted Hyperkeratosis; blockage of hair 41t-
follicles and sebaceous glands
Amount of food restricted Demyelination of nerve fibers 49

Note: In the lower Metazoa, prolonged total starvation causes extensive and fairly exact reversal of differ-
entiation; in mammals and birds it causes differential atrophy of organs and tissues in proportion to
their dispensability. Less severe restriction of food inhibits development in the young and regenera-
tion at all ages. The effect· on maintenance of differentiation resembles that of deficiencies of a
number of specific dietary constituents.
 Volume/ 9

Table4
QUANTITATIVE DIFFERENTIALS IN REGRESSION ON
SUBMAINTENANCE DIETS

Percentage Wt Loss of Various Organs and Systems After

Prolonged Starvation

Organ or system Pigeon 50 Cat" Rat 52 Average

Central nervous system 2.0 3.0 0.4 1.8

Lungs 22.0 18.0 1.7(gain) 12.8
Testes 40.0 2.7 21.4
Heart 45.0 3.0 25.9 24.6
Kidneys 26.0 29.7 27.9
Small intestine 42.0 18.0 34.1 31.4
Skin, hair, feathers 33.0 21.0 42.1 32.0
Muscle 42.0 31.0 43.0 38.7
Pancreas 64.0 17.0 40.5
Spleen 71.0 67.0 11.6 49.9
Liver 54.0 54.0 44.4 50.8
Fat tissue 93.0 97.0 95.0

Chemical Composition (Ofo) of Bodies of Normal and Starved

Mice

%in normal .,a in starved Change as .,a

Component mice mice Change in 11/e of normal

Water 68.0 76.0 + 8.0 + 11.8

Inorganic 2.5 2.5 0.0 0.0
Organic 29.5 21.5 -8.0 -27.1
Protein 20.5 18.5 -2.0 -9.7
Fat 6.0 2.4 -3.6 -60.0

Note: In the first half of the table, the striking contrasts between the three hom-
iothermic vertebrates in the weight loss of a number of their organs are
not easily explained. Otherwise, the results confirm the evidence of Table
3, that the degree of atrophy is proportional to the degree of dispensabil-
ity of the organ system. The second half of the table shows the same type
of economy among the classes of organic chemical constituents, viz., pro-
tein is depleted less than fat. (The animals were not deprived of water
and its inorganic salts.)

From Peters,J. M., Growth, 31, 191, 1967. With permission.

10 Handbook of Nutritional Requirements in a Functional Context

Table 5
FURTHER ACTIONS OF UNDERFEEDING ON DIFFERENTIATION

Species Dietary conditions Differential effect Ref.

Differential Regression on a Diet Quantitatively Inadequate for Maintenance

Rat Inadequate for Liver and kidney lost relatively more weight than 54, 55
Chicken maintenance heart and body (total)
Various mam- Starved Organs lost weight in proportion to the lateness of 56
mals their ontogenetic differentiation
Carcinus (shore Parasitized by Sac- Loss of weight maximal in organs that developed 57
crab) cu/ina most rapidly
Rat Half the ad lib. level Primarily caused atrophy of pituitary gland, leading 58
to atrophy of other endocrine organs including
gonadal interstitial tissue and, tertiarily, atrophy of
secondary sexual characters
Starved Cytoplasm of liver cells atrophied more than their 59
nuclei
Triturus (male Starved Dorsal crest (secondary sexual character) regressed 60
newt) more rapidly than any other organ

Differential retardation of development by less severe restriction

Various mam- Restricted amount Differentiation inhibited less than growth; animal 61
mals small but well-proportioned
Restricted after birth Retardation of further development of organs pro- 62
portional to relative weight loss on more severe re-
striction
Pig (post wean- Restricted Retardation of further development of organs pro- 62
ing) portionate to the lateness of their ontogenetic de-
velopment
Pig (post wean- Restricted Cell proliferation (cytoplasia) depressed less than 61
ing) cell growth (cytotrophy)
Pig (post wean- Restricted Development of teeth less retarded than that of 63
ing) jaws: teeth crowded and displaced; jaw malformed
Pig (yearling) Restricted Bone resorption less inhibited than bone deposition: 64
bones become thinned; mineral deposition in hu-
merus less inhibited than collagen synthesis for the
matrix
Drosophila lar- Underfed Tibia length of imago 18"7o subnormal, but eye-facet 65
vae number 69"7o greater than normal
Totally starved Tibia length about the same (22"7o) subnormality, 65
but eye-facet number also subnormal (25"7o)

Note: The first half of the table confirms and extends the effects of severe dietary restriction shown in
Tables 3 and 4. The second half of the table shows that the retardation of development by less severe
restriction (I) has features parallel to those of regression under severe restriction, e.g., it affects vital
organs least, (2) affects differentiation less than growth, and (3) affects early- less than later-differ-
entiating organs.
 Volume I 11

Table 6
THE ACTION OF OXYGEN, REGARDED AS A DIETARY CONSTITUENT, ON
DIFFERENTIATION

Species Nature of test or evidence Action on differentiation Ref.

In Zygotic Development

Chaetopterus(Poly- Oxidation uncoupled from Depressed the rate of cleavage of 66

chaeta) embryo phosphorylation by use of
2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP)
Paracentrotus(Echino- Exposed to lower 0, pressure
idea) embryo than normal
Treated with 0.054 to 0.108 M
LiCI for 3 hr
CN- and CO used to inhibit ter-
minal oxidase, cytochrome
oxidase
Chick embryo (ex- O, pressure of medium varied
planted)
Drosophila larvae (bar Subjected to O, pressure above
mutant) normal
Drosophila Use of 2,4-DNP to uncouple
exidation from phosphoryla-
tion
Rana(frog) larvae Perfusion with O, in later
stages
the zygote
Promoted "vegetalization", i.e., 67,68
increase in extent of mesodermal
and even greater extent of endod-
erma!, relative to ectodermal dif-
ferentiation
Depressed O, consumption and in- 68
creased vegetalization; effect
maximal at 3 to 6 hr after fertil-
ization.
Promoted vegetalization; ectoder- 69
mal differentiation strongly in-
hibited and mesenchymal (skele-
tal) mildly inhibited after 8 hr
Development of neural tube par- 70
ticularly sensitive to these varia-
tions
Increased the number of facets de- 71
veloped in eye of imago; effect
greatest for treatment between 24
and 72 hr of development
Retarded moulting and pupation 72
Accelerated tail resorption and 73
metamorphosis

Asexual and Regenerative Differentiation

Tubularia (Hydrozoa) Isolated pieces of stolon sub-
jected to gradient in 0, pres-
sure
Stolon subjected locally to high
0, concentration
Dugesia (Triclad Tur- Aerobic respiration depressed
bellaria) by 2,4-DNP, azide, glucose,
or sucrose
Determined the polarity of the hy- 74, 75
dranth that develops in such iso-
lates
Developed a hydranth at the point 76
of high O, concentration
Prevented bipolar(" Janus") head 77
regeneration in isolated pieces of
body by demecolcine, which stim-
ulates aerobic respiration

Note: As a mandatory requirement of most animals, molecular oxygen strictly is a dietary constituent. It
affects a number of specific processes of differentiation, mainly through aerobic respiration, (oxida-
tion processes), which is more consistently necessary for differentiation than for biosynthesis
(growth). Differentiation of the "animal" structures, i.e., CNS and sense organs, is more demanding
of O, than that of the "vegetative" structures (viscera in particular).
12 Handbook of Nutritional Requirements in a Functional Context
Table 7
ACTION OF CARBOHYDRATES AND DERIVATIVES ON DIFFERENTIATION
Species Nature of Test
In Embryonic Development
Psammechinus (Echino- 10 to 100 mMNa pyruvate in
idea) embryro medium (seawater)
Paracentrotus (Echino- P-gluconic acid, or I ,2-propa-
idea) embryo nedioi-P, or lactate, in me-
dium
Paracentrotus, embryo 0.4-1.6 mMlactic, or acetic,
acids in medium
Chick embryo Explanted to medium contain-
ing chemically defined diet
Order of value of dietary car-
bohydrates and derivatives
Order of demands by various
differentiation processes
Postembryonic Development
Rat Lactose as dietary carbohy-
drate
Rat Reduction of carbohydrate in
diet, keeping all other consth-
uents adequate
Rana tadpole Glucose and organic phosphate
administered
Rana and axolotl larvae Glucose, xylose, or glycogen in
medium
Drosophila larva 5- Thio-D-Glc (analogue of Glc)
replacing 2507o of diet of hex-
ose
Hyalophora cecropia ,.C Glc injected into fourth-
stage larvae
Lucilia Cuprina [U-,.C]Glc, 0.25 mM, injected
into pharate adult
Hymenolepis (Cestoda) Depletion of supply of dietary
carbohydrate to host
Phormia (female) Deficiency of sugar in diet
Lampetia (Narcissus Honey in diet
bulb fly)
Honey-free diet
Dugesia (Tricladida) 1-50 mMGic or sucrose in
medium together with 100
mMof demecolcine, prior to
isolation of pier.es of body by
transe~o:tion
Results Ref.
Strongly animalizing, i.e., stimu- 78
lated ectodermal differentiation
relative to that of mesoderm and
endoderm
Animalizing action by all three 79
Vegetalizing action, i.e., stimu- 80
lated differentiation of mesoderm
and endoderm relative to ecto-
derm
Soluble sugars found to be the only 81
constituents mandatory for all
stages of differentiation
Glc> Fru > Gal, Maltose > Pyru- 82
vate, Lactate
Later stages of differentiation (his- 82
todifferentiation) demand highest
concentrations of sugar; brain
and spinal cord demand more
than heart differentiation
Antirachitogenic; increased P0 4 - 83
and Ca-absorption from gut, and
increased bone formation
Depressed bone formation and 84
general development, very much
as in simple inanition
Accelerated metamorphosis 85
Boosted metamorphic action of 86
thyroxine
Completely inhibited pupation 87
Most of ,.C incorporated into chi- 88
tin of new exoskeleton
Mostly incorporated into chitin of 89
exoskeleton
Inhibited reproductive maturation 90
of parasite
Retarded differentiation of ovary 91
Average of 83.4 eggs.laid per fe- 92
male
Average production: 7.6 eggs per 92
female
Protected the worm against actions 93
of demecolcine alone, viz., retar-
dation of head regeneration at
anterior end of pieces and indue-
tion of second head at posterior
end of piece
 Volume I 13

Table 7 (continued)
ACTION OF CARBOHYDRATES AND DERIVATIVES ON DIFFERENTIATION

Species Nature of Test Results Ref.

Triturus taeniatus 2"1a Glc injected into stump of
amputated limb
Increased the rate of differentia- 94
tion of the regenerating limb
("Coefficient of differentiation")
-3.99 compared with 3.25 for
control

Note: Some effects no doubt are due simply to the use of carbohydrates as a source of energy, a substrate
for respiratory reactions; others are specific actions of carbohydrates on differentiation. The expla-
nation of some remains obscure.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Bird boys
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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Title: The Bird boys

Or, the young sky pilots' first air voyage

Author: John Luther Langworthy

Illustrator: C. H. Lawrence

Release date: September 23, 2023 [eBook #71708]

Language: English

Original publication: Chicago: M. A. Donohue & Co, 1912

Credits: Tim Lindell, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BIRD

BOYS ***
The biplane made several furious dashes this way and
that, as slants of wind caught her extended planes.
[Page 152]
The Bird Boys; or, Young Sky Pilots’ First Air Voyage.
 THE BIRD BOYS
OR

The Young Sky Pilots’ First Air

Voyage

By
JOHN LUTHER LANGWORTHY

Chicago
M. A. DONOHUE & COMPANY
 CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES

Four Books of Woodcraft, and Adventure in the

Forest
and on the Water, that every Boy Scout should
have in his Library
By ST. GEORGE RATHBORNE

CANOEMATES IN CANADA; or, Three Boys

Afloat on the Saskatchewan.
THE YOUNG FUR-TAKERS; or, Traps and
Trails in the Wilderness.
THE HOUSE-BOAT BOYS; or, Drifting Down to
the Sunny South.
CHUMS IN DIXIE; or, The Strange Cruise of a
Motor Boat.

In these four delightful volumes the author has drawn

bountifully from his thirty-five years experience as a
true sportsman, and lover of nature, to reveal many
of the secrets of the woods, such as all Boy Scouts
strive to know. And, besides, each book is replete
with stirring adventures among the four-footed
denizens, of the wilderness; so that a feast of useful
knowledge is served up, with just that class of stirring
incidents so eagerly welcomed by all boys with red
blood in their veins. For sale wherever books are
sold, or sent prepaid for 50 cents each by the
publishers.

Copyright, 1912, M. A. Donohue & Co.

 CONTENTS
CHAPTER. PAGE.
I. “Birds of a Feather” 7
II. Rivals in the Field 20
III. Trying Out the Engine 31
IV. A Midnight Alarm 42
V. A Message from the Sky 53
VI. Bloomsbury Is Booked for Fame 64
VII. A Sensation for Old Home Week 75
VIII. A Novice of the Biplane 86
IX. The News Larry Brought 95
X. Signs of Trouble 104
XI. The Aeroplane Thieves 113
XII. Held Back 122
XIII. The Bird Boys in Luck 131
XIV. A Good Night’s Work 140
XV. “It Is Fine!” 149
XVI. Seven Times Around the Circle 158
XVII. When the Monoplane Fell 167
XVIII. A Scout and a Discovery 176
XIX. Helping Out the Thief 187
XX. The Aeroplane Race 196
XXI. Headed for the Summit of Old Thunder Top 207
XXII. Well Won! 218
XXIII. Proven Guilty—Conclusion 229
 The Bird Boys;
or
The Young Sky Pilots’ First Air Voyage
 CHAPTER I.
“BIRDS OF A FEATHER.”

“What are you frowning so much about, Andy?”

“And look at him shake his head, Frank; just for all the world like he’s
gone and lost his best friend!”
“Well, perhaps he has fellows,” laughed Frank Bird, promptly. “At any
rate, my poor cousin’s heart is nearly broken into flinders, just
because he can’t for the life of him remember what he did with that
wonderful little tool he invented.”
“Oh! say, is that what it’s all about?” cried Larry Geohegan; “I guess
now, you mean the handy aluminum monkey wrench that always
kept its jaws locked after you set ’em? Too bad, Andy. Wish you luck
in finding it again.”
“Yes, that’s it, fellows!” exclaimed the sorrowful one, quickly. “Tell me,
have either of you set eyes on the little jewel since—well, say last
Saturday noon?”
“Huh! just why do you go and pick out that day, of all the blessed
week?” demanded “Elephant” Small, a boy who had been given this
nickname in derision, since he was anything but ponderous; and who
at home chanced to be called Fenimore Cooper.
“I’ll tell you,” replied Andy Bird, promptly; “honestly then, because
that’s the last time I can remember handling the same. I was
tightening up a nut that had come loose on my bike—perhaps you
may have seen me do it.”
“Oh! yes,” remarked Larry, the fourth member of the group, “that was
the day we took that long spin on our wheels, and Frank cooked us a
bully good camp dinner when we rested on the side of Thunder Top
mountain, wasn’t it?”
“Sure it was,” responded Andy. “And just before we got ready to start
off again I fastened that bolt. Then it was goodbye to my dandy little
wrench, that I always expected to make a bushel of money patenting
some fine day.”
“Well, I’ve got an idea, and a bright one too!” observed Elephant,
calmly.
“Then it’ll be the first you ever had,” declared Larry, derisively.
“Don’t hold your breath till you forget it, Elephant. Let’s hear the
wonderful stunt that’s struck you!” suggested the broken-hearted
loser, looking interested.
Elephant never hurried. Perhaps after all it was because of his
slowness that his name had been changed so radically.
“Why, you see, it occurred to me that the old bald-headed eagle we
watched circling around and around that noon, may have dodged
down when nobody was looking, and carried the cute little wrench
away in his talons.”
This was not a joke on Elephant’s part. He was never known to show
genuine humor himself, although his chums frequently found cause
for hilarious laughter in some of the numerous suggestions he put
forward. But Elephant himself really believed in them all, marvelous
though they may have been.
“Well, now that is a clever idea,” observed Frank, always ready to
lead the other on, in order to enjoy a laugh. “I tell you, that old king of
the upper air must have heard Andy boasting how he meant to follow
in his father’s wake, and be an aeronaut for keeps?”
He winked at the others while speaking; but Elephant of course
failed to see anything of this side show.
“That’s the ticket!” cried the originator of the idea vigorously, happy in
the belief that for once he must have actually hit upon a bright
thought; “the measly old pirate just made up his mind that he’d
cripple Andy in the start, and stop all work on your wonderful
monoplane. No competition allowed, understand, Andy! So he
hooked the wrench; and that ties up the whole business.”
“Oh! shucks! You give me a pain, Elephant,” grunted Larry,
pretending to double up as a boy might in the green apple season.
“Huh! it’s easy to pick flaws,” sniffed the other, contemptuously. “But
if you don’t like my clever thought, Larry Geohegan, just suppose
you give us a better one. Now, none of your hedging, but out with it!”
“That’s as simple as falling off a log,” sneered the bantered boy, as
he thrust his thumbs into the upper pockets of his coat, and assumed
the air of consequence with which he loved to tantalize Elephant.
“Talk’s cheap; do something, can’t you?” demanded his competitor.
“Listen,” said Larry, impressively. “It seems to me that something
happened to Andy on last Saturday, P. M. How about that little
episode of the quicksand you got stuck in, old fellow? Didn’t we have
to run and get a fence rail to pry you out, wheel and all.”
The two Bird cousins exchanged quick looks.
“Now you’re talking, Larry; because that was just what did happen to
me, for a dead certainty!” admitted Andy, readily.
“Looks like Larry had struck a warm trail,” ventured Frank, nodding
his head encouragingly.
“Hear further, fellows,” the originator of the newest clue went on
saying. “I remember right now that after we pried Andy loose, he had
to draw himself up by means of the limb of a tree. Also, that he
straddled the same limb, so that his head hung down for a little
while.”
“Sure. That was when I was trying to get the rope I had tied to my
wheel, over the limb, so you could pull her out of the mire,” admitted
Andy.
“All right,” remarked Larry. “That was just the time the wrench must
have dropped out of your pocket, and went souse in the mud, to sink
to China. Some day you may hear of an enterprising pigtail man over
there taking out a patent on a nice little wrench, warranted never to
slip while you work.”
“Did you see it drop?” demanded the other.
“Nixey, I did not; still, it stands to reason——” began Larry,
obstinately.
“Did you hear it drop?” Andy continued, positively.
“Well, seeing that you were shedding gallons of water about that
time, not to mention hunks of mud, it wouldn’t be funny if we failed to
hear such a little thing fall into the sucker hole,” grumbled Larry,
driven to bay, yet not willing to change his mind.
“All the same then,” declared Andy, “I don’t believe it fell into that
muck you call a quicksand. I’ve just gone and misplaced it, that’s all.
And some minute, when I get my mind on it, I expect to remember
what I did with that little beauty.”
“Meanwhile,” remarked his cousin, with a smile, “we can makeshift to
get along at our work with the big monkey wrench. After all, it isn’t
the tools that really count, but the ability to do things when you’re left
high and dry. Hello! Going to leave us, fellows?” as Elephant and
Larry stopped at a cross roads.
“I promised to do a job in our yard today, and it’s going to take me
the rest of the time to get through,” announced Larry, with a shrug of
his shoulders.
“And me to the woodpile for a little more muscle. So-long, boys; and
don’t you believe that old bald-headed thief of the air didn’t
understand how you meant to snatch his honors away from him.
Look to his nest up on Thunder Top for your monkey wrench, Andy.”
And Elephant solemnly shook his head as he walked slowly away.
“What shall we do now, Frank?” asked Andy, when they found
themselves alone. “Had we better go and tackle a little more work on
our machine, while we wait for that cylinder to arrive?”
“You know we can do mighty little now until we install that. And I’ve
somehow got a hunch it’s about due to arrive. So what say we
meander down to the station and find out?” suggested the other.
“A bully idea; so come along!” declared Andy, usually only too willing
to play second fiddle when in the company of his energetic cousin.
Both were healthy looking boys. Frank’s father was the leading
doctor in the town of Bloomsbury, which fronted on Sunrise Lake, a
sheet of water some seventeen miles in length, and with
innumerable coves along its crooked shores.
Because the boy’s mother had died in his infancy with a suddenly
developed lung trouble, the worthy doctor had always been
unusually solicitous about Frank; and urged upon him the necessity
for securing all the outdoor life he could. Nobody else dreamed that
Frank looked delicate; but his father saw suspicious signs in every
little “bark” he gave utterance to.
The result was that just now Frank was to be kept out of school for a
whole year. His father, being a self-made man, had always believed
that an education could be more practically attained from
observation and travel than by study of books.
Andy, on the other hand, was an orphan. His father had been quite a
well known man of science, and a professor in college. Having a
leaning toward aeronautics, he finally took up the fascinating pursuit,
after his wife died. A year before the time when we make the
acquaintance of the boys, he had vanished utterly from the sight of
mortal man, having been carried away in a severe gale while in a
balloon, crossing over the line of the partly finished Panama canal.
No word had ever come back, and it was of course fully believed that
the daring navigator of the upper currents had perished at sea, or in
the wilds of that tropical country to the south.
So Andy found himself left in charge of a jolly old gentleman named
Colonel Josiah Whympers, mentioned in the will as his guardian.
There was ample money in the estate, and every month Andy
received many times more than any lad in all Bloomsbury. But he
had no bad habits, and spent his money for good purposes; much of
it going toward building a monoplane, which he and Frank expected
to utilize in taking little flights around the vicinity.
So far as Andy was concerned, he certainly came by his great love
for aviation honestly; since his father had been infatuated with the
science of flying.
“Besides,” Andy was accustomed to remarking, when any one
challenged his wisdom in choosing such a dangerous calling; “A Bird
ought to take to the air just as naturally as a duck does to water. My
father had to give in to the call of the upper wild; and I just guess I’ve
inherited the longing to soar through the clouds from him.”
Andy was a merry lad, with twinkling blue eyes, and full of the joy of
living. His cousin Frank happened to be more serious-minded as a
rule; and so they made a most congenial pair of chums, who were
yet to have their first quarrel.
Colonel Josiah was supposed to be a rather gruff old party; but that
was pretty much a blind; for at heart he was the most amiable
gentleman within twenty miles of the home town. Andy could just
wind him around his little finger. Having become a cripple some
years back, the colonel could no longer roam the world, looking on
strange sights, as had been his custom all his life. Consequently, he
had to take his enjoyment in reading of the exploits of others, and in
encouraging the boys of Bloomsbury to become athletes.
At many a hotly contested baseball game the old traveler could be
seen waving his crutch and his cane in the air as he rooted loyally for
the home team. And when he learned how Andy aspired to follow in
the footsteps of his gifted father, with a sturdy intention to conquer
the problems of aviation, instead of throwing obstacles in the way,
the old man actually applauded his choice, and offered to assist by
any reasonable means in his power.
For more than two months now the Bird boys had been industriously
at work upon a model of a monoplane fashioned very much after the
style of the Bleriot which they had seen do wonderful stunts on the
day they traveled down to the trying-out grounds on Long Island.
A great advance had been made in securing a new Kinkaid engine,
said to be three times as light as the best hitherto made. Both boys
anticipated great things when they had completed their task. Several
times they had undone certain parts of the work, to go about it
another way that promised better results. And now they only waited
for the cylinder which had been sent for, to get their little machine
into practical use.
It was far from being a toy. Both boys had gone deeply into the
subject. They talked of little else, read everything that came their
way, consulted every authority attainable, experimented, and
planned their way carefully.
As yet the wonderful monoplane was something of a mystery. It was
housed in a long, low building they were pleased to call a “hangar,”
and which was kept scrupulously locked at all times, whether the
toilers were within or absent. This odd-looking building was situated
in a field back of Colonel Whympers’ house, which also belonged to
the crippled traveler. And frequently he would limp out to where he
could look toward the shack, to talk to himself, nod his head, and
smile, as though he expected great things some day when “his boys”
had completed their task.
Walking down through the town on this July day, rather cool for the
season, the cousins talked as usual of little else save the chances of
their flying machine proving all that they expected of it.
“I’m willing to stake my future reputation on her being a hustler from
the word go!” declared Andy, energetically, as they drew near the
railroad yards.
“And I’m going to risk my precious life on her ability to stay up, once
she gets away from the ground. That’s as much as any fellow could
say!” echoed Frank; who knew only too well what faithful labor had
been put into every part of the monoplane, built for two.
“Don’t I hope we’ll find our cylinder has come to hand, though?” said
Andy, as he began to cast his eyes around, to immediately add
excitedly: “Look there, that seems to be about the size of the
package we’re expecting. Yes, and here’s the name of the aeroplane
dealer we wrote to. It’s a cylinder, as sure as you live. Go and hunt
up the clerk, Frank, and settle with him. Meantime I’ll be ripping off
this cover, so we can carry home the beauty easier.”
So Frank immediately strode away toward the little freight office, to
pay the bill, and settle matters. Andy, left alone, started to make use
of his knife in cutting away the burlap that had been sewed around
the object with heavy twine.
He was just well into this pleasant task, whistling merrily meanwhile,
as was his wont, when he heard a hoarse cry of anger from some
point close by.
“Hey! hold on there, you! What in thunder are you tearing open my
freight for? I’ve got a good notion to have you arrested as a thief!”
cried a voice.
And Andy, looking up in startled surprise, saw two figures bearing
down under full sail, in whom he recognized his particular
detestation, Percy Carberry, backed up by his shadow and crony,
“Sandy” Hollingshead.
 CHAPTER II.
RIVALS IN THE FIELD.

“Did you ever see such nerve, Puss, in all your life?” gasped Sandy,
as the two newcomers brought up alongside the astonished Andy.
“Look at the vandal, would you, ripping the cover off our cylinder just
as cool as you please! Hey! Sandy, see anything of the yard
watchman around? We ought to have him pinch this thief straight
away!” snapped the Carberry boy, as he glared at the stooping
figure.
“Ain’t he the bird, though?” went on Sandy, pretending to be
surprised in turn; “And as sure as you live, Puss, it’s the tail end of
that wonderful Bird combination that’s going to do such stunning
stunts one of these fine days. Oh! me! oh! my! What a loss there’ll be
when he is shut up in the cooler!”
“Looky here, just explain what right you’ve got cutting open our
freight, that’s the ticket!” blustered Percy, shaking his clenched hand
in front of Andy’s nose.
“Take that away! I don’t like it. And what the dickens do you mean
saying this thing is your freight?” demanded the threatened one,
beginning to gain his feet; for he did not just fancy kneeling so close
to a fellow like Percy Hollingshead, whose reputation for treachery
was well known.
“Because it is our freight. Go back to school and learn to read, you
lunkhead!” the other went on, seeming to get more and more angry
—because they were two to one, and the freight yard was a usually
sequestered place, where no one would be apt to interfere, if so be
they chose to administer a drubbing to the offensive investigator.
“But it’s certainly a cylinder for an airship!” declared Andy, casting a
quick glance down toward his feet, where the partly uncovered