A Pearl in Peril: Heritage and Diplomacy

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A Pearl in Peril
 A Pearl in Peril
Heritage and Diplomacy in Turkey

Christina Luke

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

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© Oxford University Press 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​049887–​0

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
To the boys
CONTENTS

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xv
Foreword xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Abbreviations xxvii

Introduction: Pillars of Policy 1
CHAPTER 1. Alternative Futures 15
CHAPTER 2. Preference in Paris 41
CHAPTER 3. Open Intelligence 78
CHAPTER 4. Diplomatic Deliverables 109
CHAPTER 5. Organic Lives 142
Reflections 175

Notes 185
Bibliography 227
Index 249
FIGURES

I.1 Atatürk Sculpture by Italian sculptor Canonica, Izmir. Photo by

H. Basak. Courtesy of Creative Commons 4
I.2 Map of Treaty of Sèvres and featuring E. Venizelos. Courtesy of
the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Gennadius
Library 8
1.1 Marble quarry in province of Manisa with tumulus in foreground.
Courtesy of the author 19
1.2 The foothills of the Tmolus mountain range, including the Sardis
Acropolis, Sardis Necropolis, and Pomza’s operations. Courtesy of
the author 22
1.3 “A view of a model of the Zonguldak Coal Mines in the Türkiye İş
Bankası Coal Companies pavilion.”1936 Izmir International Fair.
Courtesy of the Ahmet Piriştina City Archives, Izmir 25
1.4 Gold Stater with Lydian Lion. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston. Accession number, 04.1541 32
2.1 H.C. Butler in excavation tent. No. C.7.5.d. American Society for
the Excavation of Sardis 1910-​1914. Courtesy of the Department of
Art and Archaeology, Princeton University 42
2.2 Butler’s Excavation House, Villa Omphale. No. C.7.7.f. American
Society for the Excavation of Sardis 1910-​1914. Courtesy of the
Department of Art and Archaeology, Princeton University 43
2.3 Inside Village Omphale. No. SAR_​AL_​004. American Society for
the Excavation of Sardis 1910-​1914. Courtesy of the Department of
Art and Archaeology, Princeton University 43
2.4 Tennis group on the Sardis court. No. SAR_​AL_​001. American
Society for the Excavation of Sardis 1910–​1914. Courtesy of the
Department of Art and Archaeology, Princeton University 44
2.5 Map illustrating the Megali Idea, after the Treaty of Sèvres.
Courtesy of the Creative Commons 48
2.6 Snow on the ruins of the Temple of Artemis at Sardis (prior to
excavation). No. A.245. American Society for the Excavation
of Sardis 1910–​1914. Courtesy of the Department of Art and
Archaeology, Princeton University 56
2.7 The extraction of the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, side view. No.
A.256. American Society for the Excavation of Sardis 1910-​1914.
Courtesy of the Department of Art and Archaeology, Princeton
University 57
2.8 Crane moving capital at Sardis. No. A.118.b. American Society for
the Excavation of Sardis 1910–​1914. Courtesy of the Department of
Art and Archaeology, Princeton University 58
2.9 Rail system for backdirt at Sardis. No. B. 312. American
Society for the Excavation of Sardis 1910–​1914. Courtesy of the
Department of Art and Archaeology, Princeton University 58
2.10 Detail of the column capital from Sardis. No. A262-​1. American
Society for the Excavation of Sardis 1910–​1914. Courtesy of the
Department of Art and Archaeology, Princeton University 59
2.11 Council of Four at the WWI Paris Peace Conference, May 27, 1919
(candid photo) (L-​R) Prime Minister David Lloyd George (Great
Britian) Premier Vittorio Orlando, Italy, French Premier Georges
Clemenceau, President Woodrow Wilson. Photographer, Edward
N. Jackson (US Army Signal Corps). Courtesy of the Creative
Commons 64
3.1 English Translation of Turkish Lyrics to Agriculture March 83
3.2 Greek Pavilion, 1935. Izmir International Fair. Courtesy of the
Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum, Izmir 85
3.3 Plan of Izmir’s Kültürpark, 1936. Courtesy of the Ahmet Piriştina
City Archives and Museum, Izmir 86
3.4 Pavilion of I.G. Farben Industry, Frankfurt. 1938. Izmir
International Fair. Courtesy of the Ahmet Piriştina City Archives
and Museum, Izmir 87

x | Figures
3.5 Soviet Pavilion, 1938. Izmir International Fair. Courtesy of the
Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum, Izmir 87
3.6 Le Corbusier’s Izmir Plan, 1949. H3-​15-​203-​001. Courtesy of
the Le Corbusier Foundation. © FLC/​ADAGP, Paris and DACS,
London 2018 88
3.7 Le Corbusier’s 102-​2 Agricultural, Artisan, and Industrial schematic
map for Turkey, 1949. H3-​15-​201-​001. Courtesy of the Le
Corbusier Foundation. © FLC/​ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London
2018 89
3.8 Steyr Tractor Pavilion. In foreground is 180 model from 1947.
Izmir International Fair. Courtesy of the Ahmet Piriştina City
Archives and Museum, Izmir 92
3.9 Izmir International Fair, 1947 Poster. Courtesy of the Ahmet
Piriştina City Archives and Museum, Izmir 93
3.10 Opening of the Izmir International Fair, 1947. Courtesy of the
Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum, Izmir 94
3.11 Izmir International Fair, 1950 poster. Courtesy of the Ahmet
Piriştina City Archives and Museum, Izmir 95
3.12 Sketch of the USA pavilion, 1960. Izmir International Fair.
Courtesy of the Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum,
Izmir 98
3.13 Izmir International Fair, 1961 Chamber of Commerce. Courtesy of
the Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum, Izmir 98
3.14 Image of sicknesses crippling the Republic, including malaria.
Courtesy of the Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum,
Izmir 100
3.15 Prime Minister SUleyman Demirel, 1967. Izmir International
Fair. Courtesy of the Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum,
Izmir 107
4.1 Temple of Dendur. Given to the United States by Egypt in 1965,
awarded to The Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1967, and installed
in The Sackler Wing in 1978. Courtesy of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art 115
4.2 Temple of Dendur. Watercolor and gouache on off-​white wove
paper. Frederick Arthur Bridgman, 1874. Courtesy of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.597. Rogers Fund, 2000 118

Figures | xi
4.3 The grotto temple of Abu Simbel, seen from the Nile. Getty Images
No. 463953063 118
4.4 Abu Simbel, Transport Ramses Kopf.,Getty Images No.
542393753 121
4.5 Modern machinery is used in salvaging the Abu Simbel Temple
as part of the Aswan Dam Project. December 28, 1964. Getting
Images No 3267957 122
4.6 Main excavation house at Sardis, 1959. Archaeological Exploration
of Sardis 128
4.7 Reconstruction perspective of the Marble Court, 1968. Courtesy of
the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 131
4.8 Work-​sketch showing findspots of the fallen architectural fragments
in the Marble Court, 1963. Courtesy of the Archaeological
Exploration of Sardis 132
4.9 The first architrave of the screen colonnade is moved into position,
1970. Courtesy of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 133
4.10 Reconstruction of the façade of Marble Court, 1970. Courtesy of
the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 134
5.1 Illustration of Gediz plain from Sardis, ca. 1750. Giovanni Battista
Borra. Courtesy of the Yale University Archives 146
5.2 Illustration of Gediz plain, ca. 1750. Giovanni Battista Borra. Bird’s
Eye view of Bin Tepe and Marmara Lake. Courtesy of the Yale
University Archives 146
5.3 The Gygean Lake and the Place of the Thousand Tombs, Asia
Minor, 1836. Illustration from Constantinople and the Scenery of
the Seven Churches of Asia Minor illustrated, With an historical
Account of Constantinople, and Descriptions of the Plates, London/​
Paris, Fisher, Son & Co. (1836–​38), by Robert Walsh and Thomas
Allom. Courtesy of the author 147
5.4 The Acropolis of Sardis, 1838. Illustration from Constantinople
and the Scenery of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor illustrated,
With an historical Account of Constantinople, and Descriptions of
the Plates, London/​Paris, Fisher, Son & Co. (1836-​38), by Robert
Walsh and Thomas Allom. Courtesy of the author 148

xii | Figures
5.5 Sardis, View of Gediz Plain From Top (of the Acropolis), 1902.
Courtesy of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago 148
5.6 View of Sardis. Plain looking North towards tombs of Lydian kings,
1908. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago 149
5.7 Entry to the tunnel of Karnıyarık, 2009. Courtesy of the author 152
5.8 Illustration of excavations at Karınıyarık Tepe, Bin Tepe, 1962. By
C.H. Greenewalt. Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. Courtesy
of the author 152
5.9 Water pump on the edge of Lake Marmara, 2016. Courtesy of the
author 159
5.10 First tractor, 1961. Courtesy of the Şener family 162
5.11 Agricultural equipment in Bin Tepe, 2011. Courtesy of the
author 171
5.12 Organic olive groves and other agriculture abutting the tumulus of
Alyattes, Bin Tepe. Farmer on tractor is seen in the foreground,
2017. Courtesy of the author 172
5.13 Electric transmission towers carry power from Demırköprü Dam
through Bin Tepe toward Izmir, 2017. The towers dwarf tumuli in
Bin Tepe, including the second largest, Karnıyarık, also known as
“American Tepe,” 2017. Courtesy of the author 173
5.14 Scarecrow protects tobacco fields (foreground) in in Bin Tepe. In
the background are olive groves, 2017. Courtesy of the author 174

Figures | xiii
TABLES

1.1 Key Ministries (and Protection Councils) Related to Management

of Forests and Cultural Heritage in Turkey 28
2.1 Members of the American Society for the Excavation of Sardis 51
2.2 Members of the Hellenic Council 62
2.3 U.S. signees of the AIA initiative at the 1919 Paris Peace
Conference 62
2.4 Signees of Buckler’s Memorandum on the policy of the United
States Relative to the Treaty With Turkey, 26 November 1919 66
2.5 Key personnel involved in the in-​country diplomacy at Sardis 70
2.6 Population data before and after Greek occupation near Sart.
Provided by W.R. Berry in his 1921 Report to the Sardis
Society 71
3.1 Regions in Turkey with over 200 tractors by 1950 94
4.1 Members of the U.S. Advisory Committee to the Salvage of Abu
Simbel. A. H. Detweiler Archives, Cornell University 112
FOREWORD

I n the summer of 2014 two young women from a small village in

western Turkey visited the US Embassy in Ankara. Both were attending
universities in Izmir. They had been invited by friends to visit the United
States. The friends were archaeologists who had worked for almost a
decade in the region where the women had grown up. Their travel plans
fell apart when the US Embassy denied their visas on grounds that they
could not show sufficient proof that they intended to return to Turkey. They
were presumed guilty of flight before they had even been given permission
to leave the country.
After consulting with Turkish lobby groups in the US, their second
application was more robust. It included land deeds, statements from
bank accounts, high school and college transcripts, and letters from the
archaeologists (who held positions at US institutions). Their visas were
denied a second time. Others familiar with similar situations told the
young women that if they applied again and were denied a third time, they
would be blacklisted for the next decade. They did not apply again.
During an unrelated meeting at the American Research Institute in
Turkey (ARIT) in Ankara, I asked an American diplomat from the US
Embassy for guidance about this case. She informed me that this was
“unofficial-​official” US policy: young, foreign women were a flight risk,
and could too easily become a burden on American resources. No public
data were available to demonstrate that this was true. In less than the three
minutes it took for each woman to present her case to the officer, the US
Consular section in Ankara undercut decades of US–​Turkish relations and
diplomatic practice in the middle Gediz Valley. There was a history here
going back to 1947. The Americans had built the roads in the region, and
the farmers claimed to owe their sovereignty to the US Marshall Plan, to
Marshall himself, a point I made to the American diplomat.
The diplomat dismissed my explanation, “Oh, you are mistaken; the
Marshall Plan was never in Turkey.” Perhaps feeling less certain, the dip-
lomat reluctantly asked me for a quick lesson in US historical relations
in Turkey. This included a small, but significant and targeted, amount
of support from the US Marshall Plan. The families of these two young
women were perfect examples of what it had set out to accomplish: to
make rural farmers, and formerly those who practiced transhumance,
prosperous entrepreneurs who would cultivate a set of social practices and
opportunities for their children.
This book is not about visas, nor is it about Turkish lobbying in the
hallways of US Congress to combat “unofficial-​official” policies. Those
topics are for a different book. This book is about the Gediz Valley and the
landscapes where these young women grew up and went to college, and
the deeply rooted perceptions and judgments held by foreign countries and
their diplomats about class, identity, assistance packages, and heritage.
The US Marshall Plan is only one small part of how the US and other
foreign interest groups—​public and private—​have strategically positioned
themselves such that their policies have had—​and continue to have—​a
vast impact on those who live in this region. But Turkish citizens in their
early twenties, while they are likely familiar with the significance of the
social engineering practices of the Republic of Turkey, are often unaware
of just how much their lives have been influenced by policies dictated not
only by Turkey but also by foreign entities. These policies have affected
access to education and have reshaped cities and rural landscapes.
The US policies and programs that preceded the Marshall Plan, such as
the 1933 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and the ideological struggles
of the interwar period between Soviet, US, and European visions for
Turkey have not been fully understood. The study of how these forces
positioned heritage in Turkey is also in its infancy. A lack of coordination
among the agricultural and cultural sectors, too, has resulted in growing
tensions regarding public and private ownership and, in turn, access to so-
cial mobility.
This book opens up these topics for consideration in the context of the
Gediz Valley in western Turkey. My decision to unpack these narratives
began in May 2011, when I had a fellowship from the National Endowment
of the Humanities (NEH) and ARIT to spend a year in Izmir to research
heritage management. I was exploring the archaeological site of Bin Tepe
and the relationship between farming in rural landscapes and management

xviii | Foreword
of archaeological sites subject to the tractor’s plow. Looking for infor-
mation about tractors in Turkey, I came across Richard Robinson’s 1952
article, “Tractors in the Village: A Study from Turkey.” It focused on US
intervention in Adana, but much was familiar to me. Years of conversations
with local communities in the Gediz suddenly fell into place.
I realized that many of the roads I drove, the water I drank, and the
food I ate was an outcome of US policies. Such development programs
were also the primary reasons why heritage had become celebrated, for-
gotten, even hated. My conviction to tell these stories in a book was further
strengthened the day these two young women were denied their visas. It
was through my journey with them, their families, and my own family that
I realized the degree to which “policies with a purpose” and “diplomatic
deliverables” from heritage to agriculture had created an impossible web
of entangled misunderstandings and years of mistrust that showed no signs
of becoming clearer.
In the face of the rapid development that is engulfing Turkey, driven by
forces of globalization from Canada to China, economic policies and leg-
islation promoting highways, trains, mines, and dams have become very
fluid. The same can be said for how Turkey has responded to their presen-
tation of heritage on the international stage, notably through UNESCO’s
World Heritage Committee and its lists. Yet, internally, survey, excavation,
and restoration practices in Turkey have become increasingly contested
and convoluted. This book begins to uncover the role of the United States
in heritage tensions from the late nineteenth century to the present day.

Foreword | xix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T his book is a result of interdisciplinary work that has extended over

the last decade. I’ve pulled together ethnographic and archaeological
survey data from work in the middle Gediz Valley, which I co-​directed with
Christopher H. Roosevelt under the Central Lydia Archaeological Survey
(CLAS). CLAS was diachronic in its approach to survey, from Paleolithic
to present. In addition to standard archaeological survey, it also explored
how recent histories over the last century or so have shaped people’s
perceptions and reactions to heritage. We worked with those engaged in
farming, fishing, and development, from highways to marble quarries.
In seeking to understand better archaeological zoning, team members
consulted archives. At first these included the mapping and municipal
offices in Akhisar, Gölmarmara, Adala, Alaşehir, Salihli, Manisa, and
Izmir. Discussions with the State Water Works at the Demirköprü dam,
Salihli, and Izmir branches were also extremely enlightening, as were
meetings with local tourism offices, directorates of agriculture and live-
stock in Manisa, and the head mining office in Izmir.
It was through this fieldwork and associated research that I realized
the potential for an article. My editor at Oxford, Sarah Humphreville first
inspired me to consider how it might come about into a book. Our first
conversation was about publishing data from CLAS in a typical survey
volume. She asked what else I was working on. I described the initial seeds
of this project, and she noticed a dramatic shift in my voice. It was her en-
couragement that pushed me toward the initial outline and ultimately the
final manuscript.
My continued research revealed that much of the major development in
the region had been done during the 1930s, and especially the late 1940s to
1960s, often with US funding. This led me to the Turkish National Archives
in Ankara and the US National Archives in Washington, D.C., and then to
the US National Archives in Atlanta where the records of the Tennessee
Valley Authority (TVA) are kept. Expert archivist Maureen Hill was very
kind to sort through files. TVA’s linkages to interwar tensions led me to
the archives of the Le Corbusier Foundation in Switzerland, where archi-
vist Isabelle Godineau was very gracious in assisting me. I also consulted
the presidential archives of John F. Kennedy in Boston, the Smithsonian’s
archives in Washington, D.C., and with the archivist for UNESCO, Adele
Torrance and the time of Lynn Meskell, I was able to review key files from
the interwar period. From there, I visited the Ahmet Piriştina City Archives
and Museum, Izmir, where Director Ayşe Üngör and her staff, especially
Onur Eryeşil, were extremely gracious with their time. The networks
described in diplomatic cables, personal correspondences, and policy
documents housed in these various archives had uncanny similarities to
stories told to me by elders in tea houses, and in several cases, to small
snippets of “local events” revealed in the archaeological newsletters from
Sardis and Turkish newspapers.
Further details regarding policies are embedded in the correspond-
ence files and photographs of archaeologists. These include the papers
of William Hepburn Buckler at Yale University, where archivist Jessica
Becker provided needed guidance. Further details about Buckler’s col-
league Howard Crosby Butler came through the archives at Princeton
University. The support and encouragement of Julia Gearhart, archivist
at Princeton, became invaluable. Her time to explore Butler’s letters,
folders, and images that had not previously been given digitization priority
at Princeton enabled me to gain access to these unpublished voices and
images. Other images were discovered in the collections of the Gennadius
Library of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA).
Senior Librarian Irini Solomonidi and reference archivist and historian
Eleftheria Daleziou as well as archivist Natalia Vogeikoff at ASCSA
were all extremely helpful. Early images of the region at the University
of Chicago, too, give us critical pictures of the region before major infra-
structural changes, and Andrew Wright gave his time in sorting through
the early twentieth-​century images taken by Olmstead and Harris archived
at the Oriental Institute.
For the mid-​twentieth-​century voices, the most informative sources
were the personal correspondences of archaeologist George M.A.
Hanfmann, archived in the Widener Library at Harvard, and those of ar-
chitect A. Henry Detweiler, archived at Cornell University. Additional

xxii | Acknowledgments
details were also found in the archives of the Archaeological Institute of
America (AIA), the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR), the
Sardis archives (Harvard and Cornell offices, and the excavation house),
and the archives of the Museum of Fine Arts (MFA), Boston. Specific
individuals in each of these places made this work possible: Kevin
Mullen and Julia Grabianowski at the AIA; Andy Vaughan at ASOR;
Baha Yıldırım, Elizabeth Gombosi, and Katherine Keifer at Sardis; Laura
Gadbury at the MFA, Boston. In addition, the late Professor Crawford
H. Greenewalt, Jr., shared his personal files and perspectives on infor-
mation embedded in Hanfmann’s letters as well as his personal archive
of photographs and correspondence regarding the seventeenth-​through
early twentieth-​century work at Sardis and during the Turkish War of
Independence. He also shared insights regarding the initial developments
at Pomza and the long-​term developments in Bin Tepe. Conversations with
Nancy Ramage, David Mitten, Clive Foss, Teoman Yalçınkaya, and the
on-​site Sardis staff were also extremely valuable. As I cross-​checked as
many of the events told to me and referred to in correspondences with how
they were (or were not) portrayed in US, UK, and Turkish newspapers,
I uncovered further networks.
Throughout this research, I also spent time in the field. I walked with
farmers over their lands, discussed details over tea during rainy winter
days, and spent time harvesting crops. I attended the International Fairs
in Izmir focused on organic agriculture, and visited the warehouses and
primary business establishments of Turkish and foreign companies. My
approach to understanding more about extraction in the provinces of
Izmir, Manisa, Uşak, and Istanbul followed a similar approach. I visited
coal mines in Soma, nickel mines in Turgutlu, and gold mines in Manisa
and Uşak. I toured marble quarries in Manisa and Izmir. Public relations
officers and specialists at the mines and quarries graciously toured me
around. I also attended international fairs for mining and marble held in
Istanbul and Izmir.
Over the years, many colleagues and students have offered their time
to have conversations with me and have invited me to present my re-
search at their institutions, and many graciously read draft chapters.
Various aspects of this research have been presented as part of the AIA
Nancy Wilkie lecture series in 2013–​2014 as well as in individual talks
at the American Academy in Rome, the Anthropology Department
at Cornell University, the Cultural Heritage Center at the University
of Pennsylvania (especially discussions with Richard Leventhal and
Brian Daniels), the Center for Archaeology at Stanford University, Koç

Acknowledgments | xxiii
University (Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations in 2009 and
Alessandra Ricci’s 2016 Pubic Archaeology course in the Department
of Archaeology and History of Art) in Istanbul, Mimar Sinan University
in Istanbul, the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago (and
discussions with Morag Kersel at DePaul University), and Yaşar
University in Izmir. Feedback from students and faculty who attended
these lectures was invaluable.
I am very grateful for comments on drafts of the manuscript. Colleagues
were very patient with me and took their time to read and comment on
the text. These include Camille Cole, Erdem Kabadayı, Mehmet Kentel,
Emmanuel Moss, Chris Roosevelt, Zeynep Türkyılmaz, Fikret Yegül, and
Kathryn Lefrenz Samuels. Lynn Meskell’s valuable insights and encour-
agement, too, have been especially wonderful. Fikret’s detailed comments
on aspects about Sardis, both the early nineteenth-​century work of Butler
and more recent endeavors, were extremely important. Kathryn and Zeynep
provided their critical insights into extraction studies, and Mehmet into in-
frastructure studies. Chris Roosevelt graciously read and commented on
the entire manuscript, and more than that, he kept me focused on the end
goal. Their suggestions for clarifications and improvements in wording
have made the manuscript stronger.
Over the last three years, my research assistants at Koç University have
tracked down key sources. Elif Doğan carefully worked through archives
about US intervention in the Gediz as well as zoning and legal files
pertaining to agriculture and extraction. Zeynep Kuşdil, Zeynep Özdemir,
and Levent Tokün reviewed publications and archives about the Izmir
International Fair and the Kültürpark. In addition, members of CLAS were
helpful in the research about water management. Elvan Cobb, especially,
took part in the initiative fieldwork, as did Nedim Büyükyüksel, Nicolas
Guathier, and Kyle Egerer. Ebru Kiras and Tunç Kaner, too, have spent
time in local museums and touring the region with me. The communities
in villages throughout the Gediz Valley, too, were gracious with their time,
sharing not only oral histories but also family photos and archives.
Archival work often requires travel. Friends opened their homes to me
during my visits to various cities. This was an opportunity to not only at-
tend to my scholarship but also reconnect with people who have inspired
me—​and the people who reminded me to get out, to do other things. My
extended family, too, made sure that this book did not consume me. They
also were supportive when our immediate family moved to Turkey, and
through the turbulent times of 2015 and 2016 in Istanbul, they trusted our
decision to stay put.

xxiv | Acknowledgments
 Even still, two young men have been thrown into this study without
choice, and it is to them that I owe a tremendous debt. They will have
grown up primarily abroad in Istanbul, and with long stints in Izmir as
well as two villages in Manisa. Their dry humor and understanding are as
much a part of who they are as my husband’s steadfast encouragement of
my research and his unfailing support for my time to pursue it, however
odd it may have seemed at the time. I’ve benefited tremendously from his
depth of knowledge of Anatolian archaeology and the practice of it. Upon
reflection, this journey began the day we witnessed a backhoe scraping
away the slopes of the Sardis Necropolis as our puppy ran circles in the
shadows of the Temple of Artemis.

Acknowledgments | xxv
ABBREVIATIONS

ACLS American Council of Learned Societies

AIA Archaeological Institute of America (US)
ASCSA American School of Classical Studies at Athens (US)
ASOR American Schools of Oriental Research (US)
CIA Central Intelligence Agency, US
CIAM International Congress of Modern Architecture
CLAS Central Lydia Archaeological Survey
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
EEC European Economic Community
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EU European Union
FDI foreign direct investment
IBA Important Bird and Biodiversity Area
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICIC International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation
ICOM International Council of Museums
ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMO International Museum Office
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
JAMMAT Joint American Military Mission for Aid to Turkey
KAP Kaymakçı Archaeological Project
KTA Knappen Tippetts Abbett Engineering Company of
New York
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MET Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
MFA Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
MNC multinational corporation
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NEH National Endowment for the Humanities (US)
NSF National Science Foundation (US)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-​operation and Development
OUV Outstanding Universal Value
PL 480 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act
PPP Public-​Private Partnership
TAMS Tippetts, Abbett, McCarthy, and Stratton
TNC transnational corporation
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority (US)
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
USAID United States Agency for International Development

Archives

AES The Archaeological Exploration of Sardis

AHD A. Henry Detweiler Correspondence
AIA Archaeological Institute of America
APCA Ahmet Piriştina City Archives and Museum, Izmir
ASES American Society for the Excavation of Sardis
ASOR American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston
CU Cornell University
DAA Department of Art and Archaeology
HCB Howard Crosby Butler Correspondence
HU Harvard University
JFK John F. Kennedy Presidential Library
LCF Le Corbusier Foundation
MA Manuscripts and Archives
MFA Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Archives
NA United States National Archives
PU Princeton University
SC Sardis Correspondence

xxviii | Abbreviations
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Another type of air filter which might be developed in connection
with the pneumatic handling of material consists of a very slowly
revolving drum or cylinder, which is fitted with a continuous
corrugated tape running spirally from the centre to the extreme edge
of the casing. The space between the corrugated sheets is very
small, and as a stream of water is continually running over and
around the divisions, the air passing through the very tortuous path
provided is bound to come into contact with these wet surfaces and
give up its dust or other contamination, which is washed off when it
arrives at the bottom of the cylinder. Naturally, this or any other wet
filter would not be used where the recovery of dust in dry form was
desired.
Another form of wet filter consists of a chamber of suitable
proportions (according to the amount of air to be cleansed), fitted
with racks in which are placed strips of glass at an angle of 45° to
the flow of air, and at 90° to one another. The glass strips have a
serrated or prismatic face, and the air carries the dust forward into
the angles of the glass. A very fine water spray keeps the glass
moist and eventually trickles down to the drain channels, washing
the glass in its course.
The development of apparatus for air-washing has received
considerable attention during recent years, owing to the necessity of
having pure, dust-free air for ventilating turbo-generators, etc., and
no difficulty should present itself in obtaining satisfactory results for
pneumatic conveying plants, except in cases when the collection and
retention of dust is required. In these cases the bag or fabric sheet
filter is the only type available.
 CHAPTER III
details of plant—(Contd.)

DISCHARGERS, PIPE LINES AND SUCTION NOZZLES

Dischargers. The advocates of “blowing” material, instead of

“sucking” it through the pipe, often lay great stress on the alleged
difficulties of extracting the material from the system without allowing
air leakage. This, however, has been overcome successfully by
several designers and is not the serious difficulty so frequently
suggested, providing that the material is suitable for this means of
treatment. The only exception to this is, when the high velocity at
which the material enters the discharger—say, 45 to 50 ft. per sec.—
causes it to pack or bind so that it will not fall by gravity into the
rotary valves and then out into the storage bins.
The function of the discharger is to cause the incoming material to
lose its velocity and to fall into a compartment which can eventually
be discharged after it has been moved from the low pressure to
which the chamber itself is subjected.
This is best accomplished by the use of a rotary valve, somewhat
similar to a paddle-wheel, which is revolved slowly but continuously.
This wheel can be placed either vertically or horizontally at the
bottom of the receiving chamber; the material enters the large
chamber above, loses its velocity, drops by gravity, is caught in the
box formed by the revolving paddle-wheel, and gradually is carried
forward out of the chamber, eventually passing over an aperture
through which it again gravitates to the bunker, silo, or other
container. Probably the horizontal type of rotary valve is preferable
because, owing to the increased surface exposed to the vacuum, the
“suction” effect assists in holding the valve up to its seat.
When dealing with such materials as malt and grain, it is an
advantage to be able to inspect the material entering the receiver,
and at least one maker secures this advantage by constructing the
chamber of a glass cylinder to which are bolted cast iron top and
bottom pieces carrying the necessary pipe connections and
discharge valves. Fig. 8 illustrates this construction and also shows
fairly clearly the method of driving or revolving the discharge valves.
The top flange of the valve has a worm wheel tooth cut around its
periphery and the actuating worm engages in this wheel, thereby
obtaining a large reduction in speed. In other words, the worm can
be driven by a light, high speed belt and pulley, and still revolve the
valve at a very low speed; such gearing is smooth, silent running,
and altogether admirable for such a purpose as the one under
consideration.
 Fig. 8.—Fixed Discharger with Glass Receiver.

A very common form of separator, which is used almost invariably

on plants dealing with wood shavings, sawdust and similar materials,
is known as the cyclone or centrifugal separator. This is usually
constructed with a sheet steel body with the inlet for the dust-laden
air at the top, and so arranged that the air enters tangentially. Inside
there is a smaller cylinder of sheet steel forming an air outlet, and
the laden air sweeps round the annular space between the body and
the inner cylinder. This results in a whirling action and the material
entrained in the air is projected by centrifugal force against the side
of the separator body. In some instances an internal ledge, or plate
of “corkscrew” form, leads the material downwards towards the outlet
at the bottom of the separator.
In the case of some of the denser materials which can be
conveyed by air, it is sufficient to connect the discharge pipe to an
open bin or chamber, the material in such cases being heavy enough
to separate itself by the action of gravity.
Mr. Gordon S. Layton, describing dischargers in his paper, before
the Engineering Group of the Society of Chemical Industry
(Birmingham, April, 1920), stated—
“There are two types of dischargers in use: The first
consists of a large steel box divided into two
compartments. This box is arranged to oscillate about a
horizontal axis, so that each compartment alternately is
brought under the lower opening of the receiver vessel.
“The other type of discharger consists of a bucket wheel
rotating continuously inside a closely fitting casing. The
material which is being conveyed falls into the pockets of
the bucket wheel when these are on the top of their
revolution, and is passed out through an opening in the
lower side of the casing.
 “It will be obvious that the working of both types is liable
to be interrupted by the jamming of a foreign body (such
as a piece of wood or a bolt) in the working parts; in each
case, special mechanism for driving the discharger has
been devised, to avoid the interruption resulting from such
blocking, and to enable the discharger to keep on working
continuously.”
The rotary type of discharger is preferable to the tipping box type,
for the following reasons: because the rotary discharger is more
easily kept air-tight, works without vibration, and gives a practically
continuous stream, whereas the discharge from the tipping box
occurs as large isolated masses of material.
It is impossible to give specific details concerning the discharger
because, in all cases, the conditions under which the plant has to
work affect the whole design. For instance, where the working is only
intermittent, e.g. the removal of ashes from a boiler-house, the
discharger can be eliminated, provided that the ash bunker is large
enough to hold the quantity of ashes to be dealt with at each
operation. In such a case, the ash container would be capable of
being exhausted, and the material entering as before would simply
drop by gravity into the container and remain there until the pump
was shut down; it would then be allowed to gravitate into the truck or
other conveyance for disposing of the ashes.
Hand-holes for cleaning, and easy access to the interior are
essential in the design of a discharger, especially if the material to be
handled is liable to “pack” when entering at a high velocity.
Pipe Lines. One of the most important points in the designing of a
pneumatic conveying system is the correct lay-out of the pipe line.
 Fig. 9.—Sturtevant Patent Junction.

A fatal mistake often made in low pressure and exhausting

systems is that the numerous branch pipes are added to or altered
after the makers have left the original installation. Almost invariably,
branches thus added are made to approach the main trunk at too
great an angle, with the result that eddies and whirlpools are created
within the pipe, seriously reducing the output of the main trunk. So
essential is it that this junction should be correct and that the two
streams should run as nearly parallel as possible, that the Sturtevant
Engineering Co. has patented a special junction (Fig. 9) to bring
together the two streams of air in the main and the branch pipe
practically parallel, as shown.
Bends. In connection with high pressure systems, the following
points are of great importance. All vertical and horizontal straight
lengths may be of a light section constructed in steel. Bends should
be avoided whenever possible, and those which are inevitable
should be made in hard cast iron, with every possible provision for
easy replacement of wearing parts.
The wear takes place at the point of actual contact which, in
elbows, is practically confined to one place only. The material rushes
to the end, strikes the bend, and—suddenly changing its direction of
travel—whirls off down the next straight length. The impact and the
resulting wear on the pipe, as well as the breaking of the material
conveyed, are naturally much greater in elbows than in easy bends,
but if the breaking of the material is not detrimental, elbows should
be employed, as they are less costly and can be replaced more
quickly and easily.
 Certain raw materials—such as salt, soda, lime and various
chemicals—which have to be ground before use, may be prepared
to a considerable extent for this operation by the use of elbows. On
the other hand, easy bends should be employed for material which it
is desired to convey without damage, e.g. malt, coal, and granular
substances, which are finally required in granular form and not as
powder.
The wear in bends is only on the external radius of the bend, and
then is inclined to be localized at certain points rather than
distributed over the full sweep of the bend (see Fig. 10); this being
so, it is often desirable so to construct the bends that the back is in
segments which can be renewed easily (see Fig. 11). Alternatively,
the bend may be constructed on the “lobster” principle (Fig. 12), only
the worn sections being replaced when overhauling. It is not
necessary always to take a bend at an angle of 90°, and if the small
short angle sections are interchangeable, then almost any angle can
be constructed by building up with the necessary number of
sections.

Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 10.—Course taken by Material Round Bend.

Fig. 11.—Segment-Back Bend.
Fig. 12.—Lobster Bend.
 With regard to the straight lengths of pipe, it is necessary to
ensure a smooth internal bore, especially at the joints. It is therefore
desirable that the joints should be self-aligning as, if this is not the
case, eddies will be formed which will cause the material to deviate
from the centre of the pipe, striking the side at one or more definite
points where holes will eventually be worn through the pipe.
In vertical pipes the evidence of wear is negligible, in fact the
conveyed material presumably does not touch the pipe at all, but
travels up the centre of it as a core.
Capacity of Pipes. The velocity of the air passing up the pipe
should be from 40 to 50 ft. per sec., equivalent to about 35 miles per
hour.
The conveying capacity of an efficient pipe line is approximately
15 per cent. of the total capacity: in other words, if the total cross-
sectional area of the pipe be taken as 100, the effective cross-
sectional area as regards conveying is 15.
Flexible Connections. The flexible connections attached to the
permanent pipes may be ordinary tubing, as made by the Flexible
Metallic Co. Phosphor bronze and other metals have been tried, but
the extra cost is not justified. A loose screw collar connection makes
possible easy fixing, and permits the flexible connection to be
removed easily to prevent damage when not in use. Rubber tubing,
reinforced with steel wires, would be best where it is important that
the material conveyed should not be damaged, but the wear on such
tubing is so rapid that the extra cost is not recovered by the saving in
damage to ordinary materials. The length of the flexible pipe should
be such that the movement over the greatest area to be covered
does not put too great a strain on the bending properties of the
tubing. On the other hand, unnecessary increase in the length of the
flexible pipe merely increases the cost of one of the shortest lived
portions of the plant, the “scrap value” of which is almost negligible.
 Showing Three Positions of the Valve.
Fig. 13.—King Full-way Junction Valve.

Valves, etc. For use where branches are inserted in the main pipe
line for convenience in either lifting over, or discharging over, a large
area, special appliances have been designed and these should be
used, as they do not create eddies or increase the pipe friction
appreciably, or reduce the carrying capacity of the pipe line. The
King patent full-way junction valve is an excellent example, and is
shown in Fig. 13, from which it will be seen that a full bore circuit can
be completed in any of three directions. This valve has no corners
where the material can collect, hence the pipes are sucked perfectly
clean the moment the feed is shut off.
Another convenient fitting of this description is the Boby patent
pipe switch. This device is similar to a switch as used on a railway
track, and by its use three separate side positions may be connected
with one part on the main transport line. When the switch is thrown
over so as to connect to any one particular branch, all other
branches are disconnected.
Telescopic Pipes. When the unloading of ships is carried out by
“suction” it is necessary to make provision for lengthening or
shortening the vertical suction pipe, or pipes (see Frontispiece),
because the ship will rise as relieved of its cargo, and the suction
nozzle will simultaneously move towards the bottom of the hold as
the cargo is discharged.
A still greater difficulty is encountered in tidal rivers, where the rise
and fall may be many feet and must be allowed for continuously.
This is best done by the introduction of telescopic pipes in the
vertical downright pipes. These must be so constructed that while it
is fairly easy to increase or decrease their length, the pipes must
remain air-tight at the joints and connections.
Where the rise and fall is small the difference in level may be
compensated by a ball and socket joint, and a counter balance on
the jib arm, but this method has its limitations.
Pipes for High Pressure Systems. Coming now to the “small
pipe,” high pressure systems as used for vacuum cleaning plants,
the pipe lines must be designed and installed carefully and on a
liberal basis. It is mistaken policy to attempt to economize by using a
smaller main on branch pipes. Small diameter pipes cause
excessive losses by friction, and naturally are less efficient as
regards power consumption.
The frictional losses in a system of this description vary directly as
the length of the pipe, and inversely as the fifth power of the
diameter. Large pipes are therefore very desirable, not only because
of their greater carrying capacity—which is very desirable—but also
because such things as matches, hairpins, etc., are picked up every
day by an installation as fitted in hotels, restaurants and theatres.
Such material quickly clogs small pipes and causes endless trouble
and delay.
The flexible hose should be as short as is consistent with ease of
working, because the frictional losses in this class of tubing are very
great. It would be preferable to increase the number of wall plugs,
rather than have to use very long lengths of flexible hose.

Fig. 14.—Suction Nozzles for High Pressure Systems.

Suction Nozzles. Probably more patents have been taken out on

new suction nozzles than on any other portion of a pneumatic
suction plant. The chief desiderata for a nozzle on a high pressure
system for wheat, coal, ashes, etc., are that it be of light construction
to allow of easy manipulation by the operator, and that it have some
means of allowing a “free air” inlet, making it impossible to choke the
nozzle by burying the end. It is an advantage to be able to regulate
the free air inlet according to the conditions existing with different
materials. The same nozzle that will act best while dealing with a
large bulk of material, may be quite unsuitable when it becomes
necessary to “clean up” in the corners of the hold or waggon. Fig. 14
shows different types of nozzles for high pressure plants, but as the
efficiency and capacity of the plant can be affected seriously by the
design of this portion of the apparatus, it is highly advisable to allow
the designer to have a free hand and to make use of the experience
already gained.
Fig. 15.—Sturtevant Equipment Removing Wood Refuse from
Double Tenoning Machine.

Nozzles designed for low pressure systems, dealing with dust,

shavings, etc., have to be built to suit the machine to which they are
attached, and they therefore vary indefinitely in details of design and
construction. The same remarks apply to the nozzles for use on
suction cleaning plants. Figs. 15 and 16 show how the suction
nozzles are adapted to the machines.
 Fig. 16.—Sturtevant Equipment Removing Dust from Sand-
papering Machines.

It must be remembered that in low pressure systems handling

shavings, dust, etc., the problem is quite different from that in high
pressure systems handling wheat, etc. In the case of removing dust
or shavings from a machine, the material is already in motion, and
only requires drawing forward and into the pipe system, but in the
case of conveyors for wheat, coal, etc., and in the case of suction
cleaners, the material to be moved is heavy and stationary and has
to be lifted and started in motion before it can be carried away. This
necessitates a much higher air velocity through the collecting
nozzles.
Idle Nozzles should be Closed. It is perhaps advisable to draw
attention at this point to the disadvantages of using more than one
suction nozzle on one receiver at one and the same time. The reader
is asked to recall the fact that the material is not lifted by vacuum,
but that the production of a partial vacuum causes a stream of air to
pass up the pipe at high velocity. The material to be conveyed is
entrained with the air, and due to the frictional contact between the
particles of air and the particles of material, the latter is lifted and
carried forward.
If the conveying plant is to be efficient and of reasonable capacity,
the pipes must be relatively large, and in order that the desired
partial vacuum may be maintained in them (establishing a vigorous
air current) without the use of an unduly large pump, it is important
that air be admitted only through those nozzles which are actually in
use. Also, when more than one nozzle is in use at the same time, it
is necessary to keep each nozzle covered with material to such an
extent that the same amount of air passes into each pipe. Unless
this is done a large quantity of air will pass up one pipe, and a small
quantity up the other, and the amount of material taken in at each
nozzle will vary as the quantity of air varies. To consider an extreme
case, suppose that the man operating at one of the pipes allows his
nozzle to become exposed. Air will rush in at this nozzle to the full
capacity of the pump, with the result that little or no air will pass up
the second pipe, and consequently no material either. Thus, if one
man is sufficiently neglectful to leave his nozzle idle and open, he
renders practically useless the other nozzle or nozzles on the same
main.
Even with care this is bound to occur to a certain extent, as is
shown by the figures given by makers for the estimated power
consumption, viz., about 1 h.p. per ton on single-nozzle plants, and
1½ h.p. on double-nozzle plants.
Under these conditions it should be considered whether it is more
advisable to install one large plant with two nozzles, or two small
plants, each with only one nozzle. The decision depends upon the
extra cost of power for the double-nozzle plant compared with the
higher capital charges on the two single-nozzle plants.
 CHAPTER IV
TYPICAL INSTALLATIONS FOR GRAIN

The pneumatic principle has been applied to the handling of grain in

bulk to a much greater extent than to any other material. As
previously stated, the original successful plant invented and
designed by Mr. Frederic Duckham was for the handling of wheat for
the Millwall Docks Co., and the success of this plant was such that it
was imitated by engineers in this country and abroad with equally
satisfactory results.
Grain lends itself admirably to pneumatic transport because it is
easy of flow, regular in size, and practically self-feeding. Also, the
removal of dust, which is incidental to pneumatic conveying, is a
special advantage where grain is concerned. Figs. 17 and 18 show
clearly the advantages of pneumatic conveying in point of simplicity
and labour saving.
Typical Quayside Plant. Fig. 19 shows a typical lay-out for a
comparatively small plant handling 50 tons per hour. The diagram is
almost self explanatory.
A represents the special suction nozzle through which the grain
enters the system, together with the “free air” which acts as the
conveying medium.
Fig. 17.—Ancient.