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Handbook of Research
on Serious Games for
Educational Applications
Robert Zheng
The University of Utah, USA
Michael K. Gardner
The University of Utah, USA
A volume in the Advances in Game-Based

Learning (AGBL) Book Series
Published in the United States of America by
IGI Global
Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
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ISBN: 978-1-5225-0513-6
eISBN: 978-1-5225-0514-3
This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Game-Based Learning (AGBL) (ISSN: 2327-1825;
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Advances in Game-Based
Learning (AGBL) Book Series
Robert D. Tennyson
University of Minnesota, USA
ISSN: 2327-1825
EISSN: 2327-1833
Mission
The Advances in Game-Based Learning (AGBL) Book Series aims to cover all aspects of serious
games applied to any area of education. The definition and concept of education has begun to morph
significantly in the past decades and game-based learning has become a popular way to encourage more
active learning in a creative and alternative manner for students in K-12 classrooms, higher education,
and adult education. AGBL presents titles that address many applications, theories, and principles sur-
rounding this growing area of educational theory and practice.
Coverage
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Game-Based Learning
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The Advances in Game-Based Learning (AGBL) Book Series (ISSN 2327-1825) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue,
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Titles in this Series
For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: www.igi-global.com
Handbook of Research on 3-D Virtual Environments and Hypermedia for Ubiquitous Learning
Francisco Milton Mendes Neto (Federal Rural University of the Semiarid Region, Brazil) Rafael de Souza (Federal
Rural University of the Semiarid Region, Brazil) and Alex Sandro Gomes (Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2016 • 673pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522501251) • US $235.00 (our price)
Handbook of Research on Gaming Trends in P-12 Education

Donna Russell (Walden University, USA) and James M. Laffey (University of Missouri at Columbia, USA)
Cases on the Assessment of Scenario and Game-Based Virtual Worlds in Higher Education
Shannon Kennedy-Clark (Australian Catholic University, Australia) Kristina Everett (Australian Catholic Univer-
sity, Australia) and Penny Wheeler (Australian Catholic University, Australia)
Psychology, Pedagogy, and Assessment in Serious Games

Thomas M. Connolly (University of the West of Scotland, UK) Thomas Hainey (University of the West of Scotland,
UK) Elizabeth Boyle (University of the West of Scotland, UK) Gavin Baxter (University of the West of Scotland,
UK) and Pablo Moreno-Ger (Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain)
Student Usability in Educational Software and Games Improving Experiences

Carina Gonzalez (University of La Laguna, Spain)
Interactivity in E-Learning Case Studies and Frameworks

Haomin Wang (Dakota State University, USA)
Handbook of Research on Improving Learning and Motivation through Educational Games Multidisciplinary
Approaches
Patrick Felicia (Waterford Institute of Technology, Ireland)
Simulation and Gaming for Mathematical Education Epistemology and Teaching Strategies
Angela Piu (University of L’Aquila, Italy) and Cesare Fregola (Roma Tre University, Italy)
701 E. Chocolate Ave., Hershey, PA 17033

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Editorial Advisory Board
Rebecca P. Ang, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Robert Atkinson, Arizona State University, USA
Kirsten Butcher, University of Utah, USA
Anne Cook, University of Utah, USA
Hui Jin, Shanghai Normal University, China
Victor Lee, Utah State University, USA
Eric Poitra, University of Utah, USA
Peter Rich, Brigham Young University, USA
Marc Sebrechts, The Catholic University of America, USA
Anna Ursyn, Colorado State University, USA
Rick Wagner, Florida State University, USA
List of Reviewers
Mete Akcaoglu, Georgia Southern University, USA
Oliver Dreon, Millersville University, USA
Jing Feng, North Carolina State University, USA
Udita Gupta, University of Utah, USA
Antonio Gutierrez, Georgia Southern University, USA
Douglas Hacker, University of Utah, USA
Charles Hodges, Georgia Southern University, USA
Fengfeng Ke, Florida State University, USA
David Kirschner, Georgia Gwinnett College, USA
Stephen Slota, University of Connecticut, USA
Greg Szczyrbak, Millersville University, USA
Naomi Thompson, Indiana University, USA

List of Contributors
Akcaoglu, Mete / Georgia Southern University, USA........................................................................ 217

Altizer, Roger / University of Utah, USA............................................................................................ 115
Ang, Rebecca P. / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore..................................................... 168
Boon, Jillian S. T. / Institute of Mental Health, Singapore................................................................. 168
Butcher, Kirsten R. / University of Utah, USA.................................................................................. 115
Choi, HeeSun / North Carolina State University, USA......................................................................... 93
Compeau, Timothy / Brock University, Canada................................................................................ 272
DaCosta, Boaventura / Solers Research Group, USA................................................................. 320,340
Danish, Joshua / Indiana University, USA......................................................................................... 149
Dreon, Oliver / Millersville University, USA...................................................................................... 366
Feng, Jing / North Carolina State University, USA.............................................................................. 93
Fung, Daniel S. S. / Institute of Mental Health, Singapore................................................................ 168
Gardner, Michael K. / University of Utah, USA.................................................................................... 1
Ge, Xun / University of Oklahoma, USA............................................................................................. 253
Goh, Dion H. / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.......................................................... 168
Gros, Begoña / University of Barcelona, Spain.................................................................................. 402
Gutierrez, Antonio P. / Georgia Southern University, USA.............................................................. 217
Hacker, Douglas J. / University of Utah, USA..................................................................................... 19
Hämäläinen, Raija / University of Jyväskylä, Finland......................................................................... 41
Harley, Jason M. / University of Alberta, Canada............................................................................. 272
Hodges, Charles B. / Georgia Southern University, USA.................................................................. 217
Huan, Vivien S. / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore...................................................... 168
Ifenthaler, Dirk / University of Mannheim, Germany........................................................................ 253
Ke, Fengfeng / Florida State University, USA.................................................................................... 234
Kee, Kevin / University of Ottawa, Canada........................................................................................ 272
Kirschner, David / Georgia Gwinnett College, USA.......................................................................... 380
Lainema, Timo / University of Turku, Finland..................................................................................... 41
Lajoie, Susanne P. / McGill University, Canada................................................................................ 272
Lee, Jaejin / University of Seoul, South Korea................................................................................... 197
Liu, Min / The University of Texas at Austin, USA............................................................................. 197
Oksanen, Kimmo / University of Jyväskylä, Finland........................................................................... 41
Ooi, Yoon Phaik / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore..................................................... 168
Peppler, Kylie / Indiana University, USA........................................................................................... 149
Poitras, Eric G. / University of Utah, USA......................................................................................... 272
Runburg, Madlyn / Natural History Museum of Utah, USA............................................................. 115

Seok, Soonhwa / Korea University, South Korea......................................................................... 320,340

Slota, Stephen T. / University of Connecticut, USA........................................................................... 294
Sonnleitner, Philipp / University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg........................................................ 217
Strayer, David L. / University of Utah, USA.......................................................................................... 1
Szczyrbak, Greg / Millersville University, USA................................................................................. 366
Tan, Jean Lee / Ministry of Education, Singapore............................................................................. 168
Thompson, Naomi / Indiana University, USA.................................................................................... 149
Truong, Thanh N. / University of Utah, USA....................................................................................... 66
Young, Michael F. / University of Connecticut, USA......................................................................... 294
Zheng, Robert Z. / University of Utah, USA........................................................................................ 66
Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................... xx
Acknowledgment.............................................................................................................................. xxvii
Section 1
Educational Games: Theoretical Perspectives
Chapter 1
What Cognitive Psychology Can Tell Us About Educational Computer Games.................................... 1
Michael K. Gardner, University of Utah, USA
David L. Strayer, University of Utah, USA
Chapter 2
The Role of Metacognition in Learning via Serious Games................................................................. 19
Douglas J. Hacker, University of Utah, USA
Chapter 3
Learning from Social Collaboration: A Paradigm Shift in Evaluating Game-Based Learning............. 41
Kimmo Oksanen, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Timo Lainema, University of Turku, Finland
Raija Hämäläinen, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Chapter 4
A Framework for Promoting Knowledge Transfer in SNS Game-Based Learning............................... 66
Robert Z. Zheng, University of Utah, USA
Thanh N. Truong, University of Utah, USA
Section 2
Educational Games: Cognitive and Psychological Perspectives
Chapter 5
Using Video Games to Improve Spatial Skills...................................................................................... 93
HeeSun Choi, North Carolina State University, USA

Chapter 6
Dino Lab: Designing and Developing an Educational Game for Critical Thinking............................ 115
Kirsten R. Butcher, University of Utah, USA
Madlyn Runburg, Natural History Museum of Utah, USA
Roger Altizer, University of Utah, USA
Chapter 7
Designing BioSim: Playfully Encouraging Systems Thinking in Young Children............................. 149
Kylie Peppler, Indiana University, USA
Joshua Danish, Indiana University, USA
Chapter 8
A Game-Based Approach to Teaching Social Problem-Solving Skills............................................... 168
Jean Lee Tan, Ministry of Education, Singapore
Dion H. Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Vivien S. Huan, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yoon Phaik Ooi, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jillian S. T. Boon, Institute of Mental Health, Singapore
Daniel S. S. Fung, Institute of Mental Health, Singapore
Section 3
Educational Games: Instructional Design Perspectives
Chapter 9
Design of Fantasy and Their Effect on Learning and Engagement in a Serious Game....................... 197
Jaejin Lee, University of Seoul, South Korea
Min Liu, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
Chapter 10
Game Design as a Complex Problem Solving Process........................................................................ 217
Antonio P. Gutierrez, Georgia Southern University, USA
Charles B. Hodges, Georgia Southern University, USA
Philipp Sonnleitner, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
Chapter 11
Designing Intrinsic Integration of Learning and Gaming Actions in a 3D Architecture
Game.................................................................................................................................................... 234

Chapter 12
Designing Engaging Educational Games and Assessing Engagement in Game-Based
Learning............................................................................................................................................... 253
Xun Ge, University of Oklahoma, USA
Dirk Ifenthaler, University of Mannheim, Germany
Section 4
Educational Games: Teaching and Learning Perspectives
Chapter 13
Augmented Reality in Informal Learning Settings: Leveraging Technology for the Love of
History................................................................................................................................................. 272
Eric G. Poitras, University of Utah, USA
Jason M. Harley, University of Alberta, Canada
Timothy Compeau, Brock University, Canada
Kevin Kee, University of Ottawa, Canada
Susanne P. Lajoie, McGill University, Canada
Chapter 14
Stories, Games, and Learning through Play: The Affordances of Game Narrative for
Education............................................................................................................................................. 294
Stephen T. Slota, University of Connecticut, USA
Michael F. Young, University of Connecticut, USA
Chapter 15
Factors That Explain Adolescent and Young Adult Mobile Game Play, Part 1: A Quantitative
Examination of the Characteristics Describing the Casual Player....................................................... 320
Boaventura DaCosta, Solers Research Group, USA
Soonhwa Seok, Korea University, South Korea
Chapter 16
Examination of the Casual Player in the Context of Age and Gender................................................. 340
Chapter 17
Level Up: Multiple Player Professional Development......................................................................... 366

Chapter 18
The Development of a Gamified System for Health Activism as a Graduate Student Project............ 380
Chapter 19
Game Dimensions and Pedagogical Dimension in Serious Games..................................................... 402
Begoña Gros, University of Barcelona, Spain
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 418
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 482
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 492
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................... xx
Acknowledgment.............................................................................................................................. xxvii
Section 1
Educational Games: Theoretical Perspectives
Chapter 1
What Cognitive Psychology Can Tell Us About Educational Computer Games.................................... 1
Michael K. Gardner, University of Utah, USA
David L. Strayer, University of Utah, USA
Developers of educational computer games often have incomplete knowledge of the cognitive abilities of
learners, yet this knowledge can be useful in informing game design. This chapter reviews two important
cognitive abilities that underlie learning: working memory and attentional capacity/executive function.
From a description of the developmental course of each ability, we derive a set of recommendations for
game developers to follow when designing games for learners of different ages. The chapter next reviews
the psychology of transfer of training, including two major theories on the issue. The doctrine of identical
elements appears to give the better description of how transfer occurs from training environment (the
educational computer game) to target environment (real world performance of the learned skill). It is
recommended that games embody, as closely as possible, the end behavior they hope to produce, as this
will produce maximal transfer. Finally, we review some controversial research demonstrating distant
transfer in computer video gaming.
Chapter 2
The Role of Metacognition in Learning via Serious Games................................................................. 19
Douglas J. Hacker, University of Utah, USA
This chapter focuses on three recommendations from the National Research Council for conducting
research that may increase the impact of serious games on student achievement. At the core of these
recommendations is an emphasis on the role of metacognition in learning. The first recommendation
examines the player’s self-awareness as a learner and how a sense of agency can be nurtured by serious
games to promote self-regulated learning. The second examines the mediating processes within the
individual that influence learning with games. This section describes embodied cognition, which examines
the interactions among body, mind, and game environment that can lead to learning. The third examines
the problem of transfer of learning. This section offers suggestions on how transfer from gaming contexts

to academic contexts can be facilitated. The chapter concludes with an examination of whether research
in response to these recommendations can positively impact learning via the serious game.
Chapter 3
Learning from Social Collaboration: A Paradigm Shift in Evaluating Game-Based Learning............. 41
Kimmo Oksanen, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Timo Lainema, University of Turku, Finland
Raija Hämäläinen, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
This chapter focuses on the challenge of evaluating game-based learning. It argues that linking game-
based learning with the characteristics of a specific game or game-produced engagement is challenging.
It further proposes a framework in which the game-based learning process is approached by considering
(business) simulation games as Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) environments
and presents an approach on how learning can be approached and evaluated from this perspective. In
addition, it highlights how simulation game mechanics appears to be a potential way to promote learners’
socio-emotional processes and give rise to social interaction and to structure collaboration among the
learners in the game context. The proposed framework of this chapter takes into account both cognitive
and socio-emotional perspectives of learning. The results of the chapter will present a contemporary
view on the roles of sociability, collaboration and engagement in game-based learning.
Chapter 4
A Framework for Promoting Knowledge Transfer in SNS Game-Based Learning............................... 66
Robert Z. Zheng, University of Utah, USA
Thanh N. Truong, University of Utah, USA
This chapter focuses on an important issue in SNS game-based learning, that is, learners’ knowledge
transfer in the ill-structured domain. The chapter offers a discussion of instructional strategies in SNS
game-based learning. The discussion presented here was framed around an extensive review of the literature
pertinent to the strategies and approaches in serious games. Based on the discussion a framework was
proposed for serious game design which revealed the interaction between and interrelationship among
the variables in serious game learning. A pilot study was conducted to test the partial components of the
framework. The results supported the framework showing students’ progression in knowledge transfer in
a game-based learning environment. Discussions were made regarding the implications of the framework
and its application in k-16 education and professional training.
Section 2
Educational Games: Cognitive and Psychological Perspectives
Chapter 5
Using Video Games to Improve Spatial Skills...................................................................................... 93
HeeSun Choi, North Carolina State University, USA
In this chapter, we explore why and how to use video games for educational purpose to enhance spatial
skills. We review the history and trends of the educational use of video games, introduce the concept
of spatial skills, and present the importance of spatial skills in STEM education. We outline existing
research on spatial training using video games, discuss the methodological issues in these research, and

summarize speculated underlying mechanisms of spatial learning. We also discuss considerations in

designing video games to maximize the training outcomes of improving spatial skills. We hope that this
chapter will not only provide a comprehensive overview of our current knowledge on the importance of
learning spatial skills and the potential of video games in facilitating the learning, but also inform about
the effective design of video games to accelerate the acquisition of spatial skills.
Chapter 6
Dino Lab: Designing and Developing an Educational Game for Critical Thinking............................ 115
Kirsten R. Butcher, University of Utah, USA
Madlyn Runburg, Natural History Museum of Utah, USA
Roger Altizer, University of Utah, USA
Dino Lab is a serious game designed to explore the potential of using games in scientific domains to
support critical thinking. Through collaborations with educators and scientists at the Natural History
Museum of Utah (NHMU), game designers and learning scientists at the University of Utah, and Title I
middle school teachers and students, the authors have developed a beta version of Dino Lab that supports
critical thinking through engagement in a simulation-based game. Dino Lab is organized around four key
game stages that incorporate high-level goals, domain-specific rule algorithms that govern legal plays
and resulting outcomes, embedded reflection questions, and built-in motivational features. Initial play
testing has shown positive results, with students highly engaged in strategic game play. Overall, results
suggest that games that support critical thinking have strong potential as student-centered, authentic
activities that facilitate domain-based engagement and strategic analysis.
Chapter 7
Designing BioSim: Playfully Encouraging Systems Thinking in Young Children............................. 149
Kylie Peppler, Indiana University, USA
Joshua Danish, Indiana University, USA
In this chapter, we discuss the design decisions made when creating the game mechanics and rules for
BioSim, a pair of game-like participatory simulations centered around honeybees and army ants to help
young children (ages kindergarten through third grade) explore complex systems concepts. We outline
four important design principles that helped us align the games and simulations to the systems thinking
concepts that we wanted the students to learn: (1) Choose a specific and productive focal topic; (2) Build
on game mechanics typically found in children’s play; (3) Purposefully constrain children’s play to help
them notice certain system elements; and (4) Align guiding theories to game rules, and vice versa. We
then highlight how these guiding principles can be leveraged to allow young children to engage with
complex systems concepts in robust ways, and consider our next steps and goals for research as we
continue to iterate and build on these games.

Chapter 8
A Game-Based Approach to Teaching Social Problem-Solving Skills............................................... 168
Jean Lee Tan, Ministry of Education, Singapore
Dion H. Goh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Vivien S. Huan, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Yoon Phaik Ooi, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Jillian S. T. Boon, Institute of Mental Health, Singapore
Daniel S. S. Fung, Institute of Mental Health, Singapore
This chapter describes a game-based approach to teaching social problem solving skills. This chapter
presents the background, literature review, development and evaluation of a social problem-solving game,
Socialdrome, for use with primary school going children in Singapore. The game sought to intentionally
teach children to identify and manage feelings, exercise self-control, solve social problems and negotiate
conflict situations. This chapter has two objectives. First, we describe the design of Socialdrome, which
is in alignment with instructional design and game design principles. In Study 1, we reported a formative
evaluation of the game. This led to further refinements of the game. Second, we presented Study 2,
an investigation of the learning outcomes and user acceptance arising from using Socialdrome. Here,
a summative evaluation of the game in a formal classroom setting was reported. We concluded with
directions for future work.
Section 3
Educational Games: Instructional Design Perspectives
Chapter 9
Design of Fantasy and Their Effect on Learning and Engagement in a Serious Game....................... 197
Jaejin Lee, University of Seoul, South Korea
Min Liu, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
Researchers are interested in exploring the use of fantasy design in educational games to promote learning.
This chapter first reviewed the literature on fantasy designs and relevant principles along with the studies
examining the use of fantasy designs to enhance learning. An experiment was then conducted, in which
two sets of fantasy designs were implemented in a serious game, to examine the effect of different types
of fantasy (portrayal fantasy vs creative fantasy designs) on learning and game engagement. The results
using multiple regressions showed that portrayal fantasy design was more effective both for enhancing
learning and engagement. Students who used portrayal fantasy models showed better improvement in their
content knowledge and scored better on game engagement. Visualization analysis showed the portrayal
fantasy group spent more time in using the tool containing all fantasy designs than the creative group.
Findings and future research directions are discussed.

Chapter 10
Game Design as a Complex Problem Solving Process........................................................................ 217
Antonio P. Gutierrez, Georgia Southern University, USA
Charles B. Hodges, Georgia Southern University, USA
Philipp Sonnleitner, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
Problem solving is one of the most essential skills for individuals to be successful at their daily lives
and careers. When problems become complex, solving them involves identifying relationships among a
multitude of interrelated variables, to achieve multiple different possible solutions. Teaching Complex
Problem Solving (CPS) skills in formal education contexts is challenging. In this research, we examined
if through an innovative game-design course middle school students improved in their CPS skills. Our
results showed that students showed significant improvements in their CPS skills, especially in terms of
system exploration, t(10) = 2.787, p = .019; system knowledge, t(10) = 2.437, p = .35; system application,
t(10) = 2.472, p = .033. In addition, there was a statistically significant change in students’ interest for
CPS after attending the GDL program, t(6) = 3.890, p = .008. We discuss implications regarding use of
game-design tasks as contexts to teach CPS skills in formal and informal educational contexts.
Chapter 11
Designing Intrinsic Integration of Learning and Gaming Actions in a 3D Architecture
Game.................................................................................................................................................... 234
This chapter reports a design-based study that examines core game mechanics that enable an intrinsic
integration of domain-specific learning. In particular, the study aims to extract the design heuristics that
promote content engagement in the actions of architectural construction in Earthquake Rebuild, a 3D
epistemic simulation game that aims to promote active math learning for middle-school students. Data
were collected from iterative expert reviews and user-testing studies. Based on the study findings, the
chapter presents qualitative, analytic speculations on the design of the game-play mode and perspective,
the granularity level, the user input interface, and incentives for attentive content engagement that will
reinforce the learning affordance and playability of the core game gaming actions.
Chapter 12
Designing Engaging Educational Games and Assessing Engagement in Game-Based
Learning............................................................................................................................................... 253
Xun Ge, University of Oklahoma, USA
Dirk Ifenthaler, University of Mannheim, Germany
The focus of this chapter is on designing engaging educational games for cognitive, motivational, and
emotional benefits. The concept of engagement is defined and its relationship with motivation and cognition
are discussed. Design issues with many educational games are examined in terms of factors influencing
sustained motivation and engagement. A theoretical framework to design engaging digital games is
presented, including three dimensions of engagement (i.e., behavioral, cognitive, and emotional). Later,
the chapter considers how to harness the appealing power of engaging games for designing engaging
educational games. Various motivational features of game design and learner experiences are considered.
In conclusion, the chapter also discusses various methods to assess engagement in order to inform the
design of educational games that motivate learners.

Section 4
Educational Games: Teaching and Learning Perspectives
Chapter 13
Augmented Reality in Informal Learning Settings: Leveraging Technology for the Love of
History................................................................................................................................................. 272
Eric G. Poitras, University of Utah, USA
Jason M. Harley, University of Alberta, Canada
Timothy Compeau, Brock University, Canada
Kevin Kee, University of Ottawa, Canada
Susanne P. Lajoie, McGill University, Canada
Cultural heritage sites and museums are faced with an important challenge – how best to balance the
needs of engaging visitors in meaningful and entertaining experiences, while at the same time exploiting
the affordances of exhibits for instructional purposes? In this chapter, we examine the use of augmented
reality in the context of informal learning environments, and how this type of technology can be used as
a means to enhance learning about history. The research case studies are reviewed in terms of the use of
historical locations, experience mechanics, narrative/plot, and role-playing (the later two representing
game-based elements) in the design guidelines of instructional activities and applications. In doing so,
we critique the theoretical, methodological, and instructional underpinnings of studies that evaluate
augmented reality applications and draw several recommendations for future research in this field.
Chapter 14
Stories, Games, and Learning through Play: The Affordances of Game Narrative for
Education............................................................................................................................................. 294
Stephen T. Slota, University of Connecticut, USA
Michael F. Young, University of Connecticut, USA
Stories are the mechanism through which humans construct reality and make sense of the world around
them. Yet, literature on the effects of narrative in game-based and other learning environments is quite
variable, and the relevance of narrative to the learning sciences is not well-researched. Identifying precisely
how narrative intertwines with human experience of the lived-in world requires the application of a situated
cognition framework to understand user-content-context interactions as dynamic and co-determined. This
chapter uses examples drawn from a narrative-structured, game-based learning program to accomplish
that goal, discussing in-context, on-the-fly dialogic interactions between narrative “producers” and
“recipients.” While there is still much to learn, the leveraging of narrative to help recipients grapple with
complex social, cultural, and intellectual issues may be one of the most important—and overlooked—
means of inducing game-to-real world transfer.
Chapter 15
Examination of the Characteristics Describing the Casual Player....................................................... 320
The first of two chapters, a study is presented that quantitatively examined the adolescent and young adult
“casual” video game player. A total of 1,950 South Korean students self-reported their game play on

mobile phones by answering a 92-item questionnaire designed to capture data on technology ownership;
preference for game genre and titles; where and how often games were played; what factors influence
game selection, what game features were the most desirable, the rationale behind playing games, and
psychophysical changes experienced as a result of playing; as well as, spending habits with regard to
game purchases. The findings supported many of the claims made about the casual player, revealing, for
example, that mobile games are predominately played for short periods of time, in between activities,
and as a means to combat boredom. Adding credence to the idea that mobile game play can be viewed
as a casual activity. Results also revealed potentially positive benefits, to include improved mood and
feelings of well-being along with better mental attention and focus.
Chapter 16
Examination of the Casual Player in the Context of Age and Gender................................................. 340
The second of two chapters, a study is presented that quantitatively examined the adolescent and young
adult casual video game player from the perspective of age and gender. A total of 1,950 South Korean
students self-reported their game play on mobile phones by answering a 92-item questionnaire designed
to capture data on technology ownership; preference for game genre and titles; where and how often
games were played; what factors influence the selection of games to play, what game features were the
most desirable, the rationale behind playing games, and psychophysical changes experienced as a result
of playing; as well as, spending habits with regard to game purchases. The findings supported many
of the age and gender suppositions made about the casual player. For example, females played mobile
games as much as males, and play time was limited to 30 minute increments almost equally among age
groups and gender. New discoveries were also found to include positive benefits stemming from mobile
games, such as improved mood and feelings of well-being along with better mental attention and focus.
Chapter 17
Level Up: Multiple Player Professional Development......................................................................... 366
Gamification is becoming increasingly popular in both K-12 and higher education settings. By infusing
game elements into learning environments, educators believe that students will be more engaged and
more motivated to learn. But what about the use of gamification to support the professional development
of educators? What impact would gamification have on the participation and motivation of professors
and faculty involved in an intensive professional development experience? This chapter describes the
creation and implementation of Level Up, a two week long professional development game involving
twenty faculty member participants. The chapter outlines the process of designing the game and the game
elements used throughout its implementation. The chapter also examines some challenges the designers
and participants experienced during the game implementation and provides several design considerations
for professional developers who wish to gamify their faculty programs.

Chapter 18
The Development of a Gamified System for Health Activism as a Graduate Student Project............ 380
This chapter presents a case of the development, implementation, and iteration of a gamified, graduate-
student-driven, collaborative class project about community health activism. The project was founded
on three principles: (1) people define, interpret, and modify the meanings of health and wellbeing based
on past experiences and in diverse contexts; (2) both learning and iterative design are adaptations to
problems; and (3) knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Prior to the class
project, the researchers designed a web-based platform for people to publicly recognize and motivate
one another for being healthcaring, exhibiting positive attitudes and behaviors toward the health and
wellbeing of themselves and others. This chapter shows how students, researchers, and the community
refined a definition of healthcaring while trying to change people’s health attitudes and behaviors
through gamification. After contextualizing the project and discussing its foundations, the chapter offers
a discussion on its four phases and results.
Chapter 19
Game Dimensions and Pedagogical Dimension in Serious Games..................................................... 402
Begoña Gros, University of Barcelona, Spain
Designing serious games is a complex process because finding the right balance between the ‘serious’
and the ‘game’ dimensions is vital, as pointed out in some meta-analyses. If educational content prevails
over the entertainment element, users’ motivation may decrease and this can have a negative impact on
the effectiveness of learning. On the other hand, if entertainment predominates over content, this can
also limit learning opportunities. Another major concern identified regarding the use of digital games
in education is the difficulty in assessing effectiveness in achieving the learning goals. This chapter
discusses and analyses different models for guiding the design cycle of serious games with the aim of
supporting not only the design process but also the implementation and assessment of serious games in
education. This contribution emphasises the importance of in-game assessment and the need for further
research on adaptive serious games.
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 418
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 482
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 492
xx
Preface
The notion of “gaming” and the effective development of games first took hold in the computer en-
tertainment industry. Indeed, today institutions such as the University of Utah and the University of
Southern California have successful graduate programs in computer game development. Not long after
the emergence of computer gaming, educators and trainers began to consider how the principles of suc-
cessful gaming could be applied to the educational arena, broadly defined. Research in serious gaming for
educational applications has focused on numerous areas: (a) gaming and cognition (Lamb, Cavagnetto,
& Akmal, 2016; Rice, 2007); (b) gaming for classroom based learning (Abdul Jabbar & Felicia, 2015;
Squire, 2003, 2008; Van Eaton, Clark, & Smith, 2015); (c) design and development of games for train-
ing (Arnab et al., 2015; Pill, 2014; Rosario & Widmever, 2009); and (d) gaming and society (Foreman,
2004). The diversity of research programs in the area of serious games for educational applications has
made it difficult for students, and even faculty, to perceive the field from a unified perspective.
In this volume we have attempted to provide a unified presentation of the field of serious gaming for
educational applications. We have divided our presentation into four section: (a) theoretical perspectives;
(b) cognitive and psychological perspectives; (c) instructional design perspectives; and (d) teaching and
learning perspectives. With regard to the theoretical perspective underlying serious games for educa-
tional applications, we present material concerning the cognitive, metacognitive, and affective factors
underlying games in educational contexts. Material is also presented concerning knowledge transfer.
Concerning cognitive and psychological aspects of gaming, we present chapters concerned with spatial
skills, critical thinking, systems thinking, and social problem solving. These chapters move beyond the
underlying theory to actual applications of serious gaming to develop cognitive processes and skills.
Instructional design for educational games is considered in chapters concerning fantasy game design,
design for complex problem solving, design to enhance intrinsic integration of domain specific knowl-
edge, and design to enhance the motivational properties of educational games. Finally, the teaching
and learning applications of games are illuminated in chapters focused on the use of augmented reality
in informal learning, the importance of narrative and stories in educational games, the characteristics
of adolescents and young adults who engage in game play on mobile devices, how educational games
can be used in professional development with educational professionals, how educational games can be
used to enhance health and well-being, and how to balance the entertainment and educational aspects
of serious games (including a typology for categorizing serious games).
The value of this volume is that synthesizes the many aspects of serious games for educational
applications, and presents a clear theoretical foundation (e.g., classifying research on serious games
according to its focus: cognitive, metacognitive, or affective). It considers serious game development
not only from a theoretical perspective, but also from the various applied perspectives necessary to cre-

Preface
ate effective educational games (cognitive goals of gaming, instructional design principles required to
implement effective games, the role of motivation in game design, and how such serious games can be
used to achieve teaching and learning goals). In addition to creating the intellectual context for serious
games used for educational applications, we have tried to make this volume broad in terms of where are
the research was done. The book presents research conducted in North America, Europe, and Asia. We
feel that this allows us to present the reader with a truly international view of the field.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF THIS BOOK
This edited volume is marked by its unique contributions to the educational and research communities.
Firstly, it brings together multiple perspectives in educational gamification by focusing on cognitive,
metacognitive, and motivational aspects in the game-based learning. Secondly, the book is significant
both theoretically and practically. At the theoretical level, it contributes to the knowledge base by high-
lighting the theories and principles in game-based learning. At the practical level, the book offers an
array of teaching and learning strategies as well as design approaches for the design and development
of educational games. As such, the book bridges the theories with practices in educational gamification
with a focus on effective use of games in teaching and learning. Thirdly, the book reflects the collec-
tive effort of researchers from a broad range of academic institutions and research organizations – from
private to public comprehensive, and from state and national to international which makes the book ap-
peal to readers both from the United States and the international educational communities at all levels.
This volume is appropriate for use as a text in graduate and undergraduate courses in programs such
as instructional design, educational technology, communications and media, game design, teaching and
learning, educational psychology, and applied computer science. In some cases, the book could serve as
a primary text (e.g., in educational technology, multimedia learning, or seminars on educational gamifi-
cation). The text is also appropriate as an adjunct for more general courses in education, cognition, and
communications. Professionals in applied areas, such as K through 12 teachers or university instructional
designers, may find the information helpful in their professional applications. Finally, for faculty and
graduate students pursuing research in the area of educational and computer gaming, the text provides a
current sampling of research and theory in the field, and presents this information in an integrated way.
We hope you will enjoy reading this book as much as we have enjoyed making it.
ORGANIZATION OF THE THIS BOOK
The book is divided into four sections in a purpose to maximize the value for the readers as they move
from the theoretical to the practical and from a focus on cognition, metacognition, and motivation to
specific issues involving the design, teaching and learning with educational games.
Section 1 presents a theoretical perspective on educational gamification that focuses on the cogni-
tive, metacognitive, and social aspects of serious games in educational applications. Section 1 consists
of four chapters. A description of each chapter follows.
Chapter 1: In this chapter Mike Gardner and David Strayer (University of Utah, USA) provides
an overview on important cognitive abilities that underlie learning: working memory and attentional
capacity/executive function. Based on the general cognitive demands in learning, the authors made a
xxi
Preface
set of recommendations for game developers to follow when designing games for learners of different
ages. The authors further elaborated on how transfer occurs from training environment (the educational
computer game) to target environment (real world performance of the learned skill) with recommenda-
tions on optimization of transfer in game-based learning.
Chapter 2 presents the work by Douglas Hacker (University of Utah, USA) who focuses on the role
of metacognition in game-based learning. The author, drawn from his several decades of research in
metacognition, made recommendations on the design and development of educational games by taking
in perspectives the role of metacognition in learning. The first recommendation examines the player’s
self-awareness as a learner and how a sense of agency can be nurtured by serious games to promote self-
regulated learning. The second examines the mediating processes within the individual that influence
learning with games. The third examines the problem of transfer of learning. The chapter concludes
with an examination of whether research in response to these recommendations can positively impact
learning via the serious game.
In Chapter 3 Kimmo Oksanen of University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Timo Lainema of University of
Turku, Finland; and Raija Hämäläinen of University of Jyväskylä, Finland, emphasized the social aspects
in game-based learning. The authors proposed a framework in which the game-based learning process is
approached by considering (business) simulation games as Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
(CSCL) environments and present an approach on how learning can be approached and evaluated from
this perspective. In addition, they highlighted how simulation game mechanics appears to be a potential
way to promote learners’ socio-emotional processes and give rise to social interaction and to structure
collaboration among the learners in the game context.
Chapter 4 focuses on an important issue in Social Networking Sites (SNS) game-based learning,
that is, learners’ knowledge transfer in the ill-structured domain. The authors (Robert Zheng and Thanh
Truong of University of Utah, USA) offer a discussion of instructional strategies in SNS game-based
learning framed around an extensive review of the literature pertinent to the strategies and approaches
in serious games. Based on the discussion a framework was proposed for serious game design which
reveals the interaction between and interrelationship among the variables in serious game learning.
Section 2 offers discussions on the cognitive and psychological perspective in educational games. The
authors examine the relationship between spatial skills and video games, the critical thinking skills in
game-based learning, and approaches to teaching social problem-solving skills with educational games.
A brief discussion of the chapters follows.
Chapter 5 explores why and how to use video games for educational purpose to enhance spatial skills.
The authors (HeeSun Choi and Jing Feng of North Carolina State University, USA) discuss considerations
in designing video games to maximize the training outcomes of improving spatial skills by outlining
existing research on spatial training using video games, highlighting the methodological issues in these
research, and summarizing speculated underlying mechanisms of spatial learning. The chapter not only
provides a comprehensive overview of learning spatial skills but also informs about the effective design
of video games to accelerate the acquisition of spatial skills.
Chapter 6 presents a case on exploring the potential of using games in scientific domains to support
critical thinking. The authors (Kirsten Butcher, Madlyn Runburg, and Roger Altizer of University of
Utah, USA) have developed a beta version of Dino Lab that supports critical thinking through engage-
ment in a simulation-based game. Dino Lab is organized around four key game stages that incorporate
high-level goals, domain-specific rule algorithms that govern legal plays and resulting outcomes with
embedded reflection questions and built-in motivational features. Initial play testing has shown positive
xxii
Preface
results, with students highly engaged in strategic game play. Overall, results suggest that games that
support critical thinking have strong potential as student-centered, authentic activities that facilitate
domain-based engagement and strategic analysis.
In Chapter 7 the authors (Naomi Thompson, Kylie Peppler, and Joshua Danish of Indiana University,
USA) discusses the design decisions made when creating the game mechanics and rules for BioSim, a pair
of game-like participatory simulations centered around honeybees and army ants to help young children
(ages kindergarten through third grade) explore complex systems concepts. The authors outlined four
important design principles that helped align the games and simulations to the systems thinking concepts
in student learning. The authors went on to highlight how these guiding principles can be leveraged to
allow young children to engage with complex systems concepts in robust ways in educational games.
In Chapter 8 Rebecca Ang (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore) and her colleagues present
a game-based approach to teaching social problem solving skills. The authors introduced the learning
game called Socialdrome for use with primary school going children in Singapore. The game sought to
intentionally teach children to identify and manage feelings, exercise self-control, solve social problems
and negotiate conflict situations. The authors conducted a study on the Socialdrome and reported a
formative evaluation of the game. This was followed by a second study in which the learning outcomes
and user acceptance of the Socialdrome were reported. Some discussion about and recommendations
for future work were made.
Section 3 focuses on the instructional design perspective in educational games. The issues being cov-
ered in this section include how to design game for complex problem solving, the motivational aspects in
educational game design, and the assessment that measures learners’ engagement with educational games.
Chapter 9 presents a study by Jaejin Lee (Seoul National University, South Korea) and Min Liu (The
University of Texas at Austin, USA) on the use of fantasy design in educational games to promote learn-
ing. The authors first reviewed the literature on fantasy designs and relevant principles along with the
studies examining the use of fantasy designs to enhance learning. An experiment was then conducted,
in which two sets of fantasy designs were implemented in a serious game, to examine the effect of dif-
ferent types of fantasy (portrayal fantasy vs creative fantasy designs) on learning and game engagement.
The results using multiple regressions showed that portrayal fantasy design was more effective both
for enhancing learning and engagement. Students who used portrayal fantasy models showed better
improvement in their content knowledge and scored better on game engagement. Visualization analysis
showed the portrayal fantasy group spent more time in using the tool containing all fantasy designs than
the creative group. Findings and future research directions are discussed.
Chapter 10 explores game design as a complex problem solving process for learning. Mete Akcao-
glu and colleagues (Georgia Southern University, USA) argued that problem solving is one of the most
essential skills for individuals to be successful at their daily lives and careers. They pointed out when
problems become complex, solving them involves identifying relationships among a multitude of inter-
related variables, to achieve multiple different possible solutions. In their research, the authors examined
if through an innovative game-design course middle school students improved in their CPS skills. Their
results showed that students showed significant improvements in their CPS skills, especially in terms
of system exploration, system knowledge, and system application. In addition, there was a statistically
significant change in students’ interest for CPS after attending the GDL program. Discussions were made
pertaining to the implications of the use of game-design tasks as contexts to teach CPS skills in formal
and informal educational contexts.
xxiii
Preface
Chapter 11 presents a research on designing intrinsic integration of learning and gaming actions in
a 3D architecture game. Fengfeng Ke of Florida State University, USA conducted a design-based study
that examines core game mechanics that enable an intrinsic integration of domain-specific learning. In
particular, the study aims to extract the design heuristics that promote content engagement in the actions
of architectural construction in Earthquake Rebuild, a 3D epistemic simulation game that aims to promote
active math learning for middle-school students. Data were collected from iterative expert reviews and
user-testing studies. Based on the study findings, the chapter presents qualitative, analytic speculations
on the design of the game-play mode and perspective, the granularity level, the user input interface, and
incentives for attentive content engagement that will reinforce the learning affordance and playability
of the core game gaming actions.
Chapter 12 focuses on designing engaging educational games for cognitive, motivational, and emo-
tional benefits. The concept of engagement is defined and its relationship with motivation and cognition
are discussed. Design issues with many educational games are examined in terms of factors influenc-
ing sustained motivation and engagement. The authors (Xun Ge of University of Oklahoma, USA and
Dirk Ifenthaler of University of Mannheim, Germany) then proposed a theoretical framework to design
engaging digital games which includes three dimensions of engagement (i.e., behavioral, cognitive, and
emotional). The author went on to elaborate on how to harness the appealing power of engaging games
for designing engaging educational games. Various motivational features of game design and learner
experiences are considered.
Section 4 presents research that focus on the teaching and learning perspectives in educational gamifi-
cation. The topics covered include augmented reality for informal learning, mobile games for adolescent
and young adults, gamified system for health related professional training, and game and pedagogical
dimensions in serious games.
In Chapter 13 the authors (Eric Poitras of University of Utah, USA; Jason M. Harley of University of
Alberta, Canada; Timothy Compeau of Brock University, Canada; Kevin Kee of University of Ottawa,
Canada; and Susanne P. Lajoie of McGill University, Canada) studied how best to balance the needs
of engaging visitors in meaningful and entertaining experiences, while at the same time exploiting the
affordances of exhibits for instructional purposes. The authors examined the use of augmented real-
ity in the context of informal learning environments, and the type of technology that can be used as a
means to enhance learning. The research case studies were reviewed in terms of the design guidelines of
instructional activities and applications. Recommendations for future research in this field were made.
In Chapter 14 Stephen T. Slota and Michael F. Young of University of Connecticut, USA focused
on the effects of narrative in game-based learning environments. The authors discussed how narrative
intertwines with human experience of the lived-in world and how it requires the application of a situated
cognition framework to understand user-content-context interactions as dynamic and co-determined.
The authors explored how learners can draw from a narrative-structured, game-based learning program
to accomplish discussing in-context, on-the-fly dialogic interactions between narrative “producers” and
“recipients.” The authors point out that game-to-real world transfer may rest in the effective leveraging
of narrative to help recipients grapple with complex social, cultural, and intellectual issues.
In Chapter 15 Boaventura DaCosta (Solers Research Group, USA) and Soonhwa Seok (Korea Uni-
versity, South Korea) conducted a qualitative study exploring the factors pertinent to adolescent and
young adult mobile game play. A total of 1,950 South Korean students self-reported their game play on
mobile phones by answering a 92-item questionnaire designed to capture data on technology ownership;
preference for game genre and titles; where and how often games were played; what factors influence
xxiv
Preface
game selection, what game features were the most desirable, the rationale behind playing games, and
psychophysical changes experienced as a result of playing; as well as, spending habits with regard to
game purchases. The findings supported many of the claims made about the casual player, revealing that
mobile games are predominately played for short periods of time, in between activities, and as a means
to combat boredom. Results also revealed potentially positive benefits, to include improved mood and
feelings of well-being along with better mental attention and focus.
In Chapter 16 the authors (Boaventura DaCosta of Solers Research Group, USA and Soonhwa Seok
of Korea University, South Korea) conducted a quantitative factor analysis with the same data set. The
findings supported many of the age and gender suppositions made about the casual player. New discover-
ies were also found to include positive benefits stemming from mobile games, such as improved mood
and feelings of well-being along with better mental attention and focus.
Chapter 17 focuses on leveling up multiple player professional development. Oliver Dreon and Greg
Szczyrbak of Millersville University of Pennsylvania, USA queried the approaches to use gamification
to support the professional development of educators. They examined the impact of gamification on the
participation and motivation of professors and faculty involved in an intensive professional development
experience in a two week long professional development training. The chapter outlines the process of
designing the game and the game elements used throughout its implementation. The chapter also examines
some challenges the designers and participants experienced during the game implementation and provides
several design considerations for professional developers who wish to gamify their faculty programs.
In Chapter 18 David Kirschner of Georgia Gwinnett College, USA presents a case study on the de-
velopment of a gamified system for health activism. This chapter shows how students, researchers, and
the community refined a definition of healthcaring while trying to change people’s health attitudes and
behaviors through gamification. After contextualizing the project and discussing its foundations, the
chapter offers a discussion on its results and implications for future research.
Chapter 19 discusses and analyses different models for guiding the design cycle of serious games
with the aim of supporting not only the design process but also the implementation and assessment
of serious games in education. Begoña Gros of University of Barcelona, Spain argued that designing
serious games is a complex process because finding the right balance between the ‘serious’ and the
‘game’ dimensions is vital. The author further pointed out that if educational content prevails over the
entertainment element, users’ motivation may decrease and this can have a negative impact on the ef-
fectiveness of learning. On the other hand, if entertainment predominates over content, this can also
limit learning opportunities. The author then added, another major concern identified regarding the use
of digital games in education is the difficulty in assessing effectiveness in achieving the learning goals.
The author revolved her discussion around the above issues and presented suggestions for in-game as-
sessment and adaptive serious games.
Robert Zheng
University of Utah, USA
Michael K. Gardner
February 15, 2016
xxv
Preface
REFERENCES
Abdul Jabbar, A. I., & Felicia, P. (2015). Gameplay engagement and learning in game-based learning: A
systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 740–779. doi:10.3102/0034654315577210
Arnab, S., Lim, T., Carvalho, M. B., Bellotti, F., de Freitas, S., Louchart, S., & De Gloria, A. et al.
(2015). Mapping learning and game mechanics for serious game analysis. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 46(2), 391–411. doi:10.1111/bjet.12113
Foreman, J. (2004). Game-based learning: How to delight and instruct in the 21st century. EDUCAUSE
Review, 39(5), 50–66.
Lamb, R., Cavagnetto, A., & Akmal, T. (2016). Examination of the nonlinear dynamic systems associated
with science student cognition while engaging in science information processing. International Journal
of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(1), 187–205. doi:10.1007/s10763-014-9593-2
Muñoz González, J. M., Rubio García, S., & Cruz Pichardo, I. M. (2015). Strategies of collaborative
work in the classroom through the design of video games. Digital Education Review, 27, 69–84.
Pill, S. (2014). Game play: What does it mean for pedagogy to think like a game developer? Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 85(1), 9–15. doi:10.1080/07303084.2013.838119
Rice, J. W. (2007). Assessing higher order thinking in video games. Journal of Technology and Teacher
Education, 15(1), 87–100.
Rosario, R. A. M., & Widmever, G. R. (2009). An exploratory review of design principles in constructiv-
ist gaming learning environments. Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(3), 289–300.
Smyrnaious, Z., Moustaki, F., & Chronis, K. (2012). Students’ constructionist game modeling activities
as part of inquiry learning processes. Electronic Journal of E-Learning, 10(2), 235–248.
Squire, K. (2003). Video games in education. International Journal of Intelligent Games & Simulation,
2(1), 49–62.
Squire, K. D. (2008). Video game–based learning: An emerging paradigm for instruction. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, 21(2), 7–36. doi:10.1002/piq.20020
Van Eaton, G., Clark, D. B., & Smith, B. E. (2015). Patterns of physics reasoning in face-to-face and
online forum collaboration around a digital game. International Journal of Education in Mathematics.
Science and Technology, 3(1), 1–13.
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xxvii
Acknowledgment
This book would not have been possible if it were not for the hard work of the many individuals who
have written chapters for it. As a group, they voluntarily spent hundreds of hours putting together a series
of chapters that provide readers with an excellent overview of the theoretical and practical perspectives
of serious games in educational applications. We would like to express our deepest thanks and sincere
appreciation to all these authors for their outstanding efforts.
My appreciation also goes to our reviewers who provide insightful input and suggestions. I thank all of
our authors for their own expert assistance. We feel exceptionally fortunate to work with Janine Haughton,
Jacqueline Sternberg, and Meghan Lamb, editors at IGI Global, whose expertise and generous support
make this project a great success. We would like to thank the publishing team at IGI Global who has
demonstrated the highest level of professionalism and integrity.
And last, but not the least, we owe continual debt of gratitude to our families for their encouragement,
love and support, the warm reception they give our work, and for their allowance for our work schedules.
We could not have done it without them!
Robert Zheng
Michael K. Gardner

Section 1
Educational Games:
Theoretical Perspectives
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
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than the preceding. Tadrart ridge.
23. The same, of a colour between grass and leek-green, fine-
grained, very crumbling. “Traghen, under a gypsum crust; often in
beds of from ten to twelve feet. It has the appearance of some of the
soft sandstone in the mountain range near Tripoli.”
24. Yellowish-white friable sandstone, and fine sand, strongly
impregnated with salt. “Under a calcareous crust, Fezzan.”
25. Similar sand of a very fine rounded grain. “From the Wady, in
which is the Trona lake.”
26. Yellowish clayey sandstone, filled with small rounded quartz
grains and minute white particles of small univalve shells,
(Paludina?) “Gaaf.”
27. Fine and close-grained yellowish-white sandstone, of a thin
stratified structure, which is distinctly seen at the disintegrated parts
of the fragment. “Wady Katefa, under the basalt; forming fine
precipitous walls in the middle of the range.”
28. Brownish-red friable sandstone; the rounded grains of various
sizes, loosely united by clay. “Sandstone of the hills of Wady Ghrarbi.
There is a finer and tender species, and also a stratiform one; but my
specimens are lost.”
29. The same, of a similar colour, intermixed with yellowish, less
crumbling, and containing pebbles. “From the hills to the westward of
Hamera, on which the town is built.”
30. Sandstone of yellowish colour and fine-grained, faintly
variegated with purple. Aghadem.
31. The same, fine-grained, white, with linear purplish streaks,
being the edges of horizontal filmy depositions of iron ochre of that
colour. Wady Kawan.
32. A similar variety, exhibiting purplish-yellow and red
variegations, thoroughly impregnated with salt, which is also seen
efflorescent on the surface. “Hills of Wady Ghrarbi.”
33. Similarly coloured sandstone, in laminar fragments, passing,
by decomposition, into soft clay variegated with the same colours.
Wady Kawar.
34. Tabular fragment of very close-grained nearly compact
variegated sandstone; colours, purplish and two shades of yellow, in
irregular stripes. “Sebha district.”
35. Purplish-brown slaty sandstone, micaceous on the planes of
separation, passing into cream yellow and white clay-stone of the
same structure. “Aluminous slate (sic) in different states, forming a
considerable part of the mountain range, Tadrart, Tuarick country.”
36. A tabular fragment, like the preceding; micaceous on the rifts,
of reddish-brown colour, being thoroughly penetrated by oxide of
iron. Aghadem.
37. Yellowish sandstone, composed of round grains of quartz, with
white clayey cement, which, towards the surface of the rolled piece,
becomes quartzy. From ditto.
38. A similar large-grained variety, of reddish-yellow colour with
brown streaks, in which the cementing clay, become quartzy, is
scarcely distinguishable from the grains. “Forming the eastern
boundary of the hills near Traghen.”
39. A large fragment of the same quartzy sandstone, of yellow
colour, with red streaks and brown nucleus, nearly compact, so as to
exhibit on its conchoidal fractural surfaces the traces only of a
granular structure. “Strewed over the plain between Ghudwa and
Mourzuk.”
40. The same, brownish-red, in the shape of a rolled amorphous
fragment, having acquired a uniform glossy surface like red jasper.
From ditto.
41. Yellowish variety of the same, the granular passing into
compact structure. “Thick exposed beds from Om el Abeed to
Sebha.”
42. Yellowish-grey variety of the same, as perfectly compact
tabular fragments, having their surfaces studded with small
polymorphous bodies imitating the appearance of parts of secondary
fossils. From ditto.
43. The same as the preceding, having its surface marked by
small bivalve shells, converted into the mass of the sandstone. From
ditto.
44. Sharp-edged fragments, of a variety like No. 39., of a deep
chocolate-brown colour and flat conchoidal fracture. “Between
Sebha and Timinhint; rocks about 250 feet high.”
45. The same, in which the quartz grains are very firmly cemented
by dark-red or brown siliceous iron-stone, sometimes enclosing
larger rounded grains and small pebbles; the whole forming a very
hard compact conglomerate with conchoidal shining fractural
surface. “From between Om el Abeed to Sebha, and near Zuela.”
46. Fragment of a mass of quartzy sandstone and compact brown
ironstone, externally stalactic reed-like, with black glossy surface.
“From the hills of Wady Ghrarby.”
47. Brown ferruginous sandstone, nearly compact, and with
drused cavities, enclosing yellowish nodules of magnesian
limestone. “Forms the upper part of numerous low hills, and the
surface of exposed parts on the road from Hamera to Zuela.”
48. A mass of yellow and brown ferruginous sandstone with
amorphous botryoidal surface, unequally penetrated by siliceous
brown oxide of iron, which produces the appearance of a mixture of
brown ochrey clay-ironstone. “Near Timinhint, forming the summit of
hills.”
49. Wood-hornstone; dark brown, with lighter coloured centre,
being part of a cylindrical stem or branch of a dicotyledonous tree.
“From between Mestoota and Gatrone.”
50. Flint composed of conchoidal distinct concretions, some of
them forming nuclei; the layers of alternating brown and white
colours, irregularly curved. “Quantities strewed over the plain from
Temasta to Bonjem.”
51. Yellowish-grey flint passing into hornstone, in irregularly
angular pieces, with brown glossy corroded surface. “La Saila; hills
of silex and opal.”
52. White hornstone; a boulder with corroded glossy surface.
“Strewed in large quantities between Wady el Beny and Wilkna, and
on the summit of gypsum hills.”
53. Yellowish-white substance intermediate between hornstone
and calcedony, in angular pieces, with cream-coloured cacholong on
the surface. “On the way from Gatrone to Tegerhy.”
54. Brownish-red carnelian; a fragment, with irregularly botryoidal
yellowish decomposed surface. From ditto.
55. Several fragments of variously shaped rough sand tubes;
internal surface highly glazed. “From the sands near Dibla.”
56. Lithomarge, reddish-brown, here and there variegated with
bluish-green and greyish, in fragments with rather tuberculated
surface. “Aghadem, beds in the sandstone.”
57. The same, but penetrated by iron ochre, and much harder;
with small imbedded pyriform concretions. From ditto.
58. Brownish-red and yellowish-grey variegated slaty clay, very
soft and unctuous to the touch. From ditto.
59. Small-foliated amorphous gypsum, confusedly crystallized,
with adhering red marl. “From the curiously formed gypsum hills of
Bonjem to Hormut and Takui, with large quantities of opal on the
top.”
60. Some specimens of white, granular, and foliated gypsum; one
of the varieties composed of wedge-shaped laminæ. Bonjem.
61. Large-foliated white selenite. “Close to the Tchad, Kanem.”
62. Compact limestone, of bluish-grey colour, divisible into tabular
fragments. “Benioleed, under the basalt.”
63. Light cream-coloured nearly compact limestone, in tabular
fragments; fracture even, fractural surface slightly glimmering.
Benioleed.
64. Fragment of a similar variety of limestone, with conchoidal
fracture. “Benioleed, lowest observable stratum except one.”
65. Compact limestone, of a reddish and cream yellow colour,
variegated with pale brown, of very close texture, and small-
conchoidal fracture. “Hills to the north of Benioleed.”
66. Fragment of a greenish-grey tabular magnesian limestone,
splendent on the fractural surfaces, the lustre produced by a curved-
lamellar, though (in one direction) apparently compact structure. “On
the ridges between Meshroo and Tegerhy.”
67. Yellowish-red, close-grained, nearly compact limestone, here
and there with minute scales; external exposed surface uneven,
glossy. “Temedetan, forming thick strata.”
68. Rolled fragment, of a reddish-yellow variety of magnesian
limestone, with glossy surface, and of earthy fracture, including
some dark-coloured grains, (oxide of manganese?) “Found in the
deserts, sometimes finely dendritic.”
69. Light cream-coloured hard (magnesian) limestone, with earthy
uneven fracture; the exposed surface shining, partly corroded, partly
smooth. “Hills of Gaaf.”
70. A similar variety. “From the Assoud, Wady el Malagi.”
71. A rolled fragment of yellowish-grey compact limestone
(magnesian), of even and dull fracture; the surface shining, wrinkled
by decomposition. “To the north and south of the Wells of Mafrass.”
72. The same variety as the preceding, in the shape of a large
conical lump, with uneven and corroded glossy surface, enclosing
rounded pieces of the same limestone. From ditto.
73. A similar variety of magnesian limestone, forming a botryoidal
group of more or less globular concretions, from upwards of half an
inch to half a line in diameter, and intimately grown together with
each other. “Meshroo and El Wahr.”
74. Yellowish limestone, of curved-lamellar structure. “Forming
veins in the basaltic rocks in Agutefa.”
75. Brownish-yellow limestone, in stalagmitical irregular layers.
“On the desert, between Mushroo and El Wahr.”
76. Another fragment, apparently part of a large stalagmitic
nodule, in layers on a yellow granular mass of carbonate of lime.
From ditto.
77. Greyish-brown and hair-brown fibrous limestone, in tabular
pieces; the fibres perpendicular, or in an oblique direction to the
horizontal planes, straight or slightly curved. In some specimens, the
hair-brown layer is sard-onyx and onyx-like, succeeded by a red and
a white stratum, the former generally in the form of a crust, with
superficial small acute rhombohedrons of carbonate of lime; in
others, the hair-brown layer is traversed by white veins. “Boundaries
of Fezzan and Tuarick country.”
78. Sulphate of barytes; a group of bluish and brownish prismatic
crystals, (var. rétrécie of Haüy), covered by red marle.
79. Common salt, in white, opaque, granular aggregations,
externally stained by ferruginous clay. “Road between Hamara and
Zuela.”
80. A saline incrustation, of yellowish-white colour, partly solid, in
thin tables, partly in powder, composed of carbonate, muriate, and
sulphate of soda. “Near Germa.”
81. Carbonate of soda (trona), thick-fibrous foliated, in crusts of
the thickness of one-fourth to one-third of an inch, indistinctly
crystallized on the upper surface. “From the trona lakes in Wady
Trona.”
82. The same, studded on the upper surface with small limpid
cubical crystals of muriate of soda. From ditto.
83. Carbonate of soda, of yellowish and greenish-grey colour, in
masses with diverging radiated fracture. Kanem?
84. A rolled piece of nearly compact brown ironstone. “Upper
strata from Aghadem to the southward of El Wahr.”
85. Compact brown ironstone, of dark brown colour; an irregularly
tubercular nodule, with surface, particularly that of the old fractural
planes, glossy, the recent fracture exhibiting a dull earthy surface.
“From plains to the southward of Bonjem.”
86. Compact brown ironstone, of deep chesnut-brown colour, in
rounded oblong pieces of from one-half to upwards of an inch in
diameter, the whole glossy as if varnished; fracture even, earthy.
From ditto?
87. Fragment of compact brown ironstone, mixed with much
quartzy matter. Wady Kawar and Aghadem.
88. Massive and granular brown ironstone, mixed with much
yellow iron ochre and sand. “In loose masses or crusts, on the top of
the ridges between Sockatoo and Kashna, and on the low hills
around Sockatoo.”
89. Fragments of clayey brown ironstone with ochrey nodules.
“Wady Shiati hills.”
90. A mass, mixed, of brown ironstone and red and yellow iron
ochre. “From the soil of Wady Sandalion, Tuarick country.”
91. Cubic fragments of common galena, (sulphuret of lead).
Kanem, Soudan.
92. Pure tin, cast in moulds, in the form of thick wire. Brought from
Soudan.
I conclude this long letter with mentioning a specimen of Roman
cement, taken from the ruins of Ghirza, which, in parts where the
admixture of small stony fragments is not observable, has very much
the appearance of, and might easily be mistaken for, a granular-
crystalline variety of tertiary limestone. It has unquestionably
undergone a transformation: a circumstance which may, in some
measure, serve to justify the remark of Lepère—“C’est le temps seul
et non l’art qui manque à la pétrification absolue de nos mortiers et
cimens; nos neveux diront de nos constructions ce que nous disons
de celles des anciens.”
I have the honour to be, my dear Sir,
Yours very faithfully,
Charles Konig.
To Major Denham, &c.
FOOTNOTES:
[126]Three very interesting bivalve shells, distinct, it appears,
from the other species of the genera to which they respectively
belong, have been discovered in the above-mentioned river by
Major Denham. The first, a species of Ætheria, I distinguish as
Ætheria Denhami: testa irregulariter rotundato-oblonga, ad

cardinem gibbosa, utriusque valvæ callo cardinali basim versus
oblique truncato.
Hab. in Africæ interioris fluvio Gammaroo.
The form of the cardinal callosity to which the semi-internal

ligament is attached affords a distinction sufficiently characteristic
of the species: its oblique truncating plane, which extends
towards the rather indistinct umbo, is, in the closed state of the
shell, in partial contact with that of the corresponding and similarly
formed callus of the other valve. The general form of the shell is
oblong or rounded, but appears to be subject to considerable
variation: one of the specimens before me exhibits the exterior of
Lamarck’s A. transversa, which latter is no doubt a casual variety
only of the other species described and figured by that naturalist.
These shells are externally furnished with a blackish-brown
epidermis; beneath this a white film is deposited, on the removal
of which a beautiful pearly naker appears, similar to that of the
internal surface of the valves. The blistered appearance of the
interior of both the valves is constant in all specimens, and may,
as intimately connected with the structure of the shell, be
considered of sufficient importance to be admitted into the
distinctive character of the genus.
Lamarck, imagining that these shells live at the bottom of the
sea, named the genus, as he says, after one of the daughters of
Oceanus. Though the Ætheriæ are now well known to be fluviatile
shells, the emendators of zoological nomenclature may still be
exonerated from framing a new name for this genus, since the old
one is derivable from the original locality of its species; a part of
central Africa having, according to Pliny, been anciently known by
the appellation of Ætheria.
The second shell, a new species of Iridina, may be thus
characterized:
Iridina Oudnæi: testa transversa ovato-lanceolata
tumidiuscula, cardine stricto sub-edentulo, basis margine sinuato.
Hab. cum priore.
This species is very distinct from E. elongata in form and in the

hinge line being without crenulation; and from E. nilotica, which it
resembles in the latter of those characters, it differs by its form,
inferior thickness, and iridescence. The length of the specimen
before me is 4⅔, its greatest breadth at the umbo nearly two
inches. Placed on the basal edge, which is concave, the anterior
side presents a considerable slope from the umbo to the exterior
margin, which gives the valves a tapering or ovate-lanceolate
form. The external epidermis, of a greenish-brown colour, exhibits
slightly undulating striæ of growth. The interior surface is slightly
uneven-undulated, white, with delicate opalescent colours, green
and faint pink; the former chiefly disposed in spots. The muscular
impressions are more slightly marked than in the other species.
For the third shell, which I considered as a new species of
Anodon, I propose the name of
Anodon Clappertoni: testa transversim oblonga, antice in

extremo cardine acute excisa.
Hab. cum antecedentibus.
The notch at the anterior extremity of the hinge being always

acute, never obtusangular or rounded, I have confined myself to it
in the distinctive character of this species, which differs in several
other respects from Anodon purpureus and rugosus of
Swainson, to both of which it is, however, nearly related. The size
of the shell, in the several specimens before me, varies from 1½
by ¾ of an inch to 3 inches by nearly 1½. Its form is transverse-
oval, with a slight slope at the anterior end. The hinge margin is
straight. Epidermis olive-green, appearing of a reddish-brown
colour, owing to the pink colour of the surface underneath, which
latter in one specimen passes into bluish-green at the umbones.
Muscular impressions three; one of them, at the anterior end,
oval, and continued in a faint tapering form towards the hollow of
the umbo; of the two other impressions, which are both stronger
marked, the one nearest to the edge of the valve is oval, with a
small rounded sinus at the inner border, and close to it a smaller
irregularly oval mark with notched margin: the two principal marks
are connected by the edge of the impression of the mantle, the
smaller mark being placed within the line. The tinge of the internal
surface is pink, imperfectly painted over as it were with white. The
several specimens, in different stages of growth, exhibit all these
characters; there is, however, among them a single valve of
rather larger dimensions and more rounded than the rest, with a
fine bronze-coloured internal surface like that of Iridina nilotica.
Whether this is to be considered as a distinct species, or only as
a variety indicative of the full grown state of the shell, I must leave
to the decision of conchologists more experienced in
discriminating the ambiguous species of this genus.
No. XXIV.
Thermometrical Journal kept at Kouka in Bornou.
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
March 1823.
15 E.N.E. 70 98 103
Sunday, 16 S.S.E. 75 95 102
17 S.S.E. 78 99 104
18 E.N.E. 77 104
19 S.E. 98
20 E.N.E. 78 95 101
21 N.E. 82 100 105
22 E.N.E. 80 97 100
Sunday, 23 N.E. 78 90 94
24 N.E. 79 94 97
25 E.N.E. 79 97 101
26 E.N.E. 79 100 103
27 E.N.E. 79 101 103
28 E.N.E. 82 97 98
29 E.N.E. 80 97 100
Sunday, 30 N.E. 80 94 97
31 E.N.E. 80 94 96
April.
1 N.E. 77 98 101
2 N.E. 80 95 100
3 S.E. 80 99 101
7 N.E. 80 99 102
8 N.E. 80 99 103
9 E.N.E. 78 98 102
10 E.N.E. 77 97 99
11 N.E. 72 100 100
12 N.E. 78 104 107
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 13 N.E. 84 100 105
14 E.N.E. 82 100 105
15 N.E. 87 103 105
16 E.N.E. 86 95 105
17 E.N.E. 87 99 106
18 E.N.E. 86 103 109
19 N.E. 88 102 106
Sunday, 20 E.N.E. 87 102 107
21 E.N.E. 85 100 100
22 E.N.E. 86 102 103
23 E.N.E. 85 102 103
24 N.E. 83 101 103
25 E.N.E. 85 103 102
26 N.E. 85 103 103
Sunday, 27 N.E. 86 102 102
28 N.E. 83 101 103
29 E.N.E. 81 103 103
30 E.N.E. 82 103 103
May.
1 E.N.E. 85 106 106
2 N.E. 85 103 105
3 N.E. 83 105 98
Sunday, 4 E.N.E. 81 99 99
5 E.N.E. 82 95 96
6 E.N.E. 81 102 102
7 N. 86 104 103
8 N.E. 71 99 96
9 N.E. 81 99 96
10 N.E. 85 95 94
Sunday, 11 N.E. 86 101 95
12 Calm. 81 99 95
13 W.S.W. 75 98 98
14 W.S.W. 75 95 98
15 W.S.W. 74 97 97
16 W.S.W. 72 92 95
17 S.W. 74 97 98
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 18 W.S.W. 74 96 99
19 W.S.W. 73 96 99
20 W.S.W. 76 95 99
21 W.S.W. 74 102 100
22 W.S.W. 73 100 100
23 W.S.W. 84 104 101
24 S.W. 76 96 96
Sunday, 25 S.W. 73 96 96
26 S.W. 81 98 100
27 S.W. 76 99 100
28 S.W. 80 98 99
29 W.S.W. 81 97 102
30 W.S.W. 82 100 102
31 W.S.W. 80 100 102
June.
Sunday, 1 W.S.W. 76 97 97
2 W.S.W. 80 97 96
3 W.S.W. 81 99 99
4 W.S.W. 81 99 100
5 W.S.W. 80 99 100
6 S.W. 80 98 98
7 S.W. 75 95 100
Sunday, 8 S.W. 78 98 98
9 S.W. 79 95 97
10 S.W. 78 89 90
11 W.S.W. 75 89 93
12 W.S.W. 79 87 95
13 W.S.W. 80 95 95
14 W.S.W. 81 97 97
Sunday, 15 W.S.W. 82 99 97
16 W.S.W. 81 97 96
17 W.S.W. 81 99 101
18 W.S.W. 80 97 99
19 W.S.W. 79 89 93
20 W.S.W. 78 92 93
21 W.S.W. 77 92 95
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 22 W.S.W. 78 98 99
23 S.W. 81 95 87
24 S.W. 76 95 87
25 S.W. 80 97 96
26 S.W. 81 94 95
27 S.W. 87 96 98
28 S.W. 81 97 92
Sunday, 29 S.W. 82 96 97
30 S.W.
July. 1 S.W. 82 97 99
2 S.W. 81 92 92
3 S.W. 82 93 94
4 S.W. 74 85 84
5 S.W. 78 89 94
Sunday, 6 S.W. 78 89 96
7 S.W. 78 89 91
8 S.W. 78 90 92
9 W.S.W. 81 87 92
10 W.S.W. 77 92 95
11 W.S.W. 75 85 97
12 S.W. 75 85 88
Sunday, 13 S.W. 71 79 82
14 S.W. 72 82 89
15 S.W. 75 83 90
16 S.W. 76 87 90
17 S.W. 72 84 93
18 S.W. 76 83 89
19 S.W. 75 86 90
Sunday, 20 S.W. 74 87 89
21 S.W. 72 83 86
22 S.W. 73 84 87
23 S.W. 73 86 89
24 S.W. 74 84 90
25 S.W. 73 83 87
26 S.W. 71 84 86
Sunday, 27 S.W. 80 86 89
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
28 S.W. 76 86 90
29 S.W. 73 84 87
30 S.W. 76 85 95
31 W. 76 85 92
Fah. Thermometer.
Date. State of Weather.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
1823.
Aug. 1 Rain all night. 75 82 86
2 73 78 79
3 Sunday. Rain in
evening. 74 80 82
4 78 82 83
5 76 82 84
6 Rain much. 73 77 78
7 74 78 81
8 Rain. 76 80 81
9 75 81 82
10 Sunday. Rain, loud
thunder. 74 77 80
11 76 81 83
12 Rain and thunder all
night. 79 83 85
13 75 80 81
14 76 80 85
15 Rain, thunder, vivid
lightning. 77 84 87
16 76 82 85
17 Sunday. 78 83 85
18 77 84 86
19 Rain and thunder during
the night. 79 85 86
20 Rainy day. 78 84 85
21 75 82 83
22 Much rain. 74 79 83
23 Morning cloudy. 74 80 84
Fah. Thermometer.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
24 Sunday. Drizzling rain. 76 83 85
25 Night violent. 75 77 79
26 Night. 75 78 79
27 All night. 74 78 79
28 Day and night, showers. 73 77 79
29 Rain. 74 78 80
30 75 80 82
31 Sunday. Rain, much
thunder. 74 78 80
Sep. 1 74 79 81
2 76 84 86
3 79 85 89
4 80 85 88
5 Morning. Rain and
thunder. 80 80 81
6 78 83 84
7 Sunday. 78 85 86
8 Rain. 79 80 81
9 78 83 85
10 Night, hurricane, east. 80 86 88
11 South. 78 85 87
12 80 86 88
13 79 85 87
14 Sunday. 78 86 89
15 80 86 89
16 81 87 89
17 Cloudy afternoon. 81 88 89
18 80 85 87
19 Hurricane, east and a
half south. Strong 3
p.m. 80 87 85
20 80 84 87
21 Sunday. 78 85 87
22 79 87 89
23 78 86 88
24 80 88 90
25 82 89 92
Fah. Thermometer.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
26 Violent storm, noon wind
N. hail and rain. 80 89 90
27 76 86 89
28 Sunday. 80 86 88
29 81 87 91
30 80 86 91
Oct. 1 Rain and wind in night. 80 87 91
2 78 84 85
3 80 85 88
4 Wind, thunder. 81 87 90
5 Sunday, rain and wind. 80 86 88
6 79 87 89
7 80 88 90
8 80 89 93
9 79 89 92
10 Breeze N.W. 78 89 91
11 77 90 92
12 Sunday, 79 92 94
13 78 92 94
14 79 91 93
15 77 92 93
16 83 92 94
17 81 92 94
18 80 90 93
19 Sunday, 81 92 94
20 79 92 94
21 80 92 94
22 81 93 95
23 75 90 92
24 76 85 88
25 77 87 90
26 Sunday, 77 88 91
27 78 90 92
28 78 90 91
29 79 91 93
30 78 88 90
Fah. Thermometer.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
31 79 89 92
Nov. 1 78 87 90
2 Sunday, 76 89 91
3 75 88 89
4 76 88 90
5 77 87 89
6 77 88 90
7 76 87 90
8 75 86 88
9 Sunday, 76 88 90
10 77 86 89
11 79 87 88
12 76 88 90
13 74 87 89
14 74 86 88
15 73 87 89
16 Sunday, 74 88 89
17 74 83 86
18 75 85 87
19 75 86 88
20 75 85 87
21 75 86 88
22 69 78 81
23 Sunday, 71 79 81
24 69 77 79
25 68 78 80
26 67 79 81
27 66 78 80
28 65 77 79
29 66 77 79
30 Sunday, 67 79 80
Dec. 1 66 79 81
2 67 78 80
3 66 79 81
4 65 78 80
5 67 80 82

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Akcaoglu, Mete / Georgia Southern University, USA........................................................................ 217

Seok, Soonhwa / Korea University, South Korea......................................................................... 320,340

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 418

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 482

summarize speculated underlying mechanisms of spatial learning. We also discuss considerations in

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 418

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 482

THE CONTRIBUTION OF THIS BOOK

ORGANIZATION OF THE THIS BOOK

Ætheria Denhami: testa irregulariter rotundato-oblonga, ad

The form of the cardinal callosity to which the semi-internal

This species is very distinct from E. elongata in form and in the

Anodon Clappertoni: testa transversim oblonga, antice in

The notch at the anterior extremity of the hinge being always

Thermometrical Journal kept at Kouka in Bornou.

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