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Phase transition
(Redirected from First-order phase transition)
In chemistry, thermodynamics, and other related
fields like physics and biology, a phase
transition (or phase change) is the phy:
process of transition between one
medium and another. Commonly the term is
used to refer to changes among the basic states of
matter: solid, liquid, and gas, and in rare cases,
plasma. A phase of a thermodynamic system and
the states of matter have uniform physical
properties. During a phase transition of a given
medium, certain properties of the medium
change as a result of the change of external
conditions, such as temperature or pressure. This
can be a discontinuous change; for example, a
liquid may become gas upon heating to its
boiling point, resulting in an abrupt change in
volume. The identification of the external
conditions at which a transformation occurs
defines the phase transition point.
Types of phase transition
Enthalpy of system
This diagram shows the nomenclature for the
different phase transitions
States of matter
Phase transitions commonly refer to when a substance
transforms between one of the four states of matter to
another. At the phase transition point for a substance, for
instance the boiling point, the two phases involved - liquid
and vapor, have identical free energies and therefore are
equally likely to exist. Below the boiling point, the liquid is
the more stable state of the two, whereas above the boiling
point the gaseous form is the more stable.
Common transitions between the solid, liquid, and gaseous
phases of a single component, due to the effects of
temperature and/or pressure are identified in the following
table:
reset
simplified phase diagram for water,
showing whether solid ice, liquid water, or
gaseous water vapor is the most stable at
different combinations of temperature
and pressure.Phase transitions of matter ()
From | Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
Solid Mekting ‘Sublimation
Freezing Vaporization
Gas__| Deposition | Condensation lonization
Recombination
Plasma
For a single component, the most stable phase at different temperatures and pressures can be
shown on a phase diagram. Such a diagram usually depicts states in equilibrium. A phase
transition usually occurs when the pressure or temperature changes and the system crosses from
one region to another, like water turning from liquid to solid as soon as the temperature drops
below the freezing point. In exception to the usual case, it is sometimes possible to change the state
of a system diabatically (as opposed to adiabatically) in such a way that it can be brought past a
phase transition point without undergoing a phase transition. The resulting state is metastable,
ice., less stable than the phase to which the transition would have occurred, but not unstable either.
This occurs in superheating and supercooling, for example. Metastable states do not appear on
usual phase diagrams.
Structural
Phase transitions can also occur when a solid changes to a
different structure without changing its chemical makeup.
In elements, this is known as allotropy, whereas in
compounds it is known as polymorphism. The change from
one crystal structure to another, from a crystalline solid to °°) ver
an amorphous solid, or from one amorphous structure to ==»
another (polyamorphs) are all examples of solid to solid ao!
phase transitions.
‘The martensitic transformation occurs as one of the many
phase transformations in carbon steel and stands as a
model for displacive phase transformations. Order-
‘Aphase diagram showing the allotropes
disorder transitions such as in alpha-titanium aluminides.
‘As with states of matter, there are also a metastable to
equilibrium phase transformation for structural phase
transitions. A metastable polymorph which forms rapidly
due to lower surface energy will transform to an
of iron, distinguishing between different
several different crystal structures
including ferrite (a-iron) and austenite (y-
iron).
equilibrium phase given sufficient thermal input to overcome an energetic barrier.
Magnetic
Phase transitions can also describe the change between different kinds of magnetic ordering. The
most well-known is the transition between the ferromagnetic and paramagnetic pha
of
magnetic materials, which occurs at what is called the Curie point. Another example is thetransition between differently ordered, commensurate or
; _— 10
incommensurate, magnetic structures, such as in cerium f
antimonide. A simplified but highly useful model of ost, “"”
magnetic phase transitions is provided by the Ising Model & -
Bos
Mixtures gos
Phase transitions involving solutions and mixtures are = gy
more complicated than transitions involving a single
compound. While chemically pure compounds exhibit a og HT
single temperature melting point between solid and liquid ecaieacr
phases, mixtures can either have a single melting point, a phase diagram showing different
known as congruent melting, or they have different — magnetic structures in the same crystal
liquidus and solidus temperatures resulting in a stuclure of Manganese monosilcide
temperature span where solid and liquid coexist in
equilibrium. This is often the case in solid solutions, where
the two components are isostructural.
There are also a number of phase transitions involving
a eutectic transformation, in which a two-
cooled and transforms
into two solid phases. The same process, but beginning
with a solid instead of a liquid is called a eutectoid
transformation. A peritectic transformation, in which a
two-component single-phase solid is heated and
transforms into a solid phase and a liquid phase. A
peritectoid reaction is a peritectoid rection, except
involving only solid phas
of change from a liquid and to a combination of a solid and
a second liquid, where the two liquids display a miscibility
gap.
Abinary phase diagram showing the
most stable chemical compounds of
titanium and nickel at different mixing
ratios and temperatures.
A monotectic reaction consists
Separation into multiple phases can occur via spinodal decomposition, in which a single phase is
cooled and separates into two different compositions.
Non-equilibrium mixtures can occur, such as in supersaturation.
Other examples
Other phase changes include:
= Transition to a mesophase between solid and liquid, such as one of the "liquid crystal" phases.
= The dependence of the adsorption geometry on coverage and temperature, such as for
hydrogen on iron (110).
= The emergence of superconductivity in certain metals and ceramics when cooled below a
critical temperature.
= The emergence of metamaterial properties in artificial photonic media as their parameters are
varied [213]
= Quantum condensation of bosonic fluids (Bose-Einstein condensation). The superfluid
transition in liquid helium is an example of this,= The breaking of symmetries in the laws of physics during
the early history of the universe as its temperature cooled
= Isotope fractionation occurs during a phase transition, the
ratio of light to heavy isotopes in the involved molecules
changes. When water vapor condenses (an equilibrium
fractionation), the heavier water isotopes (180 and 2H)
become enriched in the liquid phase while the lighter
isotopes (‘60 and ‘H) tend toward the vapor phase.'4)
Phase transitions occur when the thermodynamic free energy
of a system is non-analytic for some choice of thermodynamic
variables (cf. phases). This condition generally stems from the 4 smal piece of rapidly melting sold
interactions of a large number of particles in a system, and
argon shows two concurrent phase
does not appear in systems that are small. Phase transitions changes. The transition from solid to
can occur for non-thermodynamic systems, where temperature __ liquid, and gas to liquid (shown by
is not a parameter. Examples include: quantum phase white condensed water vapour).
transitions, dynamic phase transitions, and topological
(structural) phase transitions. In these types of systems other parameters take the place of
temperature. For instance, connection probability replaces temperature for percolating networks.
Classifications
Ehrenfest clas:
ication
Paul Ehrenfest classified phase transitions based on the behavior of the thermodynamic free
energy as a function of other thermodynamic variables.!5] Under this scheme, phase transitions
were labeled by the lowest derivative of the free energy that is discontinuous at the transition.
First-order phase transitions exhibit a discontinuity in the first derivative of the free energy with
respect to some thermodynamic variable.!! The various solid/liquid/gas transitions are classified
as first-order transitions because they involve a discontinuous change in density, which is the
(inverse of the) first derivative of the free energy with respect to pressure. Second-order phase
transitions are continuous in the first derivative (the order parameter, which is the first derivative
of the free energy with respect to the external field, is continuous across the transition) but exhibit
discontinuity in a second derivative of the free energy.!! These include the ferromagnetic phase
transition in materials such as iron, where the magnetization, which is the first derivative of the
free energy with respect to the applied magnetic field strength, increases continuously from zero as
the temperature is lowered below the Curie temperature. The magnetic susceptibility, the second
derivative of the free energy with the field, changes discontinuously. Under the Ehrenfest
classification scheme, there could in principle be third, fourth, and higher-order phase transitions.
For example, the Gross—Witten—Wadia phase transition in 2-d lattice quantum chromodynamics
is a third-order phase transition.!7l8! The Curie points of many ferromagnetics is also a third-
order transition, as shown by their specific heat having a sudden change in slope./91l201
In practice, only the first- and second-order phase transitions are typically observed. The second-
order phase transition was for a while controversial, as it seems to require two sheets of the Gibbs
free energy to osculate exactly, which is so unlikely as to never occur in practice, Cornelis Gorter
replied the criticism by pointing out that the Gibbs free energy surface might have two sheets on
one side, but only one sheet on the other side, creating a forked appearance.!""] ((91 pp, 146--150)The Ehrenfest classification implicitly allows for continuous ph:
bonding character of a material changes, but there is no discontinuity in any free energy derivative.
An example of this occurs at the supercritical liquid—gas boundaries.
transformations, where the
The first example of a phase transition which did not fit into the Ehrenfest classification was the
exact solution of the Ising model, discovered in 1944 by Lars Onsager. The exact specific heat
differed from the earlier mean-field approximations, which had predicted that it has a simple
discontinuity at critical temperature. Instead, the exact specific heat had a logarithmic divergence
at the critical temperature.) In the following decades, the Ehrenfest classification was replaced
by a simplified classification scheme that is able to incorporate such transitions.
Modern classifications
In the modern class
ification scheme, phase transitions are divided into two broad categories,
named similarly to the Ehrenfest classes: (5)
First-order phase transitions are those that involve a latent heat. During such a transition, a
system either absorbs or releases a fixed (and typically large) amount of energy per volume. During
this proc em will stay constant as heat is added: the s
"mixed-phase regime” in which some parts of the system have completed the transition and others
have not.3I4)
the temperature of the s stem is ina
Familiar examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water (the water does not instantly turn
into vapor, but forms a turbulent mixture of liquid water and vapor bubbles). Yoseph Imry and
Michael Wortis showed that quenched disorder can broaden a first-order transition. That is, the
transformation is completed over a finite range of temperatures, but phenomena like supercooling
and superheating survive and hysteresis is observed on thermal cycling, 45IL61l37]
Second-order phase transitions are also called "continuous phase transitions". They are
characterized by a divergent susceptibility, an infinite correlation length, and a power law decay of
correlations near criticality. Examples of second-order phase transitions are the ferromagnetic
transition, superconducting transition (for a Type-I superconductor the phase transition is second-
order at zero external field and for a Type-II superconductor the phase transition is second-order
for both normal-state-mixed-state and mixed-state-superconducting-state transitions) and the
superfluid transition. In contrast to viscosity, thermal expansion and heat capacity of amorphous
materials show a relatively sudden change at the glass transition temperaturel"®! which enables
accurate detection using differential scanning calorimetry measurements. Lev Landau gave a
phenomenological theory of second-order phase transitions.
Apart from isolated, simple phase transitions, there exist transition lines as well as multicritical
points, when varying external parameters like the magnetic field or composition.
Several transitions are known as infinite-order phase transitions. They are continuous but break
no symmetries. ‘The most famous example is the Kosterlitz~Thouless transition in the two-
dimensional XY model. Many quantum phase transitions, e.g., in two-dimensional electron gases,
belong to this class.
‘The liquid-glass transition is observed in many polymers and other liquids that can be
supercooled far below the melting point of the crystalline phase. This is atypical in several respects.
It is not a transition between thermodynamic ground states: it is widely believed that the truete is always crystalline. Glass is a quenched disorder state, and its entropy, density, and
so on, depend on the thermal history. Therefore, the glass transition is primarily a dynamic
phenomenon: on cooling a liquid, internal degrees of freedom successively fall out of equilibrium.
Some theoretical methods predict an underlying phase transition in the hypothetical limit of
infinitely long relaxation times.!*912¢] No direct experimental evidence supports the existence of
these transitions.
Characteristic properties
Phase coexistence
A disorder-broadened first-order transition occurs over a finite range of temperatures where the
fraction of the low-temperature equilibrium phase grows from zero to one (100%) as the
temperature is lowered. This continuous variation of the coexisting fractions with temperature
raised interesting possibilities. On cooling, some liquids vitrify into a glass rather than transform
to the equilibrium crystal phase. This happens if the cooling rate is faster than a critical cooling
rate, and is attributed to the molecular motions becoming so slow that the molecules cannot
rearrange into the crystal positions.!2" ‘This slowing down happens below a glass-formation
temperature T,, which may depend on the applied pressure."*ll22] If the first-order freezing
transition occurs over a range of temperatures, and 7, falls within this range, then there is an
interesting possibility that the transition is arrested when it is partial and incomplete. Extending
these ideas to first-order magnetic transitions being arrested at low temperatures, resulted in the
observation of incomplete magnetic transitions, with two magnetic phases coexisting, down to the
lowest temperature. First reported in the case of a ferromagnetic to anti-ferromagnetic
transition, 23] such persistent phase coexistence has now been reported across a variety of first-
order magnetic transitions. These include colossal-magnetoresistance manganite materials,[241(25]
magnetocaloric materials,(26) magnetic shape memory materials,!27] and other materials.[28) The
interesting feature of these observations of ‘7, falling within the temperature range over which the
transition occurs is that the first-order magnetic transition is influenced by magnetic field, just like
the structural transition is influenced by pressure. The relative ease with which magnetic fields can
be controlled, in contrast to pressure, raises the possibility that one can study the interplay
between T, and T, in an exhaustive way. Phase coexistence across first-order magnetic transitions
will then enable the resolution of outstanding issues in understanding glasses.
Critical points
In any system containing liquid and gaseous phases, there exists a special combination of pressure
and temperature, known as the critical point, at which the transition between liquid and gas
becomes a second-order transition. Near the critical point, the fluid is sufficiently hot and
compressed that the distinction between the liquid and gaseous phases is almost non-existent. This
is associated with the phenomenon of critical opalescence, a milky appearance of the liquid due to
density fluctuations at all possible wavelengths (including those of visible light).
Symmetry
Phase transitions often involve a symmetry breaking process. For instance, the cooling of a fluid
into a crystalline solid breaks continuous translation symmetry: each point in the fluid has the
same properties, but each point in a crystal does not have the same properties (unless the pointsare chosen from the lattice points of the crystal lattice). Typically, the high-temperature phase
contains more symmetries than the low-temperature phase due to spontaneous symmetry
breaking, with the exception of certain accidental symmetries (e.g. the formation of heavy virtual
particles, which only occurs at low temperatures).[29]
Order parameters
An order parameter is a measure of the degree of order across the boundaries in a phase
transition system; it normally ranges between zero in one phase (usually above the critical point)
and nonzero in the other!°l At the critical point, the order parameter susceptibility will usually
diverge.
‘An example of an order parameter is the net magnetization in a ferromagnetic system undergoing
a phase transition. For liquid/gas transitions, the order parameter is the difference of the dens
From a theoretical perspective, order parameters arise from symmetry breaking. When this
happens, one needs to introduce one or more extra variables to describe the state of the system.
For example, in the ferromagnetic phase, one must provide the net magnetization, whose direction
was spontaneously chosen when the system cooled below the Curie point. However, note that order
parameters can also be defined for non-symmetry-breaking transitions
Some phase transitions, such as superconducting and ferromagnetic, can have order parameters
for more than one degree of freedom. In such phases, the order parameter may take the form of a
complex number, a vector, or even a tensor, the magnitude of which goes to zero at the phase
transition.
There also exist dual descriptions of phase transitions in terms of disorder parameters. These
indicate the presence of line-like excitations such as vortex- or defect lines.
Relevance
cosmology
Symmetry-breaking phase transitions play an important role in cosmology. As the universe
expanded and cooled, the vacuum underwent a series of symmetry-breaking phase transitions. For
example, the electroweak transition broke the SU(2)xU(1) symmetry of the electroweak field into
the U(1) symmetry of the present-day electromagnetic field. This transition is important to explain
the asymmetry between the amount of matter and antimatter in the present-day universe,
according to electroweak baryogenesis theory.
Progressive phase transitions in an expanding universe are implicated in the development of order
in the universe, as is illustrated by the work of Eric Chaisson!3! and David Layzer.{32]
See also relational order theories and order and disorder.
Critical exponents and universality classes
Continuous phase transitions are easier to study than first-order transitions due to the absence of
latent heat, and they have been discovered to have many interesting properties. The phenomena
associated with continuous phase transitions are called critical phenomena, due to their
association with critical points.Continuous phase transitions can be characterized by parameters known as critical exponents. The
most important one is perhaps the exponent describing the divergence of the thermal correlation
length by approaching the transition. For instance, let us examine the behavior of the heat capacity
near such a transition. We vary the temperature T of the system while keeping all the other
thermodynamic variables fixed and find that the transition occurs at some critical temperature T,.
When Tis near T,, the heat capacity C typically has a power law behavior:
Co |f,-T\*.
‘The heat capacity of amorphous materials has such a behaviour near the glass transition
temperature where the universal critical exponent a = 0.59/33! A similar behavior, but with the
exponent v instead of a, applies for the correlation length.
The exponent v is positive. This is different with a. Its actual value depends on the type of phase
transition we are considering.
The critical exponents are not necessarily the same above and below the critical temperature.
When a continuous symmetry is explicitly broken down to a discrete symmetry by irrelevant (in
the renormalization group sense) anisotropies, then some exponents (such as 7, the exponent of
the susceptibility) are not identical.{34]
For -1< @< 0, the heat capacity has a "kink" at the transition temperature. This is the behavior of
liquid helium at the lambda transition from a normal state to the superfluid state, for which
experiments have found a = -0.013 + 0.003. At least one experiment was performed in the zero-
gravity conditions of an orbiting satellite to minimize pressure differences in the sample.!5! This
experimental value of a agrees with theoretical predictions based on variational perturbation
theory.{36)
For 0 < a <1, the heat capacity diverges at the transition temperature (though, since a < 1, the
enthalpy stays finite). An example of such behavior is the 3D ferromagnetic phase transition. In the
three-dimensional Ising model for uniaxial magnets, detailed theoretical studies have yielded the
exponent a ~ +0.110.
Some model systems do not obey a power-law behavior. For example, mean field theory predicts a
finite discontinuity of the heat capacity at the transition temperature, and the two-dimensional
Ising model has a logarithmic divergence. However, these systems are limiting cases and an
exception to the rule, Real phase transitions exhibit power-law behavior.
Several other critical exponents, , y, 6, v, and n, are defined, examining the power law behavior of
a measurable physical quantity near the phase transition. Exponents are related by scaling
relations, such as
B=/(5-1), v=/(2-n).
Tt can be shown that there are only two independent exponents, e.g. vand 7.
It is a remarkable fact that phase transitions arising in different systems often possess the same set
of critical exponents. This phenomenon is known as universality. For example, the critical
exponents at the liquid-gas critical point have been found to be independent of the chemical
composition of the fluid.More impressively, but understandably from above, they are an exact match for the critical
exponents of the ferromagnetic phase transition in uniaxial magnets. Such systems are said to be
in the same universality class. Universality is a prediction of the renormalization group theory of
phase transitions, which states that the thermodynamic properties of a system near a phase
transition depend only on a small number of features, such as dimensionality and symmetry, and
are insensitive to the underlying microscopic properties of the system. Again, the divergence of the
correlation length is the essential point.
Critical phenomena
There are also other critical phenomena; e.g., besides static functions there is also critical
dynamics. As a consequence, at a phase transition one may observe critical slowing down or
speeding up. Connected to the previous phenomenon is also the phenomenon of enhanced
‘fluctuations before the phase transition, as a consequence of lower degree of stability of the initial
phase of the system. The large static universality classes of a continuous phase transition split into
smaller dynamic universality classes. In addition to the critical exponents, there are also universal
relations for certain static or dynamic functions of the magnetic fields and temperature differences
from the critical value.
Phase transitions in biological systems
Phase tran:
ions play many important roles in biological systems. Examples include the lipid
bilayer formation, the coil-globule transition in the process of protein folding and DNA melting,
liquid crystal-like transitions in the process of DNA condensation, and cooperative ligand binding
to DNA and proteins with the character of phase transition. [37!
In biological membranes, gel to liquid crystalline phase transitions play a critical role in
physiological functioning of biomembranes. In gel phase, due to low fluidity of membrane lipid
fatty-acyl chains, membrane proteins have restricted movement and thus are restrained in exercise
of their physiological role. Plants depend critically on photosynthesis by chloroplast thylakoid
membranes which are exposed cold environmental temperatures. Thylakoid membranes retain
innate fluidity even at relatively low temperatures because of high degree of fatty-acyl disorder
allowed by their high content of linolenic acid, 18-carbon chain with 3-double bonds,/38] Gel-to-
liquid crystalline phase trans an be determined by
many techniques including calorimetry, fluorescence, spin label electron paramagnetic resonance
and NMR by recording measurements of the concerned parameter by at series of sample
temperatures. A simple method for its determination from 13-C NMR line intensities has also been
proposed (391
ion temperature of biological membrane:
It has been proposed that some biological systems might lie near critical points. Examples include
neural networks in the salamander retina,/4°] bird flocks!4"] gene expression networks in
Drosophila,/42! and protein folding.!43! However, it is not clear whether or not alternative reasons
could explain some of the phenomena supporting arguments for criticality.!44] It has also been
suggested that biological organisms share two key properties of phase transitions: the change of
macroscopic behavior and the coherence of a system at a critical point.[45! Phase transitions are
prominent feature of motor behavior in biological s £46] spontaneous gait transitions, /47] as
well as fatigue-induced motor task disengagements,48] show typical critical behavior as an
intimation of the sudden qualitative change of the previously stable motor behavioral pattern.
systetThe characteristi
feature of second order phase transitions is the appearance of fractals in some
le-free properties. It has long been known that protein globules are shaped by interactions with
water. There are 20 amino acids that form side groups on protein peptide chains range from
hydrophilic to hydrophobic, causing the former to lie near the globular surface, while the latter lie
closer to the globular center. Twenty fractals were discovered in solvent associated surface areas of
> 5000 protein segments./49! The existence of these fract 1s that protei
critical points of second-order phase transitions.
s function near
In groups of organisms in stress (when approaching critical transitions), correlations tend to
increase, while at the same time, fluctuations also increase. This effect is supported by many
experiments and observations of groups of people, mice, trees, and grassy plants.[5°
Experimental
A variety of methods are applied for studying the various effects. Selected examples ar
= Thermogravimetry (very common)
= X-ray diffraction
= Neutron diffraction
= Raman Spectroscopy
= SQUID (measurement of magnetic transitions)
= Hall effect (measurement of magnetic transitions)
= Méssbauer spectroscopy (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic
transitions. Limited up to about 800-1000 °C)
= Perturbed angular correlation (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic
transitions. No temperature limits. Over 2000 °C already performed, theoretical possible up to
the highest crystal material, such as tantalum hafnium carbide 4215 °C.)
See also
= Allotropy — Property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms
= Autocatalytic reactions and order creation — Chemical reaction whose product is also its
catalyst
= Crystal growth - Major stage of a crystallization process
= Abnormal grain growth - materials science phenomenon
* Differential scanning calorimetry - Thermoanalytical technique
= Diffusionless transformations — Shift of atomic positions in a crystal structure
= Ehrenfest equations
= Ising Model — Mathematical model of ferromagnetism in statistical mechanics
= Jamming (physics) — apparent change of physical state
= Kelvin probe force microscope — Noncontact variant of atomic force microscopy
= Landau theory - Theory of continuous phase transitions of second order phase transitions
= Laser-heated pedestal growth — crystal growth technique
* List of states of matter — Different known phase of states matter
= Micro-pulling-down — Crystal growth technique
= Percolation theory — Mathematical theory on behavior of connected clusters in a random graph
= Continuum percolation theory
= Superfluid film - Thin layer of liquid in a superfluid state
= Superradiant phase transition — Process in quantum optics= Topological quantum field theory — Field theory involving topological effects in physics
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Further reading
= Anderson, P.\W., Basic Notions of Condensed Matter Physics, Perseus Publishing (1997).
= Faghri, A., and Zhang, Y., Fundamentals of Multiphase Heat Transfer and Flow (https:/www.sp
ringer.com/gp/book/9783030221362), Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2020
= Fisher, M.E. (1974). "The renormalization group in the theory of critical behavior". Rev. Mod.
Phys. 46 (4): 597-616. Bibcode:1974RvMP...46..597F (https://ui.adsabs. harvard.edu/abs/1974
RvMP...46..597F). doi:10.1103/revmodphys, 46.597 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Frevmodphys.4
6.597).
= Goldenfeld, N., Lectures on Phase Transitions and the Renormalization Group, Perseus
Publishing (1992).
= Ivancevic, Viadimir G; lvancevic, Tijana T (2008), Chaos, Phase Transitions, Topology Change
and Path integrals (https://books. google.com/books?id=wpsPgHgtxEYC&q=complex+nonlinear
ity), Berlin: Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-79356-4, retrieved 14 March 2013
= MR Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar, /ce Phase Transition as a sample of finite system phase
transition, (Physics Education(India)Volume 32. No. 2, Apr - Jun 2016)[1] (http://www.physedui
njuploads/publication/23/37 1/4.-Ice-Phase-transition-as-a-sample-of-finite-system-phase--trans
ition pdf)= Kleinert, H., Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter, Vol. |, "Superfluid and Vortex lines; Disorder
Fields, Phase Transitions", pp. 1-742, World Scientific (Singapore, 1989) (https://archive.today/
20060514143926/http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/0356.htm); Paperback ISBN 9971-5-
0210-0 (readable online physik fu-berlin.de (http:/Awww.physikfu-berlin.de/~kleinert/kleiner_reb
A/contents1html))
= Kleinert, H. and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, Critical Properties of p*-Theories, World Scientific
(Singapore, 2001) (https://web.archive.org/web/20080226151023/http:/mww.worldscibooks.co
miphysics/4733.html); Paperback ISBN 981-02-4659-5 (readable online here [2] (http:/www.ph
ysik.fu-berlin. de/~kleinert/b8))
= Kogut, J.; Wilson, K (1974). "The Renormalization Group and the epsilon-Expansion’. Phys.
Rep. 12 (2): 75-199. Bibcode:1974PhR....12...75W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Ph
R....12...75W). doi:10,1016/0370-1573(74)90023-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0370-1573%28
74%2990023-4).
= Krieger, Martin H., Constitutions of matter : mathematically modelling the most everyday of
physical phenomena, University of Chicago Press, 1996. Contains a detailed pedagogical
discussion of Onsager's solution of the 2-D Ising Model.
= Landau, L.D. and Lifshitz, E.M., Statistical Physics Part 1, vol. 5 of Course of Theoretical
Physics, Pergamon Press, 3rd Ed. (1994).
= Mussardo G., "Statistical Field Theory. An Introduction to Exactly Solved Models of Statistical
Physics", Oxford University Press, 2010.
= Schroeder, Manfred R., Fractals, chaos, power laws : minutes from an infinite paradise, New
York: W. H. Freeman, 1991. Very well-written book in "semi-popular" style—not a textbook—
aimed at an audience with some training in mathematics and the physical sciences. Explains
what scaling in phase transitions is all about, among other things.
= H.E. Stanley, Introduction to Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena (Oxford University
Press, Oxford and New York 1971).
= Yeomans J. M., Statistical Mechanics of Phase Transitions, Oxford University Press, 1992.
External links
= Interactive Phase Transitions on lattices (http://www.ibiblio.org/e-notes/Perc/contents.htm) with
Java applets
= Universality classes (https://web.archive.org/web/20160204235430/http://www.sklogwiki.org/Sk
logWiki/index.php/Universality_classes) from Sklogwiki
Retrieved from *https://en.wikipedia.orgiwindex.php?
tille=Phase_transilion&oldid=1221820729#Modem_classifications"