Global Satellite Meteorological

Observation (GSMO) Theory: Volume 1

1st Edition Stoj■e Dimov Il■ev (Auth.)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/global-satellite-meteorological-observation-gsmo-theo
ry-volume-1-1st-edition-stojce-dimov-ilcev-auth/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Global Mobile Satellite Communications Applications:

For Maritime, Land and Aeronautical Applications Volume
2 2nd Edition Stojce Dimov Ilcev (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/global-mobile-satellite-
communications-applications-for-maritime-land-and-aeronautical-
applications-volume-2-2nd-edition-stojce-dimov-ilcev-auth/

Koren Talmud Bavli Noe Edition Volume 29 Sanhedrin Part

1 Hebrew English Large Color Edition Adin Steinsaltz

https://textbookfull.com/product/koren-talmud-bavli-noe-edition-
volume-29-sanhedrin-part-1-hebrew-english-large-color-edition-
adin-steinsaltz/

Experimental Algorithms 13th International Symposium

SEA 2014 Copenhagen Denmark June 29 July 1 2014
Proceedings 1st Edition Joachim Gudmundsson

https://textbookfull.com/product/experimental-algorithms-13th-
international-symposium-sea-2014-copenhagen-denmark-
june-29-july-1-2014-proceedings-1st-edition-joachim-gudmundsson/

Quantized Detector Networks The Theory of Observation

1st Edition George Jaroszkiewicz

https://textbookfull.com/product/quantized-detector-networks-the-
theory-of-observation-1st-edition-george-jaroszkiewicz/
Experimental Algorithms 14th International Symposium
SEA 2015 Paris France June 29 July 1 2015 Proceedings
1st Edition Evripidis Bampis (Eds.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/experimental-algorithms-14th-
international-symposium-sea-2015-paris-france-
june-29-july-1-2015-proceedings-1st-edition-evripidis-bampis-eds/

Developments in Language Theory 18th International

Conference DLT 2014 Ekaterinburg Russia August 26 29
2014 Proceedings 1st Edition Arseny M. Shur

https://textbookfull.com/product/developments-in-language-
theory-18th-international-conference-dlt-2014-ekaterinburg-
russia-august-26-29-2014-proceedings-1st-edition-arseny-m-shur/

Mathematics of Program Construction 12th International

Conference MPC 2015 Königswinter Germany June 29 July 1
2015 Proceedings 1st Edition Ralf Hinze

https://textbookfull.com/product/mathematics-of-program-
construction-12th-international-conference-mpc-2015-konigswinter-
germany-june-29-july-1-2015-proceedings-1st-edition-ralf-hinze/

Japan 1944–45: LeMay’s B-29 Strategic Bombing Campaign

1st Edition Mark Lardas

https://textbookfull.com/product/japan-1944-45-lemays-b-29-
strategic-bombing-campaign-1st-edition-mark-lardas/

lacanian ink 29 From an Other to the other Josefina

Ayerza

https://textbookfull.com/product/lacanian-ink-29-from-an-other-
to-the-other-josefina-ayerza/
Stojče Dimov Ilčev

Global Satellite
Meteorological
Observation
(GSMO) Theory
Volume 1
Global Satellite Meteorological Observation
(GSMO) Theory
Stojče Dimov Ilčev

Global Satellite
Meteorological Observation
(GSMO) Theory
Volume 1

By
Stojče Dimov Ilčev
(Стойчо Димов Илчев)
Durban University of Technology (DUT)
Durban, South Africa
Stojče Dimov Ilčev
Durban University of Technology (DUT)
Durban, South Africa

ISBN 978-3-319-67118-5 ISBN 978-3-319-67119-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-67119-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953101

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated to the memory of my late father
Prof. Dimo Stoev Ilčev
(Димо Стоев Илчев)
Preface

The new Springer book Global Satellite Meteorological Observation (GSMO)

Theory: Volume 1 presents in its introduction the development of radio and satellite
communications including the history of satellite meteorological observation. The
book includes major aspects of the space segment with satellite platforms and
orbital mechanics, baseband signals and types of transmission systems, atmospheric
electromagnetic radiation and radiative transfer, satellite meteorological parame-
ters, main satellite meteorological instruments, and antenna systems with
propagation.
Moreover, in Global Satellite Meteorological Observation (GSMO) Applica-
tions: Volume 2, topics about satellite meteorological networks, satellite imagery
interpretation, satellite weather remote sensing, satellite meteorological applica-
tions, ground segments, user segments, and integrations in space meteorology will
be introduced.
Today satellite meteorological instruments present as the “eyes from space,”
which can “see” the Earth and its atmosphere with all weather phenomena and,
from a global perspective, can send all necessary observations, data, and images via
satellite onboard transponders to the ground Earth stations (GES) or readout
stations for processing facilities. On the other hand, it is very important to realize
the idea and possibility for the integration of a meteorological satellite service, such
as geostationary Earth orbit (GEO), polar Earth orbit (PEO), and new high elliptical
orbit (HEO) satellite systems, together with other space meteorological facilities,
under one worldwide observation umbrella.
For basic and principal technical information, the author of this book has drawn
heavily mostly on the following sources:
• Kidder S. Q. and Ham T. C., “Satellite Meteorology – An Introduction,”
Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA, 1995.
• Tan S. Y., “Meteorological Satellite Systems,” Springer, New York, 2014.
• Menzel P., “Remote Sensing with Meteorological Satellites,” University of
Wisconsin Academic Press, Madison, WI, USA, 2012.

vii
viii Preface

• Kelkar R. R., “Satellite Meteorology,” BS Publications, Hyderabad, India, 2007.

• Sportisse B., “Fundamentals in Air Pollution – From Processes to Modelling,”
Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands 2008.
• Liu G., “Satellite Meteorology,” Florida State University, Florida, 2005.
• Ilcev D. S., “Global Mobile Satellite Communications for Maritime, Land and
Aeronautical Applications – Theory Volume 1,” Springer, Boston, 2016.
• Ilcev D. S., “Satellite Meteorological Observation System,” Manual,
DUT, 2015.
• Ilcev D. S., “Global Aeronautical Communication, Navigation and Surveil-
lance,” Theory Volume 1 and Applications Volume 2, AIAA, Reston, 2013.
• Ilcev D. S., “Space Meteorology,” Manual, SSC, DUT, 2017.
• NOAA/NESDIS, “User’s Guide for Building and Operating Environmental
Satellite Receiving Stations,” Suitland, MD, USA, 2009.
• Eumetsat, “The Meteosat System – Satellite Ground Segment Mission and
Global Coordination,” Darmstadt, Germany, 2000.
• Roscosmos/Russian Space Agency, “Status of Current and Future Russian
Satellite Systems,” Roshydromet, Moscow, 2010.
• Group of Authors, “Radiowave Propagation Information for Predictions for
Earth-to-Space Path Communications,” edited by C. Wilson and D. Rogers,
ITU, Geneva.
Readers will find that this book has been written using up-to-date systems,
techniques, and technology in satellite meteorological observation. The material
has been systematized in such a way to cover developments in satellite meteorology
space and ground segments, transmission systems, electromagnetic radiation in the
atmosphere, radiative transfer, satellite meteorological parameters and instruments,
antenna systems with practical solutions, and radio wave propagation.
The two volumes of this book were written in order to form a bridge between
potential readers and current global satellite meteorological observation (GSMO)
trends, system concepts, and transmission network architecture by using a very
simple style with easily comprehensible technical information, characteristics,
graph icons, figures, illustrations, and mathematical equations. The special
approach in the two volumes of the GSMO books is the introduction of a complete
space and ground segment with all significant segments introducing modern mete-
orological imaging systems on board satellites, transmission systems, and ground
readout and processing facilities.
Volume 1 of this new book, nominated as “Theory,” consists of seven chapters
on the following particular subjects:
Chapter 1, “Introduction,” depicts a background to the development of space
systems and concepts of satellite communications in the function of transfer
meteorological observation data and images. The special retrospective presents
the evolution of space meteorological observations, history of early radio, evolution
of satellite mobile and fixed communication systems, definition of VSAT broad-
casting, international coordination organizations and regulatory procedures, space
Preface ix

systems and radio communication frequency assignment, and history of satellite

meteorology.
Chapter 2, “Space Segment,” discusses the fundamental principles and theories
of space platforms and orbital mechanics, laws of satellite motion, satellite param-
eters, new types of launching systems and station-keeping techniques, satellite
orbits and geometric relations, spacecraft configuration, payload structure, types
of orbits for meteorological and other satellite systems, meteorological satellite
payloads on board satellite antenna systems, and components of a satellite bus.
Chapter 3, “Baseband and Transmission Systems,” gives an essential basic
knowledge of baseband signals and processing techniques, analog and digital
transmissions, modulation and demodulation, channel coding and decoding, error
corrections, multiple access techniques, fixed and mobile DVB-RCS standards,
MPEG multimedia standards, satellite audio and video broadcasting, direct-to-
home and other satellite digital broadcast systems, transmission standards, and
new DVB-S2/S3 architectures.
Chapter 4, “Atmospheric Electromagnetic Radiation,” presents all the funda-
mentals of atmospheric radiative transfer, energy emissions, radiative properties of
matter, Earth’s atmosphere applications and radiative transfer equation (RTE) with
prime of radiations for infrared and visible imaging, radiative budget for the Earth
atmosphere system, solar constant and emission effective temperature, and energy
budget for the Earth or atmosphere systems.
Chapter 5, “Satellite Meteorological Parameters,” explains very important sat-
ellite activities; such as, satellite weather observation, satellite meteorological
instruments for observation and monitoring, parameters for temperature and trace
gases, wind flow, clouds and aerosols, precipitation measuring technique, Earth
radiation budget, measurements and monitoring of other Earth observation param-
eters with special review of hydrological analysis, sea waves and ocean dynamics,
sea surface temperatures, pollution and ecosystem, cryosphere detection, agricul-
tural and forestry, global land cover mapping, and desertification monitoring.
Chapter 6, “Satellite Meteorological Instruments,” introduces all weather instru-
ments on board PEO satellite meteorological systems from space; such as, the US
POES and European spacecraft. All types of meteorological instruments on board
GEO satellites; such as, the US GOES, European Meteosat, Russian Electro,
Chinese Fengyun, Indian INSAT, and Japanese GMS satellites are also
discussed here.
Chapter 7, “Antenna Systems and Propagation,” includes research and introduc-
tion of current and new proposed prototypes of antenna solutions for satellite and
other radio meteorological communications and broadcasting fixed, semi-fixed, and
mobile systems: such as, low-gain omnidirectional antennas, medium-gain direc-
tional antennas, and high-gain directional aperture antennas. Moreover, this chapter
introduces ground antennas for particular satellite meteorological systems: such as,
directional antennas for PEO direct readout stations (DRS), multidirectional anten-
nas for PEO DRS, directional antennas for GEO DRS, meteocast DVB-RCS GES
antennas for GEO DRS, user shipborne antennas, and user vehicleborne antennas.
This chapter also comprises all particulars about propagation effects significant for
x Preface

satellite transmission requirements in meteorology and weather observation data:

such as, propagation fundamentals, refraction, absorption and non-LOS radio
propagation, sky wave propagation, atmospheric effects on propagation, sky noise
temperature contributions, path depolarization causes, propagation effects impor-
tant for space communications and broadcasting, and so on.

Acknowledgments

Above all, the author of this book would like to express his very special appreci-
ation and gratitude to Prof. Ahmed Cassim Bawa, former vice chancellor (VC) and
principal of the Durban University of Technology (DUT), who gave him huge
support in space science research and postgraduate studies. The author also
expresses his special gratitude to the new VC Prof. Thandwa Mthembu, DVC
Prof. Sibusiso Moyo, and DUT staff for the support and encouragement to establish
the Space Science Centre (SSC) for Research and Postgraduate Studies in Space
Science and for the moral assistance in completing this book.
The author is the chair of SSC, a research professor, and a supervisor at DUT for
research and postgraduate studies. The author has a very important multinational
project, the African Satellite Augmentation System (ASAS), for the entire African
continent and Middle East and also many other proposals in radio and satellite CNS,
digital video broadcasting-return channel via satellite (DVB-RCS), global radio and
satellite tracking of mobiles and living beings, satellite SCADA (M2 M), strato-
spheric platform systems (SPS), and space solar power (SSP); he also had one
significant GADSS project developed in 2000. He also would like to express his
special appreciation to DUT for the generous contribution as a sponsor of this book.
The Durban University of Technology prides itself on the commitment to
academic excellence.
The over 24,000 students who pass through the doors everyday are testament to a
growing ethos of learning, research, and community engagement. DUT is a multi-
campus university of technology at the cutting edge of higher education, renowned
for technological training and academic prowess. The university is characterized by
being research-driven with a focus on strategic and applied research that can be
translated into professional practice. Furthermore, research output may be com-
mercialized, thus providing a source of income for the institution. In striving to
create a new and dynamic ethos, the university builds upon current strengths and
celebrates the expertise of its staff. DUT is providing Web pages for its SSC for
Research and Postgraduate Studies in Space Science at www.dut.ac.za/space_
science – where the full study program, projects for instant developments, and
research and supervisor staff are all presented.
The author is also very grateful to the group of authors for the various manuals,
brochures, and pamphlets issued by IMO, ICAO, ITU, WMO, ESA, ETSI, ETRI,
NOAA, Roscosmos, Roshydromet, China Meteorological Administration (CMA),
ISRO, Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Sea Launch, Advantech Wireless,
Preface xi

Kongsberg, Dartcom, SeaSpace, Orbit, SCISYS, and other regulatory bodies and
operators.
This book is dedicated to all his friends working in the shipping industry, to his
newest friend Prof. Felix Mora-Camino, and to his present postgraduate students at
DUT. He also wishes specially to acknowledge the valuable support and under-
standing from the publisher of this book, Springer, especially to Ms. Mary E. James,
senior editor in applied sciences, and her assistants, Ms. Zoe Kennedy, Ms. Rebecca
R. Hytowitz, and Mr. Brian Halm, and all Springer staff in India.
Finally, he would like to express a very heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to his
lovely wife Svetlana M. Ilčeva and his family for their help and understanding
while the manuscript was being written, especially to his dear children and
grandchildren living in Montenegro: his son Marijan with his wife Vanja and
their children Daria and Martin; his daughter Tatjana with her husband Boško
and their children Anja and Stefan; his stepdaughter Olga and her husband Boris;
his stepgranddaughter Bažena and stepson Lev; his sister Prof. Tatjana Ilčeva and
niece Ivana in Belgrade, Serbia; and his cousin Valentin Boyadžiev and his family
in Sofia, Bulgaria.

Durban, South Africa Stojče Dimov Ilčev

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Evolution of Meteorological Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 History of Early Radio Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Evolution of Satellite Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2 Experiments with Active Communications Satellites . . . . . 15
1.2.3 Early Progress in Mobile Satellite Communications
and Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.4 Early Development in Meteorological Observation
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Development of Global Mobile Satellite Systems (GMSS) . . . . . . 21
1.3.1 Global Mobile Satellite Communications (GMSC) . . . . . . 22
1.3.2 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.3 Stratospheric Platform Systems (SPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.4 Satellite Meteorological Observation Systems (SMOS) . . . 27
1.4 Definition of Fixed Satellite Communications (FSC) . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4.1 Satellite Voice Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4.2 Satellite VSAT Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5 Definition of Mobile VSAT Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.5.1 Mobile Broadcast Satellite Service (MBSS) . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.5.2 Mobile Satellite Broadband Service (MSBS) . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.6 International Coordination Organizations and Regulatory
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.6.1 International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
and Radio Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.6.2 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.6.3 International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) . . . . . . . . 38

xiii
xiv Contents

1.7 Space Systems and Radiocommunication Frequency

Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.7.1 Meteorological Space and Ground Segments . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.7.2 Meteorological Frequency Designations
and Classification of Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.8 History of Satellite Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.8.1 Early Meteorological Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.8.2 Evolution of PEO Meteorological Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.8.3 Evolution of GEO Meteorological Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.8.4 Evolution of Non-GEO Meteorological Satellites . . . . . . . 57
1.9 Mobile Satellite Meteorological Service (MSMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.9.1 WEFAX System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.9.2 Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.9.3 Applied Weather Technology (AWT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.9.4 Global Meteorological Technologies (GMT) . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.9.5 Maritime Noble Denton Weather Services (NDWS) . . . . . 66
1.9.6 Global Sea State Information via Internet (GSSII) . . . . . . . 66
1.9.7 Aeronautical Weather Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.9.7.1 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) . . . . 68
1.9.7.2 Aeronautical Weather Forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2 Space Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.1 Platforms and Orbital Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.1.1 Space Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.1.2 History of Motions in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.1.3 Laws of Satellite Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.1.3.1 Geometry of Elliptical Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.1.3.2 Geometry of Circular Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.4 Horizon and Geographic Satellite Coordinates . . . . . . . . . 81
2.1.4.1 Satellite Distance and Coverage Area . . . . . . . . . 81
2.1.4.2 Satellite Look Angles
(Elevation and Azimuth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.1.4.3 Satellite Track and Geometry (Longitude
and Latitude) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.1.5 Orientation in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.1.6 Satellite Orbit Perturbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.2 Spacecraft Launching and Station-Keeping Techniques . . . . . . . . 97
2.2.1 Satellite Installation and Launching Operations . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2.1.1 Direct Ascent Launching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2.1.2 Indirect Ascent Launching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2.2 Satellite Launchers and Launching Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.2.2.1 Expendable Launching Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.2.2.2 Reusable Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.2.2.3 Land-Based Launching Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.2.2.4 Sea-Based Launch Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Contents xv

2.3 Types of Orbits for Meteorological and Other Satellite Systems . . 108
2.3.1 Low Earth Orbits (LEO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.3.2 Circular Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.3.2.1 Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.3.2.2 Geostationary Earth Orbits (GEO) . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.3.2.3 Geosynchronous Inclined Orbits (GIO) . . . . . . . . 112
2.3.3 Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.3.3.1 Molniya Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.3.3.2 Tundra Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.3.3.3 Loopus Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.3.4 Polar Earth Orbits (PEO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.4 Main Characteristics of Metrological Satellite Orbits . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.4.1 Sunsynchronous Polar Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.4.2 Geostationary Circular Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.4.3 Other Satellite Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.5 Meteorological Satellite Payloads and Antenna Systems . . . . . . . . 125
2.5.1 Transparent or Bent-pipe Communication Transponder . . . 126
2.5.2 Regenerative Communication Transponder . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.5.3 Satellite Meteorological e Communication Transponder . . 128
2.5.4 Diagram of VSAT GEO Satellite Communication
Repeater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.5.5 Antenna System onboard Metrological Satellites . . . . . . . . 131
2.5.5.1 Reflector Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.5.5.2 Aperture Antennas (Horn Antennas) . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.5.5.3 Array Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.5.6 Characteristics of Spacecraft Antenna System . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.6 Satellite Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.6.1 Structure Platform (SP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.6.2 Electric Power (EP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.6.3 Thermal Control (TC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.6.4 Attitude and Orbit Control (AOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.6.5 Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TT&C) . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.6.6 Propulsion Engine (PE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3 Baseband and Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.1 Baseband Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.1.1 Voice Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.1.2 Data and Multimedia Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.1.3 Sound (Audio) Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.1.4 Video and Television Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.1.5 Basic Concept of Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.1.6 Analog and Digital Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2 Analog Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.2.1 Baseband Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.2.2 Analog Modulation and Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
xvi Contents

3.2.2.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

3.2.2.2 Frequency Modulation (FM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.2.2.3 Phase Modulation (PM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.2.3 Double Side Band-Amplitude Modulation (DSB-AM) . . . . 158
3.2.4 Single Side Band-Amplitude Modulation (SSB-AM) . . . . . 160
3.2.5 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.3 Digital Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.3.1 Delta Modulation (DM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.3.2 Coded Modulation (CM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.3.2.1 Trellis Coded Modulation (TCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.3.2.2 Block Coded Modulation (BCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.3.3 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.3.4 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.3.5 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.3.6 Types of Digital Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3.6.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3.6.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3.6.3 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3.6.4 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.3.7 Combinations of PSK Digital Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.3.7.1 Binary PSK (BPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.7.2 Quadrature PSK (QPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.3.7.3 Offset QPSK (O-QPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.3.7.4 Differential PSK (DPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.3.7.5 π/4-QPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.4 Channel Coding and Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.4.1 Channel Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.4.1.1 Channel Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.4.1.2 Digital Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.4.2 Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.4.2.1 Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.4.2.2 Cyclic Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.4.2.3 Convolutional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.4.2.4 Concatenated Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.4.2.5 Turbo Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.4.3 Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.4.3.1 Block Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.4.3.2 Convolutional Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.4.3.3 Turbo Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.4.3.4 Sequential Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.4.3.5 Viterbi Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.4.4 Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.4.4.1 Forward Error Correction (FEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.4.4.2 Automatic Request Repeat (ARQ) . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Contents xvii

3.4.4.3 Pseudo Noise (PN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

3.4.4.4 Interleaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.5 Multiple Access Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.5.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.5.1.1 Multiple Channels Per Carrier (MCPC) . . . . . . . . 200
3.5.1.2 Single Channel Per Carrier (SCPC) . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.5.2 Forms of FDMA Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.5.2.1 SCPC/FM/FDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.5.2.2 SCPC/PSK/FDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.5.2.3 TDM/FDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.5.2.4 TDMA/FDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.5.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.5.3.1 TDM/TDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.5.3.2 FDMA/TDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.5.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.5.4.1 Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA) . . . . . . . . 207
3.5.4.2 Frequency Hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA) . . . . . . 208
3.5.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.5.5.1 Special Effects of SDMA in Satellite Systems . . . 210
3.5.5.2 Switched Spot Beam Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.5.5.3 Adaptive Array Antenna Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.5.5.4 SDMA/FDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.5.5.5 SDMA/TDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.5.5.6 SDMA/CDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.5.6 Random Division Multiple Access (RDMA) . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.5.6.1 Aloha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.5.6.2 Slotted Aloha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3.5.6.3 Slot Reservation Aloha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.6 Satellite Broadband and Internet Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
3.6.1 Satellite Internet Protocol (IP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.6.1.1 IP Security Protocol (IPSec) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
3.6.1.2 Mobile Transmissions Over IP (MToIP) . . . . . . . 221
3.6.1.3 Mobile IP Version 6 (MIPv6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.6.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.6.2.1 TCP/IP Over Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.6.2.2 TCP Intertwined Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.6.3 Mobile Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.6.3.1 IP/ATM Over Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.6.3.2 UBR Over Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
3.6.3.3 ABR Over Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3.6.4 Fixed Digital Video Broadcasting-Return Channel
Via Satellite (DVB-RCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
3.6.5 Mobile Digital Video Broadcasting-Return Channel
Over Satellite (DVB-RCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
xviii Contents

3.7 MPEG Multimedia Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

3.7.1 Audio Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
3.7.1.1 MPEG-2 Audio Layer II (MP2) Encoding . . . . . . 237
3.7.1.2 MPEG-2 Audio Layer III (MP3) Encoding . . . . . 238
3.7.2 Video Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.7.2.1 MPEG-2 Video Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.7.2.2 High-Definition TV and MPEG-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3.7.2.3 Multiplexing and Transporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3.8 Direct-to-Home Broadcast System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
3.8.1 Transmission System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
3.8.2 Generic Reference Integrated Receiver Decoder
(IRD) Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
3.9 Transmission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
3.9.1 Digital Video Broadcast-Second Generation
(DVB-S2) Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3.9.2 DVB-S2 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3.9.3 Digital Video Broadcast-Third Generation
(DVB-S3) Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4 Atmospheric Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.1 Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiative Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.1.1 Nature of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.1.1.1 Basic of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.1.1.2 Solid Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
4.1.1.3 Radiance and Irradiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.1.1.4 Energy Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.2 Energy Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
4.2.1 Blackbody Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4.2.2 Surface Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.2.3 Medium Emissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.2.4 Earth and Sun Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.3 Radiative Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.3.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4.3.2 Absorption and Emission of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.3.3 Atmospheric Scattering of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
4.3.4 Surface Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.3.5 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.3.6 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.3.7 Selective Absorption and Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.3.8 Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.3.9 Different Atmospheric Absorptions and Emissions . . . . . . 276
4.4 Additional Applications to the Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.4.1 Transfer of the Heat Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.4.2 Feedbacks in the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.4.3 Specific Facts for Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.4.4 Earth and Atmosphere Albedo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Contents xix

4.5 Radiative Transfer Equations (RTE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

4.5.1 Primers of Radiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.5.1.1 Infrared Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.5.1.2 Visible Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
4.5.2 Radiative Budget for the Earth Atmosphere System . . . . . 288
4.5.2.1 Solar Constant and Emission Effective
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.5.2.2 Energy Budget for the Earth/Atmosphere
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
5 Satellite Meteorological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.1 Introduction to Satellite Weather Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.1.1 Satellite Meteorological Instruments for Observation
and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.1.2 Satellite Weather Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.1.3 Characteristics of Satellite Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.1.3.1 Visible Channel Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.1.3.2 Infra Red Channel Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.1.3.3 Water Vapour Channel Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.1.3.4 True Colour RGB Channel Imagery . . . . . . . . . . 303
5.1.4 Weather and Atmospheric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5.1.4.1 Atmospheric Temperature Measurements . . . . . . 304
5.1.4.2 Atmospheric Density Measurements . . . . . . . . . . 306
5.1.4.3 Atmospheric Pressure Measurements . . . . . . . . . 307
5.1.4.4 Atmospheric Humidity Measurements . . . . . . . . . 307
5.2 Temperature and Trace Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.2.1 Sounding Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.2.1.1 Vertical Sounding Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.2.1.2 Limb Sounding Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
5.2.2 Retrieval Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
5.2.2.1 Physical Retrievals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
5.2.2.2 Statistical Retrievals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
5.2.2.3 Hybrid Retrievals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
5.2.3 Operational Retrievals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.2.3.1 TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder . . . . . . . . . 317
5.2.3.2 VISSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) . . . . . . . . . . 319
5.2.4 Limb Sounding Retrievals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.2.5 Ozone and Other Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
5.2.6 Split-Window Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.3 Winds Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
5.3.1 Cloud and Vapour Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
5.3.2 Winds from Soundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5.3.3 Ocean Surface Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.3.4 Doppler Wind Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
xx Contents

5.4 Clouds and Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

5.4.1 Clouds from Sounders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.4.2 Clouds from Imagers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.4.3 Clouds from Microwave Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.4.4 Stratospheric Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
5.4.5 Tropospheric Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5.5 Precipitation Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
5.5.1 Passive Visible and Infrared Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.5.2 Passive Microwave Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.5.3 Active Ground and Satellite Radar Technique . . . . . . . . . . 343
5.5.4 Severe Thunderstorms and Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
5.5.5 Advanced Global Distribution of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . 346
5.6 Earth Radiation Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
5.6.1 Solar Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
5.6.2 Top of the Atmosphere Radiation Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
5.6.3 Surface Radiation Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
5.7 Measurements and Monitoring of Other Earth Observation
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.7.1 Hydrology Analyzes and Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.7.2 Sea Waves and Ocean Dynamic Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.7.3 Sea Surface Temperature Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
5.7.4 Sea Pollution and Ecosystem Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
5.7.5 Cryosphere Detection and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
5.7.6 Agricultural and Forestry Landscape Monitoring . . . . . . . . 359
5.7.7 Global Land Cover Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
5.7.8 Desertification Monitoring and Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
6 Satellite Meteorological Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.1 Introduction to PEO Satellite Meteorological System . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.2 Meteorological Instruments Onboard POES Satellites . . . . . . . . . . 366
6.2.1 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.2.2 High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.2.3 Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
6.2.4 Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
6.2.5 Space Environment Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6.2.6 Search and Rescue Satellite Repeater and Processor . . . . . 380
6.2.7 Digital Tape Recorder and Solid State Recorder . . . . . . . . 381
6.3 Meteorological Instruments Onboard European PEO Satellites . . . 382
6.3.1 Microwave Humidity Sounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
6.3.2 Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer . . . . . . . . . 386
6.3.3 Global Ozone Monitoring Experiemnt-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
6.3.4 Global Navigation Satellite System Receiver
for Atmospheric Sounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
6.3.5 Advanced Scatterometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Contents xxi

6.4 Introduction to GEO Satellite Meteorological System . . . . . . . . . . 400

6.5 Meteorological Instruments Onboard GOES Satellites . . . . . . . . . 401
6.5.1 GOES 4-7 (D-H) Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
6.5.2 GOES 8-12 (l-M) Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
6.5.2.1 GOES 8-12 (l-M) Imager Instrument . . . . . . . . . 406
6.5.2.2 GOES 8-12 (l-M) Sounder Instrument . . . . . . . . . 408
6.5.3 GOES 13-15 (N-P) Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
6.5.4 GOES 16-19 (R-U) Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
6.5.4.1 Earth Facing Instruments (EFI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
6.5.4.2 Sun Facing Instruments (SFI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
6.5.4.3 Space Environment Instruments (SEI) . . . . . . . . . 424
6.5.4.4 Unique Payload Services (UPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
6.6 Other GEO Satellite Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
6.6.1 European Meteosat Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
6.6.2 Russian Electro Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
6.6.3 Chinese Feng-Yun Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
6.6.4 Indian INSAT Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
6.6.5 Japanese GMS Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
7 Antenna Systems and Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
7.1 Evolution of Antenna Systems for Radio Communications . . . . . . 442
7.1.1 Overview of Antennas for Radio and Satellite
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
7.1.2 Satellite Antennas Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
7.1.3 Antennas Requirements and Technical Characteristics . . . . 445
7.2 Basic Relations of Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
7.2.1 Frequency and Bandwidth in Meteorological Satellite
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
7.2.2 Gain and Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
7.2.3 Radiation Pattern, Beamwidth and Sidelobes . . . . . . . . . . 449
7.2.4 Polarization and Axial Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
7.2.5 Figure of Merit (G/T) and EIRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
7.2.6 Classification of Satellite Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
7.3 Omnidirectional Low-Gain Antennas (LGA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
7.3.1 Quadrifilar Helix Antenna (QHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
7.3.2 Crossed-Drooping Dipole Antenna (CDDA) . . . . . . . . . . . 457
7.3.3 Microstrip Patch Antenna (MPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
7.4 Directional Medium-Gain Antennas (MGA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
7.4.1 Aperture Reflector Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
7.4.1.1 Short Backfire (SBF) Plane Reflector Antenna . . . 458
7.4.1.2 Modified SBF Plane Reflector Antenna . . . . . . . . 460
7.4.1.3 Improved SBF Conical Reflector Antenna . . . . . . 460
7.4.2 Wire Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7.4.2.1 Helical Wire Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7.4.2.2 Inverted V-Form Cross Dipole Antenna . . . . . . . 462
xxii Contents

7.4.2.3 Crossed-Slot Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

7.4.2.4 Conical Spiral Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
7.4.2.5 Planar Spiral Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
7.4.3 Array Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
7.4.3.1 Microstrip Array Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
7.4.3.2 Cross-Slot Array Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
7.4.3.3 Cross-Dipole Array Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
7.4.3.4 Four-Element Array Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
7.4.3.5 Spiral Array Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
7.4.3.6 Patch Array Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
7.5 High-Gain Directional Aperture Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
7.5.1 Parabolic Dish Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
7.5.2 Parabolic Dish Antenna in Radome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
7.5.3 Parabolic Umbrella Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
7.5.4 Horn Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
7.5.4.1 Pyramidal Horn Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
7.5.4.2 E-Plane Horn Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
7.5.4.3 H-Plane Horn Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
7.5.4.4 Conical Horn Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
7.6 Ground Antennas for Particular Satellite Meteorological
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
7.6.1 Direct Readout PEO Directional Ground Antenna
Systems (GAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
7.6.1.1 Tracking PEO Satellite L-Band GES
Receiving Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
7.6.1.2 Tracking PEO Satellite Multi-Band GES
Receiving Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
7.6.1.3 Tracking PEO X/Y Satellite L/S/X-Band
GES Receiving Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
7.6.1.4 Tracking PEO MEOS Satellite GES
Receiving L/S/X-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
7.6.1.5 Tracking PEO Satellite GES Receiving
L/S-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
7.6.2 Direct Readout PEO Multidirectional Ground Antenna
Systems (GAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
7.6.2.1 Omnidirectional Direct Readout PEO Satellite
Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
7.6.2.2 Directional Direct Readout PEO Satellite
Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
7.6.3 Direct Readout GEO Directional Ground Antenna
Systems (GAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
7.6.3.1 Tracking GEO Satellite GES Receiving
L/C/Ku-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Contents xxiii

7.6.3.2Tracking GEO Satellite GES Receiving

L/S/X-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
7.6.3.3 Tracking GEO Satellite GES Receiving
LRIT/HRIT L-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
7.6.3.4 Tracking GEO Satellite GES Receiving
LRIT/HRIT C-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
7.6.3.5 Tracking GEO Satellite GES Receiving
LRIT/HRIT Ku-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
7.6.4 Meteocast Direct Readout GEO DVB-RCS GES
Antenna Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
7.6.4.1 Meteocast Forward DVB-RCS Uplink
Antenna Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
7.6.4.2 Meteocast Return DVB-RCS Downlink
Antenna Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
7.6.5 Meteocast Receiving Broadcasting GEO DVB-RCS
Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
7.6.6 User Earth Stations (UES) Antennas Onboard Mobiles . . . 503
7.6.6.1 Shipboard Satellite WDS Receiving 0.61 m
L/S-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
7.6.6.2 Shipboard Satellite Weather Receiving 1.5 m
L/S-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
7.6.6.3 Shipboard Satellite Weather Receiving 2.4 m
L/S/X-Band Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
7.6.6.4 Antennas for TeraScan Satellite Acquisition
System (TacSAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
7.6.6.5 Land HRPT/AHRPT Antenna System . . . . . . . . . 510
7.6.6.6 Marine HRPT/AHRPT Antenna System . . . . . . . 511
7.6.6.7 GEO Data Collection Platform (DCP)
with Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
7.7 Propagation and Interference Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
7.7.1 Radiowave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
7.7.2 Propagation Loss in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
7.7.3 Atmospheric Effects on Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
7.7.4 Propagation Effects of the Troposphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
7.7.4.1 Attenuation due to Atmospheric Gases . . . . . . . . 517
7.7.4.2 Attenuation by Precipitation
and Hydrometeors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
7.7.4.3 Site Diversity Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
7.7.5 Clear-Sky Effects on Atmospheric Propagation . . . . . . . . . 522
7.7.6 Transionospheric Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
7.7.6.1 Faraday Rotation and Group Delay . . . . . . . . . . . 523
7.7.6.2 Ionospheric Scintillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
7.7.6.3 Other Ionospheric Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
7.7.6.4 Sky Noise Temperature Contributions . . . . . . . . . 526
xxiv Contents

7.7.6.5 Environmental Noise Temperature Sources . . . . . 527

7.7.6.6 Atmospheric Noise Temperature Elements . . . . . 528
7.7.6.7 Galactic and Other Interplanetary
Noise Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
7.7.7 Path Depolarization Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
7.7.7.1 Depolarization and Polarization Components . . . . 529
7.7.7.2 Relation between Depolarization
and Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
7.7.8 Surface Reflection and Local Environmental Effects . . . . . 532
7.7.9 Reflection from the Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
About the Author

Stojče Dimov Ilčev is the chair of the Space Science Centre (SSC) for Research and
Postgraduate Studies in Space Science for maritime, land, and aeronautical appli-
cations, global satellite augmentation systems (GSAS), GNSS systems, satellite
tracking systems, mobile broadcasting, and meteorological observation systems at
the Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa. He studied
both maritime radio engineering and nautical science at the University of Monte-
negro in Kotor, maritime electronics and communications at the University of
Rijeka in Croatia, and postgraduate satellite engineering at the University of Skopje
in Macedonia and the University of Belgrade in Serbia. Ilčev holds bachelor (BSc),
master in electrical engineering (MSc), and doctor of science (PhD) degrees. He
also holds certificates for first-class radio operator (Morse), for GMDSS first-class
radio electronic operator and maintainer, and for master mariner without limita-
tions. Since 1969, Ilčev worked on board merchant ships, in a satellite Earth station,
at a coast radio station, in a shipping company, in a nautical school, and at a
maritime faculty. Since 2000, he worked at IS marine radio and CNS system
companies on research and projects relating to modern communication, navigation,
and surveillance (CNS) for maritime, land, and aeronautical applications. He has
written five books on CNS engineering and satellite systems for mobile applica-
tions, and he has many projects and inventions in this field including DVB-RCS
standards and stratospheric platforms.

xxv
Chapter 1
Introduction

Meteorological satellites have become essential for both meteorological observa-

tion and weather forecasting, continuing the fundamental concepts of conventional
data exchange and international cooperation, which have been traditional for more
than 150 years. They provide vital data at frequent intervals over wide observation
areas, in the context of the international cooperation needed to ensure adequate
worldwide data coverage. This kind of cooperation can be at local level provided by
one country, continental level that integrates group of countries providing and
global availability of data over nearly one quarter of the Earth surface and third
level of cooperation is providing integration of previous two levels providing
meteorological data available globally.
This chapter expresses the importance and reasons why satellite meteorological
observation and weather forecasting are so important to the global economy,
transportation, industry, trade, security and every day life on our Planet. It presents
the principal structure and developments of radio, evolution of satellite fixed and
mobile communication systems and history of satellite meteorology. The develop-
ment history of satellite metrological systems is described briefly and this is
followed by a summary of the various regional and global satellite programs and
an introduction to the meteorological services.
In addition, this chapter also introduces history of early wired and radio com-
munications, evolution of satellite communications, experiments with active com-
munications satellites, Global Mobile Satellite Communications (GMSC), Global
Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), Stratospheric Platform Systems (SPS), Sat-
ellite Meteorological Observation Systems (SMOS), Fixed Satellite Communica-
tions (FSC), Mobile VSAT Service for broadcast and broadband, International
Coordination Organizations and Regulatory Procedures, Space Systems and
Radiocommunication Frequency Assignment, History of Satellite Meteorology
and Mobile Satellite Meteorological Service (MSMS).
Today meteorological satellites simply represent “Eyes from the Space”, which
can “see” the Earth, its atmosphere, weather images and forecasting factors from
global perspective and send all necessary observations, data and images via

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

S.D. Ilčev, Global Satellite Meteorological Observation (GSMO) Theory,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-67119-2_1
2 1 Introduction

onboard satellite transponders to the direct readout Ground Earth Stations (GES)
and processing facilities. On the other hand, it is very important to realize project
for integration of satellite constellations for all applications including meteorolog-
ical, such as Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO and Polar Earth Orbit (PEO), with
new proposed Low Earth Orbits (LEO), High Elliptical Orbits (HEO) and SPS or
High Altitude Platforms (HAP) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV). In integra-
tion can be included Pico, Nano and Micro satellites and GNSS solutions.
However, the important link in this chain is radio communication system as
predecessors to television, satellite and other wireless systems, which have been
used initially as media for transmission of meteorological data, images and other
observations for local, regional and global weather forecast services. Namely, the
weather radio communication is a network of radio stations in any hypothetical
country that broadcast continuous weather information directly from a nearby
national weather forecast office of the service’s operator and service within
service area.
The exploitation of modern radio system began from the history of implemen-
tation of first radio equipment invented by the great Russian professor Aleksandr
Stepanovich Popov till today modern radio systems. For the first time in the world
Popov’s radio system was applied at shore and onboard ships for radio communi-
cation purposes as a part of today VHF, UHF and HF radio systems. Afterwards
were developed radio navigation and radar systems as onboard radio equipment
working on special frequencies for determination position of mobiles on the Earth
surface, such as radiolocation and radio determination.
Officially, the equipment for radiolocation known as radar was invented by the
British Sir Robert Watson-Watt in 1935, so it then became the first radar used in
battle. There was a race between Britain and Germany who could produce the best
radar for their national defense forces. Nevertheless, the Germans were unable to
unlock its full potential.
The British had won the race and utilized the full power of the radar technology.
Radiolocation is the process of finding the location of some objects like ships or
aircraft through the use of radio waves, such today is surveillance radar. Thus, radar
is measuring instrument in which the echo of a pulse of microwave radiation is used
to detect and locate distant objects. Ground and space radars are serving today for
Earth observation, however here will be not included any type of ground or satellite
radars for remote sensing and meteorological observations.

1.1 Evolution of Meteorological Observations

The meteorological observation and information has been an important part of life
as long as history of mankind exists and weather measurements have been done for
centuries and up to the present days. It is claimed that the first measurements of
rainfall were reported as early as from ancient Greece 500 B.C. In such a way, these
first measurements were aimed to estimate the expected growth of wheat and used
1.1 Evolution of Meteorological Observations 3

as basis for taxation of the farmers and other productions. These primitive mea-
surements were made by using bowls.
Sometime later, humans have been continuously looking for ways to forecast the
weather data for centuries. The Greek natural philosopher Theophrastus wrote a
Book of Signs, in about 300 B.C. listing more than 200 practical ways of knowing
when to expect rain, wind, fair conditions and other kinds of weather.
The first actual rain gauges were developed much later in Korea. The first early
forecasts services were established in England, France, Germany and USA during
1800s to provide information about possible storms for seafarers. Although there is
a long history of weather observations, their importance to everyday use for
meteorological forecasting has grown enormously during the last century and
especially during the last few decades.
On the other hand, modern technological developments of the last few decades,
such as improved telecommunication and satellite systems, Automatic Weather
Stations (AWS) and various long range measuring systems, such as satellites
meteorological observation and weather radars, have enabled a range of modern
possibilities for utilizing weather information. For a common person, these became
evident in real time weather services tailored for individual customers, as well as
the improved quality of the weather forecasts.
In the more than 45 past years since the first meteorological satellites were
launched and deployed, they have become indispensable for study of the Earth’s
atmosphere, climate and meteorological phenomenons for weather synopsis and
prognoses. Indeed, together with their land and ocean-sensing forerunners, meteo-
rological satellites view the Earth from a global perspective, which is unmatched
and incomparable by any other observing system.
Reliable weather services have high impact on society, government, corporate
and private organizations, although their benefits are not always seen directly.
Recent studies suggest that investing to weather services will benefit communities
up to 8–20 times for each new projects, but these benefits needs time to be effective.
For example, weather forecasting is helping for more cost effective agriculture,
farming, mining, construction, transportation, trade, tourism, general safety and
other business infrastructures. According to the practical indicators, for instance,
accurate and on daily basis weather forecasting is providing much more safety and
security in navigation of oceangoing ships at sea, for road and rail vehicles, short
and longhaulage aircraft flying, and as is very important to reduce mortality on the
roads. Thus, it is enough evident that many persons lose their lives every year due
severe weather conditions. In this report, the benefits are achieved by improving the
early warning and prediction systems in the areas, which are important to econom-
ics of these countries, which are very weather sensitive.
In addition to the benefits in the medium and long range planning, weather
information is crucial if people are faced with environmental hazards, hurricanes,
such as floods or heavy thunderstorms. These kinds of disasters often cause
tremendous problems, especially in poorer countries affected by the tropical storms.
Having good weather services and warning systems is one of the steps to help
4 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 Different meteorological integrated services (Courtesy of Manual: by Ilcev)

nations from poverty. However, in many countries, the public image of weather
services is still quite low, and their importance is not understood.
Climate change is another important topic that needs more accurate observa-
tions, although those observations do not need to be done at high intervals or
received in real time. At the moment, there are several projects going on concerning
climate change observations. Some of the projects are digitalizing old observations
from logbooks of the weather stations and, a bit more indirectly, weather informa-
tion from logbooks of ships.
A typical weather service contains a number of different sources of forecasting
data, which are analyzed and processed to ready-made products. Thus, these
sources include traditional surface weather observations (Surface Stations),
Upper-air stations (SPS, UAV or Radio Sounding), Meteorological satellites and
many others in real time Quality Control (QC), shown in Fig. 1.1. These sources can
be integrated in one modern meteorological and weather forecast model, and these
products can be global surface weather observation and forecasts, maritime, avia-
tion and other types of fixed and mobile weather predictions.
In the similar way new integration of different type of satellite transmissions in
satellite meteorological observation infrastructures, such as traditional fixed and
mobile satellite communications with Digital Video Broadcasting-Return channel
via Satellite (DVB-RCS) can provide more cost effective and reliable transfer of
meteorological data from Surface Stations, Upper-Air Stations and Weather Satel-
lites for local, regional and global coverage including both poles.
The already developed GNSS networks, such as US GPS, Russian GLONASS,
Chinese Compass (BeiDou) and other satellite navigation and determination sys-
tems in developing phase provide precise positioning data for ocean going vessels,
land vehicles and aircraft. These systems are improving all mobile traffic control
1.2 History of Early Radio Communication Systems 5

and management and enhance safety and security at sea, on the ground and in the
air. Because of the need for new reliable and more effective service, these GNSS
solutions are augmented with satellite communications and ground surveillance
facilities. In addition, the GNSS signals can be used for Integrated Water Vapor,
serve weather monitoring, humidity filed, participation and so on.

1.2 History of Early Radio Communication Systems

The word communications is derived from the Latin phrase “communication”,

which stands for the social process of information exchange and covers the human
need for direct contact and mutual understanding. The word “telecommunica-
tions” means to convey and exchange information at a distance (tele) by the
medium of electrical signals.
In general, telecommunications are the conveyance of intelligence in some form
of signal, sign, sound or electronic means from one point to a distant second point.
In ancient times, that intelligence was communicated with the aid of audible
callings, fire and visible vapor or smokes and image signals. We have come a
long way since the first human audio and visual communications, in case you had
forgotten, used during many millennia. In the meantime primitive kinds of com-
munications between individuals or groups of people were invented. Hence, as
impressive as this achievement was, the development of more reliable communi-
cations and so, wire and radio, had to wait a couple of centuries more.
The invention of the telegraph in 1844 and the telephone in 1876 harnessed the
forces of electricity to allow the voice to be heard beyond shouting distance for the
first time. The British physicist M. Faraday and the Russian academic E. H. Lenz
made experiments with electric and magnetic phenomenon and formulized a theory
of electromagnetic (EM) induction at the same time. The British physicist James
C. Maxwell published in 1873 his classical theory of electromagnetic radiation,
proving mathematically that electromagnetic waves travel through space with a
speed precisely equal to that of light.
The famous German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz during 1886 experimen-
tally proved Maxwell’s theoretical equations. Thus during Hertz’s studies in 1879
his mentor physicist Hermann von Helmholtz suggested that Hertz’s doctoral
dissertation has be on testing Ma well’s theory of electromagnetism, published in
1865, which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves moving at the speed
of light, and predicted that light itself was just such a wave.
During his research and studies, Hertz demonstrated that High Frequency
(HF) oscillations produce a resonant effect at a very small distance away from
the source and that this phenomenon was the result of electromagnetic waves.
Practically, Hertz used the damped oscillating currents in a dipole antenna, trig-
gered by a high-voltage electrical capacitive spark discharge, as his Transmitter
(Tx) source of Radiowaves (RW).
6 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.2 Hertz’s spark gaps Tx and Rx (Courtesy of Book: by Ilcev)

His detector in some experiments was another dipole antenna connected to a

narrow spark gap as Receiver (Rx). A small spark in this gap signified detection of
the radio waves. When he added cylindrical reflectors behind his dipole antennas,
Hertz could detect radio waves about 20 m from the Tx in his laboratory. In Fig. 1.2
(Left) is illustrated the electronic diagram of spark generator as a main component
of his radio Tx (Ruhmkorff coil with linear vibrator). In fact, the wave character of
the spark generator discharge is creating short-lived electromagnetic waves. The
waves thus produced were received by a resonator located a short distance away
from the generator’s aerial, which radio Rx is illustrated in Fig. 1.2 (Right). At the
moment when the resonator picked up the waves, hardly perceptible sparks were
produced in the resonator gap that could be detected using a magnifying glass.
Therefore, it is after Hertz that the new discipline of Radio technology is sourced
and after whom the frequency and its measuring unit Hertz (Hz) are named.
An English physician, Sir Oliver J. Lodge using the ideas of others, realized that
the EM resonator was very insensitive and because of this phenomenon he invented
a “coherer”. A much better coherer was built and devised by a Parisian professor,
Edouard Branly, in 1890. He put metal filings (shut in a glass tubule) between two
electrodes and so a great number of fine contacts were created. This coherer
suffered from one disadvantage, it needed to be “Shaken before use”. Owing to
imperceptible electric discharges, it always got “baked” and blocked.
In early 1889 the Russian professor of physics Aleksandar Stepanovich Popov
conducted experiments along the lines of Hertz’s research and successfully realized
the first practical experiments with EM waves for the transmission of radio signals.
Soon after professor Popov attended a meeting of the Russian Physical-Chemical
Society at which the St. Petersburg Professor N. G. Yegorov reproduced Hertz’s
experiments, but in a manner that Popov felt to be insufficiently graphic. It took him
only a few months to build a more compact and effective device to demonstrate
Hertz’s experiments, which he then gradually improved on, so that by 1894 he had
constructed a working transmitter that generated electromagnetic waves based on
Hertz’s vibrator and using a Ruhmkorff coil.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Plummer, Mr., i., 209
Plague, the, iii., 203
Polani, Dr., i., 352
Poujolat et Boutés, MM., ii., 150; iii., 132
Pretyman, Dr., iii., 166
Prickly Heat, ii., 285
Prince of Wales, (George IV.) ii., 99, 382
Princess Elizabeth, ii., 102, ter.
Princes, the, iii., 268
Prudoe, Lord, iii., 38, 203, 215
Puckler Muskau, Prince, i., 139; iii., 4, 37, 89, 127, 142, 170, 255,
313

Queen Victoria, ii., 228, 232, 259, 277; iii., 239

Rashéyah, iii., 274, 316

Reading aloud, iii., 128
Reasons for statesmen’s actions, ii., 29
Reichstadt, Duke of, i., 206
Religion, iii., 312
Revolutions, i., 280; ii., 168; iii., 299
Revolution in Mount Lebanon, i., 347
Rewisky, Count, iii., 183
Reynaud, Mr., ii., 356
Rice, ii., 52
Richmond, Duke of, ii., 28, 64, 94, 95
Rich, Mr.
Rings, nose, ii., 200
Risk Allah
Roberts, Mr., iii., 82
Robinson, three years’ residence, iii., 204
Romney, Lord, ii., 24, 381
Rugged Paths, i., 210
Rûm, village
Russell, Lady Wm., i., 27
Russian spy, iii., 266
Rutland, Duchess of, ii., 52, 108

Saady, maid servant, ii., 327, 344; iii., 160

Salàmy Effendi
Salisbury, Lady, ii., 105
Saunders, Admiral, iii., 178
Scenes at Mar Elias, ii., 315
Scott, Capt., i., 235
Scott, Dr. John, dedication &c., i., 59
Scott, Walter, ii., 173; iii., 172
Selim Koblàn, character of, iii., 59
Serpent, iii., 292
Serpent at Tarsûs, ii., 360
Servants, English, ii., 70; iii., 161
Servants, men, i., 24; ii., 30
Servants, Syrian, i., 290; ii., 148, 309
Servants’ Wages, ii., 122
Servants, women, i., 26; ii., 136; iii., 161, 364
Sentimentality, i., 294
Sevenoaks Common, i., 384; ii., 23
Sevigné, Madame, iii., 116
Shadwell, Col., ii., 23
Shakspeare, i., 300
Shemmaûny, iii., 219
Sheridan, ii., 58
Sherỳf Pasha, iii., 67, 75
Sheykh Beshỳr, ii., 357
Sheykh Ibrahim, iii., 242
Sheykh Mohammed Nasýb, iii., 173
Shibly el Arriàn, iii., 318
Shifts, what made of, ii., 269
Ship plundered by Greeks, i., 40
Sidmouth, Viscount, i., 216
Silver spoon stolen, ii., 272
Singers in Syria, iii., 206
Slaves, i., 226, 288, 364
Sligo, Lord
Smith, Newman, i., 63
Smith, Sir Sydney, ii., 292
Spetchingly, Mem. of a Peeress, iii., 171
Spies, iii., 78, 297
Spit in the face, iii., 52
Stammering, ii., 108
Stanhope, Charles, ii., 85; iii., 165
Stanhope, Countess, ii., 14
Stanhope, Earl, i., 296; ii., 15; iii., 165
Stanhope, James Hamilton, i., 10; ii., 85; iii., 165
Stanhope, Lady H., takes to her bed, ii., 43, 48;
her complexion, ii., 16, 166;
her opinion of women, i., 376; iii., 262;
gives away money, ii., 240, 244;
has boys in her service, iii., 195;
her estimate of herself, iii., 121;
foretells revolutions, ii., 168; iii., 265;
her personal cleanliness, i., 148;
her hatred of women, i., 166;
takes no man’s arm, i., 81;
never shakes hands, iii., 143;
is able to command an army, ii., 32;
her pension, iii., 48, 99;
furious with her maids, ii., 276;
flogging, i., 294; ii., 136; iii., 46, 51, 242;
her veracity, ii., 324;
her freedom of speech, i., 135; ii., 37; iii., 262;
the sublimity of her language, i., 135;
her fearlessness, i., 106; ii., 366; iii., 270;
refuses Mrs. M’s. company, ii., 246;
men of her time, ii., 105; iii., 128;
is neglected, ii., 211; iii., 194;
Dr. M.’s trembling legs, iii., 144;
like a Delphic priestess, ii., 175;
like Gray’s Agrippina, iii., 217;
drinks brandy, ii., 270, 276;
her severity, i., 299;
seated in an alcove, iii., 4;
has a tooth drawn, ii., 44;
her jealousy of the queen, ii., 221;
her house in Montague Square, iii., 192;
what she gave to her brother James, ii., 88;
shape of her skull, iii., 294;
will live by rules of grandeur, ii., 275;
appearance of her tongue, ii., 237;
her dislike to Swiss governesses, i., 321;
frequent in eating, ii., 48;
ever just to others, iii., 121;
her advice excellent, ii., 167, 208; iii., 120;
open to flattery, iii., 217;
“qui faisoit la pluie et le beautemps,” ii., 371;
praised by an Imàm, iii., 30;
her property, ii., 88;
is taken for a man, ii., 145;
the divine right of kings, ii., 365;
her conversational powers, i., 135;
the Emir Beshỳr annoys her, i., 55,;
her feet free from smell
her deliberate affronts, ii., 217;
her establishment, i., 272;
 resolved never to return to England;
her end in blood, ii., 340; iii., 321;
her munificence, ii., 238, 244;
wishes to be buried like a dog, ii., 339;
would destroy books, iii., 52;
wields the mace, iii., 56;
persons she wrote to, iii., 62;
her school for girls, iii., 64;
signs papers for Mr. Pitt, iii., 171;
smokes, iii., 188;
rejects eulogistic verses on herself, iii., 216;
physicks everybody, iii., 242;
refuses Duke Maximilian’s portrait, iii., 254;
insists on Dr. Meryon’s leaving her, iii., 255, 298;
advises him where to settle, iii., 256;
Duc de Bordeaux to kiss her stirrups, iii., 287;
walls up her gateway, iii., 298, 319;
disliked Mr. Canning, i., 315;
her influence over people, i., 92;
her debts, i., 339
Stanhope, Lady Lucy, ii., preface
Stars, peoples, ii., 251, 262, 364
Stewart, Lord, i., 187
Stowe, ii., 57
Strangers sent away, ii., 160
Strangways, Mr., ii., 369
Stratford de Redcliffe, Lord, ii., 290
Stuart, the Misses
Sugden, Sir Edw., ii., 281
Suicide, uncommon, ii., 129
Sulyman, son of Skender, iii., 35
Sunflower Family, i., 384, Mr. M. L.
Sussex, Duke of, i., 187; ii., 104; iii., 268
Syria, climate of, i., 187; iii., 253
Sturt, Bridget

Taat-el-Dyn, i., 163

Tamarisk Pavilion, ii., 43
Tattenbach, Count, iii., 102, 110
Taylor, Colonel Thomas, iii., 277
Taylor, Thomas, i., 18, 31
Temple, Earl, i., 277
Thanet, Lord, ii., 22
Thé, Madlle. du, ii., 262
Thief lurking, iii., 292
Things clean and unclean, i., 148
Thurlow, Lord
Tickell, Mr., ii., 10, 75
Tobacco, smoking, iii., 188
Tongue, unclean, i., 28
Tooke, Horne, i., 374; ii., 31
Townsend, Mr., ii. FN[8]
Traveller, unknown, iii., 82
Travellers, why sent away, ii., 160
Tread on a toe, ii., 212
Tristram, the hermit, iii., 130
Tumblers, iii., 245
Turk, a real, i., 60
Turk, striking a, iii., 217
Turner, Mr. Wm., ii., 37
Tutors marry ladies of quality, iii., 81
Tutungi, Michael, ii., 320, 325; iii., 79
Twiss, Lady Stanhope’s maid, iii., 160
Tyr el Hakem, iii., 111

Urquhart, David, i., 245

Valentia, Viscount
Vansittart, Mr.
Verity, Dr., ii., 32
Verses on Mrs. Moore, iii., 216
Vincent, Lord St., iii., 138
Vices of the aristocracy, iii., 181
Volney, Mons., ii., 153
Voyage from Leghorn, i., 39

Wales, Prince of, (George IV.), i., 313; ii., 99, 101, 104
Wales, Princess of, i., 308
Wallace, Mr.
Walling up the gateway, iii., 319
Walmer Castle, ii., 66, 75, 214
Ward, Mr., iii., 189
Warren, Dr., ii., 34
Way, Mr., i., 137, 147
Wellesly, Lord, ii., 297
Wellington, Duke of, ii., 82, 293, 364
Wellington, the negro, iii., 254, 257, 277
Wiberforce, Mr., ii., 22
Wilbraham, clerk of the kitchen, ii., 247
Williams, Lady H. S.’s maid, i., 20, 70, 154, 158, 212; ii., 255
Wilsenheim, Count, letter to, iii., 309, 314
Wilson, Mr., Lord Chatham’s tutor, ii., 247
Witchcraft, i., 141
Woman spy, iii., 78
Women, Lady H. S.’s opinion of, i., 166, 376
World, the, heartless, iii., 194
Wraxhall, Sir Nathaniel, iii., 290, 293
Wynnes, the

Yanta, village, iii., 293, 297

York, Duke of, i., 23; ii., 105
Yorke, Captain, 4th Earl Hardwicke, i., 362; ii., 135, 373; iii., 181
Young men of Lady H. S.’s time, iii., 128

Zahly, village, iii., 286

Zeyneb, her shape, i., 288; iii., 51
Zezefûn, iii., 242
Zoave, Capt., Robert, i., 247
London: F. Shoberl, Printer, 37, Dean Street, Soho.
 Transcriber’s Note:
This book was written in a period when many words had not
become standardized in their spelling. Words may have multiple
spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text. These
have been left unchanged unless indicated below. Obsolete and
alternative spellings were left unchanged.
Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the
end of the chapter. Obvious printing errors, such as backwards,
reversed, upside down, or partially printed letters and punctuation
were corrected. Final stops missing at the end of sentences and
abbreviations were added. Duplicate words and letters at line
endings or page breaks were removed. Quote marks, accents and
parentheses were adjusted to standard usage.
In the index, there are numerous entries without corresponding
volume or page numbers. There are additional entries with volume
and page numbers that do not match the book.
The following were changed:

Hamâdy to Hamâady
Damacus to Damascus
entaining to entertaining
unconcious to unconscious
Feeky to Freeky and page number from 288 to 259
added dropped comma: at 6d., a loaf
replaced hyphen with space: hind legs, corn market

Added missing volume and page numbers to index entries:

Abu Ghosh, i., 263

 Advice, iii., 271
Cheshire Gentleman, iii., 166
Cœle-Syria iii., 57, FN[32]
Flies on horses’ tails, ii., 35
Footmen’s Nosegays, iii., 128
Letters to Mr. Speaker Abercrombie, ii., 223, 239, 272;
Liverpool, Lady, ii., 76, 95, 96
Loustaunau Capt., iii., 306
Malmesbury, Lord, i., FN[43], FN[65], FN[66], FN[67], FN[68],
162, 270; ii., 26, FN[3], FN[32]; iii., FN[20]
Meryon, his salary, ii., 2;
Prickly Heat, ii., 285
Richmond, Duke of, ii., 28, 64, 94, 95
Servants’ Wages, ii., 122
Sevigné, Madame, iii., 116
Sheykh Ibrahim, iii., 242
Temple, Earl, i., 277
Townsend, Mr., ii. FN[8]

The only mention of Signor Catafago is in the Index so references

are not found on the page numbers listed. Also, page number 324
for Signor Baldassare Matteir does not exist in any of the three
volumes.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEMOIRS OF
THE LADY HESTER STANHOPE, AS RELATED BY HERSELF IN
CONVERSATIONS WITH HER PHYSICIAN, VOL. 3 (OF 3) ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of
this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept
and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and
may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the
terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of
the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using
the method you already use to calculate your applicable
taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate
royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or
are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns.
Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent
to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations
to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return
 or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical
medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other
copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund

of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a
defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you
within 90 days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.