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HOLT'Z ., KOVACS • SIHEAHAN
-
A.n,Introduction, ·to
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
AN INTRODUCTION TO
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Third Edition
Robert D. Holtz, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Washington
William D. Kovacs, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Rhode Island
Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.

Northeastern University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Holtz, R. D. (Robert D.), author. I Kovacs, William D., author. I

Sheahan, Thomas C., author.
Title: An introduction to geotechnical engineering/ Robert D. Holtz,
Ph.D., P.E., D.GE, University of Washington, William D. Kovacs, Ph.D.,
P.E., D.GE, University of Rhode Island, Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.,
Northeastern University.
Description: Third edition. I Hoboken, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., [2023]
I Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022011439 I ISBN 9780137604388
Subjects: LCSH: Soil mechanics-Textbooks. I Rock mechanics-Textbooks. I
Geotechnical engineering-Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TA710 .H564 2023 I DDC 624.1/5136-dc23/eng/20220316
LC record available at https://lccn.Ioc.gov/2022011439
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ISBN-10: 0-13-760438-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-760438-8
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Contents
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering 1
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 1
1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials 3
1.3 Scope of This Book 4
1.4 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering 5
1.5 Suggested Approach to the Study of Geotechnical ENgineering 6
1.6 Notes on Symbols, Units, and Standards 6
1.7 Some Comments on How to Study in General 7
Suggested Activities 8 • References 8
Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 9
2.2.1 Solution of Phase Problems 14
2.2.2 Submerged or Buoyant Density and Unit Weight 22
2.2.3 Specific Gravity 25
2.3 Soil Texture 27
2.4 Grain Size and Grain Size Distribution 28
2.5 Particle Shape 34
2.6 Atterberg Limits 35
2.6.1 One-Point Liquid Limit Test 40
2.6.2 Additional Comments on the Atterberg Limits 41
2.7 Introduction to Soil Classification 43
2.8 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 44
2.8.1 Visual-Manual Classification of Soils 51
2.8.2 Limitations of the USCS 54
2.9 AASHTO Soil Classification System 55
Problems 55 • References 62
Chapter 3 Geology, Landforms, and the Evolution of Geomaterials 64
3.1 Importance of Geology to Geotechnical Engineering 64
3.1.1 Geology 64
3.1.2 Geomorphology 65
3.1.3 Engineering Geology 65
3.2 The Earth, Minerals, Rocks, and Rock Structure 66
3.2.1 The Earth 66
3.2.2 Minerals 66
3.2.3 Rocks 67
3.2.4 Rock Structure 68
V
vi Contents
3.3 Geologic Processes and Landforms 71

3.3.1 Geologic Processes and the Origin of Earthen Materials 71
3.3.2 Weathering 71
3.3.3 Gravity Processes 77
3.3.4 Surface-Water Processes 80
3.3.5 Ice Processes and Glaciation 93
3.3.6 Wind Processes 104
3.3.7 Volcanic Processes 106
3.3.8 Grounc.lwaler Processes 108
3.3.9 Tectonic Processes 109
3.3.10 Plutonic Processes 111
3.4 Anthropogenic Geology 112
3.5 Properties, Macrostructure, and Classification of Rock Masses 113
3.5.1 Properties of Rock Masses 113
3.5.2 Discontinuities in Rock 113
3.5.3 Rock Mass Classification Systems 115
3.6 Products of Weathering 120
3.7 Clay Minerals 120
3.7.1 The 1:1 Clay Minerals 122
3.7.2 The 2:1 Clay Minerals 124
3.7.3 Other Clay Minerals 127
3.8 Specific Surface 128
3.9 Interaction Between Water and Clay Minerals 128
3.9.1 Hydration of Clay Minerals and the Diffuse Double Layer 129
3.9.2 Exchangeable Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 131
3.10 Soil Structure and Fabric of Fine-Grained Soils 132
3.11 Granular Soil Fabrics 135
Chapter 4 Compaction and Stabilization of Soils 146
4.1 Introduction 146
4.2 Compaction and Densification 147
4.3 Theory of Compaction 147
4.3.1 Process of Compaction 150
4.3.2 Typical Values; Degree of Saturation 152
4.3.3 Effect of Soil Type and Method of Compaction 153
4.4 Structure of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils 155
4.5 Compaction of Granular Soils 156
4.5.1 Relative or Index Density 156
4.5.2 Densification of Granular Deposits 157
4.5.3 Rock Fills 160
4.6 Field Compaction Equipment and Procedures 161
4.6.1 Compaction of Fine-Grained Soils 161
4.6.2 Compaction of Granular Materials 165
4.6.3 Compaction Equipment Summary 168
4.6.4 Compaction of Rockfill 168
Contents vii
4.7 Specifications and Compaction Control 169

4.7.1 Specifications 170
4.7.2 Compaction Control Tests 171
4.7.3 Problems with Compaction Control Tests 176
4.7.4 Most Efficient Compaction 180
4.7.5 Overcompaction 181
4.7.6 Rock Fill QA/QC 182
4.8 Estimating Performance of Compacted Soils 183
Chapter 5 Hydrostatic Water in Soils and Rocks 193
5.2 Capillarity 193
5.2.1 Capillary Rise and Capillary Pressures in Soils 198
5.2.2 Measurement of Capillarity; Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 202
5.2.3 Other Capillary Phenomena 202
5.3 Groundwater Table and the Vadose Zone 205
5.3.1 Definition 205
5.3.2 Field Determination 205
5.4 Shrinkage Phenomena in Soils 208
5.4.1 Capillary Tube Analogy 208
5.4.2 Shrinkage Limit Test 209
5.4.3 Shrinkage Properties of Compacted Clays 211
5.5 Expansive Soils and Rocks 213
5.5.1 Physical-Chemical Aspects 215
5.5.2 Identification and Prediction 215
5.5.3 Expansive Properties of Compacted Clays 218
5.5.4 Swelling Rocks 218
5.6 Engineering Significance of Shrinkage and Swelling 222
5.7 Collapsible Soils and Subsidence 223
5.8 Frost Action 225
5.8.1 Terminology, Conditions, and Mechanisms of Frost Action 226
5.8.2 Prediction and Identification of Frost-Susceptible Soils 230
5.9 Intergranular or Effective Stress 233
5.10 Vertical Stress Profiles 238
5.11 Relationship Between Horizontal and Vertical Stresses 241
Chapter 6 Fluid Flow in Soils and Rock 249
6.2 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 249
6.3 Darcy's Law for Flow Through Porous Media 251
6.4 Measurement of Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity 254
6.4.1 Laboratory and Field Hydraulic Conductivity Tests 257
6.4.2 Factors Affecting Laboratory and Field Determination of k 257
6.4.3 Empirical Relationships and Typical Values of k 258
6.5 Heads and One-Dimensional Flow 262
viii Contents
6.6 Seepage Forces, Quicksand, and Liquefaction 271

6.6.1 Seepage Forces, Critical Gradient, and Quicksand 271
6.6.2 Quicksand Tank 278
6.6.3 Liquefaction 281
6.7 Seepage and Flow Nets: Two-Dimensional Flow 281
6.7.1 Flow Nets 284
6.7.2 Quantity of Flow, Uplift Pressures, and Exit Gradients 289
6.7.3 Other Solutions to Seepage Problems 293
6.8 Seepage Toward Wells 294
6.9 Seepage Through Dams and Embankments 298
6.10 Control of Seepage and Filters 300
6.10.1 Basic Filtration Principles 301
6.10.2 Design of Graded Granular Filters 302
6.10.3 Geotextile Filter Design Concepts 304
6.10.4 FHWA Filter Design Procedure 305
Chapter 7 Compressibility and Consolidation of Soils 318
7.2 Components of Settlement 319
7.3 Compressibility of Soils 320
7.4 One-Dimensional Consolidation Testing 322
7.5 Preconsolidation Pressure and Stress History 325
7.5.1 Normal Consolidation, Overconsolidation, and Preconsolidation Pressure 325
7.5.2 Determining the Preconsolidation Pressure 326
7.5.3 Stress History and Preconsolidation Pressure 327
7.6 Consolidation Behavior of Natural and Compacted Soils 329
7.7 Settlement Calculations 329
7.7.1 Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Soils 338
7.7.2 Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Soils 340
7.7.3 Determining C, and C, 0 342
7.8 Factors Affecting the Determination of O'~ 344
7.9 Prediction of Field Consolidation Curves 346
7.10 Approximate Methods and Typical Values of Compression Indices 351
7.11 Compressibility of Rock and Transitional Materials 353
7.12 Introduction to Consolidation 353
7.13 The Consolidation Process 354
7.14 Terzaghi's One-Dimensional Consolidation 1l1eory 355
7.15 Classic Solution for the Terzaghi Consolidation Equation 357
7.16 Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation cv 368
7.16.1 Casagrande's Logarithm of Time Fitting Method 368
7.16.2 Taylor's Square Root of Time Fitting Method 372
7.17 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability 374
7.18 Typical Values of the Coefficient of Consolidation cv 375
7.19 In Situ Determination of Consolidation Properties 376
7.20 Evaluation of Secondary Settlement 376
Contents ix
Chapter 8 Stresses, Failure, and Strength Testing of Soil and Rock 397
8.2 Stress at a Point 397
8.3 Stress-Strain Relationships and Failure Criteria 405
8.4 The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 407
8.4.1 Mohr Failure Theory 407
8.4.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 409
8.4.3 Obliquity Relationships 411
8.4.4 Failure Criteria for Rock 413
8.5 Stress Paths 414
8.6 Laboratory Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 420
8.6.1 Direct Shear Test 420
8.6.2 Triaxial Test 424
8.6.3 Special Laboratory Soils Tests 427
8.6.4 Laboratory Tests for Rock Strength 429
8.7 In Situ Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 430
8.7.1 In Situ Tests for Shear Strength of Soils 431
8.7.2 Field Tests for Modulus and Strength of Rocks 437
Chapter 9 An Introduction to Shear Strength of Soils and Rock 445
9.2 Angle of Repose of Sands 446
9.3 Behavior of Saturated Sands During Drained Shear 447
9.4 Effect of Void Ratio and Confining Pressure on Volume Change 449
9.5 Factors That Affect the Shear Strength of Sands 457
9.6 Shear Strength of Sands Using In Situ Tests 462
9.6.1 SPT 462
9.6.2 CPT 463
9.6.3 DMT 464
9.7 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Sands 464
9.8 Behavior of Saturated Cohesive Soils During Shear 467
9.9 Consolidated-Drained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 468
9.9.1 Consolidated-Drained (CD) Test Behavior 468
9.9.2 Typical Values of Drained Strength Parameters for Saturated Cohesive Soils 472
9.9.3 Use of CD Strength in Engineering Practice 472
9.10 Consolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 474
9.10.1 Consolidated-Undrained (CU) Test Behavior 474
9.10.2 Typical Values of the Undrained Strength Parameters 479
9.10.3 Use of CU Strength in Engineering Practice 480
9.11 Unconsolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 482
9.11.1 Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) Test Behavior 482
9.11.2 Unconfined Compression Test 485
9.11.3 Typical Values of UU and UCC Strengths 488
9.11.4 Other Ways to Determine the Undrained Shear Strength 489
9.11.5 Use of UU Strength in Engineering Practice 491
x Contents
9.12 Sensitivity 494

9.13 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Clays 495
9.14 Strength of Compacted Clays 499
9.15 Strength of Rocks and Transitional Materials 503
Chapter 10 Shallow Foundations 512
10.1 Introduction to Foundations 512
10.2 Methodologies for Foundation Design 513
10.3 Introduction to Bearing Capacity 514
10.3.1 Bearing Capacity Failure Types 515
10.3.2 Terzaghi's General Bearing Capacity Theory 516
10.3.3 Modifications to the Basic Bearing Capacity Equation 517
10.4 Calculating Bearing Capacity for Different Loading Conditions 521
10.5 Bearing Capacity in Sands-The Drained Case 522
10.5.1 Determination of Input Parameters for Foundations on Sands 523
10.5.2 Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations on Sand 525
10.6 Bearing Capacity in Clays 532
10.6.1 Bearing Capacity in Clays-The Drained Case 532
10.6.2 Bearing Capacity in Clays-The Undrained Case 535
10.7 Bearing Capacity in Layered Soils 536
10.7.1 Stiff Clay Layer over Soft Clay 537
10.7.2 Sand Layer over Clay 538
10.8 Determination of Allowing Bearing Capacity in Practice 539
10.9 Shallow Foundation Settlement 540
10.9.1 Introduction to Shallow Foundation Settlement 540
10.9.2 Components of Geotechnical Settlement 541
10.9.3 Stress Distribution Under Foundation 542
10.10 Immediate Settlement Based on Elastic Theory 551
10.11 Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Sand 554
10.11.1 Settlement in Sand Based on Standard Penetration Test 555
10.11.2 Settlements in Sand from Schmertmann Strain Influence Factor Method 557
10.11.3 Direct Estimate of Settlement Using CPT 560
10.12 Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Clay 560
10.13 Combined Foundations 564
10.13.1 Combined Footings 565
10.13.2 Mat Foundations 566
Chapter 11 Lateral Earth Pressures and Earth Retaining Structures 583
11.1 Introduction to Lateral Earth Pressures 583
11.2 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest and Idealized Retaining Wall 584
11.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure 588
11.3.1 Rankine Active State for Sands 590
11.3.2 Rankine Active Earth Pressure for Inclined Backfill 593
11.3.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure for Clays 596
11.4 Coulomb Active Earth Pressure 602
Contents xi
11.5 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure 608

11.5.1 Rankine Passive Case for Sands 608
11.5.2 Rankine Passive Case for Clays-Drained Case 612
11.5.3 Rankine Passive Case for Clays-Undrained Case 613
11.5.4 Rankine Passive for Inclined Backfill 613
11.6 Retaining Wall Design 615
11.6.1 Introduction to Retaining Wall Design 615
11.6.2 Initial Proportioning of Retaining Walls 616
11.6.3 Provisions for Drainage Behind Retaining Walls 617
11.6.4 Applying Lateral Earth Pressure Theories to Wall Design and Analysis 619
11.6.5 Retaining Wall Stability Analysis Checks 620
Chapter 12 Deep Foundations 640
12.1 Introduction to Deep Foundations 640
12.2 Types of Deep Foundations and Installation Methods 641
12.2.1 Driven Pile Foundations 642
12.2.2 Vibratory-Installed Pile Foundations 646
12.2.3 Jacked Pile Foundations 646
12.2.4 Rapid Impact Piles 647
12.2.5 Jetted Piles 647
12.2.6 Screw Piles 647
12.2.7 Bored Piles 647
12.3 Determination of Pile Load Capacity and Settlement 653
12.3.1 End Bearing Resistance of Deep Foundations 654
12.3.2 Side Resistance of Deep Foundations 658
12.3.3 Deep Foundation Group Behavior 671
12.3.4 Bearing Capacity of Piles in Rock 674
12.3.5 Settlement of Piles 675
12.4 Piles Loaded in Tension and Laterally 678
12.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Piles Loaded in Tension 678
12.4.2 Laterally Loaded Piles- Ultimate Load Analysis 682
12.4.3 Laterally Loaded Piles-Deflection Analysis 685
12.5 Additional Topics in Deep Foundations 691
12.5.1 Negative Pile Side Friction 691
12.5.2 Pile Capacity Verification 692
Chapter 13 Advanced Topics in Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 704
13.2 Stress Paths for Shear Strength Testing 704
13.3 Pore Pressure Parameters 710
13.3.1 Introduction to Pore Pressure Parameters 710
13.3.2 Pore Pressure Parameters for Different Stress Paths 713
13.4 Stress Paths During Undrained Loading-Normally and Lightly Overconsolidated Clays 714
13.5 Stress Paths During Undrained Loading-Heavily Overconsolidated Clays 724
13.6 Applications of Stress Paths to Engineering Practice 727
xii Contents
13.7 Critical State Soil Mechanics 732

13.8 Modulus and Constitutive Models for Soils 743
13.8.1 Modulus of Soils 743
13.8.2 Constitutive Relations 748
13.8.3 Soil Constitutive Modeling 749
13.8.4 Failure Criteria for Soils 750
13.8.5 Classes of Constitutive Models for Soils 752
13.8.6 The Hyperbolic (Duncan-Chang) Model 753
13.9 Fumlamenlal Basis of LheDrained Slrenglh of Sands 755
13.9.1 Basics of Frictional Shear Strength 755
13.9.2 Stress-Dilatancy and Energy Corrections 757
13.9.3 Curvature of the Mohr Failure Envelope 761
13.10 Behavior of Saturated Sands in Undrained Shear 762
13.10.1 Consolidated-Undrained Behavior 762
13.10.2 Using CD Tests to Predict CU Results 766
13.10.3 Unconsolidated-Undrained Behavior 770
13.10.4 Strain-Rate Effects in Sands 773
13.11 Plane Strain Behavior of Sands 773
13.12 Residual Strength of Soils 779
13.12.1 Drained Residual Shear Strength of Clays 779
13.12.2 Residual Shear Strength of Sands 781
13.13 Stress-Deformation and Shear Strength of Clays: Special Topics 782
13.13.1 Definition of Failure in CU Effective Stress Tests 782
13.13.2 Hvorslev Strength Parameters 783
13.13.3 The T 1!a~0 Ratio, Stress History, and Jlirgenson-Rutledge Hypothesis 788
13.13.4 Consolidation Methods to Overcome Sample Disturbance 799
13.13.5 Anisotropy 801
13.13.6 Plane Strain Strength of Clays 805
13.13.7 Strain Rate Effects 806
13.14 Strength of Unsaturated Soils 808
13.14.1 Matric Suction in Unsaturated Soils 808
13.14.2 The Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 810
13.14.3 The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope for Unsaturated Soils 811
13.14.4 Shear Strength Measurement in Unsaturated Soils 812
13.15 Properties of Soils Under Dynamic Loading 814
13.15.1 Stress-Strain Response of Cyclically Loaded Soils 814
13.15.2 Measurement of Dynamic Soil Properties 817
13.15.3 Empirical Estimates of G max, Modulus Reduction, and Damping 820
13.15.4 Strength of Dynamically Loaded Soils 826
13.16 Failure Theories for Rock 827
Index 850
Preface
It has been over a decade since the publication of the second edition of An Introduction to Geotech-
nical Engineering. The impetus for this edition comes from a frequently heard need from faculty and
students for a textbook that covers both the fundamentals of soil mechanics and soil properties, and
also the basics of foundation engineering. As we noted in the preface to the second edition, technical
content in engineering degree programs continues to be reduced, and these three areas of geotechnical
engineering are often covered in a single undergraduate course. However, we continue to believe that
even in such a compressed course, a textbook that is sophisticated and carries appropriate rigor is an
ongoing necessity.
We still believe that there is a need for more detailed and modern coverage of the engineering
properties of geo-materials than is found in most undergraduate texts. This applies to students who
concentrate in geotechnical engineering as well as the general civil engineering undergraduate student.
Our students will be involved in increasingly more complex projects, especially those in transportation,
structural, construction, and environmental engineering. Those projects will increasingly involve envi-
ronmental, economic, and political constraints that will demand innovative solutions to civil engineering
problems. Modern analytical techniques using digital computers have had a revolutionary effect on en-
gineering design practice, allowing multiple what-if design scenarios to be produced and graphically de-
picted. However, the validity of the results from these computational procedures is highly dependent on
the quality of the geotechnical engineering design parameters as well as the geology and site conditions.
This edition is intended for use in either a stand-alone soil mechanics course or, as noted above,
a geotechnical engineering course that includes fundamental foundation engineering, both usually
taught to third- and fourth-year undergraduate civil engineering students. It might also be used in an
introductory graduate school soils mechanics class. We assume the students have a working knowledge
of undergraduate mechanics, especially statics and mechanics of materials, including fluids. In the first
part of the book, we introduce the "language" of geotechnical engineering-that is, the classification
and engineering properties of soils and rocks. Once the student has a working knowledge of the behav-
ior of geo-materials, he/she can begin to predict soil behavior, and then carry out the design of simple
foundations and earth structures.
We have tried to make the text easily readable by the average undergraduate. To this end, An
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering is written at a rather elementary level, although the material
covered may at times be quite sophisticated and complex.
The emphasis throughout is on the practical, and admittedly empirical, knowledge of soil and
rock behavior required by geotechnical engineers for the design and construction of foundations, em-
bankments, earth retaining structures, and underground works. To strengthen this connection between
the fundamental and applied, we have tried to indicate wherever possible the engineering significance
of the property being discussed, why the property is needed, how it is determined or measured, and, to
some extent, how it is actually used in specific design applications. We illustrate some simple geotech-
nical designs-for example, determining the flow, uplift pressures, and exit gradients in 2-D seepage
problems, and estimating the settlement of shallow foundations on sands and saturated clays.
One thing that has not changed over the years is that units remain a problem with U.S. geo-
technical engineers. While this edition continues to use both the British and Systeme International
(SI) sets of units, we have chosen to abandon seldom used units in the SI system such as megagrams
(Mg), but continue to have examples and problems that use kilograms (kg) and kilonewtons (kN).
We continue to be careful to use the correct definitions of density (mass/unit volume) and unit weight
xiii
xiv Preface
(force or weight/unit volume) in phase relationships as well as in geostatic and hydrostatic pressure
computations.
If you have a laboratory component with your course, we consider this to be an important part of
the student's experience with soils as a unique engineering material. This is where you begin to develop
a "feel" for soils and soil behavior, so essential for the successful practice of geotechnical engineering.
An emphasis on laboratory and field testing is found throughout the text. The organization and devel-
opment of the material in the text are traditional and generally follow the order of a typical laboratory
portion of many courses. The early chapters introduce the discipline of geotechnical engineering, phase
relationships, index, and classification properties of soils and rocks, geology, landforms, and the origin
of geo-materials, clay minerals, soil and rock structures, and rock classification. These chapters provide
the background and terminology for the remainder of the text.
Following a very practical discussion of compaction in Chapter 4, Chapters 5 and 6 describe how
water influences and affects soil behavior. Topics presented in Chapter 5 include groundwater and
vadose water, capillarity, shrinkage, swelling, and collapsing soils, frost action, and effective stress.
Chapter 6 discusses permeability, seepage, and seepage control.
Chapters 7 through 9 deal with the compressibility and shear strength of soils and rocks. Chap-
ter 7 covers both compressibility behavior of natural and compacted soils and rock masses and basic
time-rate consolidation of soils. Chapter 8 begins with the theoretical underpinnings of stresses in a
soil mass, followed by a description of laboratory and field tests that attempt to model those conditions
in order to measure stress-strain-strength properties. Chapter 9 is an introduction to shear strength of
soils and rock and is suitable for undergraduate students if the course schedule permits, and can be
covered more extensively in a first soil mechanics course in graduate school.
Chapters 10 through 12 are new chapters in this edition, covering three fundamental areas of
foundation engineering: shallow foundations, lateral earth pressures and earth retaining structures,
and deep foundations. Chapter 10 introduces bearing capacity theory, followed by its application to
bearing capacity in sands and clays, and approaches to determining settlement of shallow foundations.
Chapter 11 covers the two theories of lateral earth pressure, Rankine and Coulomb, and then how
these are used for the design of retaining structures. Chapter 12 describes the estimation methods for
deep foundation bearing capacity, how we compute the tensile and lateral load capacity of piles, and
advanced topics in deep foundations that are often the source of significant field performance issues.
Chapter 13 first covers advanced applications of stress paths, and also includes sections on crit-
ical-state soil mechanics and an introduction to constitutive models. We then discuss some advanced
topics on the shear strength of sands that start with the fundamental basis of their drained, undrained,
and plane-strain strengths. The residual shear strength of sands and clays provides a transition into the
stress-deformation and shear strength of clays, where we discuss failure definitions, Hvorslev strength
parameters, stress history, the Jurgenson-Rutledge hypothesis, consolidation methods to overcome
sample disturbance, anisotropy, plane-strain strength, and strain-rate effects. We end Chapter 13 with
sections on the strength of unsaturated soils, properties of soils under dynamic loading, and failure
theories for rock.
Even though it is primarily for the beginning student in geotechnical engineering, advanced
students in other disciplines and engineers desiring a refresher in engineering properties may find
the book helpful. Advanced students, researchers, and practitioners will also likely make use of the
advanced topical coverage in Chapter 13.
Because of the many fully worked example problems, students and others learning from this
book can follow the solution steps for various types of geotechnical engineering problems, and assess
their understanding of the material. From the previous two editions, we know that many practicing
geotechnical engineers will find this book useful as a refresher and for the typical values given for
classification and engineering properties for a wide variety of soils; we have found such a compendium
very useful in our own engineering practice. We hope that the new chapters on foundation engineering
will provide further value in this regard.
Preface xv
RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS

The solutions manual and test manual as well as PowerPoint figures of all images and tables from this
book can be downloaded electronically from our Instructor's Resource Center located at www.pearson
highered.com. The material available through the Instructor Resource Center is provided solely for
the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. If you are in need of a
login and password for this site, please contact your local sales representative for additional assistance
or support.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To acknowledge all who have contributed to this edition and previous editions is a formidable task.
We have continued the practice of trying whenever possible to indicate by references or quotations,
concepts and ideas originating in the literature or with our former teachers, especially Profs. B. B.
Broms, A. Casagrande, R. J. Krizek, C. C. Ladd, J. K. Mitchell, J. 0. Osterberg, and H.B. Seed. Others
have made helpful suggestions or reviewed portions of the text, resulting in improvements to the final
product, including Prof. Mal Hill from Northeastern. We are indebted to Prof. Alan Lutenegger, who
provided considerable editing contributions to the foundation engineering chapters, and Prof. Aaron
Gallant and Danilo Botero Lopez were instrumental in revising the worked examples and end-of-
chapter problems. Molly Liddell provided invaluable administrative assistance in preparing the final
versions of chapters for copyediting.
Thank you to the reviewers of this edition: Andrew Assadollahi, Ph.D., P.E. (Christian Brothers
University), Ghada Ellithy, Ph.D. (Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University), Evert Lawton, Ph.D.,
P.E. (University of Utah), Anne Lemnitzer, Ph.D., M.Sc. (University of California, Irvine).
IN MEMORIAM
We are saddened by the loss of our dear friend and colleague, Bill Kovacs, who passed away in March
2020 at the age of 84. Bill was devoted to his family, especially to his wife Eileen. Besides his wife, he
is survived by his 7 children and 19 grandchildren. Bill will be remembered as a dedicated educator
who also loved being a geotechnical engineer. In his lectures he regularly drew on lessons learned from
his days in practice or his consulting experiences, and his delivery was peppered with deadpan humor,
clever puns, and subtle jokes. He was a remarkable mentor who was very generous with his time for
students and younger colleagues, never said an unkind word about anyone, and was a true friend to
many of us. His contributions to the three editions are inestimable in both their technical content and
overall presentation of the material. And, while we never divulge the source or even acknowledge the
existence of humor in the book, we do hope students and others using this book will think fondly of Bill
when they discover something to smile about in its pages.
R. D. HOLTZ
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON
W.D.KOVACS
(DECEASED)
T. C. SHEAHAN
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering
1.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering is concerned with the application of civil engineering technology to some
aspect of the earth, usually the natural materials found on or near the earth's surface. Civil engineers
call these materials soil and rock. Soil, in an engineering sense, is the relatively loose agglomerate of
mineral and organic materials and sediments found above the bedrock. Soils can be relatively easily
broken down into their constituent mineral or organic particles. Rock, on the other hand, has very
strong internal cohesive and molecular forces which hold its constituent mineral grains together. This is
true for massive bedrock as well as for a piece of gravel found in a clay soil. The dividing line between
soil and rock is arbitrary, and many natural materials encountered in engineering practice cannot be
easily classified. They may be either a "very soft rock" or a "very hard soil."
Other scientific disciplines have different meanings for the terms soil and rock. In geology, for
example, rock means all the materials found in the earth's crust, including what most of us would call
soil. Soils to a geologist are just decomposed and disintegrated rocks found in the very thin upper part
of the crust and usually capable of supporting plant life. Similarly, pedology (soil science) and agron-
omy are concerned with only the very uppermost layers of soil- that is, those materials important
to agriculture and forestry. Geotechnical engineers can learn much from both geology and pedology.
Geotechnical engineering has considerable overlap with these fields, especially with engineering geol-
ogy and geological engineering. But beginning students should remember that these fields may have
different terminology, approaches, and objectives than geotechnical engineering.
Geotechnical engineering has several different aspects or emphases. Soil mechanics is concerned
with the engineering mechanics and properties of soil, whereas rock mechanics is concerned with the
engineering mechanics and properties of rock- usually, but not limited to, the bedrock. Soil mechanics
applies to soils the basic principles of mechanics including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and
the mechanics of materials. In other words, soil-rather than water, steel, or concrete, for example-is
the engineering material whose properties and behavior we must understand in order to build with it
or upon it. A similar statement could also be made for rock mechanics. However, because in significant
ways soil masses behave differently from rock masses, in practice, there is not much overlap between
1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
the two disciplines. This divergence is unfortunate from the viewpoint of the practicing civil engineer.
Inconveniently, the world does not consist only of soft or loose soils and hard rock, but rather, most
geo-materials fall somewhere between those extremes. In your professional practice you will have to
learn to deal with a wide range of material properties and behaviors.
Foundation engineering applies engineering geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and structural
engineering to the design and construction of foundations for civil engineering and other structures. The
foundation engineer must be able to predict the performance or response of the foundation soil or rock to
the loads the structure imposes. Examples include foundations for industrial, commercial, and residential
buildings, bridges, towers, and retaining walls,as well as foundations for oil and other kinds of storage tanks
and offshore structures. Ships must have a drydock during construction or repairs, and the drydock must
have a foundation. During construction and launch, rockets and appurtenant structures must be safely
supported. Related geotechnical engineering problems that the foundation engineer faces are the stabil-
ity of natural and excavated slopes, the stability of permanent and temporary earth-retaining structures,
problems of construction, control of water movement and water pressures, and even the maintenance and
rehabilitation of old buildings. Not only must the foundation safely support static structural and construc-
tion loads, but it must also adequately resist dynamic loads due to wind, blasting, earthquakes, and the like.
If you think about it, we cannot design or construct any civil engineering structure, whether built
on the earth or extraterrestrial, without ultimately considering the foundation soils and rocks. The
performance, economy, and safety of any civil engineering structure ultimately are affected or even
controlled by its foundation.
Earth materials are often used as a construction material because they are the cheapest possible
building material. However, their engineering properties such as strength and compressibility are often
naturally poor, and measures must be taken to densify, strengthen, or otherwise stabilize and reinforce
soils so that they will perform satisfactorily. Highway and railway embankments, airfields, earth and
rock dams, levees, and aqueducts are examples of earth structures, and the geotechnical engineer is
responsible for their design and construction. Dam safety and rehabilitation of old dams are important
aspects of this phase of geotechnical engineering. A related consideration, especially for highway and
airfield engineers, is the design of the surface layer on the earth structure-the pavement. Here the
overlap between the transportation and geotechnical disciplines is apparent.
Rock engineering, analogous to foundation engineering for soils, is concerned with rock as a
foundation and construction material. Because most of the earth's surface is covered with soil ( or
water), rock engineering usually occurs underground (tunnels, underground power houses, petroleum
storage rooms, mines, yours, and so on). But some rock engineering problems occur at the surface, such
as in the case of building and dam foundations carried to bedrock, deep excavations to bedrock, stabil-
ity of rock slopes, and the like.
In recent years, geotechnical engineers have become increasingly involved in the solution of
environmental problems involving soil and rock. This interdisciplinary field is called geoenvironmental
engineering or environmental geotechnics. Especially challenging are problems of polluted groundwa-
ter, proper disposal and containment of municipal and industrial wastes, design and construction of
nuclear waste repositories, and remediation of hazardous waste repositories and other contaminated
sites. Although all these problems have a major geotechnical engineering component, they are inter-
disciplinary in nature, and their solutions require that geotechnical engineers work together with envi-
ronmental and chemical engineers, environmental and public health specialists, geohydrologists, and
regulatory agency personnel.
In presenting some of the typical problems facing the geotechnical engineer, we wanted you to
see, first, how broad the field is and, second, how important it is to the design and construction of civil
engineering structures, as well as to the basic health and safety of society. In a very real sense, geotech-
nical engineering combines the basic physical and mathematical sciences, geology, and pedology, with
environmental, hydraulic, structural, transportation, construction, and mining engineering. It truly is an
exciting and challenging field.
1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials 3
1.2 THE UNIQUE NATURE OF SOIL AND ROCK MATERIALS

We mentioned earlier that soil-from a civil engineering point of view-is the relatively loose agglom-
eration of mineral and organic materials found above the bedrock. In a broader sense, of course, even
shallow bedrock is of interest to geotechnical engineers, as illustrated by examples given earlier.
The nature and behavior of soil and rock are discussed in greater detail throughout this text. For
now, we want just to set the stage for what you are about to study. We assume you understand that rock
refers to any hard solid aggregate or mass of mineral matter found in the earth's crust. You also already
have a layperson's idea about soil. At least you know in general what sand and gravel are, and perhaps you
even have an idea about fine-grained soils such as silts and clays. These terms have quite precise engineer-
ing definitions, as we shall later see, but for now the general concept that soils are particles will suffice.
Soils are particles of what? Well, soils are usually particles of mineral matter or, more sim-
ply, broken-up pieces of rock that result from weathering and other geologic processes (described in
Chapter 3) acting on massive rock deposits and layers. If we talk for the moment about the size of the
particles, gravels are small pieces of rock and typically contain several minerals, whereas sands are
even smaller pieces, and each grain usually consists of only a single mineral. If you cannot see each
individual grain of a soil, then the soil is either a silt or a clay or a mixture of each. In fact, natural soils
generally are a mixture of several different particle sizes and may even contain organic matter. Some
soils, such as peat, may be almost entirely organic. Furthermore, because soils are a particulate mate-
rial, they have voids, and the voids are usually filled with water and air. The physical and chemical
interaction of the water and air in the voids with the particles of soil, as well as the interaction of the
particles themselves, makes soil's behavior complicated and leads to some of its unique properties. It
is also what makes it a very interesting and challenging engineering material to study and understand.
Because of the nature of soil and rock materials and the complexity of the geological environ-
ment, geotechnical engineering is highly empirical, and requires both fundamental knowledge and expe-
rience. Soils and rocks are often highly variable, even within a distance of a few millimeters. In other
words, soils and rocks are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous materials. That is, their material or
engineering properties may vary widely from point to point within a soil or rock mass. Furthermore,
these materials in general are nonlinear; their stress-strain curves are not straight lines. To further com-
plicate things, soils in particular "remember" their previous loading history, and this fact strongly affects
their subsequent engineering behavior. It means that the geotechnical engineer must have knowledge of
the geologic history of a soil deposit. Instead of being isotropic, soils and rocks are typically anisotropic,
which means that their material or engineering properties are not the same in all directions.
Most of our theories about the mechanical behavior of engineering materials assume that they are
homogeneous and isotropic and obey linear stress-strain laws. Common engineering materials such as
steel and concrete do not deviate too significantly from these ideals, so we can use, with discretion, simple
linear theories to predict the response of these materials to engineering loads. With soils and rock, we are
not so fortunate. We may assume a linear stress-strain response, but then we must apply large empirical
correction or "safety" factors to our designs to account for the real materials' behavior. Furthermore, the
behavior of soil and rock materials in situ is often controlled by joints Gust don't inhale), fractures, weak
layers and zones, and other "defects" in the material, which our laboratory tests and simplified methods
of analysis often do not or are unable to take into account. That is why the practice of geotechnical engi-
neering is sometimes seen as more an "art" than a science. Successful practice depends on the good judg-
ment and experience of the designer, constructor, or consultant. Put another way, the successful geotech-
nical engineer must develop a "feel" for soil and rock behavior before a safe and economic foundation
or tunnel design can be made, an earth structure can be safely built, or an environmentally sound waste
containment and disposal system or a site remediation plan can be developed.
In summary, because of their nonlinear, nonconservative, and anisotropic mechanical behavior,
plus the variability and heterogeneity of natural deposits due to the capriciousness of nature, soils and
rocks are indeed complex engineering and construction materials. Helping you find some order in this
potential chaos is our primary objective in this book.
1.3 SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

In this revised introductory text, the emphasis is on the classification and engineering behavior of soil
and rock materials, followed by an introduction to the most important aspects of foundation engineering.
Successful practice of geotechnical engineering requires a thorough knowledge and understanding of the
engineering properties and behavior of soils and rocks in situ-that is, when they are subjected to engi-
neering loads and environmental conditions. Therefore, the beginning student must first develop an appre-
ciation for the engineering properties of geo-materials as distinct from other common civil engineering
materials before learning how to analyze and design foundations, earthworks, tunnels, and the like.
Actually, this first part is the hard part. Most engineering students (and engineers) are very good
at analysis and performing design calculations. But in geotechnical engineering, these calculations
alone cannot tell the whole picture. If an incorrect picture of the site geology has been assumed or the
wrong engineering properties assumed for the design, significant errors can result.
Since much of the practice of geotechnical engineering depends on the site geology, landforms,
and the nature of the soil and rock deposits at a site, we have included a portion of Chapter 3 on
geology and landforms. If you have had such a course, that portion of the chapter will serve as a good
review. If you haven't, you are strongly encouraged to take a physical geology or an engineering geol-
ogy course in connection with your studies of geotechnical engineering, and this chapter can provide
initial, basic information.
In the early chapters, we introduce some of the basic definitions, index properties, and classifica-
tion schemes for geo-materials that are used throughout the book. Classification of soils and rocks is
important because it is the "language" engineers use to communicate certain general knowledge about
the engineering behavior of the materials at a particular site.
The greatest portion of the book is concerned with the engineering properties of soils and rocks-
properties that are necessary for the design of foundations, earth and underground structures, and geoenvi-
ronmental systems.We describe how water affects soil and rock behavior, including hydraulic conductivity
and seepage characteristics. Then we get into compressibility, the important engineering property we need
to understand in order to predict the settlement of structures constructed on soil and rock masses.We then
describe some elementary strength characteristics of both soils and rocks. Strength is very important for
the stability of, for example, foundations, retaining walls,slopes, tunnels, and waste containment systems.
The later part of the book introduces key concepts and design methods for the most basic parts
of foundation engineering: shallow and deep foundations, and retaining structures. This is by no means
meant to serve as an exhaustive reference on all foundation engineering topics. However, as more civil
engineering programs offer a "merged" geotechnical engineering course with both soil mechanics and
foundation engineering, these later chapters provide foundation engineering fundamentals.
Finally, we have included a chapter on advanced topics in the shear strength of soil and rock that
is meant primarily for graduate study or for those who wish to extend their knowledge beyond the
coverage in earlier chapters on these topics.
Consistent with this emphasis on fundamentals, keep in mind that this is an elementary text that
emphasizes such basics, but with an eye toward the practical applications that you as a civil engineer
are likely to encounter. Having studied this text, you will be well prepared for any follow-up, more spe-
cialized studies in foundations and earthwork engineering, environmental geotechnics, rock mechanics,
and engineering geology. You should have a fairly good idea of what to look for at a site and how to
obtain the soil and rock properties required for most designs. If you are able to accurately classify the
materials, you will know the probable range of physical and engineering values for a given soil or rock
property. You will have some idea of how to estimate foundation capacity and the stresses on an earth
support structure. Finally, we hope you will learn enough about soils and rocks to be aware of your own
limitations, and to avoid costly and dangerous mistakes in those aspects of your professional career
that involve soils and rocks as engineering materials.
1.4 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering 5
1.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

As long as people have been building things, they have used soils and rocks as a foundation or
construction material. The ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Chinese, and Indians knew about
constructing dikes and levees out of the soils found in river flood plains. Ancient temples and monu-
ments built all around the world involved soil and rock in some way. The Aztecs constructed temples
and cities on the very poor soils in the Valley of Mexico long before the Spaniards arrived in the
so-called New World. European architects and builders during the Middle Ages learned about the
problems of settlements of cathedrals and large buildings. The most noteworthy example is, of course,
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Vikings in Scandinavia used timber piles to support houses and wharf struc-
tures on their soft clays. The "design" of foundations and other constructions involving soil and rock
was by rule of thumb, and very little theory as such was developed until the mid-1700s.
Coulomb is the most famous engineering name of that era. He investigated the problems of
earth pressures against retaining walls, and some of his calculation procedures are still in use today. The
most common theory for the shear strength of soils is named after him (Coulomb, 1776). During the
next century, the French engineers Collin and Darcy and the Scotsman Rankine made important dis-
coveries. Collin (1846) was the first engineer to systematically examine failures in clay slopes as well as
the measurement of the shear strength of clays. Darcy (1856) established his law for the flow of water
through sands. Rankine (1857) developed a method for estimating the earth pressure against retaining
walls. In England, Gregory (1844) utilized horizontal subdrains and compacted earth-fill buttresses to
stabilize railroad cut slopes.
By the turn of the century, important developments in the field were occurring in Scandinavia,
primarily in Sweden. Atterberg (1911) defined consistency limits for clays that are still in use today.
During the period 1914-1922, in connection with investigations of failures in harbors and railroads,
the Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State Railways (Statens Jarnvagers Geotekniska
Kommission, 1922) developed many important concepts and apparatuses in geotechnical engineer-
ing. They developed methods for calculating the stability of slopes as well as subsurface investigation
techniques such as weight sounding and piston and other types of samplers. They understood import-
ant concepts such as sensitivity of clays and consolidation, which is the squeezing of water out of the
pores of the clay. At that time, clays were thought to be absolutely impervious, but the Swedes made
field measurements to show they weren't. The Commission was the first to use the word geotechnical
(Swedish: geotekniska) in today's sense: the combination of geology and civil engineering technology.
Even with these early developments in Sweden, the true father of modern soil mechanics
is an Austrian, Prof. Karl Terzaghi. He published the first modern textbook on soil mechanics in 1925,
and in fact the name "soil mechanics" is a translation of the German word Erdbaumechanik, which was
part of the title of that book (Terzaghi, 1925). Terzaghi was an outstanding and very creative engineer.
He wrote several other important books (for example, Terzaghi, 1943; Terzaghi and Peck, 1967; and
Terzaghi, Peck, and Mesri, 1996) and over 250 technical papers and articles. His name will appear often
in this book. He was a professor at Robert College in Istanbul, at Technische Hochschule in Vienna, at
MIT, and at Harvard University from 1938 until his retirement in 1956. He continued to be active as a
consultant until his death in 1963 at the age of 80. An excellent reference about his life and engineering
career is that of Goodman (1999) and is well worth reading.
Another important figure is Prof. Arthur Casagrande, who was at Harvard University from 1932
until 1969.You will see his name often in this book, because he made many important contributions to
the art and science of soil mechanics and foundation engineering. Since the 1950s, the field has grown
substantially, and many people have been responsible for its rapid advancement. Important contributors
to the field include Taylor, Peck, Tschebotarioff, Skempton, Bjerrum, Seed, Ladd, and Leonards.
Both Terzaghi and Casagrande began the teaching of soil mechanics and engineering geology in
North America. Before the Second World War, the subject was offered only at a very few universities,
mostly as a graduate course. After the war, it became common for at least one course in the subject to
be required in most civil engineering curricula. Graduate programs in geotechnical engineering were
implemented at many universities. Finally, there has been a real information explosion in the number
of conferences, technical journals, and textbooks published on this subject during the past four decades.
In terms of foundation engineering, we have already mentioned the important role that Coulomb
and Rankine played in the development of limit state analyses of lateral earth pressures for retaining
structures. It should come as no surprise that Terzaghi was a pioneer in this area as well, offering some of
the first rational methods for estimating soil capacity to support shallow foundations. In the 1950s,George
Meyerhof and Aleksandr Vesic and others similarly began to formulate more fundamentals-based meth-
ods for deep foundations. A number of advances in this area of geotechnical engineering were often
driven by contractors, innovating to build in difficult soils or use familiar materials in more efficient ways.
Important recent developments you should know about include soil dynamics and geotechni-
cal earthquake engineering, the use of computer modeling for the solution of complex engineering
problems, deformation-based analyses and designs, the introduction of probability and statistics into
geotechnical engineering analysis and design, and geo-environmental engineering and technology.
1.5 SUGGESTED APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Because of the nature of soil and rock materials, both laboratory and field testing are very important
in geotechnical engineering. Student engineers can begin to develop a feel for soil and rock behavior in
the laboratory by performing the standard tests for classification and engineering properties on many
different types of soils and rocks. In this way, the novice can begin building up a "mental data bank"
of how certain soils and rocks actually look, how they might behave with varying amounts of water
in them and under different types of engineering loads, and the range of probable numerical values
for the different tests. This is sort of a self-calibration process, so that when you are faced with a new
soil deposit or rock type, you will in advance have some idea as to the engineering problems you will
encounter at that site. You can also begin to judge, at least qualitatively, the validity of laboratory and
field test results for the materials at that site.
Also important is a knowledge of geology. Geology is, of course, the "geo" part of geotechnical
engineering, and you should get as much exposure to it as you can during your academic career. After
a basic course in physical geology, courses in geomorphology and engineering geology are recom-
mended. Geomorphology is concerned with landforms, which are important to geotechnical engineers
because the soils and rocks at a site (and therefore the engineering problems) are strongly related to
the particular landform. Engineering geology is concerned with the applications of geology to primar-
ily civil engineering and has considerable interaction and overlap with geotechnical engineering.
The theoretical and analytical aspects of geotechnical engineering design also require a sound
knowledge of engineering mechanics, including strength of materials and fluid mechanics. It also helps
if you are familiar to some extent with basic structural analysis, reinforced concrete and steel design,
hydraulic engineering and hydrology, surveying and engineering measurements, basic environmental
engineering, and civil engineering construction - in other words, just about all the courses in a typical
undergraduate civil engineering curriculum.
1.6 NOTES ON SYMBOLS, UNITS, AND STANDARDS

As with most disciplines, a standard notation is not universal in geotechnical engineering, so we have tried
to adopt the symbols most commonly used. For example, the American Society for Testing and Materials
has a list of Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained Fluids,
standard designation D 653. The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
1.7 Some Comments on How to Study in General 7
(ISSMFE, 1977) published an extensive list of symbols. Although we sometimes deviate from these rec-
ommendations because of our personal preference, we have generally tried to follow them.
Units used in geotechnical engineering can be politely called a mess, and, less politely, several
worse things. There has developed in practice, at least in the United States, a jumbled mixture of
cgs-metric, Imperial or British Engineering units, and hybrid European metric units. With the intro-
duction of the universal and consistent system of units, "Le Systeme International d'Unites" (SI) in
the United States and Canada, the profession had a wonderful opportunity to bring some coherence
to units in geotechnical engineering practice. However, since British Engineering units are still rather
commonly used in the United States, students need to be familiar with the typical values in both sets
of units. This edition of the book could be characterized as Jess tolerant of SI units than previous edi-
tions since efforts to use SI units more in the United States have largely failed. There are a number of
excellent, open source units conversions sites on the web, and we recommend you find and bookmark
one that suits your purposes.
We referred earlier to the American Society for Testing and Materials, commonly known as
ASTM, which develops and publishes technical standards for a multitude of materials, products, sys-
tems, and services through a highly organized volunteer committee structure. These committees arrive
at consensus to determine these standards. Throughout the text, we cite only active ASTM, AASHTO,
and British standards without associated years. In the case of ASTM standard, complete ASTM stan-
dards do have a date ( e.g., D 2216-19), which indicates the year of last revision (in this case, 2019).
Standards remain in the system for 8 years, and if not reapproved through the balloting process within
that period, are withdrawn from active status. AASHTO standards are generally reviewed every
4 years, and if a standard is no longer used, it may be discontinued and then ultimately deleted from the
book of standards. We have cited only those standards that were active at the time of publication and
have excluded the year in the citation.
1.7 SOME COMMENTS ON HOW TO STUDY IN GENERAL

It takes a while to learn how to study most effectively. You are probably using the study habits that you
got by with in grade school and high school. As you progress professionally, things are going to get harder,
starting in your third year of university or college, when you take mostly preprofessional courses. We have
all used the following methods to do homework assignments. (1) Just read the assignment to satisfy the
moral obligation to do so. (2) Go further by underlining or highlighting passages to emphasize the main
points. Consider what you are doing physically: the information goes through the eyes, down your neck
and arm into the writing fingers, completely bypassing the brain! Both (1) and (2) are pretty much a waste
of time unless you have a photographic memory. If we are really going to learn anything, most of us need
to study a third way: (3) Read a few pages and then close the book. Write down in your own words what
the main concepts are; a "bullet" format is OK, and you could also use index cards to capture details of
a particular topic on each card. You may have to cheat occasionally and look back at the book to create
your own notes, but you will have started the process of having the material in the brain. Yes, this will take
more time than "studying" using methods (1) and (2), but you will not be wasting your time.
A useful argument for doing it the recommended way is that you will have already started pre-
paring for the exams, because now you know the material. The rest of the time, you are brushing up or
reviewing the material, so you won't need to cram.
One big problem is that there may not be enough time in the week to use method (3) when you
are taking three or four other courses. However, follow it as much as you can. You have invested a lot
in your education. Don't waste time with methods (1) and (2).
Don't ask us to tell you how long it took for us to learn the correct way to study (it's too
embarrassing).
Our suggested approach will help you prepare for the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE or EIT)
exam and later the PE or PEng (professional engineer's exam). We strongly encourage you to take
(and pass) the FE exam before you graduate and receive your engineering degree.
SUGGESTEDACTIVITIES
1.1 Attend a lecture with a geotechnical engineering topic, either through your department's research seminar
series, your student chapter of the American Society of Civil Engineers, your local professional chapter, or
other organizing group in your area. Not only will you learn something about an engineering topic or project,
you may also be able to meet the speaker to build your professional network and learn why they became
interested in geotechnical practitioner or researcher.
1.2 Visit a local project site where the geotechnical phase is still underway. Ideally, an engineer or contractor may
be able to host you and other students, and explain the project and any details related to the geotechnical
design and construction.
1.3 Speak to one of your geotechnical faculty members about research and/or consulting they are doing, and if
you are interested, see if there are opportunities to participate in the research.
REFERENCES
ATTERBERG, A. (1911). "Lerornas Forhallande till Vatten, deras Plasticitetsgranser och Plasticitets- grader," ("The
Behavior of Clays with Water, Their Limits of Plasticity and Their Degrees of Plasticity"), Kungliga Lantbruk-
sakademiens Handlingar och Tidskrift, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp.132-158; also in Internationale Mitteilungen fur Boden-
kunde, Vol. 1, pp. 10-43 ("Uber die Physikalische Bodenuntersuchung und tiber die Plastizitat der Tone").
COLLIN,A. (1846). Recherches Experimentales sur Jes Glissements Spontanes des Terrains Argileux, Accompagnees
de Cunsideratiuns sur Quel4ues Principes de la Mechanic4ue Terreslre, Carilian-Gueury and Dalmunl, Paris.
Translated by W.R. Schriever under the title "Landslides in Clays by Alexandre Collin 1846," University of
Toronto Press, Canada, 1956, 161 p. (21 plates).
CouLOMB,C.A. (1776). "Essai sur une application des regles de Maximus et Minimis a Quelques Problemes de
Statique, Relatifs a lA.rchitecture," Memoires de Mathematique et de Physique, Presentes a l' Academie Royale
des Sciences, par Divers Savans, et lus dans ses Assemblees, Paris, Vol. 7 (Vol. for 1773 published in 1776),
pp. 343-382.
DARCY, H. (1856). Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Dalmont, Paris.
GOODMAN, R.E. (1999). Karl Terzaghi: The Engineer as Artist, ASCE Press, 340 p.
GREGORY, C.H. (1844). "On Railway Cuttings and Embankments with an Account of Some Slips in London Clay, on
the Line of the London and Croydon Railway," Minutes and Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 3, pp.135-145. Reprinted in A Century of Soil Mechanics, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1969,482 p.
INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FORSOILMECHANICS ANDFOUNDATION ENGINEERING (1977). "List of Symbols, Units, and
Definitions," Subcommittee on Symbols, Units, and Definitions, Proceedings of the Ninth International Confer-
ence on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, Vol. 3, pp.156-170.
RANKINE,W.J.M. (1857). "On the Stability of Loose Earth," Abstracts of the Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London, Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Vol. VIII, pp.185-187.
STATENSJARNVAGERS GEOTEKNISKA KoMMISSION(1922). 1914-1922 Slutbetiinkande, (1914-1922 Final Report),
Presented to the Board of the Royal Swedish Railroads, Stockholm, 180 p. (42 plates).
STOKOE, K.H., II ANDLODDE,P.F.(1978). "Dynamic Response of San Francisco Bay Mud," Proceedings of the Earth-
quake Engineering and Soil Dynamics Conference, Los Angeles, ASCE, Vol. H, pp. 940-959.
TERZAGHI, K. (1925). Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalischer Grundlage, Franz Deuticke, Leipzig und Wein, 399 p.
TERZAGHI, K. (1943). Theoretical Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 510 p.
TERZAGHI, K. ANDPECK,RB. (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 729 p.
TERZAGHI,K., PECK,RB., AND MESRI,G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 3rd ed., Wiley, New
York,549 p.
CHAPTER 2
Index and Classification

Properties of Soils
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we introduce the basic terms and definitions used by geotechnical engineers to index
and classify soils. We need to establish a common language around how these properties are defined so
that when different engineers refer to and use property values, it means the same thing to all. Some of
these properties will have actual physical meaning (like density), while others may be so-called "index"
properties that only make sense relative to some comparative scale. Additionally, as in many sciences,
we want to be able to classify soils in some sort of commonly understood taxonomy. You may be famil-
iar with this term from biology, where biological organisms have a genus and species. We shall define
a relatively rigorous classification system for soils as well. The determination of physical, index, and
classification properties is typically the first step in understanding how the soils in question are then
used as engineering materials.
2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND PHASE RELATIONS FOR SOILS

In general, any assemblage of soil consists of solid particles with voids in between. The solids are small
grains of different minerals, whereas the voids can be filled with either water or other fluid (for exam-
ple, a contaminant) or with air (or other gas), or filled partly with some of each (Fig. 2.1 ).
Su, the total volume V 1 of the soil mass consists of the volume of soil solids Vs and the volume of
voids Vv. The volume of voids is in general made up of the volume of water V w and the volume of air V0 .
A phase diagram (Fig. 2.2) shows the three phases separately. It's as if we could "melt down" all
the solids into a single layer at the bottom, then have the water sit on top of that, and finally have the
air in a single layer at the top. The phase diagram helps us solve problems involving soil phase relation-
ships. On the left side we usually indicate the volumes of the three phases; on the right side we show the
corresponding masses or weights. Even though the diagram is two-dimensional, it is understood that
the volume shown is in units of L3, such as cm 3 or ft 3 . Also, since we're not chemists or physicists, we
assume that the mass of air is zero.
9
10 Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils
w In engineering practice, we usually measure the total vol-

ume VI' the mass of water Mw, and the mass of dry solids Ms.
Then we calculate the rest of the values and the mass-volume
relationships that we need. Most of these relationships are inde-
pendent of sample size, and they are often dimensionless. They
are very simple and easy to remember, especially if you draw
the phase diagram.
Three volumetric ratios that are very useful in geotech-
nical engineering can be determined directly from the phase
diagram (Fig. 2.2).
1. The void ratio e is defined as

V
e = _v (2.1)
vs
s where Vv = volume of the voids, and

Vs = volume of the solids.
FIGURE2.1 Soil skeleton containing The void ratio e is normally expressed as a decimal
solid particles (S) and voids with air rather than a percentage. The maximum possible range of e is
(A) and water (W).
between 0 and However, typical values of void ratios for
00 •
sands may range from 0.4 to about 1.0; typical values for clays
vary from 0.3 to 1.5 and even higher for some organic soils.
2. The porosity n is defined as
(2.2)
where Vv = volume of voids, and

V 1 = total volume of soil sample.
Porosity is traditionally expressed as a percentage. The maximum range of n is between 0 and 100%.
From Fig. 2.2 and Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), it can be shown that
e
n= (2.3a)
1+e
and
n
e=-- (2.3b)
l-n
Volume Mass
v,
FIGURE2.2 Volumetric and mass

relationships for a soil shown in a phase
diagram. Note: Weights, W, may also be
used on the right side.
3. The degree of saturation S is defined as
S = ~w X 100(%) (2.4)
V
The degree of saturation tells us what percentage of the total void space contains water. If the soil is
completely dry, then S = 0%, and if the pores are completely full of water, then the soil is fully satu-
rated and S = 100%.
Now let us look at the other side, the mass or weight side, of the phase diagram in Fig. 2.2. First,
we will define a mass or weight ratio that is probably the single most important thing we need to know
about a soil-its water content w. It is also the only strictly mass- or weight-based parameter that we'll
define for phase relationships. The water content tells us how much water is present in the voids rela-
tive to the amount of solids in the soil, as follows:
M
W = ------1£. X 100(%) (2.5a)
Ms
where Mw = mass of water, and
Ms = mass of soil solids.
or in terms of weights,
w = WW x 100(%) (2.5b)
ws
where Ww = weight of water, and
Ws = weight of soil solids.
The ratio of the amount of water present in a soil volume to the amount of soil grains is based
on the dry mass or weight of the soil and not on the total mass or weight. The water content, which is
usually expressed as a percentage, can range from zero (dry soil) to several hundred percent. The nat-
ural water content for most soils is well under 100%, although in some marine and organic soils it can
range up to 500% or higher.
The water content is easily determined in the laboratory. The standard procedure is detailed in
ASTM standard D 2216. A representative sample of soil is selected and its total or wet mass or weight
is determined. Then it is dried to constant mass or weight in a convection oven at ll0°C. Normally, a
constant mass or weight is obtained after the sample is left in the oven overnight. The mass or weight
of the drying dish must, of course, be subtracted from both the wet and dry masses or weights. Then the
water content is calculated according to Eq. (2.5a) or (2.5b ). Example 2.1 illustrates how the calcula-
tions for water content are actually done in practice.
Example 2.1
Given:
A specimen of wet soil in a drying dish has a mass of 388 g. After drying in an oven at ll0°C
overnight, the sample and dish have a mass of 335 g. The mass of the dish alone is 39 g.
Required:
Determine the water content of the soil.
Solution: Set up the following calculation scheme; fill in the "given" or measured quantities a, b, and d,
and make the calculations as indicated for c, e, and f.
a. Mass of total (wet) sample + dish = 388 g

b. Mass of dry sample + dish = 335 g
c. Mass ofwater(a - b) = 53g
d. Mass of dish = 39 g
e. Mass of dry soil(b - d) = 296 g
f. Water content(c/e) x 100% = 17.9%
In the laboratory, masses are usually determined in grams (g) on an ordinary balance. The required
sensitivity of the balance depends on the size of the specimen, and ASTM D 2216 gives some
recommendations.
The water content may also be determined using an ordinary microwave oven. ASTM stan-
dard D 4643 explains the procedure. To avoid overheating the soil specimen, microwave energy
is applied for only brief intervals and repeated until the mass becomes nearly constant. A heat
sink, such as a glass beaker filled with water, helps to prevent overheating of the soil by absorbing
microwave energy after water has been removed from the soil pores. Otherwise, the water con-
tent is determined exactly as indicated in Example 2.1. Note that the microwave water content is
not a replacement for the oven dry water content but is used when the water content is needed
quickly. Other methods sometimes used in the field for water content determination are described
in Sec. 4.7.
Another very useful concept in geotechnical engineering is density. You know from physics that
density is mass per unit volume, so its units are kg/m The density is the ratio that connects the volu-
3
metric side of the phase diagram with the mass side. Several densities are commonly used in geotech-
nical engineering practice. First, we define the total, wet, or moist density p; the density of the particles,
solid density Ps; and the density of water Pw·We also give the corresponding unit weights,"/, which are
obtained by substituting M with the corresponding weight, W.
Ml Ms+ Mw
P ---
- - (2.6a)
vi v,
1=-
WI ws + WW
(2.6b)
vi vi
Ms
Ps (2.7a)
vs
ws
"Is =- (2.7b)
vs
= MW (2.8a)
Pw
vw
"fw - WW (2.8b)
vw
In natural soils, the magnitude of the total density p will depend on how much water hap-
pens to be in the voids as well as the density of the mineral grains themselves. Thus, p can range
from slightly above 1000 kg/m to as high as 2400 kg/m with corresponding units weights of
3 3
9.81 kN/m 62.4 lb/ft

3
(
3
to 23.4 kN/m (150 lb/ft

)
3
The high end of this range would be essentially

3
).
solid mineral, with a corresponding density/unit weight close to that of concrete.

Typical values of Ps for most soils range from 2500 to 2800 kg/m 3 (156 to 175 pcf). Most sands
have Ps values ranging between 2600 and 2700 kg/m 3 (162 to 169 pcf). For example, a common min-
eral in sands is quartz; its Ps = 2650 kg/m 3 . Most clay soils have a value of Ps between 2650 and
2800 kg/m 3 , depending on the predominant mineral in the soil, whereas organic soils may have a Ps
as low as 2500 kg/m 3 . Consequently, for most phase problems, unless a specific value of Ps is given, it
is usually close enough for geotechnical work to assume a Ps of 2650 or 2700 kg/m 3 . The density of
water varies slightly, depending on the temperature. At 4°C, when water is at its densest, Pw exactly
equals 1000 kg/m 3 (1 g/cm 3 ), and this density is sometimes designated by the symbol Po.For ordinary
engineering work, it is sufficiently accurate to take Pw ~ p = 1000 kg/m 3 . 0
Three other densities very useful in soils engineering are the dry density pd, the saturated density
PsaP and the submerged or buoyant density p' or Pb, and their corresponding unit weights.
Pd =vMs I
(2.9a)
- w
_s
'Yd - (2.9b)
Vt
Psat
Ms + M w( V = 0 S = 100 % ) (2.10a)
VI a '
'Ysat
ws +
VI
WW(V
a
= 0' S = 100%) (2.10b)
1
P = Psat - Pw (2.lla)
'Y
1
= 'Ysat - 'Yw (2.llb)
Among other uses, the dry density Pd is a common basis for judging a soil's degree of compaction
after we have applied some mechanical energy to it, for example by using a roller or vibratory plate
(Chapter 4). The saturated density PsaP as the name implies, is the total density of the soil when 100% of
its pores are filled with water; in this special case, p = Psai. The concept of submerged or buoyant density
p' is often difficult for students to understand, so it is discussed later after we have done a few example
problems. However, you may be familiar with this concept from studying aggregates, where a "basket" of
aggregate is weighed while it is submerged under water. Typical values of Pd, PsaP and p' for several soil
types are shown in Table 2.1, and Table 2.2 shows typical unit weights in terms of kN/m 3 and pcf.
From the basic definitions provided in this section, other useful relationships can be derived, as
we show in the examples that follow.
TABLE 2.1 Some Typical Values for Different Densities of Some Common Soil Materials
Density (kg/m 3)
Soil Type Psat Pd p'
Sands and gravels 1900-2400 1500-2300 900-1400
Silts and clays 1400-2100 600-1800 400-1100
Glacial tills 2100-2400 1700-2300 1100-1400
Crushed rock 1900-2200 1500-2000 900-1200
Peats 1000-1100 100-300 0-100
Organic silts and clays 1300-1800 500-1500 300-800
Modified after Hansbo (1975).
TABLE 2.2 Some Typical Values for Different Unit Weights of Common Soil Materials in Units of kN/m 3 and pcf
Unit Weight
'"Ysat '°Yd --y'

Soil Type kN/m 3 pcf kN/m 3 pcf kN/m 3
pcf
Sands and gravels 19-24 119-150 15-23 94-144 9-14 62-81
Silts and clays 14-21 87-131 6-18 37-112 4-11 25-69
Glacial tills 21-24 131-150 17-23 106-144 11-14 69-87
Crushed rock 19-22 119-137 15-20 94-125 9-12 56-75
Peats 10-11 60-69 1-3 6-19 0-1 0-6
Organic silts and clays 13-18 81-112 5-15 31-94 3-8 19-50
Note: Values are rounded to the nearest 1 kN/m3 and 1 pcf.
2.2.1 Solution of Phase Problems

Phase problems are very important in soils engineering. In this section, with the help of some numeri-
cal examples, we illustrate how most phase problems are solved. As in many disciplines, practice helps;
the more problems you solve, the simpler they are and the more proficient you become. Also, with
practice you soon memorize most of the important definitions and relationships, so you save time by
not having to look them up.
Probably the single most important thing you can do in solving phase problems is to draw a
phase diagram. This is especially true for the beginner. Don't spend time searching for the right formula
to plug into. Instead, always draw a phase diagram and show both the given values and the unknowns
of the problem. For some problems, simply doing this leads almost immediately to the solution; at least
the correct approach to the problem is usually indicated. Also, you should note that there often are
alternative approaches to the solution of the same problem, as illustrated in Example 2.2. The following
steps are recommended to solve these problems:
1. List the information you know (from the problem narrative).

2. Draw phase diagram, fill in the knowns and the unknowns.
3. Try to avoid big formulas.
4. If no masses or volumes are given, you can assume either one volume or one mass.
5. Fill in one side of the diagram until you get stuck or completely solve it, then "cross over" to the
other side using one of the p's, ,'s, or G 5 •
6. Write out equations in symbol form. Then place the numerical value along with its units in the
same order, and solve.
7. Check units and reasonableness of your answer.
Example 2.2
Given:
p = 1760 kg/m 3 (total density)
w = 10% (water content)
Ps = 2700 kg/m 3 (assumed)

Required:
Compute pd (dry density), e (void ratio), n (porosity), S (degree of saturation), and Psat (saturated
density).
Solution: Draw the phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.2a ). Assume that Vt = 1 m 3 .
Volume (m3 ) Mass (kg)
~
+
Va A
VI= 1.0
+-
Vw w
----1 Mw
M, ~ 1760
t-
Vs s Ms
! FIGURE Ex. 2.2a
From the definition of water content [Eq. (2.Sa)] and total density [Eq. (2.6a)] we can solve for
Ms and Mw. Note that in the computations water content is expressed as a decimal.
w = 0.10 = MW kg
Ms kg
Mt (Mw + Ms) kg
p = 1760 kg/m 3 3
l.0m
Submitting Mw = 0.lOM" we get
(0.l0Ms + Ms) kg
1760 kg/m 3
l.0m 3
Ms = 1600 kg and Mw = 160 kg
These values are now placed on the mass side of the phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.2b ), and the rest of the
desired properties are calculated.
Volume (m3) Mass (kg)
l Va= +0.247 A
Vv = 0.407 -r-1----------i f
I W Mw=160
----1~
Vw=;0.160
Vt =i,.o ~ M, 1760
Vs= r593 1-----s-----< M, Too j

FIGURE Ex. 2.2b
From the definition of Pw [Eq. (2.8a)] we can solve for Vw.

M
Pw = V w
w
or
V - Mw - 0.16kg = 0.160m3
w- Pw - 1000 kg/m 3
Place this numerical value on the phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.2b ).
To calculate v.,, we must assume a value of the density of the solids p,. Here assume
Ps = 2700 kg/m 3. From the definition of Ps [Eq. (2.7a)] we can solve for Vs directly, or
V = Ms = 160kg = 0.593m3
s Ps 2700 kg/m 3
Since V 1 = Va + Vw + V,, we can solve for Va, since we know the other terms.
Va = V1 - Vw - Vs = 1.0 - 0.593 - 0.160 = 0.247m 3
Once the phase diagram has been filled in, solving the rest of the problem involves just plugging
the respective numbers into the appropriate definition equations. We recommend that, when you make
the computations, you write out the equations in symbol form and then insert the numbers in the same
order as written in the equation. Also, it is a good idea to have the units accompany the calculations.
Solving for the remainder of the required items is easy.
From Eq. (2.9a),
Ms 1600 kg
Pd = 1600 kg/m 3
Vt lm 3
From Eq. (2.1),
vv Va + vw (0.247 + 0.160) m 3
e = - = = 0.686
vs vs 0.593m 3
From Eq. (2.2),
n = Vv = Va + Vw 100 = (0.247 + 0.\60) m3 100 = 40.7%
V, V, l.0m
From Eq. (2.4),
S = Vw = Vw 100 = 0.16m3 3100 = 39.3%
Vv Va + Vw (0.247 + 0.160) m
At the saturated density Psat all the voids are filled with water-that is, S = 100% [Eq. (2.lOa)].
Therefore, if the volume of air Va were filled with water, it would weigh 0.247 m 3 x 1000 kg/m 3 or
247 kg.Then
= Mw + Ms = (247kg + 160kg) + 1600kg = 20l0k /m3
Psat Vt 1 m3 g
Another, and perhaps even easier, way to solve this example problem is to assume Vs is a unit
volume, 1 m 3. Then, by definition, Ms = p s = 2700 (when p s is assumed equal to 2700 kg/m 3). The
completed phase diagram is shown in Fig. Ex. 2.2c.
Since w = Mw/Ms = 0.10, Mw = 2700 kg and M 1 = Mw +Ms= 2970 kg. Also, Vw = Mw
numerically, since Pw= 1000 kg/m 3; that is, 270 kg of water occupies a volume of 0.27 m 3. Before we
can proceed, two unknowns remain to be solved: Va and V,. To obtain these values, we must use the
given information that p = 1760 kg/m 3. From the definition of total density [Eq. (2.6a)],
Va=0.418 A
t- t
1
V = 1.688
Vw = 0.27
t-~--------< _
W
---t
Mw = 270
M1 = 2970
V, ~ 1.0 S M, ~rOO j
FIGURE Ex. 2.2c
p = 1760 kg/m 3 = M1 = 2970 kg

vi vi
Solving for V 1,
2970 kg = 1.688 m 3
1760 kg/m 3
Therefore
Va = V1 - Vw - Vs = 1.688 - 0.27 - 1.0 = 0.418 m 3
You can use Fig. Ex. 2.2c to verify that the remainder of the solution is identical to the one using the
data of Fig. Ex. 2.2b. This example illustrates that there often are alternative approaches to the solution
of the phase problems.
Example 2.3
Given:
Equations (2.3a) and (2.3b) relating the void ratio e and the porosity n.
Required:
Express the porosity n in terms of the void ratio e [Eq. (2.3a)] and the void ratio in terms of the
porosity [Eq. (2.3b)].
Solution: Draw a phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.3a).

t A For this problem, assume Vs = l (units arbitrary).
+-
Vv = e
1 w
From Eq. (2.1),Vv = e, since Vs = l. Therefore, V 1 = 1 + e.
From Eq. (2.2), the definition of n is Vv/VI' or
1+ e
e
n=-- (2.3a)
j V5 =1 s l +e
i
FIGURE Ex. 2.3a
Equation (2.3b) can be derived algebraically or from
l Vv
t= n A the phase diagram (Fig. Ex.
= l.
2.3b). For this case, assume
+-
vi
vt = 1 w From Eq. (2.2), Vv = n, since V 1 = l. Therefore

Vs = l - n. From Eq. (2.1), the definition of e = V)Vs.
j Vs= 1 - n
t
s So
e=--
n
(2.3b)
FIGUREEx. 2.3b l-n
Example 2.4
Given:
3
e = 0.58, w = 12%, Ps = 2800kg/m •
Required:
a. Pd
b. p
c. w for S = 100%
d. Psatfor S = 100%
Solution: Draw phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.4).
l e=
t0.58
A
f
FIGUREEx. 2.4
= 1.58
j +-
Vs= 1.0
t
w
s
Mw = 336
+t
Ms= 2800
a. Since no volumes are specified, assume Vs = l m 3 . Just as in Example 2.3, this makes the
Vv = e = 0.58m 3 and V 1 = l + e = l.58m 3 .FromEq.(2.9a),
and Ms = PsVs [from Eq. (2.7a)]. So
3
Pd= P(s = l~e' since Vs= lm inFig.Ex.2.4
2800 kg = 1772 k Im 3
(1 + 0.58) m3 g
Note: The relationship
(2.12)
is often very useful in phase problems.

b. Now for p:
We know that
Mw = wMs [from Eq. (2.5a)] and Ms = PYs
Psvs + wpSVS +
p=
Ps (l
- -+-e-,
w) •
smce
V
s = l m3
v, 1
Plug in the numbers.
= 2800kg(l + 0.12) = 1985 k /m 3

p (l + 0.58) m 3 g
The following relationship is often useful to know.

Ps (l + w)
P, = (1 + e) (2.13)
Check:
p
(2.14)
(1 + w)
= 1985 = 1772 kg/m 3

1.12
You should verify that P,1 = pl(l + w ), which is another very useful relationship to remember.
c. Water content for S = 100%:
From Eq. (2.4), we know that Vw = Vv = 0.58 m 3 . From Eq. (2.8a), Mw = VwPw =
0.58 m 3 x (1000 kg/m 3 ) = 580 kg. Therefore w for S = 100% must be
580
w<S=lOO%) = Mw = = 0.207 or 20.7%
Ms 2800
d. Psat:
FromEq.(2.lOa),weknow Psat =(Ms+ Mw)JV,, or
(2800 + 580) kg
Psat
1.58 m 3
= 2139.24 or 2139 kg/m 3
Check, by Eq. (2.13):

_ Ps(l + w)
Psat
1+ e
_ 2800(1 + 0.207)
1.58
= 2139 kg/m 3
Example 2.5
Given:
The definitions of the degree of saturation S, void ratio e, water content w, and the solid density
Ps [Eqs. (2.4), (2.1), (2.5a), and (2.7a), respectively].
Required:
Derive a relationship between S, e, w, and Ps·
Solution: Look at the phase diagram with Vs = l (Fig. Ex. 2.5).
Volume Mass
t
I/v=e
A
t
w
I
V: = Se
w *
Vs = 1 s
FIGURE Ex. 2.5 +
From Eq. (2.4) and Fig. Ex. 2.5, we know that Vw = SVv = Se. From the definitions of water
content [Eq. (2.5a)] and Ps [Eq. (2.7a)], we can place the equivalents for Ms and M 10 on the phase dia-
gram. Since from Eq. (2.8a), Mw = p10 Vw, we now can write the following equation:
MW = PwVw= wMS = wpSVS
or
Since Vs = l m 3,
(2.15)
Equation (2.15) is among the most useful of all equations for phase problems. You can also verify
its validity from the fundamental definitions of p10 , S, e, w, and Ps·
Note that, using Eq. (2.15), we can write Eq. (2.13) another way:
Ps(l + PwSe)
p = Ps Ps + PwSe (2.16)
l+e l+e
When S = 100%, Eq. (2.16) becomes

Psat (2.17)
Example 2.6
Given:
A soil contaminated with gasoline ( specific gravity = 0.9) with the following characteristics:
Ps = 2800 kg/m 3 , w = 22 % , volume of the gasoline is 18% of the volume of the water, and 90% of
the void space is filled with gasoline and water (after T. F. Wolff).
Required:
a. Complete the phase diagram in Fig. Ex. 2.6a.
b. Find the void ratio and porosity of the specimen.
c. Find the total and dry density of the specimen.
Volume (m3 ) Ps (kg/m 3 ) Mass (kg)
Air
II'.V = -
II'.=
s -
FIGURE Ex. 2.6a
Solution:
a. As we did with Examples 2.3 and 2.4, assume Vs = l m 3 . Then, using the basic definitions
for water content, density, and degree of saturation, fill in the blanks as shown in Fig. Ex. 2.6b.
b. Again, use the basic definitions of e and n. We find that e = 0.81 and n = 44.7%.
c. For both Pr and pd, simply take the values for Mr (3515 kg) and Ms (2800 kg) and divide
each by 1.81 m 3 to obtain Pr = 1945 kg/m 3 and Pd = 1549 kg/m 3 . Note that using
Eqs. (2.13) and (2.14) will give you erroneous results.
Here are the details: Calculate the mass of water by noting that M w = wM s = 0.22 x 2800 kg
of solids. (We assumed that Vs = l m 3, remember?). So, M w = 616 kg. Add that to the phase dia-
gram. Also, the volume of water is Mw/ Pw = 616 kg divided by 1000 kg/m 3 , or Vw = 0.62 m 3 .
Then the volume of gasoline = 18% of Vw = 0.18 x 0.62m 3 = 0.18m 3 . Because the spe-
cific gravity (Sec. 2.2.3) of gasoline is 0.9, its density is 0.9 x Pw. So the mass of the gasoline
Mg = 0.9 x Pw x Vg = 0.9 x 1000 kg/m 3 x 0.11 m 3 = 99 kg. Add these items to the phase dia-
gram (Fig. Ex. 2.6b).
Va= 0.08 Air

t
M1 = 3515
FIGURE Ex. 2.6b
Because 90% of the voids are filled with water and gasoline, the total amount of voids is
(Vw+ Vg)!0.90 = (0.62 + 0.11)/0.90 = 0.81m 3 • Subtracting Vw + Vg from VI' we find that
V 0 = 0.08 m . Now all the "holes" on the phase diagram are filled. The rest is a piece of cold apple
3
pie (parts band c).

e - Vv - 0.81 m 3 = 0.81
- V, - l.00m 3
n
= Vv
Vt
= 01.81
•81 X 100 = 44 7°¾
• o
P, = MV, = 3515 kg = 1945~

, 1.81 m 3 m3
2800 kg = 1549 ~
1.81 m 3 m3
2.2.2 Submerged or Buoyant Density and Unit Weight

In Eq. (2.lla), we simply defined the submerged or buoyant density as p' = Psat - Pw, without any
explanation other than giving some typical values of p' in Table 2.1. Strictly speaking, the total p should
be used instead of Psatin Eq. (2.lla), but in most cases submerged soils are also completely saturated,
or at least that is a reasonable assumption.
So when a soil is submerged, the total density as expressed by Eqs. (2.13) and (2.16) and is
partially balanced by the buoyant effect of the water. You will recall from Archimedes' principle that
the buoyancy effect is equal to the weight of water displaced by the solid particles in the soil mass. This
is shown in Fig. 2.3(a), where the submerged (net) weight is
W' = w, - Fb
In terms of masses,
W' = Msg - Vspwg = M'g
Thus, the submerged (net) mass
M' = Ms - VsPw
We obtain densities by dividing by the total volume V1: FIGURE2.3a Free-body diagram
of a submerged soil particle.
M' Ms Vs
- = p' = - - --p
VT VT VT w
Because Ps Ms/Vs and using the following equation,
Ps (2.18)
Pd = l +e
we obtain
(2.19)
There are several other ways to get Eq. (2.19). One way is to use Eq. (2.13)
Ps(l + w) (2.13)
P1 = (l + e)
from which we can obtain p' = Ps( 1 + w) - Pw
1+ e
Using Eq. (2.15), PsW = Pwe(S = 100% ),
p' = Ps + Pwe - Pw - Pwe

1+e
p' = Ps - Pw (2.20)
1+e
Note carefully the different meanings of the densities described earlier. The saturated density is
the total soil and water density when S = 100%, while the submerged density is really a buoyant or
an effective density. Note, too, that the difference between the saturated and submerged densities is
exactly the density of water [Eq. (2.11a)].
Some physical examples will help you understand the concept of submerged or buoyant density.
First, consider a bucket full of marbles; the relevant density is, of course, the dry density. Then fill the
bucket with water, and the relevant density is Psat. If the marbles are now placed in a bucket that has
numerous holes in it so that water can move freely into and out of the bucket submerged in a tank of
water, then the correct density of the marbles is the submerged or buoyant density p' [Fig. 2.3(b)].
Saturated mass Buoyant mass
Marbles Marbles in bucket

with all voids with holes in it, dipped
filled with 000 into water.
water 00
0
FIGURE2.3b Schematic showing the relevant change in mass due to buoyancy.
If we remove the bucket from the tank but keep it completely saturated, then the appropriate density
lS agam Psat.
A second, more realistic example is the case of rapid drawdown, which occurs when the water
level in a reservoir, canal, or river is quickly lowered. The result is that the density of the soils in the
adjacent dam or slope increases from submerged or buoyant to saturated. This is a critical case for the
stability of the dam or slope, because the embankment's gravitational forces approximately double in
magnitude, and these forces typically act to try to destabilize the slope. Therefore, rapid drawdown usu-
ally cuts the factor of safety against slope instability in half, which could lead to failure. See Table 2.1
for typical values of Psat and p'.
As with previous soil phase relationship parameters, weights can be substituted for masses, and
the saturated unit weight, 'YsaP and buoyant unit weight, -y', can be obtained. Table 2.2 shows typical
values of ')'sat and -y'.
Example 2.7
Given:
A silty clay soil with p s = 27 50 kg/m 3 , S = 100 % , and water content w = 42 % .
Required:
Compute the void ratio, the saturated density, and the buoyant or submerged density in kg/m 3 .
Solution: Place the given information on a phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.7)
Assume Vs= lm3; therefore, Ms= VsPs = 2750kg. From Eq. (2.15), we can solve fore
directly:
WPs 0.42 X 2750 kg/m 3
e - - - -------- 1.155
- PwS - 1000 kg/m 3 x 1.0
t t
Vv = Vw= 1 .155 w Mw = 1155
! !
f
V5 = 1.0 s
T M5 = 2750
l_ _L
S = 100% FIGUREEx. 2.7
ButealsoequalsVv,sinceVs = l.0;andM'" = 1155kg,sinceM'" = VwPw,wherepw = l000kglm 3 •

Now that all the unknowns have been found, we may readily calculate the saturated density [Eq. (2.lOa)]:
(1155 + 2750) kg = 1812 k Im 3

(l+l.155)m 3 g
We could also set S = 100% in Eq. (2.17) to obtain

Ps + P.ve (2.21)
Psat = l + e
Ps + Pwe [2750 + 1000(1.155)] kg = k Im 3

= l +e 1812
Psat (1 + 1.155) m 3 g
The buoyant density p' from Eq. (2.lla) is:
P1 = Psat - Pw = 1812 kglm 3 - 1000 kglm 3 = 812 kglm 3
In this example, p' is less than the density of water. Go back and look at Table 2.1 for typical values of
p'. The submerged or buoyant density of soil will be very important later on in our discussion of con-
solidation, settlement, and strength properties of soil.
2.2.3 Specific Gravity

You may recall from physics that the specific gravity G of a substance is the ratio of its unit weight T to
the unit weight of water, usually pure water at 4°C (symbol: To), or
G = 1 (2.22)
To
Although several different specific gravities can be defined, only the bulk specific gravity G 111 , the
specific gravity of solids Gs, and the specific gravity of water Gw are of interest in geotechnical engi-
neering. These are defined as
Gm - 1 (2.23)
To
Ts (2.24)
Gs
To
Gw = rw (2.25)
'Yo
Because the density and therefore the unit weight of water are a maximum at 4°C, the specific
gravity of water is exactly 1.0000 at that temperature. Because the value of Gw ranges between 0.9999
at 0°C and 0.9922 at 40°C, it is sufficiently accurate for most geotechnical work to assume Gw = 1.00
and , w ~ , 0 = constant. Note that specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity and its numerical
values are similar to what we used for densities in kg/m 3 divided by 1000. For example, the specific
gravity of solid quartz (that is, if we could create a piece that had no void space) is 2.65, and typical val-
ues for most soils range from 2.60 to 2.80. Organic soils will have lower specific gravities, while heavy
metallic minerals may occasionally have higher values.
If you need to determine the specific gravity of a soil, use ASTM standard D 854.
Example 2.8
Given:
A sample of soil has a bulk specific gravity of 1.91 and a specific gravity of solids of 2.69, and a
water content of 29% (after Taylor, 1948).
Required:
Determine the void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation, and the dry density of the sample in
a. British engineering units and b. SI units.
Solution: As before, when the size of the sample is not given, assume any convenient weight or volume.
For the SI case, let's assume the total volume V = l ft 3 , and for part b, assume V = l m 3 . Draw the
phase diagram for each case.
a. British engineering units:
From Eqs. (2.23) and (2.6b), Gm = W 1 /V 1,w; so
W 1 = GmVi,w = (l.91)(1ft 3 )(62.4lbf/ft 3 ) = 119lbf.Fromthedefinitionofwater
content, we know that Ws + 0.29 Ws = 119 lbf. Therefore, Ws = 92 lbf and Ww = 27 lbf.
FromEqs. (2.24) and (2.7b ), Vs = Ws/Gs, w;so 92 lbf/(2.69)( 62.4 lbf/ft 3 ) = 0.55 ft 3 .
From Eq. (2.8b ), Vw = Ws/Gw ,w; so 27 !bf/ ( 1.0 )( 62.4 lbf/ft 3 ) = 0.43 ft 3 . Figure Ex. 2.8a is
the completed phase diagram for part a of this example.
Therefore, the answers are e = 0.82; n = 45 % ; S = 96%; and ,,1 = 92 pcf.
Volume (ft3) Weight (lbf)
Va =+0.02 A
1
1
Vr= 1 ft3
t
Vw = 0.43 w 1
W1 = 119pcf
j
+-
Vs= 0.55
t
s j
FIGURE Ex. 2.8a Gs= 2.69
2.3 Soil Texture 27

+ A
Va =f 0.02
1 3 Vw = 0.43 w
t
Mw = 430
1
+
= 1m Mt= 1910
j +-
Vs= 0.55 s Ms= 1480
j
! !
Gs= 2.69
FIGURE Ex. 2.8b
b. SI units:
The solution for part b is basically the same as for part a, except you use V1 = 1 m 3
and,w = 10.0kN/m 3 .Theanswersfore,n,andSareidentical,and P,1 = 1480kg/m 3 . See
Fig. Ex. 2.8b for the completed phase diagram.

In summary, for the easy solution of phase problems, you don't have to memorize lots of
complicated formulas. Most of the formulas you need can easily be derived from the phase diagram, as
illustrated in the preceding examples. Just remember the following simple rules:
1. Draw a phase diagram.

2. Remember the basic definitions of w, e, p,, S, and so on.
3. Assume either Vs = 1 or V 1 = 1, if no masses or volumes are given.
4. Write out equations in symbol form. Then, place the numerical value along with its units in the
same order, and solve.
5. Check units and reasonableness of your answer.
2.3 SOIL TEXTURE

So far we haven't said much about what makes up the "solids" part of the soil mass. In Chapter 1 we
gave the usual definition of soil from an engineering point of view: the relatively loose agglomeration
of mineral and organic materials found above the bedrock. We briefly described how weathering and
other geologic processes act on the rocks at or near the earth's surface to form soil. Thus the solid
part of the soil mass consists primarily of particles of mineral and organic matter in various sizes and
amounts.
The texture of a soil is its appearance or "feel," and it depends on the relative sizes and shapes of
the particles as well as the range or distribution of those sizes. Thus, coarse-grained soils such as sands
or gravels obviously appear coarse textured, while a fine-textured soil is composed mainly of very small
mineral grains invisible to the naked eye. Silts and clay soils are good examples of fine-textured soils.
The texture of soils, especially of coarse-grained soils, has some relation to their engineering
behavior. In fact, soil texture has been the basis for certain soil classification schemes, although these
are more common in agronomy than in geotechnical engineering. Still, textural classification terms
(gravels, sands, silts, and clays) are useful in a general sense in geotechnical practice. A convenient
dividing line is the smallest grain that is visible to the naked eye. Soils with particles larger than this size
(about 0.075 mm) are called coarse grained, while soils finer than the size are (obviously) called fine
grained. Sands and gravels are coarse grained while silts and clays are fine grained.
TABLE 2.3 Textural and Other Characteristics of Soils
Soil Name
Gravels, Sands Silts Clays
Grain size Coarse grained Fine grained Fine grained
Can see individual grains Cannot see individual grains Cannot see individual grains
by eye
Characteristics Cohesionless Cohesionless Cohesive
Non plastic Non plastic Plastic
Granular Granular
Effect of water on Relatively unimportant Important Very important
engineering behavior (exception: loose, satu-
rated granular materials,
and dynamic loadings)
Effect of grain size distribution Important Relatively unimportant Relatively unimportant
on engineering behavior
For fine-grained soils, the presence of water greatly affects their engineering response - much more
so than grain size or texture alone. Water affects the interaction between the mineral grains, and this may
affect their plasticity (roughly defined as the soil's ability to be molded) and their cohesiveness (its ability
to stick together). While sands are nonplastic and noncohesive (cohesionless), clays are both plastic and
cohesive. Silts fall between clays and sands: they are fine grained yet nonplastic and cohesionless. These
relationships as well as some general engineering characteristics are presented in Table 2.3.
Note that the term clay refers both to specific minerals called clay minerals (discussed in
Chapter 3) and to soils which contain clay minerals. The behavior of some soils is strongly affected by
the presence of clay minerals. In geotechnical engineering, for simplicity, such soils are usually called
clays, but we really mean soils that contain enough clay minerals to affect their engineering behavior.
It is a good idea to get some practice identifying soils according to texture and other general
characteristics, such as plasticity and cohesiveness. This process is best done in the laboratory, and in
fact ASTM standard D 2488 provides an excellent guide for describing and identifying soils visually
and manually. Visual-manual description of soil is also mentioned when we discuss soil classification
later in this chapter.
2.4 GRAIN SIZE AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

As suggested in the preceding section, the size of the soil particle, especially for granular soils, has some
effect on engineering behavior. Thus, for classification purposes, we are often interested in the particle
or grain sizes present in a particular soil as well as the distribution of those sizes.
The range of possible particle sizes in soils is enormous. Soils can range from boulders or cobbles
several centimeters in diameter down to ultrafine-grained colloidal materials. (Particles in colloidal
materials are so small that their interactions are governed by electrostatic rather than gravitational
forces.) The maximum possible range is on the order of 108, so usually we plot grain size distributions
versus the logarithm of average grain diameter. We often use such scales in engineering and other dis-
ciplines to expand the small-scale data and compress the larger-scale data. Figure 2.4 indicates the divi-
sions between the various textural sizes according to three common engineering classification schemes.
Another random document with
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side of America: It is always hazy, says he, nigh Land, to 20 degr. of
Latitude.
WHYDAH.
This Country is governed by an absolute King, who lives in Negrish
Majesty at a Town called Sabbee, six Miles from the Sea. His Palace
is a dirty, large Bamboo Building, of a Mile or two round, wherein he
keeps near a thousand Women, and divides his time in an indolent
manner, between Eating and Lust; he is fatned to a monstrous Bulk;
never has been out since he became King (nigh twelve years) which
some say, is because a large Dole being due to the People on the
Demise of one, and the Accession and first Appearance of another
new Prince, his Covetousness keeps him within doors: Others, that
there is a Sword wanted (the Emblem of his Power); which should,
but is not yet delivered him, by some grand Fetish-Man beyond
Jaqueen. If any Subjects want Audience, they ring a Bell to give
notice; and if admitted, must prostrate before him, as likewise to his
grand Fetish-Man, or High-Priest, if present. The same Humility and
Subjection is required of Inferiours to rich and powerful Men, without
doors: They prostrate to as many as they meet of these in the Street,
and stir not till a Sign is given to get up; so that the meanest may
sometimes be two or three hours walking the length of the Town.
White People are seldom or never admitted to Presence, but at
the times they pay their Customs; very considerable from
Europeans, who drive here the greatest Slave-Trade of any on the
whole Continent: Besides these Dues, the King augments his
Revenue by a Duty on every thing bought or sold by his People. To
his Women, he gives entirely the Privilege of making and selling a
Beer brewed from Indian Corn, pretty much in use here, called Putto.
The King of Ardra is his potent and warlike Neighbour; a populous
Country, full of large Crooms or Towns, and all of them obsequious
Slaves, who dare not sell or buy any thing without Licence, and both
ways he exacts a Custom. It is by means of this Country that so
great a number of Slaves are brought down to Whydah and sold to
the Europeans naked; the Arse-clouts they had, I fancy, having been
the Plunder of the Populace: for altho’ they are kept strictly under, in
respect to the Great-ones among themselves, they have in
recompence, a thievish, unlicensed Behaviour to others.
Both Sexes squat when they make water, and the Women may
obtain a Palaaver and Fine against any Man, who at such time
should indecently discover his Privities.
Travelling is in [27]Hammocks, called here Serpentines; they are
with Curtains to draw round, against Heat or Flies, slung cross a
Pole and bore up at each end by a Negro, two others attending in
the Journey, to relieve alternately: The Heat makes it dangerous for
Englishmen to travel without them, and they are hired at six Shillings
a day.
Provisions are plentiful above any place on the whole Coast, but
neither very cheap nor large. A Cow of 300lib. weight is reckoned a
fine Beast, and will sell for two grand Quibesses; a Calf of 80lib.
weight for one grand Quibess; a Sheep of 12lib. for eight Gallinas;
Fowls, five for a Crown; a Dozen Wild-fowl, or a Hog, for the same
Money: but it’s convenient on this Voyage always to provide Cowrys
or Booges (little Indian Shells, called in England Blackamoors Teeth,
bought at 1s. and sold here at 2s. 6d. per lib.) as the readiest for this
sort of Traffick. Coin is the dearest way of buying, at distance from
Europe.
Whydah Currency.
40 Cowrys make a Toccy.
Toccys ——
5 Gallina.
a
Grand Quibess, which answers to 25
20 Gallinas —— a
Shillings.
Horses, are what I never saw any where else on the Continent.
The most curious of their Customs, and peculiar to this Part, is
their Snake-Worship, which, according to my Intelligence, is as
follows. This Snake, the Object of their Worship, is common in the
Fields, and cherished as a familiar Domestick in their Houses, called
Deyboys; they are yellow, and marbled here and there, have a
narrow Swallow, but dilatable (as all of the Serpent Kind are) to the
thickness of your Arm on feeding. It is the principal Deity or Fetish of
the Country, and brought into more Regularity than others, by the
superiour Cunning of their Fetishers, who have one presiding over
them, called the grand Fetisher, or High-Priest, who is held in equal
Reverence with the King himself; nay, sometimes more, through
gross Superstition and Fear: for they believe an Intercourse with the
Snake, to whom they have dedicated their Service, capacitates them
to stop or promote the Plagues that infest them. He hath the craft by
this means, to humble the King himself on all occasions for their
Service, and to drain both him and the People, in supplying their
Wants. It is Death for a Native to kill one of these Snakes, and
severe Punishments to Europeans. When Rains are wanted at
Seed-time, or dry Weather in Harvest, the People do not stir out after
it is night, for fear of the angry Snake, which, provoked with their
Disobedience, they are taught, will certainly kill them at those times,
if abroad, or render them Ideots.
They have Fetish-Women, or Priestesses, that live separated with
a number of Virgins under their Care, devoted to the Snake’s
Service: I have heard, the rich Cabiceers do often buy the Consent
of these Women to debauch their Pupils; they pretend to the Girls,
they have had some late Correspondence with the Snake, who
intimates the agreeableness of her favouring such or such a Man’s
Addresses; teach her to act Fits and Distortions at the sight of him,
to enhance the Price, and that for this Compliance, she shall be
amply rewarded in the Snakes Country, far pleasanter than this she
breaths in, and he then more amiable, having here put on his worst
Shape, that Obedience might have the more Merit. A Discovery in
the Girl would be certain Death, and none would believe; or if they
did, would dare openly to assert such Murder against the Assertion
of the Fetish-Men or Women.
It is probable that King Solomon’s Navy of Tharshish (1 Kings Ch.
x.) did coast from Ezion Geber (the bottom of the red Sea) round
Cape Bon Esperance [28]to Sofalu, by some thought Ophir; and if so,
why not to the Gold-Coast? or that King Hiram’s Navy from Tyre,
might on the North and Western side together have encompassed
this Continent; tho’ afterwards, on the destruction of each State, the
Navigation might be lost with the Trade. This is probable, I say, from
the length of the Voyage (three years) no unreasonable time in the
infancy of Sailing, Ignorance of the Compass, and dilatory Methods
of Trading in Fleets, and in their Returns, Gold, Ivory, and Apes. The
Peacocks mentioned in this Text, might possibly be the Crown-Birds;
beautiful, of the same bigness, and a greater Rarity. One of them we
had from Gambia (a Present to the Duke of Chandois) had a fine
Tuft of stiff speckled Feathers on the Head; the Wings, red, yellow,
white and black, with a black Down on the fore-part of it’s Head.
Granting this, whether or no it’s too foreign to imagine, some
traditional Story might be derived from them concerning the old
Serpent, the Deceiver of Mankind? or that fiery one lifted up by
Moses in the Wilderness? Gordon in his Geography, p. 327, says,
the Mosaical Law was once introduced into some parts of Negro-
land, strengthned by the Affinity of some Names and Customs they
retain with the Jews, particularly Circumcision, practised at most, if
not all parts of the Coast. Bosman on this, says even Girls have their
Clitoris stripp’d. The Ægyptians (on this their own Continent,) were
the first we read of that circumcised, from whom Abraham borrowed
it, and the Patriarchs Posterity might as well have transmitted the
use of it with their Trade, to this opposite side of Africa; the only
Objections are, the easier Method of borrowing it from the Mallays,
black Turks that inhabit about the middle of Africa, with whom they
communicate by Trade; and because the Practice here, like as with
the Mahometans, is not taken up of Precept, but Tradition. Be it how
it will, they are found tenacious of their Customs and Opinions: A
Woman, from whose greater Flexibility and Subjection as a Consa to
any European, might be expected a Change, never relinquishing her
Country-Gods, tho’ she had cohabited for years, as has been
frequently tried at our Factories.
Others think this Snake-Worship might be taken up as of old the
Ægyptians did their Ox and Cow, their Crocodile and Cat, &c. They
had some moral Reason, tho’ overwhelmed in Fable and ridiculous
Superstition. The Ox and Cow were Emblems of Tillage, taught to
them by Osiris and Isis, whom they feigned changed into those
Creatures, and in that form worshipped them.
The Crocodile and Cat preyed upon those Reptiles that devoured
the Fruits of their Husbandry, like as these very Snakes are said to
kill the black and poisonous sort, and to destroy various Species of
Vermin, injurious to their Fields and Grain.
We bear (far from Egypt) a Reverence to many Creatures, Beasts
and Birds; eat some, and cherish others; I believe, often on no other
Foundation than Heathen Fable. The Fetish is this Reverence
improved, and if we laugh at [29]Sambo for inflicting Fine or Death on
whoever hurts or kills the Snake, may not he in his turn, as justly
laugh to hear that in some Countries it is Death to steal a Sheep, a
Horse, &c. or Penalties to kill Pidgeons, Wild-fowl, &c. tho’ never so
much in want of them: For it is all according to the Fashion of the
Country, and doubtless proceeds from a profound Veneration to
those Creatures.
Many and ridiculous are the Stories formed upon the Foundation
of the Snake, over-acted to the Prejudice of Beliefs, which in
unletter’d Countries should be short, and have the Design and
Import of Laws; such Laws as in their nature are best fitted to awe or
persuade Men into the Practice of what is good: but here they are
multiplied with silly Circumstances, or stretch beyond Memory, and
spoil their Use; for which reason, I am firmly of opinion the Snake-
Worship will never endanger our Factories, or propagate far, it has
made such Rogues of them.
Besides the Snake, they have two other principal Deities, and
other small Fetishes. The former are their Groves, and the high Sea;
addressing either upon the Peculiarity, I suppose, of their Affairs, or
rather, these Groves are consecrated to the Snake, most of them
having a square Tower built in a retired part of it, to which they carry
Dashees, and Presents. There is one in this Neighbourhood pre-
eminent to all in the Country, and to which the Prince and People
annually make rich Offerings.
Their smaller Fetishes, like as at other parts, are numberless, and
for smaller Concerns made of Stone, Bone, Wood, or Earth; but
herein they differ from others, that this small Fetish is the first thing
they see, after they are determined upon some Affair or Business,
and sometimes determines them to that Affair, whence it is taken up
and invoked: If the Business ends luckily, it is lain by in honour to the
chief Idol, and dasheed now and then; but if not, they throw it away.
I should have done now with Whydah, but the surprizing
Revolution brought about here in 1727, by the victorious King of
Dauhomay, turning things topsy turvy, and entirely destroying our
Slave-Trade, deserves some Remarks.
This Prince was probably incited to the Conquest from the
generous Motive of redeeming his own, and the neighbouring
Country People from those cruel Wars, and Slavery that was
continually imposed on them by these Snakes and the King of Ardra;
each helped the other to propagate the Mischief far and wide, and
differ’d between themselves, only in sharing the Booty. That this
spurred on their Catastrophe, I think, First, Because it is agreeable to
Capt. Snelgrave’s Character of that King, a Gentleman well
acquainted with that part of Guinea, and who has given the latest
Account of those People: He says in that Tract, he made a Journey
in company with some of the English Factory to the Camp of the
King of Dauhomay (40 or 50 miles up the Country,) and informs us,
“that in the Conversation and Business he had to transact, he had
experienced him just and generous; in his Manners, nothing
barbarous, but contrarily, the most extraordinary Man of his Colour.”
The natural Consequence from such Qualities in a Prince, being, I
think, to extend them towards all that are oppressed, and against
those in particular, his Resentments were fired: First, on account of
their publick Robberies, and Man-stealing, even to his Dominions;
and Secondly, That Contempt the King of Whydah had expressed
towards him, saying publickly, “that if the King of Dauhomay should
invade him, he would not cut off his Head (the Custom of
Conquerors) but keep him alive, to serve in the vilest Offices:” a
Specimen both of his Vanity and Courage, which he had soon after
Occasion to try; and then instead of the haughty Revenge he
purposed, dastardly deserted his Kingdom, he and the Subjects of
Ardra becoming in a few days miserable Fugitives.
2. The King of Dauhomay at this Interview with Captain Snelgrave,
which was after the Conquest of Ardra and Whydah, agrees with him
in the Character of these Enemies: “That they were Villains to both
white and black People, and therefore had been punished by his
hands;” a Text that ought to have been regarded more heedfully by
the Factory than it was: For what were they Villains more than others
of the Colour, unless for this illegal and unjust Trade? And if he
himself declared his Victories in punishment of their Crimes, what
might not they expect in their turn, who differed only as the
Pawnbroker and the Thief? Mr. Testesole, the Company’s
Governour, we find when Opportunity presented, was seized by
them, and cruelly sacrificed: “The Crime alledged being, that he had
used the Dahomes on all Occasions in his power, very ill, on account
of the bad Trade they had occasioned:” and afterwards they went on,
surprized and plundered all the European Merchants at Jaqueen,
finishing in that, the Destruction of the Slave-trade, the little
remaining being now at Appah, a place beyond the bounds of his
Conquest. Yet in all this, could we separate our Idea of the Sufferers,
and the temporary Views of Traders; the King’s Actions carry great
Reputation, for by the destruction of this Trade, he relinquished his
own private Interests for the sake of publick Justice and Humanity.
Lastly, that this destruction of the Trade was designed in the King
of Dauhomay’s Conquest, seems confirmed by Captain Bulfinch
Lamb’s Proposal from him to our Court.
This Gentleman, on some Business of the Factory, was at Ardra
when the Dahomes came down upon them, was made a Prisoner,
detained near four years with the Emperor, and came to England at
last by his Permission or rather Direction, having given him 320
Ounces of Gold, and 80 Slaves to bear his Charges. In his Scheme
of Trade, said to be proposed from that Emperor and laid before our
Commissioners of Trade, some of the Articles run thus;——That the
Natives would sell themselves to us, on condition of not being
carried off.——That we might settle Plantations, &c. a Foundation
quite foreign to the former Slave-trade, and carried no Temptation
but the empty one of Instruction and Conversion, which he himself
might have laid down there, and had given some room to expect,
agreeably to the Judgment he made of the King’s Sentiments, and
his own view of getting away; an additional Honour to the King in this
way of thinking indeed; “but the Inconsistency made it unsuccessful,”
and Captain Lamb, tho’ under a solemn Promise to return, never
gave any Account of his Embassy to that Prince.
Captain Snelgrave’s Account leads me still a little farther, on his
suggesting these conquering Dahomes to be Men-eaters; I beg an
Animadversion or two on that Head.—Common Report has settled
Cannibals at several parts of Africa. Dapper in the Geographical
Atlas says, the Ausicans or Gales in Æthiopia, and many of the
Natives of Quiloa, Melinda, and Mombaza, on the East side of Africa
are such, and that human Flesh is sold in the Shambles. Gordon, in
his Geographical Grammar, conveys it modestly as a Report, that
the Kingdom of Loango in South-Africa has many Cannibals, and
that human Flesh in several places is sold publickly in the Shambles,
as we do Beef and Mutton. That the Caffres, (tho’ abounding with
Provisions) also are such, and will eat even nasty Hottentots their
Neighbours; who tho’ accounted the most brutish People upon the
Globe in their Manners and Feeding, are at the same time excused
by all Travellers so inhuman a Custom. Bosman reports the same of
Drewin. The Observation I shall make on these and the like Stories I
have heard from other parts of the World, is their being reported of
Countries remote from our Correspondence, abounding with
Provisions, by Persons who never were in the Places they relate
their Wonders; or where they have, their Testimony is on hear-say, or
their Reasons inconclusive, and against later Experience. I am
prejudiced indeed against the Opinion of Cannibals, and very much
doubt whether there be any such Men on the face of the Earth,
unless when provoked by Famine, as has unfortunately happened in
Voyages: Or possibly with Savages, single Instances may have
been, as their way to express an intense Malice against a particular
Enemy, and in terrorem; or to cement with a Bond of Secrecy some
very wicked Societies of Men: but that there should be a common
Practice of it, Nations of Men-eaters, to me looks at present
impossible. Captain Snelgrave’s being the newest Account of this
Affair, and on his own personal Knowledge, I shall amuse the
Reader with a short Extract from him, and then my Objections.
“This Gentleman, by an Invitation from the King of Dahome or
Dauhomay, went in company with some other of the Factory from
Jaqueen, to pay him a Visit at his Camp, 40 miles inland; there he
was an Eye-witness of their human Sacrifices, Captives from the
Kingdoms of Ardra, Whydah, Tuffoe, and other Conquests: the King
chose them out himself. The first Victim I saw, says he, was a well-
looking Man, of 50 or 60, his Hands tied, he stood upright by a Stage
five foot from the Ground. The Fetisher or Priest laying his Hand on
the Head, said some Words of Consecration for about two Minutes;
then giving the Sign, one behind with a broad Sword hit on the Nape
of his Neck, and carried off the Head at one Blow, the Rabble giving
a Shout. Others of these Captives he made his Servants, or sold for
Slaves.——”
The Story thus far is not over-marvellous; whether the Sacrifices
be considered as a Thanksgiving to their Fetish, or God (as an
Acknowledgment, he was told) or an Honour to the Manes of his
deceased Heroes, because such Practice is supported both by
Scripture and History. The Captives in War under the Jewish Law,
which fell to the Lord’s Share, were to be slain (Levit. xxvii. v. 28, 29.)
and the Custom of many Pagan Countries has been, and still
continues in many parts of the World to this day (if we may credit
History or Travellers) to attend the Obsequies of their Princes and
great Men with human Sacrifices, particularly at some other Parts of
Guinea. The Emperor of Feton’s Funeral (Miscell. Curiosa, Vol. 3. p.
356.) was accompanied with a great number, and remarkably
barbarous. Montezuma, (Antonio Solis says,) sacrificed 20000
Enemies a year. The present Dahomes follow it from political
Principles, to awe the Conquered, and secure the Conquest; for the
captive King was always one, and next him the Men of Experience
and Influence, such as already had, or were most likely to disturb his
future Peace; answering more justly than that Argument à posteriori,
of the Bow-string or Halter, when Men rise for the Recovery of a lost
Country, &c.
Contending Princes do to this day frequently sacrifice with less
honourable Views, if we may credit Captain Gulliver, who says, one
King has lost his Life, another the Crown, only in a Contest about the
primitive way of breaking Eggs.
I say this is not so over-marvellous; but when we come to the
Carcases of these Men, how the Dahomes had made a Festival of
their Flesh in the night, it swells to Incredibility. “Captain Snelgrave
was not an Eye-witness of this indeed; he says, the Bodies lay a little
while on the ground to drain the Blood, and then were carried by
Slaves to a place nigh the Camp, and laid in a Heap; he saw two of
these Heaps over night, containing he judged about 400, who had
been chose out by the King that Morning, for Sacrifice. On the next
Morning they were gone, and asking the Linguist what had become
of them, he answered, the Vulturs (ravenous Birds very plentiful in
the Country) had eaten them. Not satisfied with this Answer, (seeing
nothing remain but Blood) we asked for the Bones, and then he
confessed, the Priest had divided the Carcases among the People in
the night, who had boiled and feasted on them, as holy Food; the
Head is for the King, (continues the Linguist) the Blood for the
Fetish, and the Body for the common People.”
I make no doubt of the truth of this Relation, and yet think the
Circumstances not conclusive enough, to charge the Dahomes as
Anthropophagites.
1. Because the truth depends too much on the Linguist, (Butteno,
a Negro of Mr. Lamb’s, brought up at the Factory) how well he knew
to render the Language to our Ideas: and to his Veracity and his
Courage. He might think with his Country-men that it was their best
Excuse to the white People, for that cowardly and ignominious Flight
of Thousands from 200 of the Dahomes at Sabbee (the Whydah’s
head City) where, instead of eating them, they pretended a Fright of
being eat, and with the King, took precipitately to their heels,
deserting in a shameful manner their Country: and makes something
like the Story of our Saracens Heads of old; when the English had
been threshed heartily for their silly Croisade, they represented their
Adversaries thus large, to insinuate none but Monsters or Devils
could have done it. However the Linguist tells his Masters first, that
the Vulturs had eaten those Bodies, but perceiving them diffident of
this, and prone to another Persuasion (which, by the way, is some
excuse for him) he tells them frankly, that the People had eaten them
in the night, &c. The Bones, which were wanting, and that had drawn
this Secret from him, are to me a Confirmation that they were buried.
Otherways, as these Cormorants could not chew or digest them,
they should have been found strewed somewhere, as the Roads
were in his Journey: The Fellow might also in his turn propose some
advantage in this Belief; for Captain Snelgrave tells us, he met with
great Impositions and Cheats at his return to Jaqueen, by the Lord
there, and others in Trade, notwithstanding the kind Reception he
had met with at Camp, and that King’s Charge to the contrary.
2. A Portuguese who resided there, that spoke their Language,
and which is very remarkable, had married a woolly white Woman
born of black Parents, who had never seen any other Colour: this
Gentleman talked highly of the King’s Policy and Generosity, that his
Sacrifices were a Proof of it; that he was just, strictly obeyed, and
never eat any human Flesh. If so, according to my way of thinking,
he would hinder so barbarous a Custom in others his Subjects; or it
would be a Contradiction to his Character, a Sufferance being the
same, as doing it himself.
3. If the Sacrifices were designed for eating, one would think they
should have been all young People, not thrown in a Heap, which is
an Objection to their spending well; and now and then I should have
expected they would have been prompted by Novelty to have tasted
a white Man: but it is the King’s Character of being far from
barbarous, and of delicate Wit and Policy: Lamb lived three years
and a half with them, and never was eat.
4. If Men were thus eat, and liked by a Nation, there would be less
occasion and Inclination to sell them us for Slaves; they at least must
lose a Breakfast by it now and then; and it would fall heavier on such
Captives they had made their Servants, (for some were made so at
the same time the others were sacrificed) who I am in some doubt
whether they would wait tamely for the turn of having their Throats
cut. This Man-Eating therefore probably might be an Imposition on
the Credulity of the Whites; as the Persuasion amongst some of
them is, that they are bought by us to fat and eat: the Belief in my
opinion is equally grounded. Theirs (if any) is better; for the next
Cruelty to buying human Flesh, one would naturally think, should be
to eat it; especially with Negroes, who cannot conceive how their
Labour can be used, that want so little for their own support.
5. Some Places reported on the Coast to be Men-Eaters are by
latest Accounts much doubted, if not contradicted. At Loango they
are found with better Manners, and mixed with Portuguese. At Cape
St. Mary’s, the Starboard Entrance of the River Gambia, generally
said to be Men-Eaters, were found by our Boat’s Crew as civilized as
any People on the whole Coast, tho’ their Number exposed them an
easy Prey. To this we may add, that all Negroland, by the
Observations I could make, are very abstemious of Flesh in
comparison of us; they have very few tame Creatures (Kid, Sheep,
Kine, &c.) among them; their Country is mostly Woods cleared away
a little at their Cooms, to sow as much Indian Corn and Rice as they
imagine will serve them; which, with Banana’s, Plantanes, Palm-
Nuts, Pine-Apples, and now and then a little stinking Fish, or a Fowl,
is the chief of their Diet.
6. As Slave-Cargoes are a Compound of different Nations, it is
more than probable they are mixed from these Men-eating
Countries; and therefore on their rising and murdering a Ship’s
Company, they would have shewn us e’er now a Precedent,
especially those who believed we were to eat them.
7. Men in this horrid Practice would, with the distinguishing
Characteristick of Reason about them, be more brutish than any part
of the Creation; no Creatures of the greatest Ferocity preying upon
their own Species.
8. If such Custom were taken up to intimidate their Neighbours,
and facilitate Conquests, the Practice should be more publick; not in
the Night, but Day, and openly: Custom in any People familiarizing
all Barbarities, and more so, when an Interest is proposed.
Therfore, lastly, the strongest Proof produced for it is, that one Mr.
More saw human Flesh sold at Dahome’s Market-place.
If the Person mentioned does not mean human Flesh alive, and in
way of Trade, yet without a good interior Sight, he might mistake it
for that of Monkeys, there being an awkard Resemblance to the
Moorish Race, in the Hands and Phiz; and I have given one Example
purposely, among many (at the beginning of this Chapter) to shew
they are a common Diet at some places; our Sailors frequently eat
them. What inclines me more to this Opinion is, First, the Force of
Pre-possession and Fear, which many Readers may experience in
their own Constitution. Second, That I never saw a Flesh-Market of
any sort, tho’ I have been on shore at many places on the Coast of
Guinea, not even among the English, the most carnivorous in the
World; but when they do kill, lend it out. Thirdly, What is my greatest
Objection, is, that the Captain should bring another to assert what he
might have done himself, since he was at Dahome’s Camp, (the
same place,) and more inquisitive and discerning; unless this Market
was kept one Voyage, and not another.
I have bestowed these Objections, purely in respect to the King of
Dahomay, whom, tho’ I never saw, nor expect to be advanced in his
Court, I have a natural Propensity to wish well, since he has
redeemed his Country-Men from being sold as Slaves. I would feign,
after such an Action, excuse them from being Men-eaters; a Charge
full as bad for the People, a jumping out of the Frying-pan into the
Fire. Their Guilt herein is less likely, because it happens that this
conquered Country abounds more with Neat Cattle, than all other
parts of the Coast.
Currents on the Coast of G U I N E A .
The incomparable Sir Isaac Newton solves all the Phænomena of
the Tides upon the sole Principle of Gravity. The Earth, Sun, Moon,
and all the celestial Bodies, says he, have a Gravitation towards their
Centers, in proportion to the quantitys of Matter in each of them. Our
Earth being within the Activity of the Sun and Moon’s Attractions; the
fluid part of this Globe, the Ocean, feels it, and necessarily swells:
and this, by taking off or abating the force of Gravity, wherever the
Moon is perpendicular in the Ecliptick; whereby the greater Pressure
of Gravity without, carries the Water thitherward, &c. (See the Theory
of the Tides, Philos. Transact.) Currents seem to be the same thing
(at least on this Coast) and on the same Principle I shall lay down
the Facts, and then draw the Conclusions.
The Rivers of Gambia, Sierraleon, Gabon, the Straits and
Channels of Benin, and thro’ the whole Coast, the flowings are
regular on the Shores, with this difference, that in Rivers or Channels
where two Shores contract the Waters into a narrow Compass, the
Tides are strong and high, as well as regular; but on the dead Coast,
slow and low, not to above two or three foot, increasing as you
advance towards the Bay and Channels of Benin; and this is farther
evident at Cape Corso, Succonda, Commenda, and other places: for
wherever the Land rounds and cheques, the Flowings there will be a
Foot or two more than on an evener Coast, tho’ next adjoining.
The Currents here set sometimes two knots an hour along Shore,
sometimes with, sometimes against the Wind; tho’ generally to
Leeward; sometimes off, sometimes on, ripling like a Tide, at other
times a smooth unmoved Surface for days together, and never felt,
or imperceptible at 8 or 10 Leagues Offing.
The Currents set in on both Shores, to the Bay of Benin; from the
Southward, about and beyond Cape Lopez; and from the Westward
along the Papau Coast, that is, to Leeward; for the Winds are as
commonly deflected along Shore, as the Currents. This all Ships
experience in their Passage to Angola, if they hold the Land on
board, or if they endeavour getting Westward on the Papau or Gold
Coast.
The reason of this Diversity, I imagine, proceeds from the
Formation of the Land, together with the Weather, and the Winds.
The Land being on a strait Line, without Gulphs or Bays, unless
that remarkably large one of Benin and Callabar, the Flux of the Sea,
when it comes to be bounded by the Shores, have a natural
Tendency there, seen in growing stronger as they advance towards it
on both sides; because such Gulphs, in a Contraction of the Waters,
bear some Resemblance to Channels, which every where in
proportion to their Breadth and Depth, and the Sea they stand open
with, have more or less Current or Tide along their Shores inward;
assisted partly by the Winds, which, as I have observed, are
deflected, and tend also on both sides towards the Bay; and partly,
by the Weather; clear and hot Sunshines drawing more Vapours
from the Seas next Shores in all places, (and especially in Bays with
Shoals) to be expended in Exhalations, Mists, Fogs, and Rains; the
Rains again may, by being incessant for a Month or six Weeks, and
in a Rotation upon different parts of the Coast, contribute to some
little diversity of Strength.
Another reason of Currents tending mostly to Leeward here, is the
Flood being propagated from a vast Southern Ocean, takes it’s
Course along Shore; but the Ebbs revert easily and equally from all
parts to the Ocean, and therefore make so little an Alteration of the
Stream, as is seldom and scarcely felt at a very little distance from it.
The most that we found was open with this Bite of Benin. We left
Whydah the latter end of July, where tho’ the Currents in the Road
were very strong to Leeward, and the Winds altogether S. W. yet we
found we could with ease have weathered any of the Islands; which
would have been impossible, had the same Current in the Road
extended across the whole Bay; nay, our getting so far to the
Southward (i. e. Windward) will be very difficult to account for, unless
the Waters received into this Bay by those Currents are allowed to
reverberate in the middle Space, tho’ insensibly, towards the main
Ocean.
From these light Observations, I think it may be concluded, First,
that in all Places, Currents and Tides have a very great affinity. That
it is principally the Formation of the Lands drives them into the one
or the other; if contracted between two Shores so as to form a
Channel, the diurnal Elevation of the Ocean, by the Attraction of the
Moon, will make there a Tide, rapid in proportion to it’s Breadth,
Depth, and Sea it is open to: And if an open Coast, as Guinea, those
Tides become Currents. This agrees with the Voyages I have met to
those Parts, and particularly the sixth general one set forth by the
India Company of that Channel, made by the Eastern side of the
Continent, and the Island of Madagascar; for being too deep and
broad for the Direction of a Tide, there are Northern and Southern
Currents, as the elevated Sea rowls round the North or South end of
the Island: and which is still more agreeable, they are strongest
where the Channel is narrowest, and less, and vary on different
Points of the Compass, as the Sea spreads more in the Passage
cross the Line.
2. That all Currents and Tides are found only on Shores, and
indiscernible at 10 Leagues distance from a Coast, or the Mouth of
any Channel; are also variable from the same Influence of the Moon,
and Change of Weather.
R A I N S .
There is a Return of Vernal and Autumnal Rains through the whole
Coast. The former, whether on this or the other side the Equator, are
longer and more incessant. They begin on this side at Sierraleon, in
May; at the Gold Coast and Whydah, in April, preceded by S. and S.
E. Winds. On the other side the Line again, the Vernal Rains fall at
Cape Lopez, in October; at Angola in November, &c. And as these
Seasons are attended with the Interposition of Clouds thro’ both, the
Air is cooler, and therefore by the stewed Inhabitants denominated
Winter.
What conduces to such annual and regular Returns, is perhaps
inscrutable: It is only a general Observation, that the Sun, on or nigh
the Æquinox, inclines to rain every where. Dr. Clayton says, (Philos.
Trans.) that there are frequent and great Rains at Virginia in April
and September, and other Countries observe the same. The ultimate
end is to embrue the Land with Fertility, where the Inhabitants have
Sense and Willingness to co-operate with Providence.
At Cape Corso this year, they ceased the end of May; they had
fell, we understood, for six Weeks before, almost without
intermission, only some hours they were heavier, and chiefly in the
Nights, with continued Thunder, Lightning, and Calms. Whenever
they felt a Breeze, it was Southerly, (directly upon the Land) the
Clouds that contained the Rains succeeding one another from the
Ocean, as it were orderly. If the Horizon brightened as it does by
Spirts at these Seasons, the Sun is felt with redoubled Heat and
Fervour.
[30]
The Mist and Haziness of the Horizon (always on the Coast)
and those great Dews which out of the rainy Seasons fall every night
on the Shore, and rarely or never two Miles from it where the Ships
anchor, are corroborating Proofs of what is just before hinted under
the Article of Currents, that the Vapours supplying these, or Rains,
are extracted from Coasts and Shallows more abundantly than from
the main Ocean; which would otherways be seen and felt, and in
greater measure at Sea, from so large a Body of Waters
surrounding; but is so far from happening, that Exhalations of all
sorts diminish, as is the Distance from Land.
Again, the Winds from Sea, which are the Winds that usher in
these Rains, are known to spring up but a few Leagues from Shore;
(the Trade obtaining in all these Latitudes:) and tho’ I say, any
regular Periods of it under this Vicinity of the Sun all the year may be
inscrutable, yet when they do come, they visibly bring on the Land-
Clouds loaded with aqueous Vapors; a more rarified Air there
naturally attracting them, and helping their fall.
Both Ships came to Isle Del Principe the end of July, 1721, where
we felt dreadful Effects from the excessive Heats and Irregularity of
the Seamen, during our Careening; for although we arrived very
healthy, the Island furnishing Palm-Wines and the means of
debauching at easy Rates, and our Tents giving opportunity; they
soon run into Excess, which brought on an epidemical malignant
Fever, that reduced us in a short Stay of two Months, to some
Deliberations whether we could proceed to Sea safely without a
return of Men from England; the Weymouth not being able to
purchase her Anchors, and we in the Swallow with difficulty. My
Judgment, as Surgeon, was by all means to go, tho’ in the most
sickly Condition, because thus removed from the chief Causes of our
Misfortune (Calms, excessive Heats, and a disorderly Living)
whoever were visited with the Distemper, would by that method find
a Crisis in Recovery or Death, and stop the infection: We therefore,
with the Assistance of some Men from a Dutch East-India Ship that
happened to put in, got under Sail and left the Island; the effect I
have related elsewhere more at large, and shall only observe here,
that our Fevers for want of Necessaries turned in many to Fluxes,
and pursued us, tho’ with less Cruelty. The Weymouth, who brought
out of England a Compliment of 240 Men, having at the end of the
Voyage 280 dead upon her Books.
Princes was the Birth-place of Africanus and Moulee, of whom
they give this tragical Relation; That she becoming a Favourite of her
Patron, was forced from Africanus, and having a Child whose
Complexion betray’d the true Father, Africanus murdered both, and
afterwards himself, to avoid Punishment.
We touched at [31]St. Thome, the chief of these Portuguese Islands
for fresh Provisions, purchased cheap; the Profit of half a dozen
Hogs fed two or three Months, and sold at the Gold Coast, will
maintain the best Mess in a Ship a whole year.
It was lucky for Mr. Rowry, Master of a Bristol Vessel, that the Man
of War came in; his Men had made him Prisoner, and were disposing
of the Slaves at a very easy Rate with the Governor, who rejects no
Schemes of Profit. Rowry, who had been discountenanced by him
upon his Men’s Complaints, was now heard indeed; but not knowing
rightly the Method of getting Men to bring away his Brigantine in our
Company, he was obliged to take what Price the Governor would set
on her and her Cargo, and took Passage with us for Cape Corso;
where, upon Demand, he accompanied his Leave with a handsome
Acknowledgment for his Diet, and went home with the Account.
We regained the Gold Coast in fifteen days from this Island,
having met in the Passage some Sprinklings that we understood had
been heavy showers on Shore.

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An Introduction to Geotechnical

Engineering - eBook PDF

Robert D. Holtz, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

William D. Kovacs, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.

Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/ with any queries on this content.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Holtz, R. D. (Robert D.), author. I Kovacs, William D., author. I

Our ambition is to purposefully contribute to a world where:

3.3 Geologic Processes and Landforms 71

4.7 Specifications and Compaction Control 169

6.6 Seepage Forces, Quicksand, and Liquefaction 271

9.12 Sensitivity 494

11.5 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure 608

13.7 Critical State Soil Mechanics 732

RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS

1.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

1.2 THE UNIQUE NATURE OF SOIL AND ROCK MATERIALS

1.3 SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

1.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

1.5 SUGGESTED APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

1.6 NOTES ON SYMBOLS, UNITS, AND STANDARDS

1.7 SOME COMMENTS ON HOW TO STUDY IN GENERAL

Index and Classification

2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND PHASE RELATIONS FOR SOILS

w In engineering practice, we usually measure the total vol-

1. The void ratio e is defined as

s where Vv = volume of the voids, and

where Vv = volume of voids, and

FIGURE2.2 Volumetric and mass

3. The degree of saturation S is defined as

a. Mass of total (wet) sample + dish = 388 g

9.81 kN/m 62.4 lb/ft

to 23.4 kN/m (150 lb/ft

The high end of this range would be essentially

solid mineral, with a corresponding density/unit weight close to that of concrete.

'"Ysat '°Yd --y'

2.2.1 Solution of Phase Problems

1. List the information you know (from the problem narrative).

Ps = 2700 kg/m 3 (assumed)

Volume (m3 ) Mass (kg)

! FIGURE Ex. 2.2a

Volume (m3) Mass (kg)

Vs= r593 1-----s-----< M, Too j

From the definition of Pw [Eq. (2.8a)] we can solve for Vw.

Volume (m3) Mass (kg)

p = 1760 kg/m 3 = M1 = 2970 kg

Solution: Draw a phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.3a).

Equation (2.3b) can be derived algebraically or from

vt = 1 w From Eq. (2.2), Vv = n, since V 1 = l. Therefore

Solution: Draw phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.4).

Volume (m3) Mass (kg)

and Ms = PsVs [from Eq. (2.7a)]. So

Note: The relationship

is often very useful in phase problems.

= 2800kg(l + 0.12) = 1985 k /m 3

The following relationship is often useful to know.

= 1985 = 1772 kg/m 3

Check, by Eq. (2.13):

Solution: Look at the phase diagram with Vs = l (Fig. Ex. 2.5).

When S = 100%, Eq. (2.16) becomes

Volume (m3 ) Ps (kg/m 3 ) Mass (kg)

FIGURE Ex. 2.6a