Compiler Design

Lecture 6

Dr. Rihab Mohamed Naceur ABDELKRIM and Suad Alaofi

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Outlines

◼ The phases of a compiler (Review)

◼ Syntax analysis
◼ Syntax Analyzer
◼ Context-Free Grammar
◼ Derivation
◼ Parse Tree

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The phases of a compiler
◼ A compiler can be divided into two parts:
analysis and synthesis.
Syntax analysis (parsing)
◼ Syntax analysis or parsing is the second phase of a compiler.
◼ We have seen that a lexical analyzer can identify tokens with the help of
regular expressions and pattern rules.
◼ But a lexical analyzer cannot check the syntax of a given sentence due to the
limitations of the regular expressions.
◼ Regular expressions cannot check balancing tokens, such as parenthesis.
◼ Therefore, this phase uses context-free grammar (CFG), which is recognized
by push-down automata.

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Syntax Analyzer
◼ A syntax analyzer or parser takes the input from a lexical analyzer in the
form of token streams.
◼ The parser analyzes the token stream against the production rules to
detect any errors in the code.
◼ The output of this phase is a parse tree.

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Syntax Analyzer

◼ This way, the parser accomplishes two tasks:

1. Parsing the code to generating a parse tree as the output of this phase.
2. Looking for errors in the code.
◼ Parsers are expected to parse the whole code even if some errors exist in the
program.
◼ Parsers use error recovering strategies.

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Context-Free Grammar
◼ A context-free grammar has four components:
1. A set of non-terminals (V):
 Non-terminals are syntactic variables that denote sets of strings.
 The non-terminals define sets of strings that help define the language generated by the
grammar.
2. A set of tokens, known as terminal symbols (Σ):
 Terminals are the basic symbols from which strings are formed.
3. A set of productions (P):
 The productions of a grammar specify the manner in which the terminals and non-
terminals can be combined to form strings.
 Each production consists of a non-terminal called the left side of the production, an
arrow, and a sequence of tokens and/or non- terminals, called the right side of the
production.
4. One of the non-terminals is designated as the start symbol (S); from where the production
begins. 8
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Example
◼ Some examples use expressions
consisting of digits and plus and
minus signs;
◼ e.g., strings such as 9-5+2, 3-1, or
7.
◼ The following grammar describes
the syntax of these expressions.
The productions (P) are:
◼ The non-terminals (V) are: list, digit
◼ list is the start symbol (S) because
its production are given first.
◼ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 and the
operations + - are the terminal
symbols (Σ)
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Derivation
◼ The strings are derived from the start symbol by repeatedly replacing a non-
terminal (initially the start symbol) by the right side of a production, for that
non-terminal.
◼ During parsing, we take two decisions:
1. Deciding the non-terminal which is to be replaced.
2. Deciding the production rule, by which, the non-terminal will be replaced.
◼ To decide which non-terminal to be replaced with production rule, we can have
two options. (Types of Derivation)
1. Left-most Derivation
2. Right-most Derivation

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Types of Derivation
➢ Left-most Derivation
◼ If the sentential form of an input is scanned and replaced from left to right, it is called
left-most derivation.
◼ The sentential form derived by the left-most derivation is called the left-sentential
form.

➢ Right-most Derivation
◼ If we scan and replace the input with production rules, from right to left, it is known as
right-most derivation.
◼ The sentential form derived from the right-most derivation is called the right-
sentential form.

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Example

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Parse Tree

◼ Formally, given a context-free grammar, a parse tree according to the

grammar is a tree with the following properties:
 The root is labeled by the start symbol.
 Each leaf is labeled by a terminal or by e.
 Each interior node is labeled by a non terminal

❑ A parse tree is a graphical representation of a derivation.

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Parse Tree: Example
Step 1

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Parse Tree: Example (Cont.)

Step 2

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Parse Tree: Example (Cont.)
Step 3

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Parse Tree: Example (Cont.)
Step 4

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