Module 3 – Soil Strength Holy Angel University

School of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Civil Engineering

Soil Strength
Module 3 – Geotechnical Engineering

Objective After the lecture, students will have a comprehensive understanding

about soil strength analyses; they will be also able to approximate the
soil strength in the field with the aid of laboratory experiment results.

Content In this lecture, it focuses on the evaluation of the soil in terms of its
strength, the assessment of possible modes of failure, strength
behavior of saturated and unsaturated soils, and laboratory procedures
and analysis to identify the strength of the soil.
 Shear Failure in Soils
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Shear Strength Evaluation (Triaxial Compression Test)

Activities During the module, students will perform graded activities to measure
their progress during the course; Quiz, group activities, seatwork, class
discussion, problem set computations, recitation are expected.

Readings B.M. Das, 2011. Principles of Foundation Engineering (7th Edition)

Stamford, Connecticut, USA : Cengage Learning

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 1 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

3.1 STRENGTH ANALYSIS IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

The strength of a material is greatest stress it can sustain. If the stress exceeds its strength, failure occurs. In practice,
the working stresses, also known as allowable stresses, must be substantially less to provide a sufficient factor of safety
against failure. Such strength analyses can be performed for tensile, compressive, or shear stresses.

Although tensile strength analyses are an important part of structural engineering, geotechnical engineers rarely
perform them because the soil has very little tensile strength. In geometry of most geotechnical problems is such
nearly all of the ground is in compression.

Geotechnical engineering practice also differs from structural engineering practice in our assessment of compressive
failure. Structural engineers define compressive strengths for various materials and design structural materials
accordingly, but soil and rock do not fail in compression, so we do not perform such analyses. Although the
introduction of large compressive stresses may result in failure, empirical evidence tells us that the ground is actually
failing in shear, not compression. Therefore, nearly all geotechnical strength analyses evaluate shear only.

Many geotechnical engineering problems require an assessment of shear strength, with the shear failure modes
shown. They include the following
(a) Earth Slopes – When the ground is inclined, gravity produces large geostatic shear stresses in the soil or rock.
If these exceeds the shear strength, a landslide occurs.
(b) Structural Foundations – Loads from a structure, such as a building, are transferred to the ground though
structural foundations. This produces both compressive and shear stresses in the nearby soil. The latter could
exceed the shear strength, thus producing a shear failure. This is known as a bearing capacity failure and could
cause structural collapse.
(c) Retaining Walls – The weight of the soil behind a retaining wall produces shear stresses in that soil. Its shear
strength resists some of this stress, and the wall resists the rest. Thus, the load carried by the wall depends on
the shear strength of the retained soil.
(d) Tunnel Linings – Tunnels in soil or weak rock normally require linings of steel or concrete for support. Such
linings must resist pressures exerted by the surrounding ground, thus keeping the tunnel from collapsing. The
magnitude of these pressures depends on the shear strength of the surrounding soil or rock.
(e) Highway Pavements – Wheel loads from vehicles spread through the pavement and into the ground below.
These loads produce shear stresses that could cause a shear failure. Engineers often place layers of well-
graded gravel (also known as aggregate base materials), high quality soils, or other materials between the
pavement and the natural ground. These materials are stronger and stiffer, and help transfer of loads into the
ground with much less potential for failure.

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 2 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

3.2 SHEAR FAILURE IN SOILS

The shear strength of common engineering materials, such as steel, is controlled by their molecular structure. Failure
of these continuous materials generally requires breaking the molecular bonds that hold the material together, and
thus depends on the strength of these bonds. For example, steel has very strong molecular bonds and thus have
high shear strength, whereas plastic has much weaker bonds and a correspondingly low shear strength.

However, soil is a discontinuous particulate material made up of various sized particles. Shearing through soil is
resisted not by the internal strengths of the particles in the soil, but by the interactions between the particles. These
particle interactions include particle rearrangement, particles sliding and rolling past each other, and minor particle
crushing. It is the work done to overcome the resistance to particle rearrangement and crushing that translates to
the resistance to shearing. Because of this, the shear strength depends primarily on the rearrangement and not on
the internal strengths of the particles.

Water and air, the other two phases in the soil besides the solid particles, provide no inherent resistance to shearing;
however, the water and air in the voids may affect the particle interactions and therefore indirectly affect the shear
strength.

In the field, shear failure in a soil mass is usually confine to a narrow zone along a failure surface, for example, the
sliding surface of a landslide. This localized shear zone, shear failure occurs when the stresses between the particles
are such that the particles slide or roll past each other. We divide the shear strength from these interactions into two
broad categories: frictional strength and cohesive strength.

Frictional Strength. This shear strength in soils is similar to classic sliding friction from Physics. The maximum friction
that resists sliding is equal to the normal force multiplied by the coefficient of friction, 𝜇, as shown. However, instead
of using coefficient of friction, geotechnical engineering customarily describes frictional strength using the effective
friction angle (or effective angle of internal friction), 𝜙′, where
𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′

In addition, we find more convenient to work in

terms of stresses instead of forces, so the shear
strength, 𝜏, due to friction is:
𝜏 = 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′ = (𝜎 − 𝑢)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 3 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

All soils have frictional strength. The value of 𝜙′ depends on both the frictional properties of the surfaces of the
individual particles and the interlocking between particles. These are affected by many factors including:

(a) Mineralogy. Soil may contain particles that are made of many different minerals, and some minerals slide more
easily than others.
(b) Particle Shape. The friction angle of sands with angular particles is much higher than that sands with rounded
ones.
(c) Gradation. Well graded soils typically have more interlocking between the particles, and thus a higher friction
angle, than soils that are poorly-graded. For example, GW soils typically have 𝜙′ values about 2o higher than
comparable GP soils.
(d) Void Ratio. Decreasing void ratio, such as by compacting a soil with a sheeps-foot roller, also increases
interlocking, which results in a higher 𝜙′.
(e) Organic Materials. Organics introduce many problems, including a decrease in the friction angle.

An impact of water on frictional strength is especially important, and many shear failures are induced by changes in
the groundwater conditions. Many people mistakenly believe that water-induced changes in shear strength are
primarily due to lubrication effects. The next example illustrates the important impact of pore water pressure on shear
strength. This is the primary ay water impacts the frictional strength, and is one of the reasons a thorough
understanding of the principle of effective stress is so important in understanding soil behavior.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A geotechnical engineer is evaluating the stability of the
earth slope. This evaluation is considering the potential
for a shear failure along the shear surface shown. The soil
has 𝜙′ = 30o and no cohesive strength. Compute the
shear strength at Point A along this surface when the
ground water table is at level B, then compute the new
shear strength if the groundwater table rises to level C.
The unit weight of the soil is 120 lb/ft3 above the
groundwater table and 123lb/ft3 below.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 4 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

Cohesive Strength. Some soils have shear strength even when the vertical effective stress is zero, or at least appears
to be zero. This strength is called the cohesive strength, and we describe it using the variable, 𝑐′, the effective cohesion.
If a soil has both frictional and cohesive strength, the Equation becomes:
𝜏 = 𝑐′ + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′ = 𝑐′ + (𝜎 − 𝑢)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′

There are two types of cohesive strength: true cohesion and apparent cohesion (Mitchell and Soga, 2005). True
cohesion is shear strength that is truly the result of bonding between the soil particles; apparent cohesion is shear
strength that appears to be caused by bonding between the soil particles, but is really frictional strength in disguise.

Geotechnical engineers often use the term cohesive soil to describe clays. Although this term is convenient, it also is
very misleading (Santamarina, 1997). Most of the so-called cohesive strength in clays is apparently cohesion due to
pore water pressures that are negative, or at least less than the hydrostatic pore water pressure. In such souls, it is
better to think of “cohesive strength” as a mathematical idealization rather than physical reality.

3.3 THE DRAINED AND THE UNDRAINED CONDITION

Excess pore water pressures generated from loading a soil will impact the effective stress, and thus the shear strength
of the soil, so the generation and dissipation of the excess pore water pressures are important considerations in shear
strength evaluations. Geotechnical engineers often evaluate shear strengths by considering two limiting conditions:
the drained condition and the undrained condition.

Drained Condition. We define the drained condition as a limiting condition under which there is no excess pore water
pressure in the soil. The important consequence of the drained condition is that the pore water pressure is equal to
the hydrostatic pore water pressure and is thus easily computed.

Undrained Condition. If the saturated soil has a low hydraulic conductivity or if the loading is very rapid, then the rate
of loading, and thus the rate of voids volume change, is relatively high to the rate of drainage; so, there is no enough
time for the necessary volume of pore water to flow into or out of the voids. The limiting condition, under which
virtually no pore water movement takes place and excess pore water pressures are generated.

3.4 MOHR – COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION

Some soils have both frictional and cohesive strengths, so we need to combine these two sources into a single all-
purpose strength formula. Nearly all geotechnical analyses do this using the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, which is
expressed as
𝜏 = 𝑐′ + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′ Effective strength analysis
𝜏 = 𝑐 + 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 Total strength analysis
This formula allows us to project the test data back into our analyses of existing or proposed field conditions, which
may be done using either effective stress analyses or total stress analyses.

Effective Strength Analysis. The shear strength of a soil is developed only by the soil solids; the water and air,
representing the other two phases of the soil, have no shear strength. Therefore, the shear strength is fundamentally
controlled by the effective stress, 𝜎 ′ , because the effective stress is a portion of the total stress, 𝜎, carried by the soil
particles. This is why the previous equations are written in terms of effective stress.

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 5 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

If we perform series of laboratory strength tests, each at a different value of effective stress, the typical results are
shown. The vertical axis on this plot is shear stress and the curve represents the shear strength which is the magnitude
of the shear stress at failure, plotted against the effective stress at failure.

For sands and gravels, these plots are nearly linear within the range of stresses normally encountered in the field.
However, for clays they are typically slightly non-linear as shown. These non-linear plots are inconvenient because
they introduce more complexity into analyses. Despite this non-linear behavior, we nearly always use an idealized
linear function by conducting tests at effective stress values comparable to those expected in the field and fitting the
data points with a straight line. The straight lines in the figure are known as the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.

Shear strength is defined as the stress at failure, so planes through points in the soil have ( 𝜎′, ) values that plot below
the Mohr-Coulomb line theoretically will not fail in shear, while those that plot on or above the line will fail. We often
call this line a failure envelope because it encloses the combinations of stresses that will not cause failure.

Once 𝑐′ and 𝜙′, the effective stress strength parameters, have been determined, we can evaluate stresses in the field.
We compute the effective stresses in the field, assuming the drained or undrained condition. For the drained case,
we can calculate the effective stresses using the techniques described in Module 1, along with the hydrostatic or
steady state groundwater conditions that represent the worst conditions anticipated during the life of the project.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Samples have been obtained from both soil strata and
brought to soil mechanics laboratory. A series of shear
strength tests were then performed on both samples and
the values obtained are shown. Using this data and
assuming the drained condition applies, compute the
shear strength on horizontal and vertical planes at Points
A, B, and C.

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 6 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Draw the shear strength envelope for the ML stratum in Sample Problem 2, then plot the upper half of the Mohr’s
circle for Point A and B on this diagram. Assume principal stresses act vertically and horizontally.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 7 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

Total Strength Analysis. Analyses based on effective stresses are possible only if we can predict the effective stress in
the field. Because of some difficulties, geotechnical engineers sometimes evaluate problems based on total stress
instead of effective stress. This approach involves reducing the laboratory data in terms of total stresses and
expressing the failure criterion in terms of the total stress parameters. This is called the total stress Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion. The total stress parameter assumes the excess pore water pressures developed in the laboratory are
same as those in the field, and thus implicitly incorporated into 𝑐 and 𝜙. This assumption introduces some error into
the analysis, but it becomes an unfortunately necessity when we cannot predict the magnitude of the pore water
pressures in the field. It also demands the laboratory tests to be conducted in a way that simulates the field conditions
as closely as possible.

The shear strength of a soil really depends on effective stress, so total stress analysis is less desirable than effective
stress analysis, and the results need to be viewed with more skepticism. However, there are many times when we
must use total strength parameters because we have no other practical alternative.

The direct shear test is simple to perform, but it has some inherent shortcomings. The reliability of the results may be
questioned because the soil is not allowed to fail along the weakest plane but is forced to fail along the plane of split
of the shear box. Also, the shear stress distribution over the shear surface of the specimen is not uniform. Despite
these shortcomings, the direct shear test is the simplest and most economical for a dry or saturated sandy soil.

3.5 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED SANDS AND GRAVELS

Under typical static loading conditions, little or no excess pore water pressures are generated in clean sands and
gravels because their hydraulic conductivities are so high. Changes in the state of stress of the soil (both mean normal
stress and deviator stress) cause the voids to expand or contract and water easily flows in or out as necessary.
Therefore, the pore water pressure is equal to hydrostatic pressure, and shear strength analyses maybe based on the
drained condition and effective stresses.

Under dynamic loads, such as during an earthquake, a sand may not drain quickly enough to dissipate all excess
pore water pressures. In such cases, we may evaluate the stress analyses assuming the undrained condition applies.
We can still use the effective stress analyses if we can estimate the magnitudes of the excess pore water pressures
generated during the dynamic loading.

Soil Liquefaction. Loading during earthquakes is sometimes rapid so that even cohesion less soils cannot drain quickly
enough and the undrained conditions applies. This is especially problematic in loose, saturated sands because they
tend to compress wen loaded (Lee, 1965), which normally would force some water out of the voids. However, because
the loading occurs quickly, water cannot easily drain away and positive excess pore water pressure develop instead.
As these pressures build up, both the effective stress and the strength decrease. Sometimes effective stress drops to
zero, which means the soil loses virtually all its shear strength and thus behaves like a dense liquid. We call this
phenomenon as soil liquefaction. It can cause extensive damage, so geotechnical engineers working in seismically
active areas, such as Japan and Philippines, need to be aware of the soil conditions where this phenomenon is likely
to occur.

Quicksand. As discussed in Soil Mechanics 1, seepage forces and the unfortunate consequences that can occur when
the water flows upward through a soil and the seepage forces oppose the gravitational forces. According to the
principles of vertical effective stresses, upward seepage forces can become large enough that the vertical effective
stress drops to zero. This can cause heaving, especially if the seepage forces significantly exceed the gravitational

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 8 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

forces. Another possibility is quicksand, which occurs in sandy soils when upward seepage produces an effective
vertical stress close to zero, so these soils have virtually no shear strength and behave as a heavy fluid. Although true
quicksand can occur in natural settings, most conditions identified as quicksand are actually just very loose saturated
sands. However, quicksand is a very real danger in dewatered excavations and other constructed facilities where
upward seepage forces have been artificially created. This strength loss can trigger the failure of shoring systems and
other facilities, possible resulting in property damage and loss of life.

3.6 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED CLAYS

The evaluation of the shear strength of a clay is more difficult than that of a sand or a gravel because:
1. Clay particles undergo more significant changes and therefore cause greater volume change during loading.
2. The low hydraulic conductivity impedes the flow of water into and out of the voids, so the undrained condition
applies in short term and significant pore water pressures often develop in the soil.
3. In long term settlement, water does flow into or out of the soil, allowing the excess pore water pressures
generated during loading to dissipate virtually completely, and the drained conditions applies.

In addition, saturated clays are generally weaker than sands and gravels, and thus are more often a cause of problems.

Shear Strength Analyses. When performing shear strength analyses, it is important to properly assess the drainage
conditions that will occur in the field because this assessment determines how we will define the shear strength. There
are three possibilities.
Case 1. Under the drained condition
Case 2. Under the undrained condition with positive excess pore water pressures
Case 3. Under the undrained condition with negative excess pore water pressures

3.7 SHEAR STRENGTH OF UNSATURATED CLAYS

The strength of unsaturated soils is generally greater, but more difficult to evaluate. Nevertheless, many engineering
projects encounter these soils, so geotechnical engineers need to have methods of evaluating them. This has been
a topic of ongoing research (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993), and standards of active are not as well established for
saturated soils.

Some additional strength of unsaturated soils is due to negative pore water pressures. These negative pore water
pressures increase the effective stress and thus increase the shear strength. However, this additional strength is
tenuous and is easily lost if the soil becomes saturated. Geotechnical engineers usually base designs on the
assumption that unsaturated soils could become saturated in the future. This saturation could come from a rising
groundwater table, irrigation, poor surface drainage, broken pipelines, or other causes. Therefore, we usually saturate
soil specimens in the laboratory before performing strength tests. This is intended to remove the apparent cohesion
and thus stimulate the “worst case” field conditions.

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 9 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

ACTIVITY 11 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (LIBRARY WORK)

INSTRUCTIONS Carefully answer each question with the help of the available books about Geotechnical
Engineering (or Foundation Engineering) in the library.
The submittal must be printed in a short bond paper, following the format below.
Font Style Times New Roman
Font Size 11
Paragraph Spacing Single
Font Spacing Normal
Margin T : 0.75 in. L : 1.25 in.
B : 0.75 in. R : 0.75 in.
A copy of the receipt, a proof of using books, journals or references, must be attached to the
submittal. Use of the internet is also encouraged.
Provide a cover page; citing the group members, year and section, and references used.

QUESTIONS (1) Explain why the shear strength, not the tensile or compressive strength, is used in failure
analysis of soils?

(2) Describe the difference between the frictional strength and cohesive strength.

(3) Describe the difference between true cohesion and apparent cohesion.

(4) Hollywood movies sometimes show people “drowning” in quicksand and sinking to the
bottom. Do such scene accurately depict reality? What would happen in real life to a
person who accidentally ventured into quicksand? Explain the reasoning behind
your answers. Hint: Compare unit weight of a human with the unit weight of the quicksand.

(5) A steep excavation has been made in a saturated clay without the benefit of a slope stability
analysis. It was completed one week ago, and thus far has not shown any signs of instability.
Several people working on this project believe this is adequate demonstration of its stability,
and feel it is safe. Do you agree? Why or why not?

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 10 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

3.8 SHEAR STRENGTH EVALUATION

In Situ Methods. Some in situ test methods measure shear strength directly, whereas others simply develop some
index, such as the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) N-value, which may be combined with empirical correlations to
estimate the shear strength.

(a) Vane Shear Test. A steadily increasing torque is applied until the soil fails in shear, then the undrained shear
strength is computed from this torque.
(b) Standard Penetration Test. The STP can be used to obtain data that correlate with various strength parameters,
(i.e. STP N60-value, effective friction angle, and undrained shear stress).
(c) Cone Penetration Test. The cone penetration test also may be used to obtain data that correlate with various
strength parameters, same as STP.

Ex Situ Methods. Most shear strength measurements are performed in laboratories using ex situ methods. Common
laboratory soil strength tests include the direct shear test, ring shear test, unconfined compression (UC) test, and the
triaxial compression test (Triaxial Test).

(a) Direct Shear Test. The earliest measurements of soil strength were probably those performed by the French
engineer Alexandre Collin in 1846. His test equipment was similar to the modern direct shear machine. The
direct shear test as we know it (ASTM D3080) was perfected by several individuals during the first half of the
twentieth century.
(b) Ring Shear Test. The direct shear stress does not provide enough shear displacement to reach the residual
strength in clays. This test measures the residual strength of the soil.
(c) Unconfined Compression Test. The UC test uses a cylindrical soil specimen with no lateral confinement. An
axial compressive load is gradually applied to the specimen until it fails. The load is applied fairly rapidly, thus
producing the undrained condition.
(d) Triaxial Compression Test. Also known as triaxial test; it is one of the most reliable methods available for
determining shear strength parameters. It is used widely for research and conventional testing. The triaxial test
is similar to UC test except the specimen is surrounded by waterproof membrane and is installed in a pressure
chamber known as cell. The cell is filled with water that is pressurized to provide an all-around confinement
tot the specimen under the specified cell pressure, 𝜎2 (often used 𝜎3). A drain is attached to the specimen,
and the drainage condition can be controlled by either closing or opening the drain valve. Pore pressures
within the specimen can be measured by a pressure gage attached to the drain line. This test has also
provisions to saturate specimens and verify that the saturation process was successful. This along with the
flexibility and other advantages makes it the standard by which other tests are compared. The following are
the three common triaxial test procedures:
a. Consolidated drained or CD test, also known as the slow test.
b. Unconsolidated undrained or UU test, also known as the quick test
c. Consolidated undrained or CU test, also known as the rapid test
The first descriptor “consolidated” means the specimen is allowed to consolidate; and “unconsolidated” means
the opposite. The second descriptor, in the name, refers to the shearing stage and to the condition under
which the specimen is sheared to failure by an increase in the axial load.

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Module 3 – Soil Strength

3.9 DETERMINATION OF SOIL STRENGTH PARAMETERS

(MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION OF TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST)

CD Test. In the consolidated drained test, the specimen is consolidated during the consolidation stage and then
sheared under drained condition during the shearing stage. To allow consolidation, the drain valve is open before
the cell pressure is increased to the desired value. After the consolidation of the specimen is complete, when all the
excess pore water pressures have dissipated, the drain valve is kept open and then the specimen loaded to failure
very slowly under the drained condition with no excess pore water pressure.

COHESIONLESS SOIL
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COHESIVE SOIL
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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 12 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A consolidated drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay. The results were as follows:
Chamber confining pressure is 138 kPa, and the deviator stress is 258 kPa. (a) Compute the friction angle of the soil,
(b) Compute the normal stress at failure, and (c) Compute the shear stress at failure.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A cohesionless soil has an angle of friction equal to 30o and a deviator stress at failure of 400 kPa. (a) Find the angle
that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane, (b) Find the confining pressure, and (c) Find the shear
stress at the point of failure.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 13 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
A cohesive soil specimen has shearing resistance equal to 28 o and a cohesion of 32 kPa. If the maximum shearing
stress of the soil is equal to 64 kPa. (a) Compute the chamber confining pressure, (b) Compute the maximum principal
stress to cause failure, and (c) Compute the normal stress at the point of maximum shear.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
A cohesive cylindrical soil sample yields the following results: Major principal stress is 8000 kPa, minor principal stress
is equal to 2000 kPa, and the angle of failure envelope is 60o with respect to the horizontal. (a) Determine the
deviator stress, (b) Determine the angle of friction, and (c) Determine the cohesion of the soil sample.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 14 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
Data shown in below were obtained in a triaxial compression tests of two identical soil specimens
Specimen Confining Pressure Deviator Stress
A 14.40 kPa 57.60 kPa
B. 28.80 kPa 68.50 kPa
(a) Compute the angle of friction of the soil, (b) Compute the cohesion of the soil, and (c) Compute the shear stress
acting on the failure plane for both specimens.
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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 15 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

CU Test. In the consolidated undrained test, the specimen is consolidated during the consolidation stage and then
sheared under undrained condition during the shearing stage. To allow consolidation, the drain valve is open before
the cell pressure is increased to the desired value. After consolidation of the specimen is complete, when all the
excess pore water pressure has dissipated, the drain valve is closed and then the specimen is loaded to failure under
undrained condition.

COHESIONLESS SOIL
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COHESIVE SOIL
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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 16 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
The shear strength of a normally consolidated clay can be given to the equation 𝜏 = 𝜎 ′ tan 28𝑜. A consolidated
undrained test was conducted on the clay. Following are the results of the test: Cell pressure is 105 kPa, and deviatoric
stress at failure is 97 kPa. (a) Determine the pore water pressure developed in the clay specimen at failure, (b)
Determine the consolidated-undrained angle of friction, and (c) What would have been the deviator stress at failure
if a drained test had been conducted with the same cell pressure?

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Stresses acting on the plane of maximum shearing stress through a given point in a sand are as follows: Total normal
stress is 250 kPa, pore water pressure is 88.5 kPa, maximum shearing stress is 85 kPa, failure is occurring in the region
surrounding the point. (a) Determine the major principal effective stress, (b) Determine the angle of friction of the
sand, and (c) Determine the shearing stress on the plane of failure.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 17 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
Results given were obtained from a consolidated undrained triaxial test on a clay soil.
Trial Cell Pressure Deviator Stress Pore Pressure
1 100 kPa 248 kPa 13 kPa
2 200 kPa 296 kPa 96 kPa
3 400 kPa 388 kPa 264 kPa
(a) Compute the drained value of the angle of friction, (b) Compute the undrained angle of friction, and (c) Compute
the undrained value of cohesion.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 18 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

UU Test. Unconsolidated undrained test is the simplest triaxial test. In this test, the specimen is unconsolidated during
the consolidation stage and then sheared under undrained condition during the shearing stage. To prevent
consolidation, the drain valve is closed before the cell pressure is increased to the desired value. The specimen is
loaded to failure under the undrained condition, achieved by having the drain calve closed through the test.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
A clay soil is subjected to a triaxial test under unconsolidated undrained condition. At failure the major and minor
principal stresses are 140 kPa and 50 kPa, respectively. (a) Determine the cohesion of the soil, (b) If the soil were
subjected to an unconfined compression test, what axial stress would result at failure?, and (c) What is the magnitude
of the shearing stress at a depth of 3m below the ground surface? Unit weight of the soil is 15 kN/m3.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 19 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

3.10 UNCERTAINTIES OF SHEAR STRENGTH ASSESSMENTS

Shear strength assessments are subjected to errors from a wide range of resources, so it’s important to understand
how much faith to place in strength values obtained from the laboratory or insitu tests. The common mistake,
especially among inexperienced engineers, is to place far too much credibility in these numbers.

Even the most carefully performed laboratory tests are no better than the soil specimen tested. Are they truly
representative of the soil mass? How much sample methods also introduce error, because they do not simulate
exactly the stress states in the field and do not shear the soils in the same way as occurs in the field. In addition, tests
on unsaturated specimens may not properly account for future changes in the field moisture content.

Because of these factors, even carefully performed shear assessments can give strength values that contain errors of
25% or more. Although we typically report test results or two or three significant figures, their true accuracy is much
less. Geotechnical engineers attempt to compensate for these uncertainties by using conservative interpretations of
test data and applying appropriate factors of safety.

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 20 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

ACTIVITY 12 COMPREHENSIVE PROBLEMS FOR SOIL STRENGTHANALYSIS

INSTRUCTIONS Answer each situation with the help of the principles and concepts of soil strength. Each real life
scenarios are synthesized to integrate the understanding of the module. Always support your
conclusions with accurate information; you may cite references to strengthen your answer. If
numerical values are needed, compute and generalize.

Provide a cover page; citing the group members, year and section, and references used.

SITUATIONS SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED SANDS AND GRAVELS

(1) A certain well-graded sand deposit has an in-situ relative density of about 50%. A
laboratory strength test on a specimen of this soil has produced an effective friction angle of
31o. Does this test result seem reasonable? Explain the basis for your answer.
(2) The vertical effective stress at a certain point in a loose sand is 1000 lb/ft2. If an earthquake
where to occur, how much excess pore water pressure would need to develop at this point
for liquefaction to occur? Show a numerical rationale for your answer.

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED CLAYS

(3) A new building is to be built on a series of spread footing foundations that will be underlain
by a saturated clay. Undisturbed soil samples have been obtained from this site and are
ready to be tested. Should the laboratory test program focus on producing the values of
𝑐′ and 𝜙′, or 𝑠𝑢′? Explain.
(4) Soil can stand in vertical cuts only if it has cohesive strength. Even so, anyone can build a
sand castle at the beach using clean fine-to-medium sand, and these castles can have
vertical cuts. This appears to be contradiction. (a) Explain why sand castles can be built in
this way, (b) If no waves, thieves, rain, or wind disturb the castle, will the vertical cuts stand
for a long time? Explain why or why not.

Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 21 of 22

Module 3 – Soil Strength

END CHAPTER QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the relationships between preconsolidation pressure, settlement, and shear strength.
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2. Which laboratory tests would be most appropriate for measuring cohesion and effective friction angle for clays?
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3. List the factors that affects the frictional strength of the soil.
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4. Describe one mode of shear failure evident in civil engineering construction.

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Instructor: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Page 22 of 22