ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living

organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
1. Characteristics and Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
Classification of Living chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic
Organisms organisms with cell walls not made of cellulose, spread by
spreading spores in moist/dark/warm environments. Most
have hyphae and mycelium in structure. Ex: yeast,
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms
mushrooms.
MRS GREN Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus
or DNA in the cytoplasm. Many also have plasmids. Ex:
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an E.coli, Salmonella.
organism causing a change of position or place Protocists: Single-celled organism with a nucleus.
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
down nutrient molecules and release energy for seaweed.
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in Main features of all animals:
the internal or external environment
multicellular
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
contains a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same
only feed on organic substances made by other living
kind of organism
things
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and 1.4. Animal Kingdom
development
Mammals
Fur/hair on the skin
1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification External ears (pinna)
System Internal fertilisation, giving the birth of young
Mammary glands
Organisms are classified into groups by the features they Reptiles
share. Thick, dry, scaly skin
Sequence of classification: Kingdom → Phylum →Classes Usually 4 legs
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species. Internal fertilisation, birth from egg
Species are a group of organisms which can reproduce to Soft eggs
produce fertile offspring. Fish
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an Wet scales
internationally agreed system in which the scientific name Streamlined body shape
of an organism comprises two parts showing the genus External fertilisation and soft eggs
and species. Uses gills to breathe
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalized, Amphibians
and the species are not. Smooth, moist skin
The classification of organisms helps show the External fertilisation and soft eggs
evolutionary relationships between them. Gills & Lungs can live on land and water
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help Most have 4 legs
classify organisms. Birds
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely related Feathers on body and scales on legs
two organisms are. Constant internal body temperature
Dichotomous keys use visible features to classify Hard eggs
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and Internal fertilisation, birth through eggs
you follow the one that applies: each choice leads to
another choice until the organism is narrowed down to its 1.5. Arthropods
genus and, finally, species.
Invertebrates are organisms that do not have a backbone.
1.3. The Five Kingdoms All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton

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2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

Crustaceans: (e.g. crabs)

Have an exoskeleton 1 pair of compound eyes
3 body segments – head, thorax, abdomen
More than four pairs of legs (10-14 legs)
Arachnids: (e.g. spiders)
2 body segments – cephalothorax and abdomen
Four pairs of legs (8 legs)
Myriapods: (e.g. centipedes)
Segmented body
Additional segments formed
One pair of antennae
10+ pairs of legs – 1 or 2 pairs on each segment
Insects: (e.g. bees)
3 body segments – head, thorax and abdomen 2. Organisation of the
3 pairs of jointed legs (6 legs)
1 pair of antennae organism
1 or 2 pairs of wings

2.1. Cell Structure and Organisation

1.6. Classification of Plants
All living things are made of cells.
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
and flowering plants. All typical cells have:
Cell membrane: controls movement in and out of cells
Ferns:
Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
Do not produce flowers/seeds
Nucleus: contains DNA and controls the cell
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Reproduce by spores
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis
Flowering plants:
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all above
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Plant cells especially also have:
Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower
Cell wall (all cells except for animal and protoctist cells
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons have cell walls): rigid to keep the shape of the cell,
strengthens the cell
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light
Parallel veins Branching veins energy for photosynthesis
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has everything
3 Flower Parts 4 or 5 Flower Parts above.
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles

1.7. Viruses
Viruses are not part of any classification system due to
not being considered living things.
They do not carry out the seven life processes for
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s metabolic
pathways to make multiple copies of themselves.
Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or
DNA) inside a protein coat.
Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
Prokaryotes DO NOT have mitochondria, rough endoplasmic
ribosomes)
reticulum and a nucleus!

A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall, cell membrane,

cytoplasm, ribosomes, circular DNA, and plasmids.

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Other Forms in Magnification Formula

2.2. Levels of Organisation
Actual size = image size / magnification
Key Terms
Image size = magnification x actual size
Cells - Building Blocks of Life Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)
Tissue - Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function 1cm = 10mm
Organ - Group of tissues working together to perform a 1mm = 1000μm
specific function
Organ system - Group of organs with related functions Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
working together to perform body functions.

Cell Function Adaptation(s) Diagram 3. Movement In and Out of

Biconcave/Disc
shape
Cells
Red
Transport of
blood No nucleus
oxygen 3.1. Diffusion
cell Flexible
Has haemoglobin
Net movement of particles from a region of their higher
Long concentration to a region of their lower concentration (i.e.
Many protein down a concentration gradient) as a result of their
Contracts to get
Muscle fibres in random movement.
structures closer
cell cytoplasm to Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
together
shorten cell when random movement of molecules and ions.
energy available The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
it, molecules which are needed for life, for example,
Movement of glucose and oxygen for respiration, would not be able to
Ciliated mucus in the Tiny hairs called get to the places they are needed. Water is needed as a
cell trachea and cilia solvent.
bronchi Factors that influence diffusion:
Concentration gradient
Elongated shape Temperature
Root Absorb mineral Surface area
for more surface
hair cell ions and water
area Distance

No cytoplasm so
water passes 3.2. Osmosis
freely
Net movement of water molecules from a region of
No cross walls so higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
Xylem Transport water
cells connect to water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
vessel and support plant
form tube permeable membrane
The role of water as a solvent in organisms to aid with
Lignin makes it
digestion, excretion and transport
strong and
Conc. of solute outside cell = conc. inside cell → no change
waterproof
in size
Regular shape so Conc. of solute outside cell > conc. inside cell → cell
many can fit in a shrinks (Flaccid/Plasmolysis)
Palisade small space Conc. of solute outside cell < conc. inside cell → cell swells
Photo-synthesises
cell (Turgid)
Many In animals:
chloroplasts Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause
it to burst (lysis) because it has too much water and no
cell wall.
2.3. Size of Specimens
In plants:
size of drawing image I Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes
M agnification = = = the cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up.
size of specimen actual
​ ​ ​

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Decreasing solute concentration inside of the cell
causes the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and
the vacuole gets smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling
away from the cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.
3.3. Active Transport
Proteins: Add a few drops of Biuret reagent, +ve result =
purple/lilac colour
Fats: Ethanol Emulsion test; ethanol is added to the
mixture, and this is poured into a test tube with an equal
amount of distilled water, then is shaken, +ve result =
milky-white emulsion
Vitamin C: Decolourisation of DCPIP shows that a vitamin
C is probably present.

Movement of particles through a cell membrane from a

region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration (i.e. against a concentration gradient),
using energy from respiration.
Carrier proteins are also used during active transport.

4.3. Structure of a DNA

Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.
It is embedded in the cell membrane to pick up specific
molecules and take them through the cell membrane
against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimize the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by root
hairs cell.

4. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled
(CHO) DNA
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S}) Each strand contains chemicals called bases
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
Smaller molecules Larger molecules The bases always pair up in the same way:
A and T
Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
C and G
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids/peptides Proteins
5. Enzymes
4.2. Food Tests
Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
Starch: Add a few drops of iodine solution (+ve result = and is not changed by the reaction
blue-black colour, -ve result = remains brown) Enzymes are proteins that are involved in all metabolic
Reducing sugars: Add Benedict’s reagent, then the reactions, where they function as biological catalysts.
mixture is heated in a water bath for 2 to 3 minutes Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
(70°C). (+ve result = brick-red precipitate, -ve result = reaction to take place.
remains blue)

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It is important in all living organisms regarding the
reaction rate necessary to sustain life.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused
Lock and Key (model):
Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react,
complementary to the active site.
Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction
Different sequences of amino acids may lead to different
shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences may
be deferred in their function.
5.2. Effect of Temperature on Enzymes
Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature
at which they work best, giving the fastest reaction ≈ at
37°C in animals & humans body.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, frequent collisions.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing its shape
and no longer binding with a substrate.
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.
5.3. Effect of pH on Enzymes
Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an
alkaline.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Pepsin in acidic conditions, Amylase in neutral conditions
and trypsin in alkalinity conditions.
5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme
Activity
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH
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Effect of Temperature Effect of pH
6. Plant Nutrition
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
light+chlorophyll
C arbonDioxide + Water ​
Glucose + Ox
light+cholorophyll
6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ +C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2
​ ​ ​ ​
The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
Chlorophyll is a green dye that traps light energy and
converts it into chemical energy to form carbohydrates
and their subsequent storage.
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
cell wall, making proteins and sugars.
Functions of the carbohydrate made from Photosynthesis
starch as an energy store
cellulose to build cell walls
glucose used in respiration to provide energy
sucrose for transport in the phloem
nectar to attract insects for pollination
6.2. Investigation of Chlorophyll
Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
by ethanol.
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
will remain brown.
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6.3. Investigation of Light
De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours
Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-black
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remains brown
6.4. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
Take two de-starched potted plants.
Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
B.
Inside A, keep N aHC O3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
​
produces C O2 . ​
Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs
C O2 .
​ Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area
Keep both set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.
Perform the starch test on both plants.
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
test
Hydrogencarbonate indicator - measures the carbon dioxide
concentration
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6.5. Limiting Factors
Limiting Factors: something present in the environment in
such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Light Intensity
As the amount of light
increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases (a-
b)
The limiting factor is light
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not
affect the rate (c)
The limiting factor is now
carbon dioxide or
temperature
6.6. Leaf Structure
and are thin.
Cuticle: the waxy layer that prevents water loss from the
top of the leaf
Upper/Lower Epidermis: transparent cell that allows
sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell
Palisade mesophyll: is found at the top of the cell and
contains many chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.
Spongy mesophyll: irregularly shaped cells which create
air spaces to allow the gaseous exchange to take place;
do not contain many chloroplasts
Vascular Bundles: made up of xylem and phloem
Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved
minerals and has lignified walls made of cellulose
Phloem: vessel which transports nutrients
Stomata: little holes that open and close to allow the
gaseous exchange to occur. The stomata are close to
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prevent water loss and open to letting gases in and out. Nutrients Uses
When guard cells lose water, the stoma close (at night), Development and maintenance of
while the stoma opens when guard cells gain water & Calcium
strong bones and teeth
swell (during the day).
Iron Making haemoglobin
Provides bulk for faeces, helps
Fibre (Roughage)
peristalsis
Chemical reactions, solvent for
Water
transport

7.3. Deficiencies
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones
and teeth

7.4. Human Alimentary Canal

6.7. Mineral Requirements
Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: plant lacks
slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow

You need to know what the purpose of these nutrients is
required.
7. Human Nutrition
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water to
maintain good health and metabolism.
Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Children Below 12: Require more calcium
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally, require more energy
Functions of the Organs
Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the
body through the mouth.
Physical Digestion: breakdown of food into smaller pieces
without chemical change.
It increases the surface area of food for the action of
enzymes in chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food
molecules into small, soluble molecules.
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body
as faeces

Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal

7.2. Importance of Dietary Sources
Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical digestion, an
Nutrients Uses area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
Carbohydrates Energy ingestion takes place
Source of energy, building materials, Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy, and helps food slide down oesophagus
making hormones Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ which uses peristalsis
(circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
Energy, building materials, enzymes,
from mouth to stomach
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material
Stomach: has pepsin (a protease) to break down proteins
(muscle), hormones, antibodies
into amino acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid.
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases They also have elastic walls.
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts the:

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Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested by
pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
down starch.
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
is where absorption takes place, adapted by having
villi and microvilli.
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin and lipase.
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
molecules), deamination and makes urea to be sent to the
kidney. Also, site of the breakdown of alcohol and other
toxins.
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle which controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need to
be known.
7.5. Teeth
Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
collagen fibres
Nerves
Blood vessels
7.7. Chemical Digestion
Where enzymes are used to break down large insoluble
substances such as proteins into smaller soluble
substances like amino acids so that they can be absorbed.
Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is produced
in the pancreas (but also in the salivary gland)
Maltase: breaks down into glucose in the membrane of
the epithelium lining in small intestines.
Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides (done by
pepsin-acidic) and then into amino acids (done by trypsin).
Pepsin comes from the stomach and trypsin from the
pancreas (alkali).
Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
produced by the pancreas.
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acidic
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum
from the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme
action.

7.8. Absorption & Villus

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood

Blunt for
Blunt chewing
Rectangular chewing and
Sharp-pointed and grinding.
shape, sharp grinding, one
for piercing Two or three
for cutting and or two roots,
and tearing roots, ridges
biting ridges at the
at the end
end

7.6. Structure of a Tooth

Our teeth are embedded in bone and the gums

The small intestine is the region for absorption of

digested food.
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds
calcium salts on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
Cement: helps to anchor tooth More surface area means more absorption of nutrients
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and can happen.
nerve endings which detect pain. Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol

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Capillaries: provide a better blood supply

8.2. Root Hair Cell
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
some from the colon (large intestine).
The small intestine absorbs 5–10 dm3 per day
The colon absorbs 0.3–0.5 dm3 per day

8. Transport in Plants
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil
Functions of Xylem They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
which increases water absorption rate by osmosis and
transport water and mineral ions, and support ions by active transport.
Functions of Phloem
8.3. Pathway Taken by Water
transport sucrose and amino acids
The large surface area of root hairs is important as it
Adaptations of Xylem
increases the uptake of water and mineral ions.
1. thick walls with lignin
2. no cell contents
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long continuous tube

Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm.
Then it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly,
the mesophyll cells.

8.4. Transpiration
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, and it
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the

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air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata.
\n
Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
diffuses out of the stomata.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between
mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules
Wilting
occurs if water loss is greater than water uptake – cells
become flaccid, tissues become limp, and plants are no
longer supported
Investigating Transpiration
A potometer is used to measure the rate of water uptake
However, it may not be accurate as some water is used
for photosynthesis.
8.5. Uptake of Water
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Caused by water loss in leaves which lowers their water
potential
Water moves from the xylem to leaf tissues via osmosis
Water moves up the stem in the xylem due to tension
(because of the cohesion of water molecules to each
other) caused by water loss from the leaves
Ends with the gain of water through roots
This upwards flow of water is called the transpiration
stream
8.6. Factors Affecting Rate of
Transpiration
Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the water-
holding capacity of air and increase the transpiration rate
Humidity: Low humidity increases the water potential
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere hence
increasing the transpiration rate
Wind speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
steep concentration gradient
8.7. Translocation
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem; from regions of production (sources) to regions of
storage or regions of utilization in respiration or growth
(sinks).
Translocation in different seasons:
Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.
9. Transport in Animals
Circulatory system: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
to ensure a one-way flow of blood.
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Right atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the

9.2. Transport Systems
Single circulation system (fish):
Blood flows through the heart once every complete
circuit
Two heart chambers
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills
Released in body cells, then back to the heart
right ventricle
Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separate.
Pulmonary vein: carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the left atrium
Left atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to the
left ventricle
Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the
aorta
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to
the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and semi-lunar valves: prevent backflow
of blood

Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right Ventricle < Left
Ventricle

9.4. Cardiac Cycle

Atrial diastole,
Double circulation system: Cardiac diastole: Atrial systole, ventricular systole:
Four heart chambers all chambers are ventricular diastole: after the atria relax,
Blood passes through the heart twice every complete relaxed, and atria contract, the ventricles
circuit blood flows into pushing blood into contract, forcing
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, and the heart the ventricles blood out of the
back to the heart heart
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
around the body as the heart pumps the rich Physical activity makes the heart beat faster and more
oxygenated blood to it from the lungs
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
oxygen and glucose can reach the muscles.
9.3. The Heart
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in arteries
The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary (0610/42/F/M/23)
circuit.
caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax

9.5. Exercise on Heart Rate

The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.

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Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and Vessel Function Structure
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more Large and wide lumen to
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle. reduce resistance to the
flow of blood
9.6. Coronary Heart Disease One cell thick wall for
easy diffusion
The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
Highly branched; large
The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood Allow substances to surface area
Capillaries
supply to the heart muscle. diffuse into cells Capillary beds
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a constantly supplied with
heart attack fresh blood, so diffusion
Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking, occurs
genetic predisposition, age and sex
Can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food (a Major Blood Vessels
good diet) and exercising regularly Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries & Veins
Kidney: Renal Arteries & Veins
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal vein
Arterioles and Venules

The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called

arterioles
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
venules

9.8. Blood
Red blood cells: haemoglobin and oxygen transport (oxy-
Arteries, Veins and Capillaries haemoglobin)
White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production
Platelets: allows blood clotting
9.7. Structural Adaptations of Vessels Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
Vessel Function Structure dissolved substances)
Elastic tissue walls
stretch and relax as
blood is forced out;
Transport high-pressure causes pulse
Arteries
blood away from heart Thick walls to withstand
high pressure
Small lumen maintains
9.9. White Blood Cells
(high) blood pressure.
Veins Transport low pressure Valves prevent backflow Phagocyte Lymphocyte
blood to the heart of blood.
Phagocyte has lobed/irregular
Blood is at low pressure, Lymphocytes have a circular
C-shaped nucleus and
but nearby muscles nucleus and are found in
vesicles containing digestive
squeeze veins and help blood
enzymes.
push blood to the heart

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Phagocyte Lymphocyte 10.3. Ways of Controlling the Spread of

Phagocytosis: engulf
pathogen, vesicles fuse with
Large nucleus/small Diseases
cytoplasm, and they produce
the vacuole, enzymes digest
antibodies, a clean water supply
bacteria.
hygienic food preparation
Antigens: good personal hygiene
protein/carbohydrate on the Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins waste disposal
surface of the pathogen which bind to label pathogens. sewage treatment
provokes the immune system
Then either destroyed by 10.4. The Immune System
being ingested by phagocytes
or the antibodies do it. An antibody is a protein molecule which fits into another
molecule
9.10. Blood Clotting Pathogen molecules are called antigens.
To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be made
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out which are exactly the right shape to fit into molecules
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a (antigens) outside the pathogen.
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form Antibodies lock onto antigens leading to the destruction of
a scab. pathogens/marking of pathogens for destruction by
phagocytes
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many
10. Diseases and Immunity lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen
and divide rapidly by mitosis

10.1. Pathogens These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, destroying the

Pathogen: a disease-causing organism.
Transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen
can be passed from one host to another.
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
transmitted either:
Direct contact e.g. through blood, body fluids
Indirect contact e.g. contaminated surfaces/food, from
animals, from air
10.2. Body Defences
The human body has many natural defences against
pathogens.
Mechanical barriers:
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which
kills many of the bacteria in food
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
defences are usually destroyed by white blood cells:
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens
by phagocytosis
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the
pathogen
Vaccination against disease helps antibodies to
produce very quickly
pathogens
Active immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
production in the body.
Active immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen or
by vaccination.
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
pathogens
Process of vaccination:
Harmless pathogen given which has antigens by
injection
Antigens trigger an immune response by lymphocytes
which produce antibodies
Memory cells are produced that give long-term
immunity
Passive immunity - short-term defences against a pathogen
by antibodies acquired from another individual.
Memory cells are NOT produced in passive immunity
Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
which are passed on to her baby.
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
against any diseases.
Some diseases are caused by the immune system
targeting and destroying body cells (Auto-immune
disease)
10.5. Cholera

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Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces Inspired Air Expired Air

To cure this is to give oral rehydration therapy Oxygen 21% 16%
One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio chlorae”,
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4%
causing cholera.
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted in Nitrogen 78% 78%
contaminated water. Water Vapour Lower Higher
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result =
lower osmotic water movement into the gut, causing turns cloudy
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the blood.
11.3. Effect of Physical Activity on
11. Gas Exchange in Humans Breathing
Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces respiration - higher CO2 concentration in the blood
This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
Properties Reasons
spirogram.
Short distance to diffuse (one cell During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate, the
Thin surface
thick) change in breathing volume and rate helps to keep CO2
Many molecules can diffuse at concentration and pH at safe levels.
Large surface area
once/More alveoli
Regular fresh air supplies keep up 11.4. Breathing
Good ventilation concentration gradients for oxygen
and carbon dioxide. Inspiration Expiration
Gases can be carried to/from the External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles
Good blood supply
cells that need/produce them contract – pulls ribcage relax – ribcage falls
upwards and outwards downwards and inwards
11.2. Structure of the Lungs Diaphragm muscles contract Diaphragm muscles relax –
– the diaphragm moves return to a dome shape, and
The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles, downwards, and the volume the volume of the thorax
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated of the thorax increases decreases
capillaries Atmospheric Pressure > Atmospheric Pressure <
Pressure in Thorax Pressure in Thorax
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs

Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from

collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
keeping it open.
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and
expands and contract (and efficient breathing).
Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
between the ribs that create and move the chest wall.
Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in Internal intercostal muscles: are used in coughing and
the thorax leading to the ventilation of the lungs. sneezing.
Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
Composition of Breathing Dry Air Ciliated cells have cilia: little hairs which sweep/beat back
and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus up the

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lungs into the mouth. Aerobic Anaerobic

Oxygen Needed Not needed
12. Respiration Breakdown of
Complete Incomplete
Glucose
Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient Animals: Lactic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
molecules in living cells to release energy. Products & Yeast: Carbon
and Water
Dioxide and Ethanol
Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle Amount of Energy
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active More Less
Released
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to 13. Excretion in Humans
speed up the reaction.
In the exam, always state that energy is released; it is
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the
NEVER made, produced, or created. waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
including respiration) and substances in excess of
12.2. Aerobic Respiration requirements.

Chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,
nutrient molecules to release energy excess water and ions (kidney).
The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
Glucose + oxygen → carbondioxide + water urea.

C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6C O2 + 6H2 O

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

13.2. Function of Liver

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
converting them to proteins.
Chemical reactions in cells break down nutrient molecules
to release energy without using oxygen.
In muscles (vigorous exercise):
Glucose → Lactic Acid
In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + C arbon Dioxide
C 6 H12 O6 → 2C 2 H5 OH + 2C O2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Disadvantages of anaerobic respiration:

Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
molecule that aerobic respiration would
Produces poisonous lactic acid
Lactic acid:
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
exercise
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do Deamination is removing the nitrogen-containing part of
this which causes you to continue breathing heavily amino acids to form urea.
after exercise.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt. Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
Oxygen Debt is removed by: Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
in the blood from the muscles to the liver 13.3. Function of Kidney
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver of glucose and some salts

12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and

Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic

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nephron by active transport. These substances are

reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but not
salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the nephron
by osmosis because of the low water potential of the
medulla tissue fluid.
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move
through the second coiled tubule into the collecting
duct, forming urine. The permeability of this part of
the nephron to water is controlled.

14. Coordination and

Response
14.1. Nervous Control in Humans
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises nerves
Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules
and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
functions.
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
Electrical impulses are travelled through the neurones.
Loop of Henlé: selectively absorbs water/solutes
The nervous system helps with the coordination and
Collecting ducts: reabsorbs water into blood and stores
regulation of body functions.
wastes until it is passed into the ureter.
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside.
Bladder: stores urine 14.2. Types of Neurones
Renal capsule: filters water, glucose, urea and salts from
the blood. Nerve impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the
Kidney tubule: reabsorbs 100% of glucose; most of the nerve cells called neurones
water and some salts back into the blood (red), leading to
Motor Neurone:
urea concentration in the urine and loss of excess water
and salts into the tubule.
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood
Renal vein: reabsorbs water and useful molecules and
leaves wastes behind

13.4. Structure of the Kidney

Sensory Neurone:

1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters the

glomerulus. Water, urea, salts and glucose are forced Relay Neurone:
into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and large
proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of the
salt and water and all the glucose move out of the

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Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of

neurones
Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny vacuoles
(vesicles, each containing a chemical called
neurotransmitter)
When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
membrane and empty their content into the synaptic cleft.
The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
of the relay neurone.
This can happen because the neurotransmitter
molecules' shape complements the receptor molecule's
shape.

14.5. The Eye

14.3. Simple Reflex Arc
Sense organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
A reflex action automatically and rapidly integrates and stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature and chemicals.
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors
(muscles and glands).
E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal
surface
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay
neurone and a motor neurone.
The gap between neurones is called a synapse.
How the simple reflex arc works:
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
Cornea: refracts light
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse) Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the receptor
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
to the CNS Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
different colours (Rods and cones)
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
Optic nerves: carries impulses to the brain
cord
The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector 14.6. Accommodation
The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
the response Adjusting for near and distant objects.

14.4. Synapses
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter
Near Object Distant Object
The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax
only. Suspensory Ligaments slack Suspensory Ligaments tighten

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Near Object Distant Object Distribution of Rods and Cones

The lens becomes short and The lens becomes long and
fat thin

Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if the

suspensory ligaments become permanently overstretched.
(0610/42/F/M/23)

1. ciliary muscles relax

2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged

14.7. Pupil Reflex 14.9. Hormones

Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more
specific target organs.
Adjusting for high and low light intensity
Endocrine Glands
An involuntary response
adrenal glands and adrenaline
Low Light Intensity High Light Intensity pancreas and insulin
Radial muscles (straight lines) testes and testosterone
Circular muscles (circular
contract and become shorter ovaries and oestrogen
lines) contract and become
to pull the pupil (black dot),
shorter to reduce pupil size to
making it wider to let more
protect the retina from 14.10. Adrenaline
light enter to form a clear
bleaching.
image on the retina A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland.
It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter.
14.8. Rods and Cones Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or
Rods Cones riding a rollercoaster.
Provide low detail, black & Provide detailed, coloured
Gland Hormone Function
white images, good for seeing images; they work in high light
Prepares the body for vigorous
in low-intensity light (at night). intensity. Adrenal gland Adrenaline
action
Packed most tightly around
Most tightly packed at the Reduces the concentration of
the edge of the retina, so you Pancreas Insulin
retina's center, objects are glucose in the blood
can see things most clearly
seen most clearly when Causes the development of
when not looking directly at Testes Testosterone
directly looking at them. male sexual characteristics
them.
Causes the development of
Ovary Oestrogen
Fovea: female sexual characteristics
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed Increases concentration of
Pancreas Glucagon
most closely together glucose in the blood
Where light is focused when you look straight at an
object
14.11. Nervous and Hormonal Systems
Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Chemical
Electrical impulses messengers
Nature of message travelling along (hormones)
nerves travelling in the
bloodstream

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Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system blood glucose concentration

Duration of Usually within It may take years
response seconds (puberty) 14.15. Thermoregulation
Localized response Widespread
Area of response (only one area response (in many
usually) organs)
Development of the
Example of process Reflexes such as
reproductive
controlled blinking
system

14.12. Homeostasis
Constant body temperature is maintained by:
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
environment. Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat. Hairs
become erect to trap warm air by contracting erector
Homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within muscles and vice versa.
set limits. Vasodilatation: when it is hot, arterioles, which supply
blood to the skin-surface capillaries, dilate (become
14.13. Negative Feedback wider) to allow more blood near to skin surface to
increase heat loss (face redder)
Feedback controls the production of hormones – the Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles, which supply
hormones regulate their own production. blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become
A negative feedback control is when the change in smaller) to allow less blood near to skin surface to
hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change, decrease heat loss
so when blood hormone level is low, hormone production Sweating: the water evaporates, giving a cooling effect
is stimulated, when it is high, it is inhibited. Skin receptors: sense heat, and sensory neurons send
impulses to the hypothalamus
Shivering: muscular activity generates heat
14.14. Glucoregulation
Thermoregulatory centre: the hypothalamus controls
corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating and shivering).
Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the
pancreas
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones
depending on the blood glucose level
Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
releases it into the blood

14.16. Tropic Responses

When the control of blood glucose does not work, a
person is said to have diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is caused by the death of the cells that
secrete insulin.
Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry
mouth, blurred vision, and feel thirsty) or
hypoglycaemia (tired, showing confusion and
irrational behaviour)
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce
Auxin:
Plant hormones or growth substances
Controls tropisms
It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and shoots
of plants
Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity.
Auxins’ role in gravitropism:
Made in the shoot tip
Then it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip

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Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
gravity divide into 2.
Auxin stimulates cell elongation
Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards Advantages Disadvantages
(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is Fast: no need to find mate,
No variation/biodiversity
coming. fertilise etc.
Auxins’ role in phototropism: Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred
If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot,
Overcrowding- fighting for
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side. Do not need to carry offspring
food
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow
faster than cells on the right. Prone to extinction
When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster
than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the 16.2. Sexual Reproduction
right side towards sunlight.
Sexual reproduction: process involving the fusion of the
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
15. Drugs production of offspring that are genetically different from
each other
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
affects chemical reactions in the body. Nuclei of gametes are haploid and that the nucleus of a
zygote is diploid
15.2. Antibiotics Diploid - Full Set of Chromosomes
Haploid - Half Set of Chromosomes
Antibiotics work by disrupting the cell wall formation of
the bacteria you are trying to get rid of, but not of human Advantages Disadvantages
cells. Produces genetically different
Takes lots of time and energy
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics which reduces offspring
the effectiveness of antibiotics Reduced risk of extinction Mate required
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can Energy on improving
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when essential
appearances or pollen
and ensuring treatment is completed. volume for pollination (plants)
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not have
a cell wall and make the host cell perform their tasks.
16.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
15.3. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flowering plant: foxglove

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
natural selection, where it begins from:

Mutation - giving rise to variation

Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes
Competition for food space, etc
Reproduce via binary fission
Then alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.

16. Reproduction Wind-pollinated flower structure: grass

16.1. Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the
production of genetically identical offspring from one
parent.
Bacteria:
Reproduce by binary fission, each bacterium divides 16.4. Functions
into two.
Sepal: protect the flower bud.

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Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have Advantages Disadvantages
nectarines which are all used to attract insects, petals in Less susceptible to diseases More energy required
wind pollinated flowers are tiny, and used for pushing the
bracts (leaf-like structures) apart to expose stamens and
stigma 16.6. Germination
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains which contain
the male nucleus (male gamete). A process controlled by enzymes
Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls. into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
the testa splits
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
16.5. Pollination water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of
optimum temperature).
the plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the
plant (stigma).
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and 16.7. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
wind
Male reproductive system:
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated
Bright, colourful petals – attract Dull petals
Sweetly scented No scent
Contains nectar No nectaries
A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen
Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth
Another & stigma inside the
Anther & stigma hangs out
flower
Sticky stigma Feathery stigma

Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on stigma and creates a

tunnel down the style, through the micropyle, to the
ovules.
Ovule - seed
Ovary - fruit Testes: have many coiled tubes which produce sperm,
and the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
Self-Pollination Scrotum: holds testicles
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
same plant. the penis
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
Advantages Disadvantages
female.
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition Female reproductive system:
pollination between plants
Susceptible to the same
Fast and saves time
disease

Cross-Pollination

the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to

the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same
species.

Advantages Disadvantages
Increases variation Reliance on pollinators
Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen

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4. Released once per month containing 23 chromosomes

Features Functions
Energy storage Development of zygote
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation

16.9. Menstrual Cycle

Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and

produces progesterone and oestrogen
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Cervix: neck of the uterus: a strong rigid muscle, moist by
mucus with a small opening
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out
for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and
secretes mucus

16.8. Adaptive Features of Gametes

Sperm (Male Gamete)

1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes

Day 1 to 5:
Features Functions In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
Respiration to release energy
Mitochondria menstruation
for swimming
Day 5 to 12:
Release digestive enzymes to In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
Enzymes in the acrosome
digest the jelly coat In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
Egg Cell (Female Gamete) Day 13/14/15:
In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland
1. Larger in size
to trigger the release of the egg from the follicle into
2. Spherical, protein/fat in the cytoplasm
the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on Day 14.
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
Day 15 to 28:

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In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
Luteum
In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
possible embryo implants.
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
No implantation takes place, the Corpus Luteum
degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back
to Day 1
Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
Implantation occurs.
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum
maintained which means that progesterone is high.
This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy
16.10. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle
Oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle,
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the
hormone LH.
Progesterone is a hormone secreted by ovaries. It
maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part
of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary and
stimulates ovaries to release the hormone oestrogen.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): is also secreted by the pituitary
gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the
ovary.
16.11. Fertilisation
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The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and
a female gamete (egg cell).
Development of zygote:
One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
Zygote divides over and over to make a ball of cells
called an embryo.
It implants itself in the nucleus's (implantation) wall,
followed by conception.
Development of fetus: zygote is changed through growth
(mitosis) and development (organization of cells into
tissues and organs)
Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from the
fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which carries
oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to
the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as
foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
mother’s blood)
Amniotic sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
broken at birth.
Amniotic fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
and affect the fetus.
16.12. Sex Hormones
Primary sexual characteristics: present during
development in the uterus and are the differences in
reproductive organs etc, between males and females
Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that
occur during puberty as children become adolescents
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
primary sex organs; the testes in males and the ovaries in
females.
Sex hormones – testosterone in males and oestrogen in
females are released into the bloodstream.
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors
which can recognize them.
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.
16.13. Sexually Transmitted Infections
Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a
sexually transmitted infection.
Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ
transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
Prevention:
Avoid intercourse with many partners
Use a condom
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Don’t come in contact with other people’s blood
How it affects the immune system:
Infects and destroys lymphocytes
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system
The body becomes liable to infection by other
pathogens
This may leads to AIDS and dies from infection
17. Inheritance
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.
17.2. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins
Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
information in the form of genes
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
Allele: an alternative form of a gene
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y
chromosomes.
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
unpaired chromosomes (e.g. sperm and egg)
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
chromosomes (e.g. in body cells)
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific protein.
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
to protein molecules.
17.3. DNA & Protein Synthesis
DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of
proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers and
receptors for neurotransmitters
DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG
Protein synthesis has two stages:
Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into
bases of RNA)
Translation (using RNA base sequence to build amino
acids into a sequence in a protein)
How proteins are made:
the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules
the specific order of amino acids is determined by the
sequence of bases in the mRNA
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs
17.4. Mitosis
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The nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical
cells
Mitosis is needed for:
Growth: in animals each tissue provides its own new
cells when they are needed.
Repair of damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cut.
Replacement of worn out cells
Asexual reproduction: in plants
Exact replication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate,
maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
cell
Stem cells: unspecialized cells that divide by mitosis to
produce daughter cells that can become specialized for
specific functions
17.5. Meiosis
Reduction division in which the chromosome number is
halved from diploid to haploid
Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes
Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
are not all genetically identical.
17.6. Monohybrid Inheritance
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of
the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
tall plant or green seed)
genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)
Pedigree diagrams:
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IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,

and both dominant to IO.
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the
gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, and
this makes it more common in one sex than in the other
Red-green colour blindness is an example of sex
linkage.

18. Variation & Selection

18.1. Variation
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Genetic diagrams: Phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses environmental factors
Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes; examples include body length and
body mass
Discontinuous variation results in a limited number of
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. you are either
blood group O, A, B or AB, nothing else)
Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genes only,
and continuous variation is caused by both genes and the
environment.

3:1 Monohybrid Crosses

18.2. Genetic Mutation

Mutation is a genetic change.

Gene mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA

Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate
of mutation

Co-dominance: when both alleles in heterozygous

organisms contribute to the phenotype
There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
symbols IA, IB and IO.

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Mutation is a source of variation e.g. in Down’s syndrome,
where a parent’s chromosomes are unevenly distributed
in meiosis. In fertilisation, a zygote with a number of
chromosomes that is not 46 is created (e.g. 23 + 24).
Characteristics: broad forehead, short neck, downward-
sloping eyes, short nose and mental retardation.
18.3. Adaptive Features
Adaptive feature: an inherited feature that helps an organism
to survive and reproduce in its environment
Xerophytes: live in deserts where water is scarce, and
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features
are:
Deep roots reach the water far underground
Leaves reduced spines with minimum surface area for
transpiration
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs and stomata sunk in pits to
trap moist air
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable water
Stomata open at night and closed at midday when
evaporation is highest
E.g. cactus and marram grass
Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
Their features are:
Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface
area for absorption and photosynthesis
Very little cuticle formation
Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata
open and clear
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often
absent
18.4. Natural Selection
The greater chance of passing on genes by the best-
adapted organisms.
Variation is natural or random changes in all living
organisms.
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Variation leads to survival of the fittest since the
variations in certain organisms give that organism an
advantage over the others in its species in that area.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
is an example of natural selection.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.
Adaptation is the process of natural selection by which
populations become more suited to their environment
over many generations.
18.5. Artificial Selection
It is breeding organisms with valued characteristics
together to try to produce offspring which share those
useful characteristics (selective breeding).
It can be used to produce organisms that are more
economically valued
For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
easier to separate from grain, dogs which have a better
appearance
Selective breeding:
Selecting by humans of individuals with desirable
features
Crossing three individuals to produce the next
generation
Selection of offspring showing the desirable features
Selective breeding by artificial selection is carried out
over many generations to improve crop plants and
domesticated animals.
19. Organisms and their
Environment
19.1. Food Chains and Food Webs
The sun is the principal source of energy input to
biological systems.
Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and then
that energy is harnessed by plants which are eaten by
animals which other animals eat.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.
Food chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
one organism to the next beginning with a producer, for
example:
Mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk
Food web: showing a network of interconnected food
chains.
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food
chain by ingestion
Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients,
usually using energy from sunlight through
photosynthesis
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Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on

other organisms.
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary according to their position in a
food chain
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead
or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph) Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain, (plants)
food web or ecological pyramid. It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
Primary consumer: eat vegetables It is returned by respiration; in plants, in animals and
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk being decomposed by microorganisms.
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon
(Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - 2023-2025 syllabus)
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
because energy transfer is inefficient: 19.3. Nitrogen Cycle
Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls
onto leaves.
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of:
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength.
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not eat
the whole plant.
Secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because the
animal matter is more digestible & has a higher energy
value.
At each level, heat is lost by respiration. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for
plants, these may exist in the root nodules where they live
Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans eating
in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or this can
animals because:
happen because of lightning, or microorganisms provide
We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal, them through decomposition.
but to have the meat; we must feed the animal a lot of Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing substances
plant material to get far less meat. into better nitrogen-containing substances for the plants
When raising an animal, plants lose energy in the (nitrification).
environment. Then the animal loses energy to the Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
environment and does not use up all the plant material, so proteins
it is inefficient. Death and decay happen at each trophic level leading to
stage one
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they convert
nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric nitrogen

19.4. Population
Population: a group of organisms of one species living in
the same area at the same time.
Shows the number of each Pyramid, which shows the Community: all of the populations of different species in
organism in a food chain biomass an ecosystem.
When moving up the pyramid, Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms
(number of individuals × their and their environment interacting together.
the number of individuals
individual mass)
decreases
19.5. Factors Affecting the Rate of
The pyramids of biomass are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped.
Population Growth
19.2. Carbon Cycle

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Food supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium to

reproduce to make a shell.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey
population will rise.
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate
partly cancels out the birth rate meaning less population
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving birth,
or even population decline.
19.6. Sigmoid Population Growth Curve
20.1. Food Supply
Humans have increased food production because:
Agricultural machinery to use larger areas of land and
improve efficiency
Chemical fertilisers help crops grow better
Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
Selective breeding to improve production by crop plants
and livestock

Large-scale Monoculture: the continuous production of one

type of genetically identical crop.

Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture

Lag phase: number of mature, reproducing individuals is
low and they may be widely dispersed
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, the
conditions are ideal and the maximum growth rate is
reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much.
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum population
size.
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food,
competition, etc.
If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
wiped out.
If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm them
easily
Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
of species. This hinders biodiversity.
When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
their effectiveness
Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
Welfare issues for the livestock
Diseases can spread easily among them
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby

19.7. Human Population Growth 20.2. Habitat Destruction

Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an
Factors favouring growth Factors controlling growth
area.
Lower infant mortality Disease
Higher life expectancy famine Reason for habitat destruction
Better nutrition War Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production and housing
Better housing
Extraction of natural resources
Better sanitation Freshwater and Marine pollution
Medicine By altering food webs, and food chains, humans can have
Vaccination a negative impact on habitats.
Effects of deforestation
The human population is becoming stable (stagnation) Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
due to: Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
better education (particularly for women), so they warming
work instead of getting married and having children Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into
better living conditions, fewer people die, fewer births rivers making the water dirty & cause blockages, and
needed the soil becomes less fertile
cities, reduced need for physical labour on farms Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by foliage,
family planning root systems or evaporates. After deforestation, water
But overall, the population is still increasing. accumulates in valleys.

20.3. Pollution
20. Human Influences on
Pollution due to pesticides:
Ecosystems

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Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat
crops, but can kill other, useful insects such as bees which
are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase in
dose of toxin from one level of the food chain to the next)
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which
eat the plants
Non-biodegradable plastics:
Choke birds, fish and other animals
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food
Collect in rivers, and get in the way of fish
Global Warming:
Increase in average temperature of the Earth
Methane from burping of cows
Started at the same time as humans began burning fossil
fuels
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven
yet
Increase in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in
the atmosphere cause an enhanced greenhouse effect
the leads to climate change
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many
nutrients.
Fertilisers put in soil by farmers
Fertilisers with nitrates / detergents with phosphates
leach into rivers and lakes after rain
Water plants grow more than usual
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
They die and sink to bottom
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and
decreasing the O2 concentration
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
20.4. Conservation
Sustainable resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it is
removed from the environment so that it does not run out
Some resources can be conserved and managed
sustainably, limited to forests and fish stocks.
1. Forests can be conserved using: education, protected
areas, quotas and replanting.
2. Fish stocks can be conserved using: education, closed
seasons, protected areas, controlled net types and
mesh size, quotas and monitoring.
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Natural resources:
Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
rainfall but we are using up the planet’s fresh water faster
than it can be replenished.
Fossil fuels: need to be conserved as they will soon run
out, they should be therefore replaced with green forms
of energy.
Recycling:
Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
treatment
Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
raw materials for industry
Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
energy
Species and habitats: need to be conserved because:
Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
new drugs)
Genetic resources are useful to humans as well and are
lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic
engineering)
Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
then the whole ecosystem could collapse
The use of artificial insemination (AI) and in vitro
fertilisation (IVF) in captive breeding programmes
Endangered species:
How they become endangered: climate change, habitat
destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species
If the population size drops, variation decreases
Endangered species can be conserved by: monitoring and
protecting species and habitats, education, captive
breeding programmes and seed banks
Reasons for conservation programmes include:
reducing extinction
protecting vulnerable environments
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
genes
increase biodiversity
21. Biotechnology & Genetic
Modification
Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic
engineering due to their rapid reproduction rate and their
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ability to make complex molecules Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such
as starch
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres

Lactase:

The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in

milk); people can stop making lactase naturally, therefore,
can’t digest lactose. \n

Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic

modification?

1. few ethical concerns over their manipulation and

growth
2. the presence of plasmids

21.2. Biofuel
Use plants to make sugars which yeast then breaks down
to make ethanol.
This process also uses anaerobic respiration.

Bread Making
Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
the dough.
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and Lactose-free milk production
glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration. Lactase made from yeast
The dough is kept warm, moist (28°C). Yeast ferments Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
sugar making carbon dioxide which creates bubbles, so Milk passed down beads
bread rises. Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and Immobilized enzymes are reused
hardens the outer surface.

21.4. Making Penicillin

21.3. Uses of Enzymes
Pectinase:

Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down

pectin)
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not
cloudy

Biological Washing powders:

Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes
that help remove the stain
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in
the wash releasing the enzyme
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier
for detergents to remove
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass,
blood
Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
Penicillium.
They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
supply and waste products.
The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains medium
containing sugars and ammonium salts.
Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
nucleic acids

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The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’ Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using
Probes monitor temperature and pH restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends
Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
temperature of 24°C. Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid – insertion of
access to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an the plasmid into bacteria.
even temperature. Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
which make human protein as they express the gene
Filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized to
make capsules.
21.6. Genetically Modified Crops
21.5. Genetic Modification Advantages Disadvantages
Uniform in shape – easy to
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an
transport/appeal to Natural species may die
organism by removing, changing or inserting individual genes
consumers
Examples of genetic modification: Decrease biodiversity/genetic
Growing season shorter
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce diversity
human insulin Led to the development of
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer Drought resistant – less water superweeds – stronger than
resistance to herbicides GM
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
No one knows the long-term
resistance to insect pests Higher yields
effects on humans
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional vitamins Solve global hunger Expensive seeds

Human Insulin in Bacteria

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Biology

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