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 Handbook of
Image-Based Security
Techniques
 Handbook of
Image-Based Security
Techniques

Shivendra Shivani
Suneeta Agarwal
Jasjit S. Suri
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion
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MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

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 To my beloved family members for encouraging and
admiring me to believe that I am capable of authoring
a book.
Shivendra Shivani

To my husband for his untiring effort and support.

Suneeta Agarwal

To all my collaborators around the world.

Jasjit S. Suri
Contents

Foreword xxiii

Preface xxv

Authors xxix
Section I Visual Cryptography

Chapter 1  Visual Cryptography: Introduction 3

1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY 5
1.3 APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY 7
1.3.1 Trojan-Free Secure Transaction 7
1.3.2 Authentication 10
1.3.3 Access Control 11
1.3.4 Transaction Tracking 11
1.3.5 Watermarking 11
1.4 PRELIMINARIES 11
1.5 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF VISUAL SECRET
SHARING 13
1.5.1 Pixels Expansion m 13
1.5.2 Contrast α 14
1.5.3 Basis Matrices 15
1.5.4 Concept of Black and White Pixels in Visual
Cryptography 16
1.6 FORMATION OF A BASIS MATRIX 16
1.6.1 Observations Related to The Basis Matrix
Creation Approach of Naor and Shamir 17
1.6.2 Essential Conditions for a Basis Matrix 18

vii
viii  Contents

1.7 DIFFERENT EVALUATION PARAMETERS 19

1.7.1 Objective Evaluation Parameters 19
1.7.2 Subjective Parameters 23

Chapter 2  Various Dimensions of Visual Cryptography 27

2.1 VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY 28

2.1.1 Traditional Visual Cryptography (TVC) 29
2.1.1.1 Threshold visual cryptography 30
2.1.2 Extended Visual Cryptography (EVC) 32
2.1.2.1 Halftone visual cryptography (HVC) 32
2.1.2.2 Significance of a halftone image over a
binary image 33
2.1.2.3 Halftone image creation using error
diffusion 33
2.1.2.4 Tagged visual cryptography (TVC) 37
2.1.2.5 Friendly visual cryptography (FVC) 39
2.1.2.6 Size invariant visual cryptography 39
2.1.2.7 Progressive visual cryptography (PVC) 42
2.1.2.8 Progressive visual cryptography with
meaningful shares without pixel expan-
sion 43
2.1.3 Dynamic Visual Cryptography (DVC) 47
2.1.3.1 Multitone/Continuous tone visual
cryptography (MVC) 47
2.1.3.2 MVC with unexpanded meaningful shares 49
2.1.3.3 Perfect recovery of the secret image in
MVC 50
2.1.3.4 Visual cryptography with multiple se-
crets or multi secret sharing (MSS) 51
2.1.3.5 Angle restriction problem in MSS 51
2.1.3.6 Multi secret sharing with unexpanded
meaningful shares 54
2.1.3.7 XOR-based visual cryptography 54
2.1.3.8 Hybrid approach with XOR-based VC,
multitone VC, FVC, size invariant VC
and multi secret sharing 56
2.1.3.9 Verifiable visual cryptography (VVC) 57
 Contents  ix

2.1.3.10 Hybrid approach with VVC 60

2.1.3.11 Random grid-based visual cryptography
(RGVC) 60
2.1.3.12 Hybrid approaches using RGVC 61

Chapter 3  VC Approaches with Computationless Recovery

of Secrets 65

3.1 COMPUTATIONLESS AND COMPUTATION-BASED

VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY APPROACHES 66
3.2 BASICS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTATION-
LESS VC APPROACHES 68
3.2.1 Development of Threshold Visual Cryptography 68
3.2.2 Development of a Halftone Visual Cryptography
(HVC) Scheme 74
3.2.3 Development of a Friendly Visual Cryptography
(FVC) Scheme 77
3.2.4 Development of Size Invariant Visual
Cryptography 80
3.2.4.1 Preprocessing of secret image for size
invariant visual cryptography 80
3.2.4.2 Size invariant share generation with the
help of the preprocessed secret 84
3.2.5 Development of a Hybrid Approach Using
Friendly Visual Cryptography (FVC) and Size
Invariant Visual Cryptography 86
3.2.5.1 Steps for making a hybrid approach 86
3.2.6 Development of Random Grid-Based Visual
Cryptography 91
3.2.6.1 Steps to generate shares using a random
grid 93
3.2.7 Development of Visual Cryptography with
Multiple Secrets 95
3.2.7.1 Steps to generate shares for multiple
secrets 95
3.2.8 Development of Progressive Visual
Cryptography (PVC) 100
x  Contents

Chapter 4  VC Approaches with Computation-Based

Recovery of Secrets 107

4.1 COMPUTATIONLESS AND COMPUTATION-BASED

VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY APPROACHES 109
4.1.1 Computation-based VC vs. Share Alignment
Problem 109
4.2 BASICS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTATION-
BASED VC APPROACHES 111
4.2.1 Development of XOR-Based Visual Cryptography 112
4.2.2 Basis Matrix Creation for the XOR-Based VC
Approach 112
4.2.3 XOR-Based VC with Unexpanded Meaningful
Shares 116
4.2.3.1 Steps to develop XOR-based VC with
unexpanded meaningful shares 116
4.2.4 Development of Multitone Visual Cryptography 117
4.2.4.1 Steps to develop multitone visual
cryptography with random shares 119
4.2.4.2 Steps to generate meaningful shares for
a multitone secret 122
4.2.5 Development of XOR-Based Multi Secret
Sharing Approach for Multitone Secrets 123
4.2.5.1 Steps to develop XOR-based multi
secret sharing approach for multitone
secrets with random shares 123
4.2.6 XOR-Based MSS with Unexpanded Meaningful
Shares 129
4.2.7 Development of Verifiable Visual Cryptography 129
4.2.7.1 Providing verifiability into the shares
generated by computationless VC
approaches 130
4.2.7.2 Steps for adding verifiability into the
shares generated by computationless VC
approaches 130
4.2.7.3 Adding verifiability into the shares
generated by computation-based VC
approaches 134
 Contents  xi

4.2.7.4 Steps for providing verifiability in the

shares generated by computation-based
VC approaches 136

Section II Digital Image Watermarking

Chapter 5  Digital Image Watermarking: Introduction 145

5.1 INTRODUCTION 147

5.1.1 Significance of the Word “Watermark” 149
5.1.2 Importance of Watermarking 149
5.2 WATERMARKING APPLICATIONS 150
5.2.1 Proof of Ownership 150
5.2.2 Ownership Identification 150
5.2.3 Broadcast Monitoring 150
5.2.4 Content Authentication 151
5.2.5 Tamper Recovery 152
5.2.6 Transaction Tracking 152
5.2.7 Copy Control 155
5.2.8 Device Control 155
5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WATERMARKING TECHNIQUES 155
5.3.1 Based on Visibility 156
5.3.1.1 Visible watermarking 156
5.3.1.2 Invisible/hidden watermarking 157
5.3.2 Based on Degree of Resistance to Attacks 157
5.3.2.1 Robust watermark 157
5.3.2.2 Fragile watermark 158
5.3.2.3 Semi-fragile watermark 158
5.3.2.4 Dual watermarking 159
5.3.3 Based on Watermark Embedding 159
5.3.3.1 Block-based watermarking 159
5.3.3.2 Pixel-based watermarking 160
5.3.4 Based on Watermark Detection/Extraction 160
5.3.4.1 Non-blind/Non-oblivious watermarking 160
5.3.4.2 Semi-blind watermarking 161
5.3.4.3 Blind/oblivious watermarking 161
5.4 PROPERTIES OF WATERMARKS 161
xii  Contents

5.4.1 Robustness 161

5.4.2 Fragility 163
5.4.3 Imperceptibility 163
5.4.4 Capacity 163
5.4.5 Security 164
5.4.6 Computational Cost 164
5.5 ATTACKS 164
5.5.1 Types of Attacks 164
5.5.1.1 Intentional attack 164
5.5.1.2 Unintentional attack 165
5.5.2 Example of Attacks in the Watermarking System 166
5.5.2.1 Removal attack 166
5.5.2.2 Addition attack 166
5.5.2.3 Cryptographic attacks 166
5.5.2.4 Copy paste attack 166
5.5.2.5 Print scan attack 166
5.5.2.6 Geometric attack 167
5.6 WATERMARKING DOMAIN 167
5.6.1 Spatial Domain 167
5.6.2 Frequency Domain 168
5.7 MEASURES OF EVALUATION 168
5.7.1 Subjective Measures 169
5.7.2 Objective Measures 170
5.7.3 Other Evaluation Parameters 173
5.7.3.1 False acceptance rate (FAR) 173
5.7.3.2 False rejection rate (FRR) 173
5.8 WATERMARKING SCHEME WITH RECOVERY
CAPABILITIES 173
5.8.1 Recovery Using Spatial Domain 173
5.8.2 Recovery Using Frequency Domain 174

Chapter 6  Fragile Watermarking 177

6.1 INTRODUCTION 179

6.1.1 Fragile Watermark as a Hash Function for Images 179
6.1.2 Fragility of a Fragile Watermark 179
6.1.3 Types of Fragile Watermark 180
 Contents  xiii

6.1.3.1 On the basis of the embedding mechanism 181

6.1.3.2 On the basis of the extraction mechanism 182
6.2 GENERATION OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 183
6.2.1 Image-Based Fragile Watermark 183
6.2.1.1 Relation between cover image and
image-based watermark 184
6.2.2 Self-Embedding Techniques 187
6.2.2.1 Relation between cover image and self-
embedding watermark 188
6.2.3 Example of Self-Embedding Techniques 189
6.2.4 Significance of the XOR Operation in
Self-Embedding 193
6.2.5 Fragile Watermark with Symmetric Key 194
6.2.6 Watermark Generation for Color Images 195
6.3 EMBEDDING OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 196
6.3.1 Domain Selection 196
6.3.1.1 Spatial domain 196
6.3.1.2 Frequency domain 197
6.3.1.3 Which domain is suitable for a fragile
watermark? 197
6.3.2 Bit Plane Slicing 197
6.3.2.1 Which bit should be chosen for
embedding? 200
6.3.2.2 How many bits should be chosen for
embedding? 201
6.3.3 Imperceptibility vs. Tamper Detection 204
6.3.3.1 Block-based embedding 204
6.3.3.2 Pixel-based embedding 205
6.3.3.3 Region-of-interest (ROI)-based
embedding 207
6.4 EXTRACTION OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 209
6.4.1 Unintentional Tampering 209
6.4.2 Intentional Tampering 210
6.4.3 Semi-Fragile Watermarks 211
6.4.4 Tamper Localization 212
6.4.4.1 Tamper localization for non-blind fragile
watermark 213
xiv  Contents

6.4.4.2 Tamper localization for semi-blind

fragile watermark 213
6.4.4.3 Tamper localization for blind fragile
watermark 213
6.4.4.4 Pixel wise tamper detection 213
6.4.4.5 Block wise tamper detection 214
6.4.5 Tamper Detection Parameters 214

Chapter 7  Fragile Watermark with Recovery Capabilities in

Spatial Domain 219

7.1 INTRODUCTION 221

7.1.1 Fragile Watermark with Recovery Capabilities 221
7.1.2 Summary Bit Stream: Recovery Information 221
7.1.3 Summary and Authentication Bit Streams 222
7.1.4 Fragility of Fragile Watermark 222
7.1.5 Types of Fragile Watermark with Recovery
Capabilities 223
7.1.5.1 On the basis of the embedding mechanism 223
7.1.5.2 On the basis of the extraction mechanism 226
7.1.6 Ideal Category for Fragile Watermark with
Recovery Capabilities 227
7.2 GENERATION OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 228
7.2.1 Self-Embedding Techniques 228
7.2.1.1 Self-embedding with block-based
authentication and block-based recovery 229
7.2.1.2 Self-embedding with pixel-based
authentication and block-based recovery 234
7.2.1.3 Self-embedding with pixel-based
authentication and pixel-based recovery 234
7.3 EMBEDDING OF FRAGILE WATERMARK 237
7.3.1 Embedding and Originating Blocks are Same: 237
7.3.2 Originating Blocks are Embedded into
Sequentially Mapped Embedding Blocks 237
7.3.3 Originating Blocks are Embedded into
Randomly mapped Embedding Blocks 239
7.4 EXTRACTION OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 240
7.4.1 Tamper Localization and Recovery 241
 Contents  xv

7.4.1.1 Non-blind authentication and non-blind

recovery 241
7.4.1.2 Semi-blind authentication and semi-
blind recovery 241
7.4.1.3 Blind authentication and semi-blind
recovery 241
7.4.1.4 Blind authentication and blind recovery 242
7.4.1.5 Block-based tamper detection and
recovery 242
7.4.1.6 Pixel-based tamper detection and
block-based recovery 242
7.4.1.7 Pixel-based tamper detection and pixel-
based recovery 244
7.4.2 Non-Zero FAR Due to Improper Mapping 247

Chapter 8  Fragile Watermark with Recovery Capabilities in

Frequency Domain 249

8.1 INTRODUCTION 250

8.1.1 Summary Bit Stream: Recovery Information
through Frequency Coefficient 251
8.1.2 Types of Fragile Watermark with Recovery Ca-
pabilities in Frequency Domain 251
8.1.2.1 On the basis of the embedding mechanism 252
8.1.2.2 On the basis of the extraction mechanism 253
8.2 GENERATION OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 253
8.2.1 Self-Embedding Techniques 254
8.2.1.1 Block-based self-embedding approach 254
8.2.1.2 Example of block-based summary bit
generation 256
8.2.1.3 Non-block-based self-embedding approach 260
8.2.1.4 Example of summary bit generation for
non-block-based recovery 260
8.3 EMBEDDING OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 263
8.3.1 Embedding of Summary Bits in Spatial Domain 263
8.3.2 Embedding of Summary Bits in Frequency
Domain 264
8.4 EXTRACTION OF A FRAGILE WATERMARK 265
8.4.1 Tamper Localization and Recovery 266
xvi  Contents

Chapter 9  Robust Watermarking 269

9.1 INTRODUCTION 271

9.1.1 Robust Watermark for Ownership Assertion 271
9.1.2 Robustness of Robust Watermark 272
9.1.3 Image as Watermark 272
9.1.4 Relationship between the Dimensions of Cover
and Watermarked Images 273
9.1.5 Image Types for Watermark 274
9.1.6 Single vs. Multiple Robust Watermarks 274
9.1.7 Encrypted Robust Watermark 275
9.1.8 Types of Robust Watermark on the Basis of
Extraction Mechanism 275
9.1.8.1 Non-blind robust watermark 275
9.1.8.2 Semi-blind robust watermark 276
9.1.8.3 Blind robust watermark 276
9.2 GENERATION OF ROBUST WATERMARK 277
9.2.1 Binary Vector Generation for Binary Images 277
9.2.2 Binary Vector Generation for Gray/Color Images 278
9.2.3 Encryption of the Binary Vector of Watermark 278
9.3 EMBEDDING OF ROBUST WATERMARKS 278
9.3.1 Domain Selection for Embedding 278
9.3.2 Embedding of Robust Watermark in Frequency
Domain 279
9.3.2.1 DCT-based embedding for robust
watermarks 280
9.4 EXTRACTION OF ROBUST WATERMARKS 283
9.4.1 Effect of Unintentional Tampering on a
Watermark 285
9.4.2 Effect of Intentional Tampering on a Watermark 285
9.4.3 Extraction of Multiple Watermarks 285
9.4.4 Extraction-Based Categorization of Robust
Watermarking 288
9.4.4.1 Ownership assertion for non-blind
robust watermarks 288
9.4.4.2 Ownership assertion for semi-blind
robust watermark 288
 Contents  xvii

9.4.4.3 Ownership assertion for blind robust

watermark 290
9.4.5 Decryption of the Encrypted Watermark Bit
Vector 290
9.4.6 Watermark Comparison Parameters 290
9.4.6.1 Objective evaluation parameters 290
9.4.6.2 Subjective evaluation parameters 291

Chapter 10  Dual Watermarking 293

10.1 INTRODUCTION 294

10.1.1 Need for Dual Watermark 295
10.1.2 Managing Robustness and Fragility at the Same
Time 295
10.1.3 Image for Robust Watermark and Self-Embedding
for Fragile Watermark 296
10.1.4 Achievable Security Requirements through Dual
Watermarking 297
10.1.5 Semi-Fragile Watermarks vs. Dual Watermarks 297
10.1.6 Types of Dual Watermarks 298
10.1.6.1 On the basis of the embedding mechanism 298
10.1.6.2 On the basis of the extraction mechanism 301
10.2 GENERATION AND EMBEDDING OF DUAL WATER-
MARKS 302
10.2.1 Hierarchical Approach for Watermark Genera-
tion and Embedding 302
10.2.1.1 Embedding of the watermark (selected
as copyright) in the frequency domain 303
10.2.1.2 Fragile watermark generation using a
self-embedding approach from the copy-
right embedded image 304
10.2.1.3 Fragile watermark vector Fb embedding
in the spatial domain of the copyright
embedded image IRW 306
10.2.2 Validity of the Proposed Dual Watermark Em-
bedding Sequence 307
10.3 EXTRACTION OF DUAL WATERMARKS 310
10.3.0.1 Authentication and authorization for
non-blind dual watermark 314
xviii  Contents

10.3.0.2 Authentication and authorization for

semi-blind dual watermarks 314
10.3.0.3 Authentication and authorization for
blind dual watermark 315
10.3.0.4 Block wise tamper detection 315
10.3.0.5 Pixel wise tamper detection 315
10.3.1 Tamper Recovery in Dual Watermarking 315
10.3.2 Tamper Detection and Watermark Comparison
Parameters 319

Section III Steganography

Chapter 11  Steganography 323

11.1 INTRODUCTION 324

11.1.1 Watermarking vs. Steganography 325
11.1.2 Need for Steganography 326
11.2 APPLICATIONS OF STEGANOGRAPHY 327
11.2.1 Positive Applications 327
11.2.2 Negative Applications 328
11.3 PROPERTIES OF STEGANOGRAPHY 328
11.3.1 Fidelity 328
11.3.2 Embedding Capacity 328
11.3.3 Embedding Effectiveness 330
11.3.4 Blind Extraction 330
11.3.5 Statistical Undetectability 330
11.3.6 Robustness 330
11.3.7 Security 331
11.3.8 Computation Cost 331
11.4 PERFORMANCE MEASURES FOR STEGANOGRAPHY
APPROACHES 331
11.4.1 Embedding Capacity 332
11.4.2 Imperceptibility 333
11.4.3 False Positive and False Negative 333
11.4.4 Computation Cost 333
11.5 MATHEMATICAL NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY 333
11.6 STEGANALYSIS 334
11.6.1 Passive Steganalysis 334
 Contents  xix

11.6.2 Active Steganalysis 334

11.6.3 Malicious Steganalysis 335
11.7 DETECTION 336
11.7.1 Blind Steganalysis 336
11.7.2 Targeted Steganalysis 336

Chapter 12  Development of Steganography and

Steganalysis 339

12.1 PRACTICAL APPROACH TOWARDS STEGANOGRAPHY 340

12.2 EMBEDDING OF A SECRET MESSAGE 341
12.2.1 Preprocessing a Secret Message 341
12.2.1.1 Lossless compression of secret message 342
12.2.1.2 Text to ASCII code generation 347
12.2.1.3 ASCII code to binary bit conversion 347
12.2.2 Domain Selection 348
12.2.2.1 Spatial domain 348
12.2.2.2 Frequency domain 348
12.2.3 Secret Bits Embedding 349
12.2.3.1 Embedding in the spatial domain 349
12.2.3.2 Embedding in the frequency domain 352
12.3 EXTRACTION OF SECRET MESSAGES 353
12.3.1 Secret Bits Extraction 353
12.3.2 Postprocessing of Secret Bits 355
12.3.3 Conversion from Bits to Readable Format 356
12.4 PRACTICAL APPROACH TOWARDS STEGANALYSIS 356
12.4.1 Cachin’s Definition of Steganography 356
12.4.2 LSB-Based Steganalysis 357

Section IV Hybrid Approaches and Advanced Research

Topics

Chapter 13  Image-Based Security Using VC, Watermarking

& Steganography 363

13.1 INTRODUCTION 364

xx  Contents

13.2 HYBRID APPROACH USING STEGANOGRAPHY AND

WATERMARKING 366
13.2.1 Combination of Robust Watermarking and
Steganography Approach 366
13.2.1.1 Steps to make a hybrid approach using
robust watermarking and a steganogra-
phy approach 369
13.2.1.2 Effect of steganography on the water-
marked image 370
13.2.2 Combination of a Fragile Watermarking and
Steganography approach 370
13.2.2.1 Steps to make a hybrid approach using
fragile watermarking and a steganogra-
phy approach 372
13.2.3 Valid Sequence for Steganography and
Watermarking 373
13.3 HYBRID APPROACH USING VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY
AND WATERMARKING 374
13.3.1 Combination of VC with Halftone Shares and a
Watermarking Approach 374
13.3.1.1 Protection of halftone shares using frag-
ile watermarks 375
13.3.1.2 Effect of a fragile watermark on shares 375
13.3.2 Combination of VC with multitone shares and
watermarking approach 376
13.3.2.1 Protection of a multitone shares with a
robust watermarking approach 376
13.3.2.2 Protection of multitone shares with a
fragile watermarking approach 378
13.4 HYBRID APPROACH USING VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY
AND STEGANOGRAPHY 381
13.5 HYBRID APPROACH USING VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY,
WATERMARKING AND STEGANOGRAPHY 382
13.5.1 Combination of Halftone VC with Fragile
Watermarks and Steganography 382
13.5.1.1 Steps to embed a fragile watermark and
steganography into the halftone share 382
13.5.2 Combination of Multitone VC with Fragile
Watermarks, Robust Watermarks and
Steganography 384
 Contents  xxi

Chapter 14  Protection of Multimedia Objects Using

Image-Based Security Methods 387

14.1 INTRODUCTION 388

14.2 AUDIO/SPEECH WATERMARKING AND
STEGANOGRAPHY 390
14.2.1 Selection of the watermark format 390
14.2.2 Audio Robust Watermarking 390
14.2.2.1 Steps to embed robust audio water-
marks or steganographic messages 393
14.2.3 Audio Fragile Watermarking 394
14.2.3.1 Steps for embedding a fragile water-
marks or steganography messages 394
14.3 AUDIO/SPEECH SECRET SHARING 396
14.3.1 Steps to Create Shares of The Speech Signal 396
14.4 VIDEO WATERMARKING, STEGANOGRAPHY AND
SECRET SHARING 397
14.4.1 Basic Terminology for Video 397
14.4.2 Process for Video Steganography/Watermarking 399
14.4.3 Enhancing the Security of Video
Watermarking/Steganography 399
14.5 3D WATERMARKING 401
14.5.1 Introduction 401
14.5.2 Embedding Domain in 3D Models 403
14.5.2.1 Geometric features 403
14.5.2.2 Topological features 403
14.6 3D STEGANOGRAPHY AND SECRET SHARING 403
14.7 BIOMETRICS AND TELEMEDICINE 404

Index 407
Foreword

With the rapid advancements in technology and the popularity of the Inter-
net, illegal modifications in digital media have become easy and difficult to
prevent. Therefore the protection of digital media and its property rights have
become vital issues of concern. Protecting digital data is extremely important
and an emerging area of research. Many efforts have been made in this area
by the cryptographic community. Images are treated as very powerful digital
media which must be protected on the web. There are three image-based se-
curity mechanisms which reported till now are Visual cryptography, Digital
Image Watermarking and Steganography. Specifically, visual cryptography al-
lows effective and efficient secret sharing of images among a number of trusted
parties. Visual cryptography provides a very powerful technique by which one
secret image can be distributed into two or more shares. When the shares,
printed onto transparencies are superimposed together, the original secret im-
age can be recovered without any computation. While digital watermarking
and steganography seem very closely related terms, they are actually very dif-
ferent in nature and practice. Watermarking is used to protect the ownership
information or content of the original cover image with or without tamper re-
covery capabilities whereas steganography is used to protect any secret image
or text behind the image.

xxiii
Preface

This book is especially written for young researchers who want to take their
research direction toward image-based security techniques. This book is writ-
ten from the beginner’s perspective with the commitment to make them fully
capable of understanding all latest research gaps in this field. Our goal with
this book is to provide a framework in which one can conduct research and
development of image based security technology. This book is not intended
as a comprehensive survey of the field of visual cryptography, watermarking
and steganography. Rather, it represents our own point of view and our own
technical contribution on the subject. Although we analyze specific examples
from the literature, we do so only to the extent that they highlight particular
concepts being discussed.

PURPOSE

Our purpose with this book is to provide guidelines to readers which are used
to enhance the research-oriented concepts of visual cryptography, watermark-
ing and steganography. This book represents ground truth as well as our own
perspectives on this subject. Some well-known examples are taken from the
literature to highlight the particular concepts. We are no exception, our own
backgrounds being predominantly in images and security. The fundamental
principles behind all the security dimensions of images are same, so we have
made an effort to keep our discussion of these principles generic. This book is
easily accessible to those who do not know much about images and security
fundamentals. In one sentence, we can say that this book offers encouragement
and empowers readers to rejuvenate their innovative imaginations in the field
of image-based security.

CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION

This book is divided into four sections. The first section includes Chapters
1,2,3 and 4 which deals with the concept of visual cryptography from the
basic to advanced level. The objective of this section is to make researchers
aware of this latest technology of secret sharing. Each chapter in this section
provides the fundamentals for the visual cryptography under consideration
and a detailed description of the relevant methods, presenting examples and
practical applications to demonstrate the functioning of visual cryptography.

xxv
xxvi  Preface

Chapter 1 provides introductory material for visual cryptography, prelim-

inaries, various evaluation parameters as well as a wide variety of applications
of VC that serves as motivation. The applications highlight a variety of some-
times conflicting requirements for VC, which are discussed in more detail in
the second half of the chapter.
Chapter 2 deals with the broad classification of VC on the basis of various
applications and subjective evaluation parameters.
Chapter 3 perfectly deals with all classes of VC like Halftone Visual
Cryptography (HVC), Progressive Visual Cryptography (PVC) etc which are
actually made for halftone images as input which require no computation at
all at the recovery end.
At the end of this section Chapter 4 deals with all classes of VC like Multitone
Visual Cryptography (MVC), XOR-based Visual Cryptography, Multi Secret
Sharing (MSS) etc which are actually made for perfect recovery and require
computation at the recovery end.
After reading this section, one will be able to think about the research
gaps in the field of VC and be able to customize the existing research.
The second section includes Chapters 5,6,7 8,9 and 10 which deals with
the concept of Digital Image Watermarking from the basic to advanced level.
After reading this section, one will be able to judge the better watermark-
ing algorithms, able to develop his own algorithm and customize all existing
algorithms in an efficient manner so that they give more effective results.
Chapter 5 provides introductory material on watermarking. It provides
a history of watermarking, as well as a wide variety of applications of digital
watermarking that serves as motivation. The applications highlight a variety
of sometimes conflicting requirements for watermarking, which are discussed
in more detail in the second half of the chapter. This chapter also presents
several frameworks for modeling watermarking systems. Along the way, we
describe, test, and analyse some simple image watermarking algorithms that
illustrate the concepts being discussed. This chapter analyzes message errors,
false positives, and false negatives that may occur in watermarking systems
during the evaluation of watermarking techniques.
Chapter 6 deals with one of the most important classes of watermarking
which is generally used in content authentication. Here we deal with various
state-of-art approaches for block-based and pixel-based fragile watermarking
techniques in the environment of various intentional and unintentional attacks.
Here we also deal with the recovery techniques of the removal for the image
content.
Chapter 7 deals with more powerful fragile watermarking techniques hav-
ing the capabilities of tamper detection as well as recovery without interven-
tion in the original content. This facility is provided in the spatial domain of
the image.
Chapter 8 deals with more powerful fragile watermarking techniques hav-
ing the capabilities of tamper detection as well as recovery without interven-
 Preface  xxvii

tion in the original content. This facility is provided in the frequency domain
of the image.
Chapter 9 deals with one of the most important classes of watermarking
which is generally used in copyright protection. Here we deal with various
state-of-art approaches for robust watermarking and their behaviour in the
presence of noisy environments.
Chapter 10 provides an efficient approach toward the making of a special
kind of watermark having the qualities of being both a fragile as well as robust
watermark.
The third section includes Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 which deal with the
concept of steganography and steganalysis. Here we deal with the notion, ter-
minology and building blocks of steganographic communication. In Chapter
11 we deal with the basic terminologies and understanding of steganography
whereas Chapter 12 provides some practical approach towards steganogra-
phy and steganalysis. The fourth section contains somewhat advanced research
topics in this field. This section contains two chapters: Chapters 13 and 14.
Here Chapter 13 deals with all types of hybrid approaches made by two or
more image-based security techniques and Chapter 14 deals with protection
of other multimedia objects like video, audio, etc.

AUDIENCE

Primary: This is a complete textbook on image-based security which deals

with all three security dimensions of images. Due to its excellent introductory
content and motivations in the form of various applications, this book may be
treated as a startup book. Hence this will help all those novice readers who
want to start their research in the field of image based security.
Secondary: Finding novel problems is more difficult than finding their solu-
tions. For the same reason, this book also deals with all potential research
gaps which may be treated as a future scope of research in the field of image
based security. Hence this book is again most appropriate for those researchers
who are already involved in this field but trapped somewhere because they do
not have proper problem statements.

UNIQUE ANGLES

In this book, the authors:

1. Present the implementation of each concept used in this book in
MATLABr as a whole.
2. Present the stepwise functions of MATLABr wherever required in be-
tween the text, so that the reader can understand the theoretical and
practical concepts of image-based security simultaneously.
3. Present many encouraging real-life examples and applications which will
definitely motivate the users.
xxviii  Preface

READER BENEFITS
1. Novice readers will enhance their basic understanding of security and
images.
2. Readers will learn how to start thinking in research directions on image-
based security.
3. Researchers will see new domains for research.
4. Readers will be able to implement the concept of security on images
using MATLABr .
5. Readers will also be able to develop novel real-life applications where
images are used for authentication in various ways.
6. All chapters of a section are well connected. A reader can start any
section because the sections are not dependent on each other.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My first debt of gratitude must go to my advisor, Prof. Suneeta Agarwal.

I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor in my life.
Whatever I say of her in this acknowledgement is not enough to describe her
knowledge and skill. She patiently provided me the vision, encouragement and
advise throughout the writing of this book.
I am also grateful to all members of my buddy group (Shailendra Tiwari,
Ashutosh Agarwal, Raman Singh, Nitin Saxena, Vipin Pal and Vinay Gau-
tam) with whom I was able to hold qualitative discussions and for pushing
me hard in my free time to write this book. In the end, I am very thankful
to my parents, Bhaiya, Bhabhi, Didi, Jija, younger brothers & sisters and my
fiancee who dreamed of this time and instilled in me with dreams of research
and its wonders, and watched with affection my journey towards their dream
and my goal.

MATLABr is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product in-

formation please contact:
The MathWork, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA, 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com

Shivendra Shivani Suneeta Agarwal Jasjit S. Suri

Another random document with
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definitely ascertained. It may be an assumption that time will prove to
be unwarranted that all the Leptomedusae pass through a
Calyptoblastic hydrosome stage.

Fam. Aequoreidae.—In this family the hydrosome stage is not

known except in the genus Polycanna, in which it resembles a
Campanulariid. The sense-organs of the Medusae are statocysts.
The radial canals are very numerous, and the genital glands are in
the form of ropes of cells extending along the whole of their oral
surfaces. Aequorea is a fairly common genus, with a flattened
umbrella and a very rudimentary manubrium, which may attain a size
of 40 mm. in diameter.

Fam. Thaumantiidae.—The Medusae of this family are

distinguished from the Aequoreidae by having marginal ocelli in
place of statocysts. The hydrosome of Thaumantias alone is known,
and this is very similar to an Obelia.

Fam. Cannotidae.—The hydrosome is quite unknown. The

Medusae are ocellate, but the radial canals, instead of being
undivided, as in the Thaumantiidae, are four in number, and very
much ramified before reaching the ring canal. The tentacles are very
numerous. In the genus Polyorchis, from the Pacific coast of North
America, the four radial canals give rise to numerous lateral short
blind branches, and have therefore a remarkable pinnate
appearance.

Fam. Sertulariidae.—In this family the hydrothecae are sessile, and

arranged bilaterally on the stem and branches. The general form of
the colony is pinnate, the branches being usually on opposite sides
of the main stem. The gonophores are adelocodonic. Sertularia
forms more or less arborescent colonies, springing from a creeping
stolon attached to stones and shells. There are many species,
several of which are very common upon the British coast. Many
specimens are torn from their attachments by storms or by the trawls
of fishermen and cast up on the sand or beach with other zoophytes.
The popular name for one of the commonest species (S. abietina) is
the "sea-fir." The genus has a wide geographical and bathymetrical
range. Another common British species frequently thrown up by the
tide in great quantities is Hydrallmania falcata. It has slender spirally-
twisted stems and branches, and the hydrothecae are arranged
unilaterally.

The genus Grammaria, sometimes placed in a separate family, is

distinguished from Sertularia by several characters. The stem and
branches are composed of a number of tubes which are
considerably compressed. The genus is confined to the southern
seas.

Fam. Plumulariidae.—The hydrothecae are sessile, and arranged

in a single row on the stem and branches. Nematophores are always
present. Gonophores adelocodonic. This family is the largest and
most widely distributed of all the families of the Hydrozoa. Nutting
calculates that it contains more than one-fourth of all the Hydroids of
the world. Over 300 species have been described, and more than
half of these are found in the West Indian and Australian regions.
Representatives of the family occur in abundance in depths down to
300 fathoms, and not unfrequently to 500 fathoms. Only a few
species have occasionally been found in depths of over 1000
fathoms.

The presence of nematophores may be taken as the most

characteristic feature of the family, but similar structures are also
found in some species belonging to other families (p. 277).

The family is divided into two groups of genera, the Eleutheroplea

and the Statoplea. In the former the nematophores are mounted on
a slender pedicel, which admits of more or less movement, and in
the latter the nematophores are sessile. The genera Plumularia and
Antennularia belong to the Eleutheroplea. The former is a very large
genus, with several common British species, distinguished by the
terminal branches being pinnately disposed, and the latter,
represented by A. antennina and A. ramosa on the British coast, is
distinguished by the terminal branches being arranged in verticils.

The two most important genera of the Statoplea are Aglaophenia

and Cladocarpus. The former is represented by a few species in
European waters, the latter is only found in American waters.

Fam. Hydroceratinidae.—The colony consists of a mass of

entwined hydrorhiza, with a skeleton in the form of anastomosing
chitinous tubes. Hydrothecae scattered, tubular, and sessile.
Nematophores present. Gonophores probably adelocodonic.

This family was constituted for a remarkable hydroid, Clathrozoon

wilsoni, described by W. B. Spencer from Victoria.[317] The zooids
are sessile, and spring from more than one of the numerous
anastomosing tubes of the stem and branches. The whole of the
surface is studded with an enormous number of small and very
simple dactylozooids, protected by tubular nematophores. Only a
few specimens have hitherto been obtained, the largest being 10
inches in height by 4 inches in width. In general appearance it has
some resemblance to a dark coloured fan-shaped Gorgonia.

Fam. Campanulariidae.—The hydrothecae in this family are

pedunculate, and the gonophores adelocodonic.

In the cosmopolitan genus Campanularia the stem is monosiphonic,

and the hydrothecae bell-shaped. Several species of this genus are
very common in the rock pools of our coast between tide marks.
Halecium is characterised by the rudimentary character of its
hydrothecae, which are incapable of receiving the zooids even in
their maximum condition of retraction. The genus Lafoea is
remarkable for the development of a large number of tightly packed
gonothecae on the hydrorhiza, each of which contains a blastostyle,
bearing a single gonophore and, in the female, a single ovum. This
group of gonothecae was regarded as a distinct genus of Hydroids,
and was named Coppinia.[318] Lafoea dumosa with gonothecae of
the type described as Coppinia arcta occurs on the British coast.

Perisiphonia is an interesting genus from deep water off the Azores,

Australia, and New Zealand, with a stem composed of many distinct
tubes.

The genus Zygophylax, from 500 fathoms off the Cape Verde, is of
considerable interest in having a nematophore on each side of the
hydrotheca. According to Quelch it should be placed in a distinct
family.

Ophiodes has long and very active defensive zooids, protected by

nematophores. It is found in the Laminarian zone on the English
coast.

Fam. Eucopidae.—The hydrosome stage of this family is very

similar to that of the Campanulariidae, but the gonophores are free-
swimming Medusae of the Leptomedusan type.

One of the best-known genera is Obelia, of which several species

are among the commonest Hydroids of the British coast.

Clytia johnstoni is also a very common Hydroid, growing on red

algae or leaves of the weed Zostera. It consists of a number of
upright, simple, or slightly branched stems springing from a creeping
hydrorhiza. When liberated the Medusae are globular in form, with
four radial canals and four marginal tentacles, but this Medusa, like
many others of the order, undergoes considerable changes in form
before it reaches the sexually mature stage.

Phialidium temporarium is one of the commonest Medusae of our

coast, and sometimes occurs in shoals. It seems probable that it is
the Medusa of Clytia johnstoni.[319] By some authors the jelly-fish
known as Epenthesis is also believed to be the Medusa of a Clytia.

Fam. Dendrograptidae.—This family includes a number of fossils

which have certain distinct affinities with the Calyptoblastea. In
Dictyonema, common in the Ordovician rocks of Norway, but also
found in the Palaeozoic rocks of North America and elsewhere, the
fossil forms fan-shaped colonies of delicate filaments, united by
many transverse commissures, and in well-preserved specimens the
terminal branches bear well-marked uniserial hydrothecae. In some
species thecae of a different character, which have been interpreted
to be gonothecae and nematophores respectively, are found.

Other genera are Dendrograptus, Thamnograptus, and several

others from Silurian strata.

Order V. Graptolitoidea.
A large number of fossils, usually called Graptolites, occurring in
Palaeozoic strata, are generally regarded as the skeletal remains of
an ancient group of Hydrozoa.

In the simpler forms the fossil consists of a delicate straight rod

bearing on one side a series of small cups. It is suggested that the
cups contained hydroid zooids, and should therefore be regarded as
the equivalent of the hydrothecae, and that the axis represents the
axis of the colony or of a branch of the Calyptoblastea. In some of
the forms with two rows of cups on the axis (Diplograptus), however,
it has been shown that the cups are absent from a considerable
portion of one end of the axis, and that the axes of several radially
arranged individuals are fused together and united to a central
circular plate. Moreover, there is found in many specimens a series
of vesicles, a little larger in size than the cups, attached to the plate
and arranged in a circle at the base of the axes. These vesicles are
called the gonothecae.
The discovery of the central plate and of the so-called gonothecae
suggests that the usual comparison of a Graptolite with a Sertularian
Hydroid is erroneous, and that the colony or individual, when alive,
was a more or less radially symmetrical floating form, like a Medusa,
of which only the distal appendages (possibly tentacles) are
commonly preserved as fossils.

The evidence that the Graptolites were Hydrozoa is in reality very

slight, but the proof of their relationship to any other phylum of the
animal kingdom does not exist.[320] It is therefore convenient to
consider them in this place, and to regard them, provisionally, as
related to the Calyptoblastea.

The order is divided into three families.

Fam. 1. Monoprionidae.—Cups arranged uniserially on one side of

the axis.

The principal genera are Monograptus, with the axis straight, curved,
or helicoid, from many horizons in the Silurian strata; Rastrites, with
a spirally coiled axis, Silurian; Didymograptus, Ordovician; and
Coenograptus, Ordovician.

Fam. 2. Diprionidae.—Cups arranged in two or four vertical rows on

the axis.

Diplograptus, Ordovician and Silurian; Climacograptus, Ordovician

and Silurian; and Phyllograptus, in which the axis and cups are
arranged in such a manner that they resemble an ovate leaf.

Fam. 3. Retiolitidae.—Cups arranged biserially on a reticulate axis.

Retiolites, Ordovician and Silurian; Stomatograptus, Retiograptus,

and Glossograptus, Ordovician.
 Fossil Corals possibly allied to Hydrozoa.
Among the many fossil corals that are usually classified with the
Hydrozoa the genus Porosphaera is of interest as it is often
supposed to be related to Millepora. It consists of globular masses
about 10-20 mm. in diameter occurring in the Upper Cretaceous
strata. In the centre there is usually a foreign body around which the
coral was formed by concentric encrusting growth. Running radially
from pores on the surface to the centre, there are numerous tubules
which have a certain general resemblance to the pore-tubes of
Millepora. The monomorphic character of these tubes, their very
minute size, the absence of ampullae, and the general texture of the
corallum, are characters which separate this fossil very distinctly
from any recent Hydroid corals. Porosphaera, therefore, was
probably not a Hydrozoon, and certainly not related to the recent
Millepora.

Closely related to Porosphaera apparently are other globular,

ellipsoidal, or fusiform corals from various strata, such as Loftusia
from the Eocene of Persia, Parkeria from the Cambridge Greensand,
and Heterastridium from the Alpine Trias. In the last named there is
apparently a dimorphism of the radial tubes.

Allied to these genera, again, but occurring in the form of thick,

concentric, calcareous lamellae, are the genera Ellipsactinia and
Sphaeractinia from the Upper Jurassic.

Another important series of fossil corals is that of the family

Stromatoporidae. These fossils are found in great beds of immense
extent in many of the Palaeozoic rocks, and must have played an
important part in the geological processes of that period. They
consist of a series of calcareous lamellae, separated by considerable
intervals, encrusting foreign bodies of various kinds. Sometimes they
are flat and plate-like, sometimes globular or nodular in form. The
lamellae are in some cases perforated by tabulate, vertical, or radial
pores, but in many others these pores are absent. The zoological
position of the Stromatoporidae is very uncertain, but there is not at
present any very conclusive evidence that they are Hydrozoa.

Stromatopora is common in Devonian and also occurs in Silurian

strata. Cannopora from the Devonian has well-marked tabulate
pores, and is often found associated commensally with another coral
(Aulopora or Syringopora).

Order VI. Stylasterina.

The genera included in this order resemble Millepora in producing a
massive calcareous skeleton, and in showing a consistent
dimorphism of the zooids, but in many respects they exhibit great
divergence from the characters of the Milleporina.

The colony is arborescent in growth, the branches arising frequently

only in one plane, forming a flabellum. The calcareous skeleton is
perforated to a considerable depth by the gastrozooids,
dactylozooids, and nutritive canals, and the gastropores and
dactylopores are not provided with tabulae except in the genera
Pliobothrus and Sporadopora. The character which gives the order
its name is a conical, sometimes torch-like projection at the base of
the gastropore, called the "style," which carries a fold of the
ectoderm and endoderm layers of the body-wall, and may serve to
increase the absorptive surface of the digestive cavity. In some
genera a style is also present in the dactylopore, in which case it
serves as an additional surface for the attachment of the retractor
muscles. The pores are scattered on all aspects of the coral in the
genera Sporadopora, Errina, and Pliobothrus; in Spinipora and
Steganopora the scattered dactylopores are situated at the
extremities of tubular spines which project from the general surface
of the coral, the gastropores being situated irregularly between the
spines. In Phalangopora the pores are arranged in regular
longitudinal lines, and in Distichopora they are mainly in rows on the
edges of the flattened branches, a single row of gastropores being
flanked by a single row of dactylopores on each side. In the
remaining genera the pores are arranged in definite cycles, which
are frequently separated from one another by considerable intervals,
and have, particularly in the dried skeleton, a certain resemblance to
the calices of some of the Zoantharian corals.

In Cryptohelia the cycles are covered by a lid-like projection from the

neighbouring coenenchym (Fig. 136, l 1, l 2). The gastrozooids are
short, and are usually provided with a variable number of small
capitate tentacles. The dactylozooids are filiform and devoid of
tentacles, the endoderm of their axes being solid and scalariform.

The gonophores of the Stylasterina are situated in large oval or

spherical cavities called the ampullae, and their presence can
generally be detected by the dome-shaped projections they form on
the surface of the coral. The female gonophore consists of a saucer-
shaped pad of folded endoderm called the "trophodisc," which
serves the purpose of nourishing the single large yolk-laden egg it
bears; and a thin enveloping membrane composed of at least two
layers of cells. The egg is fertilised while it is still within the ampulla,
and does not escape to the exterior until it has reached the stage of
a solid ciliated larva. All the Stylasterina are therefore viviparous.
The male gonophore has a very much smaller trophodisc, which is
sometimes (Allopora) prolonged into a columnar process or spadix,
penetrating the greater part of the gonad. The spermatozoa escape
through a peculiar spout-like duct which perforates the superficial
wall of the ampulla. In some genera (Distichopora) there are several
male gonophores in each ampulla.

The gonophores of the Stylasterina have been regarded as much

altered medusiform gonophores, and this view may possibly prove to
be correct. At present, however, the evidence of their derivation from
Medusae is not conclusive, and it is possible that they may have had
a totally independent origin.

Distichopora and some species of Stylaster are found in shallow

water in the tropics, but most of the genera are confined to deep or
very deep water, and have a wide geographical distribution. No
species have been found hitherto within the British area.

Fig. 136.—A portion of a branch of Cryptohelia ramosa, showing the lids l 1 and l
2 covering the cyclosystems, the swellings produced by the ampullae in the
lids amp1, amp2, and the dactylozooids, dac. × 22. (After Hickson and
England.)

A few specimens of a species of Stylaster have been found in

Tertiary deposits and in some raised beaches of more recent origin,
but the order is not represented in the older strata.

Fam. Stylasteridae.—All the genera at present known are included

in this family.

Sporadopora is the only genus that presents a superficial general

resemblance to Millepora. It forms massive, branching white coralla,
with the pores scattered irregularly on the surface, and, like many
varieties of Millepora, not arranged in cyclosystems. It may, however,
be distinguished at once by the presence of a long, brush-like style
in each of the gastropores. The ampullae are large, but are usually
so deep-seated in the coenenchym that their presence cannot be
detected from the surface. It was found off the Rio de la Plata in 600
fathoms of water by the "Challenger."

In Errina the pores are sometimes irregularly scattered, but in E.

glabra they are arranged in rows on the sides of the branches, while
in E. ramosa the gastropores occur at the angles of the branches
only. The dactylopores are situated on nariform projections of the
corallum. The ampullae are prominent. There are several
gonophores in each ampulla of the male, but only one in each
ampulla of the female. This genus is very widely distributed in water
from 100 to 500 fathoms in depth.

Phalangopora differs from Errina in the absence of a style in the

gastropore; Mauritius.—Pliobothrus has also no style in the
gastropore, and is found in 100-600 fathoms of water off the
American Atlantic shores.

Distichopora is an important genus, which is found in nearly all the

shallow seas of the tropical and semi-tropical parts of the world, and
may even flourish in rock pools between tide marks. It is nearly
always brightly coloured—purple, violet, pale brown, or rose red. The
colony usually forms a small flabellum, with anastomosing branches,
and the pores are arranged in three rows, a middle row of
gastropores and two lateral rows of dactylopores on the sides of the
branches. There is a long style in each gastropore. The ampullae are
numerous and prominent, situated on the anterior and posterior
faces of the branches. Each ampulla contains a single gonophore in
the female colony and two or three gonophores in the male colony.

Spinipora is a rare genus from off the Rio de la Plata in 600 fathoms.
The branches are covered with blunt spines. These spines have a
short gutter-like groove at the apex, which leads into a dactylopore.
The gastropores are provided with a style and are situated between
the spines.

Steganopora[321] from the Djilolo Passage, in about 600 fathoms, is

very similar to Spinipora as regards external features, but differs
from it in the absence of styles in the gastropores, and in the wide
communications between the gastropores and dactylopores.

Stylaster is the largest and most widely distributed genus of the

family, and exhibits a considerable range of structure in the many
species it contains. It is found in all the warmer seas of the world,
living between tide marks at a few fathoms, and extending to depths
of 600 fathoms. Many specimens, but especially those from very
shallow water, are of a beautiful rose or pink colour. The corallum is
arborescent and usually flabelliform. The pores are distributed in
regular cyclosystems, sometimes on one face of the corallum only,
sometimes on the sides of the branches, and sometimes evenly
distributed. There are styles in both gastropores and dactylopores.

Allopora is difficult to separate from Stylaster, but the species are

usually more robust in habit, and the ampullae are not so prominent
as they are on the more delicate branches of Stylaster. It occurs at
depths of 100 fathoms in the Norwegian fjords. A very large red
species (A. nobilis) occurs in False Bay, Cape of Good Hope, in 30
fathoms of water. In this locality the coral occurs in great submarine
beds or forests, and the trawl that is passed over them is torn to
pieces by the hard, thick branches, some of which are an inch or
more in diameter.

Astylus is a genus found in the southern Philippine sea in 500

fathoms of water. It is distinguished from Stylaster by the absence of
a style in the gastropore.

Cryptohelia is an interesting genus found both in the Atlantic and

Pacific Oceans at depths of from 270 to about 600 fathoms. The
cyclosystems are covered by a projecting lid or operculum (Fig. 136,
l 1, l 2). There are no styles in either the gastropores or the
dactylopores. The ampullae are prominent, and are sometimes
situated in the lids. There are several gonophores in each ampulla of
the female colony, and a great many in the ampulla of the male
colony.

CHAPTER XI
 HYDROZOA (CONTINUED): TRACHOMEDUSAE—NARCOMEDUSAE—
SIPHONOPHORA

Order VII. Trachomedusae.

The orders Trachomedusae and Narcomedusae are probably closely
related to one another and to some of the families of Medusae at
present included in the order Calyptoblastea, and it seems probable
that when the life-histories of a few more genera are made known
the three orders will be united into one. Very little is known of the
hydrosome stage of the Trachomedusae, but Brooks[322] has shown
that in Liriope, and Murbach[323] that in Gonionema, the fertilised
ovum gives rise to a Hydra-like form, and in the latter this exhibits a
process of reproduction by gemmation before it gives rise to
Medusae. Any general statement, therefore, to the effect that the
development of the Trachomedusae is direct would be incorrect. The
fact that the hydrosomes already known are epizoic or free-
swimming does not afford a character of importance for distinction
from the Leptomedusae, for it is quite possible that in this order of
Medusae the hydrosomes of many genera may be similar in form
and habits to those of Liriope and Gonionema.

The free border of the umbrella of the Trachomedusae is entire; that

is to say, it is not lobed or fringed as it is in the Narcomedusae. The
sense-organs are statocysts, each consisting of a vesicle formed by
a more or less complete fold of the surrounding wall of the margin of
the umbrella, containing a reduced clapper-like tentacle loaded at its
extremity with a statolith.
 Fig. 137.—Liriope rosacea, one of the Geryoniidae, from the west side of North
and Central America. Size, 15-20 mm. Colour, rose. cp, Centripetal canal;
gon, gonad; M, mouth at the end of a long manubrium; ot, statocyst; t,
tentacle; to, tongue. (After Maas.)

This statocyst is innervated by the outer nerve ring. There appears to

be a very marked difference between these marginal sense-organs
in some of the best-known examples of Trachomedusae and the
corresponding organs of the Leptomedusae. The absence of a stalk
supporting the statolith and the innervation of the otocyst by the
inner instead of by the outer nerve ring in the Leptomedusae form
characters that may be of supplementary value, but cannot be
regarded as absolutely distinguishing the two orders. The statorhab
of the Trachomedusae is probably the more primitive of the two
types, and represents a marginal tentacle of the umbrella reduced in
size, loaded with a statolith and enclosed by the mesogloea.
Intermediate stages between this type and an ordinary tentacle have
already been discovered and described. In the type that is usually
found in the Leptomedusae the modified tentacle is still further
reduced, and all that can be recognised of it is the statolith attached
to the wall of the statocyst, but intermediate stages between the two
types are seen in the family Olindiidae, in which the stalk supporting
the statolith passes gradually into the tissue surrounding the statolith
on the one hand and the vesicle wall on the other. The radial canals
are four or eight in number or more numerous. They communicate at
the margin of the umbrella with a ring canal from which a number of
short blind tubes run in the umbrella-wall towards the centre of the
Medusa (Fig. 137, cp). These "centripetal canals" are subject to
considerable variation, but are useful characters in distinguishing the
Trachomedusae from the Leptomedusae. The tentacles are situated
on the margin of the umbrella, and are four or eight in number or, in
some cases, more numerous. The gonads are situated as in
Leptomedusae on the sub-umbrella aspect of the radial canals.

In Gonionema murbachii the fertilised eggs give rise to a free-

swimming ciliated larva of an oval shape with one pole longer and
narrower than the other. The mouth appears subsequently at the
narrower pole. The larva settles down upon the broader pole, the
mouth appears at the free extremity, and in a few days two, and later
two more, tentacles are formed (Fig. 138).

At this stage the larva may be said to be Hydra-like in character, and

as shown in Fig. 138 it feeds and lives an independent existence.
From its body-wall buds arise which separate from the parent and
give rise to similar Hydra-like individuals. An asexual generation thus
gives rise to new individuals by gemmation as in the hydrosome of
the Calyptoblastea. The origin of the Medusae from this Hydra-like
stage has not been satisfactorily determined, but it seems probable
that by a process of metamorphosis the hydriform persons are
directly changed into the Medusae.[324]

Fig. 138.—Hydra-like stage in the development of Gonionema murbachii. One of

the tentacles is carrying a worm (W) to the mouth. The tentacles are shown
very much contracted, but they are capable of extending to a length of 2
mm. Height of zooid about 1 mm. (After Perkins.)
In the development of Liriope the free-swimming larva develops into
a hydriform person with four tentacles and an enormously elongated
hypostome or manubrium; and, according to Brooks, it undergoes a
metamorphosis which directly converts it into a Medusa.

There can be very little doubt that in a large number of

Trachomedusae the development is direct, the fertilised ovum giving
rise to a medusome without the intervention of a hydrosome stage.
In some cases, however (Geryonia, etc.), the tentacles appear in
development before there is any trace of a sub-umbrella cavity, and
this has been interpreted to be a transitory but definite Hydroid
stage. It may be supposed that the elimination of the hydrosome
stage in these Coelenterates may be associated with their
adaptation to a life in the ocean far from the coast.

During the growth of the Medusa from the younger to the adult
stages several changes probably occur of a not unimportant
character, and it may prove that several genera now placed in the
same or even different families are stages in the development, of the
same species. In the development of Liriantha appendiculata,[325] for
example, four interradial tentacles appear in the first stage which
disappear and are replaced by four radial tentacles in the second
stage.

As with many other groups of free-swimming marine animals the

Trachomedusae have a very wide geographical distribution, and
some genera may prove to be almost cosmopolitan, but the majority
of the species appear to be characteristic of the warmer regions of
the high seas. Sometimes they are found at the surface, but more
usually they swim at a depth of a few fathoms to a hundred or more
from the surface. The Pectyllidae appear to be confined to the
bottom of the sea at great depths.

The principal families of the Trachomedusae are:—

Fam. Olindiidae.—This family appears to be structurally and in
development most closely related to the Leptomedusae, and is
indeed regarded by Goto[326] as closely related to the Eucopidae in
that order. They have two sets of tentacles, velar and exumbrellar;
the statocysts are numerous, two on each side of the exumbrellar
tentacles. Radial canals four or six. Manubrium well developed and
quadrate, with distinct lips. There is an adhesive disc on each
exumbrellar tentacle.

Genera: Olindias, Olindioides, Gonionema (Fig. 139), and Halicalyx.

As in other families of Medusae the distribution of the genera is very

wide. Olindias mülleri occurs in the Mediterranean, Olindioides
formosa off the coast of Japan, Gonionema murbachii is found in
abundance in the eel pond at Wood's Holl, United States of America,
and Halicalyx off Florida.

Two genera may be referred to in this place, although their

systematic position in relation to each other and to other Medusae
has not been satisfactorily determined.

Fig. 139.—Gonionema murbachii. Adult Medusa, shown inverted, and clinging to

the bottom. Nat. size. (After Perkins.)

Limnocodium sowerbyi is a small Medusa that was first discovered in

the Victoria regia tanks in the Botanic Gardens, Regent's Park,
London, in the year 1880. It has lately made its appearance in the
Victoria regia tank in the Parc de la Bête d'Or at Lyons.[327] As it
was, at the time of its discovery, the only fresh-water jelly-fish known,
it excited considerable interest, and this interest was not diminished
when the peculiarities of its structure were described by Lankester
and others. It has a rather flattened umbrella, with entire margin and
numerous marginal tentacles, the manubrium is long, quadrate, and
has four distinct lips. There are four radial canals, and the male
gonads (all the specimens discovered were of the male sex) are sac-
like bodies on the sub-umbrellar aspect of the middle points of the
four radial canals. In these characters the genus shows general
affinities with the Olindiidae. The difficult question of the origin of the
statoliths from the primary germ layers of the embryo and some
other points in the minute anatomy of the Medusa have suggested
the view that Limnocodium is not properly placed in any of the other
orders. Goto,[328] however, in a recent paper, confirms the view of
the affinities of Limnocodium with the Olindiidae.

The life-history of Limnocodium is not known, but a curious Hydroid

form attached to Pontederia roots was found in the same tank as the
Medusae, and this in all probability represents the hydrosome stage
of its development. The Medusae are formed apparently by a
process of transverse fission of the Hydroid stock[329] similar in
some respects to that observed in the production of certain
Acraspedote Medusae. This is quite unlike the asexual mode of
formation of Medusae in any other Craspedote form. The structure of
this hydrosome is, moreover, very different to that of any other
Hydroid, and consequently the relations of the genus with the
Trachomedusae cannot be regarded as very close.

Limnocodium has only been found in the somewhat artificial

conditions of the tanks in botanical gardens, and its native locality is
not known, but its association with the Victoria regia water-lily seems
to indicate that its home is in tropical South America.
Limnocnida tanganyicae is another remarkable fresh-water Medusa,
about seven-eights of an inch in diameter, found in the lakes
Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza of Central Africa.[330] It differs from
Limnocodium in having a short collar-like manubrium with a large
round mouth two-thirds the diameter of the umbrella, and in several
other not unimportant particulars. It produces in May and June a
large number of Medusa-buds by gemmation on the manubrium, and
in August and September the sexual organs are formed in the same
situation.

Fig. 140.—Limnocnida tanganyicae. × 2. (After Günther.)

The fixed hydrosome stage, if such a stage occurs in the life-history,

has not been discovered; but Mr. Moore[331] believes that the
development is direct from ciliated planulae to the Medusae. The
occurrence of Limnocnida in Lake Tanganyika is supposed by the
same authority to afford a strong support to the view that this lake
represents the remnants of a sea which in Jurassic times spread
over part of the African continent. This theory has, however, been
adversely criticised from several sides.[332]

The character of the manubrium and the position of the sexual cells
suggest that Limnocnida has affinities with the Narcomedusae or
Anthomedusae, but the marginal sense-organs and the number and
position of the tentacles, showing considerable similarity with those
of Limnocodium, justify the more convenient plan of placing the two
genera in the same family.

Fam. Petasidae.—The genus Petasus is a small Medusa with four

radial canals, four gonads, four tentacles, and four free marginal
statorhabs. A few other genera associated with Petasus show simple
characters as regards the canals and the marginal organs, but as
very little is known of any of the genera the family may be regarded
as provisional only. Petasus is found in the Mediterranean and off
the Canaries.

Fam. Trachynemidae.—In this family there are eight radial canals,

and the statorhabs are sunk into a marginal vesicle. Trachynema,
characterised by its very long manubrium, is a not uncommon
Medusa of the Mediterranean and the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Many
of the species are small, but T. funerarium has sometimes a disc two
inches in diameter. Homoconema and Pentachogon have numerous
very short tentacles.

Fam. Pectyllidae.—This family contains a few deep-sea species

with characters similar to those of the preceding family, but the
tentacles are provided with terminal suckers. Pectyllis is found in the
Atlantic Ocean at depths of over 1000 fathoms.

Fam. Aglauridae.—The radial canals are eight in number and the

statorhabs are usually free. In the manubrium there is a rod-like
projection of the mesogloea from the aboral wall of the gastric cavity,
covered by a thin epithelium of endoderm, which occupies a
considerable portion of the lumen of the manubrium. This organ may
be called the tongue. Aglaura has an octagonal umbrella, and a
manubrium which does not project beyond the velum. It occurs in the
Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.

Fam. Geryoniidae.—In this family there are four or six radial canals,
the statorhabs are sunk in the mesogloea, and a tongue is present in
the manubrium. Liriope (Fig. 137) is sometimes as much as three
inches in diameter. It has a very long manubrium, and the tongue
sometimes projects beyond the mouth. There are four very long
radial tentacles. It is found in the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean
Sea, and the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Geryonia has a wider
geographical distribution than Liriope, and is sometimes four inches
in diameter. It differs from Liriope in having six, or a multiple of six,