BTI

11/13/2020

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING & MATERIALS TESTING TRAINING MANUAL

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the executive, management and staff at SIRDC for the invaluable support
throughout the compilation of the Geotechnical Engineering Training Manual.

i
Annotations

SAZ Standard Association Of Zimbabwe

B.S. British Standards

DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

I.S. International Standards

A.S.T.M American Standard Testing Method

ii
Contents
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................................i
Annotations.................................................................................................................................................ii
List Of Figures.............................................................................................................................................vi
List Of Tables...............................................................................................................................................vi
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................1
Brief History Of Geotechnical Engineering..................................................................................................1
Advantages Of Good Practice Geotechnical work.......................................................................................3
[Link] The General Public..........................................................................................................3
[Link] Cost Saving...............................................................................................................................3
[Link] For Improvement Of Soil Mechanical Properties......................................................................3
4. Prevent Damages To Existing Buildings During Construction Of Adjacent Ones..................................3
Disadvantages Of Bad Practice Geotechnical Work.....................................................................................4
[Link] Of life............................................................................................................................................4
2. Cost Overruns More Common With Poor Geotechnical Work............................................................4
[Link] Or Poor Calibrated /Faulty Equipment Give Wrong Results.........................................................4
Centers Offering Geotechnical And Materials Testing Services In Zimbabwe.............................................4
Site investigation.....................................................................................................................................4
Steps taken in site investigation..............................................................................................................6
Desk study...........................................................................................................................................6
Reconnaissance and preliminary explorations....................................................................................6
Detailed explorations...........................................................................................................................7
Methods of investigation.........................................................................................................................8
Trial pits...............................................................................................................................................8
Percussion drilling................................................................................................................................8
Mechanical augers...............................................................................................................................9
Wash boring........................................................................................................................................9
Rotary drilling......................................................................................................................................9
Soil samples.......................................................................................................................................10

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 Insitu tests.............................................................................................................................................10
IN-SITU TESTS............................................................................................................................................11
TEST NO. 1: Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCP)...............................................................................11
Theory:..............................................................................................................................................11
Apparatus:.........................................................................................................................................11
PREPARATION FOR TEST....................................................................................................................12
LAB TESTS..................................................................................................................................................14
TEST No. 2: Sieve Analysis.............................................................................................................14
Uses of particle size distribution curve..............................................................................................16
Apparatus..........................................................................................................................................16
Procedure..........................................................................................................................................16
Test No. 3 Determination of Consistency/ Atterberg Limits.................................................................18
Part I – Determination of liquid limit :...................................................................................................23
Material and Apparatus.....................................................................................................................23
Procedure :........................................................................................................................................23
Result:-..................................................................................................................................................25
Precautions:.......................................................................................................................................25
Part – II Determination plastic limit:......................................................................................................26
Material and equipment:...................................................................................................................26
Procedure:.........................................................................................................................................26
Calculations:......................................................................................................................................28
Result:................................................................................................................................................28
Precautions:.......................................................................................................................................31
Part-III Determination of sharinkage limit.............................................................................................31
Material and equipment:...................................................................................................................31
Procedure:.........................................................................................................................................31
Calculations :.....................................................................................................................................34
Result :...............................................................................................................................................34
Significance:.......................................................................................................................................35
TEST 4: SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY PYCHNOMETER.......................................................................................35
Objective :- To determine the specific gravity of soil grains of given sample.............................35
The uses of Specific Gravity are:........................................................................................................35
Apparatus..........................................................................................................................................36
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 Procedure..........................................................................................................................................36
TEST No: 5 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY.........................................................38
Objective:..........................................................................................................................................38
Theory:..............................................................................................................................................38
Material and Equipment:...................................................................................................................40
Procedure:.........................................................................................................................................41
1) Procedure for constant head test:................................................................................................41
Observations:.....................................................................................................................................42
Calculations:......................................................................................................................................43
Sample calculation no.-......................................................................................................................44
Results –............................................................................................................................................44
B) Procedure for falling head permeability test.................................................................................44
Data and observations:......................................................................................................................44
Calculations:......................................................................................................................................45
Result:................................................................................................................................................45
Significance:.......................................................................................................................................45
TEST No: 6 DIRECT SHEAR TEST............................................................................................................45
Objective:..........................................................................................................................................45
Theory:..............................................................................................................................................45
Apparatus used:.................................................................................................................................47
Procedure:.........................................................................................................................................47
Precautions:.......................................................................................................................................49
Observations and calculations:..........................................................................................................50
Results:..............................................................................................................................................51

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List Of Figures
Figure 1 Leaning Tower of Pissa..................................................................................................................3
Figure 2:DCP Equipment............................................................................................................................14
Figure 3: Sieve Analysis Apparatus & Curves.............................................................................................17
Figure 4: Cassagrande Apparatus..............................................................................................................22
Figure 5: Resulting Graphical Plot..............................................................................................................23
Figure 6:Determination Of Plastic Limit.....................................................................................................27
Figure 7:Mercury Displacement Method...................................................................................................29
Figure 8:Plasticity Chart.............................................................................................................................30
Figure 9: Pycnometer................................................................................................................................37
Figure 10: Base cap....................................................................................................................................42
Figure 11: Permeability Apparatus............................................................................................................43
Figure 12: Shear Box Test Apparatus.........................................................................................................48

List Of Tables
Table 1:Sieve Analysis Calculations............................................................................................................17
Table 2:Liquid Limit Observation Table.....................................................................................................25
Table 3: Plastic Limit Observation Table....................................................................................................27
Table 4:Consistency In Terms Of Consestency Index.................................................................................30
Table 5: Shrinkage Limit Observations.......................................................................................................32
Table 6:Specific Gravity Test Observations...............................................................................................37
Table 7: Typical Specific Gravity Values.....................................................................................................38
Table 8: Typical Values Of Permeability k..................................................................................................40
Table 9:Permability Test Calculations........................................................................................................43
Table 10:Shear Box Test Observations......................................................................................................50
Table 11: Shear Test Calculations..............................................................................................................51

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vii
Introduction
The performance of structures is significantly affected by selection of materials, the loading and
environmental conditions. When the materials are exposed to conditions that reduce their service
life, they generally affect the structural integrity of the structure in hand (International Atomic
Energy Agency, 2002). With time, the soil under buildings settle and in some instances this
happens at different rates due to different loading rates, moisture conditions and temperature
differentials resulting in stresses and strains on the building (Bre, 1995). When there are
noticeable defects in a structure such as visible cracks in a building, a study to determine the
condition of the building is carried out. This is so as to determine the structural stability of the
building.

Brief History Of Geotechnical Engineering

1
Ancient civilizations thrived along the banks of rivers, such as the Nile (Egypt), the Tigris and
Euphrates (Mesopotamia), the Huang Ho (Yellow River, China), and the Indus (India).Their
constructed dwellings had to be specialized with respect to their foundations to outwit elements
of mother nature. Of interest is how ancient Greek civilization used isolated pad footings and
strip-and-raft foundations for building structures. Furthermore research points out in 2750 B.C.,
ancient Egyptians constructed five most important pyramids were built ( construction took less
than a century) (Saqqarah , Meidum, Dahshur South and North, and Cheops). These pyramids
required integration of foundations, stability of slopes, and construction of underground
chambers within the system. The rise of Buddhism in China during the Eastern Han dynasty in
68 A.D., led to the construction of thousands of pagodas on silt and soft clay layers (possess poor
engineering properties). Thus it was common for extensive damage to show owing to building
pressure exceeding soil bearing capacity. The famous Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy
( constructed in 1173A.D. see fig1) is a classical example of problem related to soil bearing
capacity. The tower weighs about 15,700 metric tons and is supported by a circular base which is
20 m in diameter. The tower has tilted in the past to the east, north, west and finally the south.
Subsoil investigations attributed the tilting to the existence of a weak clay layer at a depth of
about 11m. The subject of geotechnical engineering has been grown in depth from just soil
mechanics concepts to a major sub-division of civil engineering over the years. In the classical
soil mechanics period of (1776-1856) French scientist Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806)
made a great mark through his studies which led to the indispensable coulomb laws. During the
next classical soil mechanics period of (1856-1910) Henri Darcy (1803-1858) through his soil
hydraulics studies came to define vital geotech parameters such as hydraulic conductivity.
Through this Darcy laws came to be. Modern geotechnical engineering was made a subject by
Karl Terzaghi from Germany in 1925, popularly known as the father of modern geotechnical
engineering. Through his incorporation of soil mechanics from previous studies , he was able to
incorporate them under one umbrella . Thus geotechnical engineering came to be.

2
Figure 1 Leaning Tower of Pissa

Advantages Of Good Practice Geotechnical work

[Link] The General Public

Properly done soil tests from subsoil investigations ensure that the safest foundation is selected
and sized adequately. Thus structures will stand the test of time without sudden collapse.
[Link] Cost Saving
Proper soil investigations and tests allow for the most economic foundation to be selected thus
reducing likelihood of cost overruns.
[Link] For Improvement Of Soil Mechanical Properties
Soil tests allow for improvement of soil properties by increasing shear strength for example. Use
of cement and lime constitute chemical improvement of soil properties. Use of compacters or
rollers fall under mechanical improvement.

4. Prevent Damages To Existing Buildings During Construction Of Adjacent Ones

Clear distance to the construction point which is a function of foundation depth and soil type
when properly selected prevents cracks due to construction imposed disturbances.

3
Disadvantages Of Bad Practice Geotechnical Work
[Link] Of life
Bad practices in geotechnical work such as poor subsoil investigations and soil tests can lead to
designers “under designing” foundation work. In the worst scenario a structure collapses in
methodical fashion killing /injuring occupants or those close.
2. Cost Overruns More Common With Poor Geotechnical Work
Poor extend of investigations within the subsoil may lead to failure of detection of good bed rock
or ground water earlier during a project. Later discovery is very expensive that it can potentially
hault the works for some time if unforeseen occurrances had not been anticipated.

[Link] Or Poor Calibrated /Faulty Equipment Give Wrong Results

Having equipment carlibrated by standard association organisations is encouraged at least every
other month. Going ahead with the design work using wrong results can be catastrophic as
mentioned before.

Centers Offering Geotechnical And Materials Testing Services In

Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe it is mandatory by law that site analysis, subsurface soil investigations and materials testing
be done in any major project. This is done to safeguard the general public through construction of high
integrity structures and prevent malpractice such as use of poor grade materials. Some local organisations
offer field , lab or both tests. Notable organisations which offer different levels of geotech and materials
tests include Roadlab , BSC labs and local authority bodies such as Harare and Bulawayo city councils.
Some contractors like JRG also offer some tests with their mobile lab. The level of tests done by these
organisations vary mainly due to quality of equipment they possess. However, the main governing body
which oversees how they operate is the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ).

Site investigation
A site investigation is always required for any engineering structure. It helps in obtaining
subsurface conditions at the site of proposed or existing construction. The investigation may be a
simple examination of the surface soils or a detailed study of soil and groundwater to a
considerable depth. The former uses shallow pits and the latter uses methods such as boreholes,
4
in situ and laboratory tests.
According to (Arya, 2003) a site investigation’s main aim is:
a) Providing information on the type and depth of foundation that can be used.
b) To help in determining the bearing capacity of the soil and this helps in determining
which type of foundation can be used.
c) Providing information on the groundwater level and the properties of the water.
d) To help in the selection of suitable construction techniques.
e) Determine the type of soil and its suitability for construction purposes.
f) To help in the investigation of safety of existing structures and provide remedial
measures.
In addition to the objectives of a site investigation mentioned above, (BS 5390, 1999) states that
a site investigation helps in designing an adequate and economic structure, investigating cases
where failure has occurred and selecting disposal sites during construction.
A site investigation helps in determining causes of failure of a structure and the measures that
can be taken to deal with the failures. Observations of the structure need to be done so as to
determine the mode of failure and this helps in ascertaining the causes of the failure and if its
ground conditions that are responsible then ground investigations should be carried out. Ground
investigations will provide information about the strata and groundwater conditions as they exist
in situ before construction of works (BS 5390, 1999). The investigation of conditions leading to
failure of soils and structures helps in determining data for use in proposed works on similar soil
conditions, the rate of settlement and the need for special type of structural solution (Clayton C R
I, 1982).
According to (Tomlinson, 1986) information that should be obtained from a site investigation
include:
(a) The general topography of the site because it affects foundation design and construction,
e.g. surface configuration, adjacent property, the presence of watercourses, hedge, trees,
rocky outcrops, etc.
(b) The location of buried services for example electric power and telephone cables, water

5
mains, and sewers.
(c) The geology of the area with particular reference to the main geological formations
underlying the site and the possibility of subsidence from mineral extraction and other
causes.
(d) The previous history and use of the site and also information on any defects or failures of
existing or former buildings attributable to foundation conditions.
(e) Any special features such as the possibility of earthquakes, faults or climatic factors such
as flooding, seasonal swelling, shrinkage and soil erosion.
(f) The availability of local and quality construction materials and their accessibility.
(g) A detailed record of the soil and rock strata and ground water conditions within the zone
affected by foundation bearing pressure and construction operations, or of any deeper
strata affecting the site condition in any way.

(h) Results of the laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the particular
foundation design.
Steps taken in site investigation
Desk study
A desk study is done to obtain all relevant information about the study area. The major sources
are topographical and geological maps and sections, geological reports and local authority
records. The other sources are air photographs, historical archives and reports on earlier site
investigations at the site or at nearby sites. During a desk study the knowledge about the history
of the site should be adequate e.g. failures that have occurred in the past and the way existing
buildings and foundations behave. Previous ground investigations and excavations done on or
near the site are obtained from the local authority and will help in determining the causes of
failure of the existing structure (BS 5390, 1999).
Reconnaissance and preliminary explorations
According to (Atkinson, 2007) reconnaissance includes a visit to the site and visually examining
the topographical and geotechnical features of the site. Reconnaissance helps in deciding the
future site investigations and the amount of work that needs to be done, methods of exploration,

6
the type of samples to be taken, laboratory tests and insitu tests (Arya, 2003). If the area has
railways and road cuttings nearby, the soil type and its stability can be obtained. There might be
buildings nearby which might have a settlement history because of compressible or unstable
soils. The area is checked to see if there are any current or old existing mines. The vegetation
surrounding the area may also aid in determining the nature of the subsoil. Previous uses of the
site must be obtained so that measures can be taken during the site investigation and construction
stage of the project. For example, if the site was previously used as a landfill special
considerations are required before the site investigation to ensure safety of the workers and the
environment (BS 5390, 1999). A record about the foundations of the existing buildings should be
made, cracks and other signs of ground movement in the buildings nearby should be recorded
(Barry, 1990). Preliminary explorations include determining the stratum thickness and depth, the
soil type at each stratum, bedrock depth and ground water table. Strength and compressibility of
the soil is found from information obtained from test pits or borings and the tests are done using
cone penetrometers and sounding rods (Arya, 2003).
Detailed explorations
It is when extensive borings are done and the soils tests are done in the laboratory. Detailed
explorations help in determining the properties of the soil at each stratum. Field tests conducted
include vane shear tests, plate load tests and permeability tests. For small buildings on uniform
strata detailed explorations are not required. Site investigation for these buildings is only the
reconnaissance and preliminary explorations and designs are done based on that information.
Detailed explorations are required for large projects for example dams and multi-storey buildings
(Arya, 2003).
The depth of the explorations depends on the variations of the subsurface data. According to
(Arya, 2003) the depth of exploration depends upon the influence zone which in turn is governed
by the type of structure, characteristics of the soil, shape, intensity of the loading shape and soil
profile. The depth of the exploration should be 1.5 times width of the square footing and 3 times
width of the strip footing and in pile foundation the depth is 1.5 times the width of the pile group.
In the case of small buildings one bore hole or trial pit at the center is enough (Arya, 2003).

7
Methods of investigation
Trial pits
Trial pits depth depends on the investigation requirements. Trial pits are done to investigate the
strata. The soil is removed by means of the back-shovel of a mechanical excavator. Before a
person enters the pit, the sides must be supported unless they are sloped at a safe angle or are
stepped. The excavated soil should be placed at least 1m from the edge of the pit (Craig, 2004).If
the depths are 6m and above, it is more economical to use bore holes. Deep pits need to be
ventilated to avoid accumulation of dead air (Arya, 2003). The sides of the pits are supported by
timbering. Shafts are costly and their use would be justified only in investigations for very large
structures, if the ground conditions could not be ascertained satisfactorily by other means.

Percussion drilling
Borings are used when the depth of exploration is large. Insitu tests may be done at the bore hole
or soil samples will be taken for laboratory tests. Percussion boring is used when there are hard
strata, rocks and boulders. The boring consists of a derrick, a power unit and a winch carrying a
light steel cable which passes through a pulley on top of the derrick. The two most used tools are
the shell and the clay cutter. A heavy steel element called a sinker bar can be fitted immediately
above the tool to increase the impact energy if it is necessary. The shell is used in sands and
other coarse soils. Below the water table, the percussive action of the shell loosens the soil and
produces slurry in the borehole. Above the water table a slurry is produced by introducing water
into the borehole. The slurry passes through the clack valve during the downward movement of
the shell and is retained by the valve during the upward movement. When full, the shell is raised
to the surface to be emptied. In cohesion less soils the borehole must be cased to prevent
collapse. The clay cutter which is used in cohesive soil is an open steel tube with a cutting shoe
and a retaining ring at the lower end. The tool is used in a dry borehole. The percussive action of
the tool cuts a plug of soil which eventually fractures near its base due to the presence of the
retaining ring. The ring also ensures that the soil is retained inside the cutter when it is raised to
the surface to be emptied (Tomlinson, 1996). Percussion boring can be used for different types of
materials. It is expensive and it is difficult to find undisturbed soil samples (Arya, 2003).

8
Mechanical augers
Mechanical auger is a boring technique which is power generated. It is used for holes in hard
strata that is stiffer, over consolidated soil of greater depth. Augers are used mainly in soils in
which the borehole requires no support and remains dry. The power required for the auger to
function depends on the type of soil to be penetrated and the size and type of the auger.
Downward pressure on the auger can be applied hydraulically, mechanically or by dead weight (
(Craig, 2004). If there are large cobbles and boulders, auger boring cannot be used. The main
disadvantage of auger boring is the changes in soil strata are not easy to locate as the soils are
highly disturbed during boring (Arya, 2003).
Hand augers are used to a depth of 3m and this depends on the type of soil. The auger is rotated
and pressed down into the soil by means of a T-handle on the upper rod. Hand augers are used
only if the sides of the hole require no support and if particles of coarse gravel size and above are
absent. The auger must be withdrawn at frequent intervals for removal of soils. Undisturbed
samples can be obtained by drilling small diameter tubes below the bottom of the borehole. The
borehole may be cased if necessary and therefore the auger can be used in most soil types
provided the larger particle sizes are absent (Tomlinson, 1996).
Wash boring
Wash boring is a technique that is used to advance a hole. The soil is collected from the hole by a
sampler for testing in the laboratory. After the hole is drilled, water is pumped down the wash
pipe. The soil is disintegrated by the jet of water and the chopped soil particles move upwards
through the spaces between the drill rod and the casing. Changes in the soil strata are noticed by
changes in color of the wash water and the reaction of the chopping bit as the hole is advanced.
Equipment used for wash boring are expensive and light (Arya, 2003).
Rotary drilling
Rotary drilling is used for clay, sand and rocks. It is used for boreholes of 50mm to 200mm.A
drill rod is used to apply downward pressure. The drilling fluid which is introduced under
pressure carries the cuttings of the material penetrated from the bottom of the hole to the ground
surface through the spaces between the drill bit and walls of the hole. The drilling rod is replaced
with a sampler for the soil samples to be collected. Rotary drilling is not suitable for gravel

9
particles (Arya, 2003).

Soil samples
Soil samples are extracted to examine their properties. Soils are classified into two categories
which are disturbed and undisturbed samples.
a) Undisturbed soil samples
These are soils in which the in situ structure and moisture content is retained. Although it
is difficult to obtain undisturbed soils, they help in determining soil parameters such as
compressibility, shear strength, shrinkage and permeability (Arya, 2003). Undisturbed
soil samples can be obtained by withdrawing the boring tools and pushing a sample tube
into the soil at the bottom of the hole. The sampler is normally attached to a length of
boring rod which can be lowered and raised by the cable of the percussion rig. When the
tube is brought to the surface, some soil is removed from each end and molten wax is
applied in thin layers to form a seal approximately 25mm thick. The ends of the tube are
then covered by protective caps. (Tomlinson, 1996)
b) Disturbed soil samples
These are soils in which the in situ structure is disturbed during sampling. The water
content may be different from that in situ. Disturbed soil samples can be extracted from
trial pits. According to (Arya, 2003) these soils represent the composition and mineral
content of the soil. They can be used in determining the properties of the soil such as
plasticity, grain size, specific gravity and index properties.
Spacing of soil samples
M.J Tomlinson suggests that soil samples should be taken at intervals of 1.5m and at each
change of strata in boreholes. For structures requiring shallow foundations it is necessary to take
the first sample just below the top soil for example 0.2 to 0.7m and the next at 1.5m spacing is
from 1.7 to 2.2m. If only a few boreholes are to sunk, it is a good practice to adopt continuous
sampling for the first few meters below the ground level.
Insitu tests
Insitu tests are required when it is difficult to obtain fairly undisturbed soil samples. The soil
sample has the same conditions with soil at the site. The soils in which insitu tests are necessary

10
include;
a) Sands and gravels
b) Soft clay soils
c) Stoney soils
Insitu tests are conducted to obtain
1) the resistance to penetration of the soils at site,
2) the strength of the soils
3) permeability.

IN-SITU TESTS
TEST NO. 1: Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCP)

Theory:
The DCP is an instrument which can be used for the rapid measurement of the in situ strength of
existing flexible pavements constructed with unbound materials. Measurements can be made
down to a depth of 800 mm or to a maximum depth of 1500mm by adding an extension rod .
Where the pavement layers have different strengths, the boundaries between them can be
identified and the thickness of each layer determined using the software program called UK DCP
2.2 . This software program is available free from the website [Link]- [Link] /ukdcp .
The installation process will install the program along with the User Manual in the user's
computer.

Apparatus:
Dynamic cone penetrometer, coring equipment

11
PREPARATION FOR TEST
DCP is not intended to be driven through concrete or bituminous layers. If you intend to test
beneath

these surfaces a core hole at least 50mm in diameter must be made. If a water ‐cooled coring
device is

used, the DCP test should be conducted immediately after coring to limit the saturation of the
soil

below. Excess surface water must be removed before testing. A DCP collection data sheet
contains test

location, type of soil being tested and test date.

1.) With one hand placed on the top handle place the other to seat the cone tip by lifting and
dropping the sliding hammer from a partial height. Stop the seating process once the
widest part of the cone is below the testing surface.
2.) Establish a reference point for reading the penetration of the lower shaft. If a second
person is reading the lower shaft a straight edge position on the ground next to the shaft
will make a good reference point. A reference point must remain constant throughout the
test. If a remote scale is being used, the top of the remote scale tube guide will serve as
the reference point.
3.) On the test sheet record the current shaft or remote scale reading as the penetration for
below zero.
4.) Maintaining a hand on the top handle use the other to raise the hammer to the handle and
release hammer allowing it to fall freely to the anvil. Use caution not to lift the entire
DCP which might break contact between the soil and the cone tip. Be careful not to
influence the drop by forcing the hammer down or griping the top handle to tightly.
5.) Using the reference point record on data sheet the penetration reading of the shaft or the
remote scale. Record this as below number one.
6.) Repeat steps 4 and 5 increasing the blow number with each hammer drop. The raise and
drop sequence is repeated until the entire lower shaft is buried or until the desired testing

12
 depth is reached. If the soil is very dense you may drop the hammer several times
between penetration readings and record the corresponding blow counts. If the total
penetration is less than 3mm for 10 consecutive hammer drops, stop the test to prevent
damage to the DCP.
7.) If the lower shaft has penetrated its full length lift the DCP using a special equipped farm

purpose jack. Begin the extraction by placing the jack tongue under the DCP handle. Pump
the jack until the jack handle can be placed under the DCP anvil. Then lower the jack and
finish the extraction. It is recommended that the DCP not be extracted by forcefully striking
the hammer against the DCP top handle. That will damage the DCP in a short amount of
time. The only exception would be in a situation where the test was performed in a very soft
material or the total test penetration was shallow.

8.) Clean the lower shaft and cone tip by wiping with a clean rag. Inspect the cone tip for
excessive damage and replace when its widest section diameter is less than 18mm.
9.) As best you can fill the hole left in the soil by the DCP and restore the test surface to its
original state.

13
Figure 2:DCP Equipment

LAB TESTS
TEST No. 2: Sieve Analysis
Reference : - I.S. 2720 ( Part – 4) 1985

Objective : - To determine the grain size distribution by dry sieve method, for given
sample of soil. Plot distribution curve and I.S. classification of given soil sample.

Theory : - Grain size analysis means determination of percentage by means of fraction

of different sizes of particles in the soil sample. It is also known as mechanical analysis.
Mechanical analysis for coarse grained soil (Grains larger than 75 microns) can be done by
method of sieving. The dry sieve method is suitable for non-cohesive soils.

14
Particle size distribution curve. The curve obtained after plotting all the results of
mechanical analysis on semi-logarithmic graph paper is called particle size distribution
[Link] this curve, percentage finer (N) is taken as ordinate on a natural scale and particle
diameter (D) on logarithmic scales as the abscissa. The curve gives an idea about the type and
gradation of soil.

Coefficient of uniformity: The ratio of D60 to D10 is called coefficient of uniformity.

Cu= D60/D10 represents a particle size in mm such that 10% of the particles are finer than this
size. D60 means 60% of the particles are finer than the size of the particle at 60% point on the
curve.
Coefficient of curvature:- The shape of the particle size indicated by coefficient of
curvature (Cc) .

Cc = (D30)2 / (D10xD60)
D30– Particle size corresponding to 30% finer
Cu must be > 4 for gravels

> 6 for sands

If Cu = 1, the particles are of same size. For well graded soil, CC lies between 1 and 3
The larger the numerical values of Cu, the more are the range of particles. Soils with a
value of Cu less than 2 are uniform soils. Sands with a value of Cu of 6 or more are well
graded. Gravels with a value of Cu of 4 more are well graded.
3. Grading of soils:- The distribution of particles of different sizes in a soil mass is called are
grading of soils and can be determined from the particle size distribution curves.
In figure (2) particle size distribution curves of different soils are shown. A curve with a hump,
such as curve A, represents the soil in which some of the intermediate size particles are
missing. Such a soil is called Gap-graded or skip graded soil. A flat S-Curve such as curve B,
represents a soils which contains the particles of different sizes in good preparation. Such a
soil is called a well-graded or uniformly graded soil.
A steep curve, like C, indicates a soil containing the particles of almost the same size.
Such soils are known as Uniform soils. The particles size distribution curve also reveals whether
a soils is coarse – graded or fine-graded. A curve situated higher up and to the left (Curve-D)
15
indicates a relatively fine grained soil, where as a curve situated to the right (Curve E) indicates a
coarse grained soil.

Uses of particle size distribution curve

1) It can be used for classification of coarse grained soils.
2) It is used to know the susceptibility of soil to frost action
3) Particle size distribution curve is required for the design of drainage filters.
4) The particle size distribution provides us idea about shear strength of soil.
Generally a well-graded compacted soil has higher shear strength.
5) Compressibility of soil should also be judged form its particle size distribution
curve. A uniform soil is more compressible than a well graded soil.
6) The particle size distribution curve is useful in soil stabilization and for design of
pavements.

Apparatus
[Link] accurate to 1 gm [Link] of sieves 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18mm, 600 micron, 300 micron,
150 micron, 75 micron, receiver 3. metal trays 4. mechanical sieve shaker etc.

Procedure
1) Take a representative sample of soil received from the field and dry it in the oven. Break the
clods of the sample by means of hand.
2) Weight the required amount of sample for testing say 1 Kg.
3) Arrange the various sieves one over the other in order of their mesh opening. The largest
sieve at the top and smallest at bottom.
4) The soil sample is put on the top sieve and the whole assembly is fitted to the sieve
shaker. Shake it mechanically for 10 to 15 minutes.
5) The part of the soil sample retained on each sieve is weighed and recorded.

*Note : If the soil contains appreciable fine (75%) aggregates and hard to break in to
elementary particles soak the sample for 24 hours and wash through 75 microns sieve. The
residue on the sieve is weighed.
16
Figure 3: Sieve Analysis Apparatus & Curves

Table 1:Sieve Analysis Calculations

Sr No I.S. Sieve Mass of soil Percentage wt. Cumulative % % wt.

retained in retained wt. retained passing
(gm)
01 4.75mm
02 2.36mm
03 1.18mm
04 600 μ
05 300 μ
06 150 μ
07 75 μ

17
 08 receiver
Coefficient of Uniformity Cu =
Coefficient of curvature Cc =
Effective Size D10 =
Soil can be classified as ………

Test No. 3 Determination of Consistency/ Atterberg Limits

Reference: - I.S. 2720 (Part-5) – 1985

I.S. 2720 (Part-6) – 1972

Objective: - To determine liquid, limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit of Soil.

Theory : - The consistency of a fine grained soil is the physical state in which it exists.

It is used to denote the degree of firmness of a soil. Consistency of a soil is indicated by such
terms as soft, firm or hard. In 1911, a Swedish agriculture engineer Atterberg mentioned that a
fine grained soil can exist in four states, namely, liquid, Plastic, semi solid and solid state. The
water content at which the soil changes form one state to another are known as consistency
limits or Atterbergs limits. The water content alone is not a adequate index property of a
soil. At the same water content, one soil may be relatively soft, where as other soil may be hard.
However, the soil with same consistency limit behave somewhat in similar manner.
Thus,consistency limits are very important index properties of fine grained soils.

A soil containing high water content is in a liquid state. It offers no shearing resistance and can
flow like liquids. It has no resistance to shear deformation and therefore, the shear
strength is equal to zero. As the water content is reduced, the soil becomes stiffer and starts
developing resistance to shear deformation. At some particular water content, the soil become
plastic. The water content at which the soil changes from the liquid state to plastic state is
known as liquid limit (LL, W1). In other wards the liquid limit is the water content at which
the soil ceases to be liquid. At the liquid limit, the clay is practically like a liquid, but possesses a
small shearing strength. The shearing strength at that stage is the smallest value that can be
measured in the [Link] liquid limit of a soil depends upon the clay mineral
present. The stronger the surface charge and the thinner the particle the greater will be the
amount of adsorbed water and, therefore, higher will be the liquid limit.
18
The soil in the plastic state can be moulded into various shapes. As the water content is reduced,
the plasticity of the soil decreases. Ultimately, the soil passes from the plastic state to the
semisolid state when it stops behaving as a plastic. It cracks when [Link] water content at
which the soil becomes semisolid is known as the plastic limit (PL, Wp). The plastic limit. The
plastic limit is the water content at which the soil just fails to behave plastically. Soil begins to
crumble when rolled into a thread of 3 mm diameter. The numerical difference between the
liquid limit and the plastic limit is known as plasticity index. (PI, Ip) PI = LL-PL
When the water content is reduced below the plastic limit, the soil attains a semisolid state. The
soil cracks when moulded. In the semisolid state, the volume of the soil decreases with the
decrease in water till a state is reached when further reduction of the water content does not
cause any reduction in the volume of the soil. The soil is said to have reached a solid sate.
The water content at which the soil changes from a semi-solid state to the solid state is known as
the shrinkage limit (SL, Ws).Shrinkage limit is the smallest water content at which a
reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in the volume of the soil mass. At this
water content the shrinkage ceases.
In liquid state, the solid is like soup; in plastic state, like soft buffer; in semisolid state
like cheese, and solid state like hard candy.

Liquidity Index (IL, LI)

w−℘
IL = x 100
Ip

Where W – water content of the soil in natural condition. The liquidity index of a
solid indicates the nearness of its w.c. to its liquid limit. When the soil is at its liquid limit, its
liquidity index is 100% and it behaves as a liquid. When the soil is at plastic state its liquidity
index is zero. Negative values of the liquidity index indicate a w.c. smaller than the plastic
limit. The soil is then in a hard state. The liquidity index is also known as water plasticity ratio.

Consistency Index (Ic. CI):

( W 1−W x 100 )
Ip

19
It indicates the consistency or firmness of soil. It shown the nearness of the water content of
the soil to its plastic limit. A soil with a consistency index of zero is at the liquid limit it is
extremely soft and has negligible shear strength. On the other hand, the soil at the water
content equal to the plastic limit has a consistency index of 100% indicating the soil is
relatively firm. A consistency index of greater than 100% shows that the soil is relatively
strong as it is the semisolid state. A negative value of Ic is also possible which indicates that
the water content

is greater than liquid limit. Ic is also known as relative consistency. It is worth noting that the
sum total of the liquidity index and the consistency index is always equal to 100%
indicating that a soil having high value of liquidity index has a low value of consistency index
and vice-versa.

Flow Index : (If) is the slope of the flow curve obtained between the number of blow s and

the water content in Casagrade’s method of determination of the liquid limit.

( W 1−W 2 ) Where, N1= number of blows required at W.C. of w1

¿¿

N2 = number of blows required at W.C. of w2

The soil with a greater value of flow index has a steeper scope and possesses lower
shear strength as compared to soil with a flatter slope.

Toughness index: of a soil is defined as the ratio of the plasticity index (Ip) and the flow index
(If).

It= Ip / If

It Of a soil is a measure of the shearing strength of the soil at the plastic limit.

Flow Curve : The liquid limit is a water content at which the soil is sufficiently fluid to flow
when the device is given 25 below. As it is difficult to adjust the water content, so as to get
exactly 25 blows for the sample to flow, the test is conducted at different water contents so as to
get blows in the range of 10 to 40. A plot is made between the water content as
ordinate and number of blows on log scale as abscissa. The plot is approximately a straight line.

20
The plot is known as flow curve. The liquid limit is obtained from the plot corresponding
to 25 blows and expressed as nearest whole number.

Shrinkage index: Is is the number difference between the plastic limit and the shrinkage

limit (Ws).

Is= Wp - Ws

Shrinkage ratio: (SR) is defined as the ratio of a given volume change expressed as a

percentage of dry volume to the corresponding change in w.c.

= volume of dry soil mass

Volumetric Shrinkage: (Vs) or Volumetric change is defined as the change in volume

expressed as a percentage of the dry volume when the water content is reduced form a given

volume of the shrinkage limit.

(V 1−V 2 /V d )
SR= x 100
w 1−w 2

V1= volume of soil mass at W.C. W1

V2= Volume of soil mass at W.C. W2

Vd= volume of dry soil mass

Volumetric Shrinkage: (Vs) or Volumetric change is defined as the change in volume

expressed as a percentage of the dry volume when the water content is reduced form a given

volume of the shrinkage limit.

21
Vs =SR (w1–w2)

Figure 4: Cassagrande Apparatus

22
Figure 5: Resulting Graphical Plot

Part I – Determination of liquid limit :

Material and Apparatus
Casagranade’s liquid limit device, grooving tools – Cassgrande type snf A.S.T.M. type,

evaporating dish, spatula, 425 micron sieve etc. Gauge block, balance, oven sample

containers, and distilled water.

Procedure :
A) Adjustment of the liquid limit device

The liquid limit device (Fig. 3.1) shall be inspected to determine that it is clean, dry and in

good working order, that the cup falls freely and it does not have too much side play at its

hinge.

The grooving tool should also be inspected to determine that it is clean and dry. Check height of
fall of the cup by introduction the gauge block between the bottom of the cup and top of the rubber base.
23
By manipulating the screw provided near the cap hinge, ensure that the cup falls exactly 1 cm for one
revolution of the handle.

B) Liquid limit test – I.S. 2720 – (Part-5) recommends two types of grooving tools. (Fig.

3.)i) Casagrande’s tool, which cuts a groove of width 2 mm at the bottom, 11 mm at the top and 8 mm
deep and is recommended for normal fine grained soil.

ii) ASTM tool cuts a groove of width 2mm at the bottom 13.6 mm at the top and

10 mm deep and is used for sandy, fine grained soils in which the casagrande

Tool tends to tear the soil in the groove.

1) Sieve the sample through 425 micron I.S. sieve.

2) Take 125 gm of soil and mix it thoroughly with 20 ml of distilled water.

3) Put the portion of the above paste in the cup, and spread it.

4) Level the above paste with spatula and smooth the surface off to a maximum depth of 1.25cm.

5) Divide the sample in the cup by grooving tool along the symmetrical axis of the cup.

6) Now lift the drop the cup to fall on the rubber base with the help of a cam, operated by
handle. The handle is rotated to a rate of 2 revolutions per second until the two halves come in
contact. The cam lifts the brass cup through a specified height of 1 cm.

7) Record the number of blows required to close the grove in the soil for a distance of 1.25 cm. Groove
should not be closed by slippage between the cup and the soil but it should be closed by the flow of the
soil.

8) If groove closes by slippage, then mix the soil immediately in the cup, and repeat the above
procedure. Calculate the moisture content of the sample by taking sample from near the closed
grove when the number of blows lies between 10 to 40.

9) Repeat the test with 4 or 5 samples with varying moisture contents.

24
Table 2:Liquid Limit Observation Table

Sr No Determination 1 2 3 4 5
number
1 Number of blows
2 Container No
3 Mass of container
(g)M1
4 Mass of container +
wet soil (g) M2
5 Mass of container +
dry soil (g) M3
6 Mass of water (g)
M2-M3
7 Mass of oven dry
soil (g) M3-M1
8 Water content
M 2−M 3
%= x 100
M 3−M 1
Type equation here .

Result:-
Liquid limit from graph =

Flow Index from graph =

From the graph, find the difference between the water contents for the blows differing by one

log cycle. To do this, extend the flow curve at either ends so as to intersect the ordinates

corresponds to 10 and 100 blows and note the numerical difference in water contents at 10

and 100 blows. Calculate flow index using these values.

25
Precautions:
1) Do not conduct the liquid limit test on a soil paste which repeatedly slides on the

surface on the cup instead of flowing when blows are imparted.

2) Prepare the soil paste in such a way that the maximum number of blows to close the groove does not
exceeds 40 and the minimum is not below 10.

3) Proceed always from the dry to the wet condition.

4) See that there are no scratches on the surface of the cup. After the experiment, the cup

should be cleaned with cotton waste.

5) Heating of soil alters its liquid limit. Hence, the soil should not be oven dried before

the commencement of the test.

6) Distilled water should be used in order to minimize the possibility of ion exchange

between the soil and any impurities in the water.

7) It should be better if the test is performed in a humid room. Humid atmosphere

minimizes surface drying of the soil while it is being tested.

Part – II Determination plastic limit:

Reference – I.S.2720 (Part-5) – 1965.

Material and equipment:

Evaporating dish, flat glass plate, spatula, 425 micron sieve, 3 mm dia. Specimen bar

about 10 cm long.

Procedure:
1) Sieve the given sample of soil through 425 micron sieve.

2) Take 20 gm of soil sample and mixed it with water till the soil becomes plastic enough to be
easily moulded with fingers. Leave the plastic sol mass for some times to mature to ensure uniform
distribution of moisture (24 hours for clay)

3) Prepare the ball of uniform diameter of the above sample.

4) Roll it on glass plate with just sufficient finger pressure.

26
5) Continue the rolling operation till the thread is of 3 mm diameter. Compare the

diameter of thread at intervals with the given rod (Fig. 3.2)

6) Again press the soil and roll it.

7) Continue the above process till the threads show sign of crumble, thus making the soil

unable for further rolling.

8) Take a portion of crumbled material.

9) Find the moisture content of the crumbled material.

10) Repeat the above process for 3 observations. Record the average value as plastic limit of the given
soil sample.

Figure 6:Determination Of Plastic Limit

Table 3: Plastic Limit Observation Table

27
 Sr No Description Sample 1 Sample 2
1 Determination number
2 Container number
3 Mass of container
4 Mass of container +
wet soil
5 Mass of container +
oven dry soil
6 Mass of water
7 Mass of dry soil
8 Water content %

Calculations:
Plastic limit =

Plasticity Index = Ip = Wi – W p

Toughness Index =

Result:
Plastic limit of given soil sample is =

Plasticity Index =

Toughness Index =

From Casagrande’s plasticity chart (Fig. 3.4) soil can be classified as Inorganic clay.

28
Figure 7:Mercury Displacement Method

29
Figure 8:Plasticity Chart

Table 4:Consistency In Terms Of Consestency Index

Sr No Consistency Consistency Index Characteristics of soil

1 Very soft 0-25 Fist can be pressed in to
soil
2 Soft 25-50 Thumb can be pressed
in to soil
3 Medium (firm) 50-75 Thumb can be pressed
with pressure.
4 Stiff 75-100 Thumb can be pressed
with great difficulty
5 Very Stiff >100 The soil can be readily
indented with thumb
nail
6 Hard >100 The soil can be
indented with difficulty
by thumb nail.

30
Precautions:
1) Undue pressure or oblique rolling, which might result in mechanical breaking of the thread should not
be used. The soil thread must crumble due to decrease in water content only. The rate of rolling
should be between 80 to 90 strokes per minutes counting a stroke as one complete motion of the
hand forward and back to the starting position again.

2) In case of sandy soils, plastic limit should be determined first. When the plastic limit cannot be
determined the plasticity index should be reported as NP (non -plastic).

3) When the plastic limit is equal to or greater than the liquid limit, the plasticity index should be
reported as zero.

Part-III Determination of sharinkage limit

Reference: I.S. 2720 (Part-6) -1972

Material and equipment:

i) A porcelain evaporating dish about 12 cm in diameter with flat bottom.

ii) A stainless steel shrinkage dish, 45 mm in diameter and 15 mm in height, with flat

bottom.

iii) Two glass plates, each 75 x 75 mm, one of plain glass and the other having three metal prongs.

iv) A glass cup 50 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height, with its top rim ground smooth and
level.

Procedure:
1) The volume V1of the shrinkage dish is first determined by filling it to overflowing with
mercury, removing the excess by pressing a flat glass plate over its top and then taking the mass of the
dish filled with mercury.

2) The mass of mercury contained in the dish, divided by its density (13.6 gm/cm 3) gives the volume of
the shrinkage dish.

3) About 50 gm of soil passing 425 micron IS sieve is mixed with distilled water sufficient to
fill the voids completely and to make the soil pasty enough to be readily worked into the shrinkage
dish without the inclusion of air-bubbles.

31
4) The inside of the shrinkage dish is coated with a thin layer of Vaseline.

5) A volume of wet soil of about one third the volume of dish is put in its center and the soil is caused to
flow to the edges by tapping it gently on a hard surface.

6) The dish is gradually filled by adding more soil in installment followed by gently tapping to exclude
the inclusion of air.

7) Strike of the excess soil paste with straight edge. Wipe off the soil adhering to the outside of the dish.
The dish filled with soil is then immediately weighed.

8) The mass M1 of the wet soil pat, of volume V1 is thus known by subtracting the mass of the empty
dish from the mass of the wet soil plus the dish taken above.

After air drying, the dish is placed in the oven. The soil pat will have volumetric shrinkage on drying.

9) The mass Md of the dry soil pat is found. To find the volume Vd of the dry soil pat, the glass cup is
first filled with mercury and the excess mercury is removed by pressing the glass plate with three prongs
firmly over the top of the cup.

10) The cup is wiped off, if any mercury which may be adhering to its outside surface, and is placed in
the evaporating dish. The dry soil pat is placed on the surface of the mercury of the cup and is
carefully forced down by means of glass with prongs.

The mass of mercury so displaced dividing by its density gives the volume Vd of the dry soil pat (Fig.
3.3)

Table 5: Shrinkage Limit Observations

Sr No Description Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3

a) Water content of wet soil
1 Shrinkage dish no.
2 Mass of shrinkage
dish
3 Mass of shrinkage
dish + wet soil pat
32
 (g)
4 Mass of shrinkage
dish + dry soil
pat(g)
5 Mass of dry soil
pat (Ms) (g)
6 Mass of water (g)
7 Water content of
soil pat w (ratio)
b) Volume of wet soil pat.
8 Evaporating dish
no.
9 Mass of
evaporating dish
(g)
10 Mass of mercury
filling shrinkage
dish +
mass of
evaporating dish
(g)
11 Mass of mercury
filling shrinkage
dish (g)
12 Volume of wet Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3
soil pat (11/13.6)
V.cm3
c) Volume of dry soil pat.
13 Evaporating dish
no.
14 Mass of
evaporating dish
(g)

33
 15 Mass of mercury
displaced by dry
soil pat +
mass of
evaporating dish
(g)
16 Mass of mercury
displaced by dry
soil pat
(g)
17 Volume of dry
soil pat Vd =
(16/13.6) cm3
18 w-(V-Vd) x 100
Shrinkage limit %
w3 =
----------------Md
19 Shrinkage ratio
SR = Md / Vd
20 Volumetric
shrinkage Vs =
(w-ws) x SR

Calculations :
For sample no. 1

Result :
-1) Shrinkage limit Ws =

2) Shrinkage ratio SR =

3) Volumetric shrinkage Vs =

34
Significance:
This test gives the value of shrinkage limit which is almost important in case of expansive soil
such as black cotton soil. The shrinkage limit is considered in relation to natural water content of
soil in field. It indicates whether shrinkage will occur if soil is allowed to dry. This method is found
to be useful in soil stability problem. It also helps in indicating structure of the soil. The greater these
shrinkage, the more dispersed the structure.

TEST 4: SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY PYCHNOMETER

Reference :- I.S. – 2720 ( Part II) 1964

Objective :- To determine the specific gravity of soil grains of given sample

of soil mass.
Theory:- The specific gravity of solid particles (G) is defined as the ratio
of the mass of given volume of solids to the mass of equal volume of distilled water at 40◦C.
Both weights are taken in air.
G= ρs / ρw 


The mass density of water ρw at 4◦c is 1gm/ml . The specific gravity of solids for most
natural solid fall in the general range of 2.65 to 2.80, the smaller values are for the coarse –
grained soils. The specific gravity of the different particles in a soil mass may not be
the same. Wherever the specific gravity of a soil mass is indicated, it is the average value of all
the solid particles present in the soil mass.

The uses of Specific Gravity are:

1. To determine size to particles by stokes law..
2. To determine void ratio of fully stud anted soil on knowing its water content.
3. To determine unit weight of soil on knowing other properties of soil.
4. May be useful in mineral classification.

35
Apparatus
1. Pycnometer 2. Weighing balance with an accuracy of 1 gm 3. Glass rod 4. Vacuum
Pump 5. Oven [Link] distilled water [Link] 8. Desiccators

*Pycnometer is a glass jar of about 900 ml capacity with a conical brass cap having 6 mm
diameter hole in the center screwed with a rubber washer. (Fig.1)

Procedure
1) Clean and dry the pycnometer, tightly screw its cap. Take its mass M1
2) Mark the cap and pycnometer with a vertical line parallel to the axis of the
pycnometer to ensure that the cap is screwed to the same mark each time.
3) Unscrew the cap and fill the pycnometer with 200 to 400 gm or one third with
oven dried soil taken directly from the desiccators and screw the cap. Determine
the mass M2.
4) Unscrew the cap and add sufficient amount of de-aired water to pycnometer so as to cover the
soil. Screw on the cap.
5) Shake well the contents, connect the pycnometer to vacuum pump, to remove the entrapped
air, for about 20 minutes for fine grained soils and for about 10 minutes for coarse grained soils.
6) Disconnect the vacuum pump. Fill the pycnometer with water, about three fourth
or full. Reapply the vacuum for about 5 minutes, till the air bubbles stop appearing
on the surface of the water.
7) Fill the pycnometer with water completely, up to the mark. Dry it from outside.
Take it as mass M3
.
8) Record the temperature of contents.
9) Empty the pycnometer. Clean it and wipe it dry.
10) Fill the pycnometer with the water only. Screw on the cap up to the mark. Wipe it
dry. Take it as mass M4.

36
Figure 9: Pycnometer

Table 6:Specific Gravity Test Observations

Sr No Particulars Determination No.

Sample1 Sample2
01 Pycnometer No
02 Mass of empty pycnometer (M1) gm
03 Mass of pycnometer + soil (M2) gm
04 Mass of pycnometer + soil + distilled water (M3) gm
05 Mass of pycnometer + soil + distilled water (M4) gm
06 Specific gravity G = ( M2-M1)/{(M2-M1)-(M3-M4)}

37
Table 7: Typical Specific Gravity Values

TEST No: 5 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

Reference: I.S. 2720 (Part-36) – 1986

I.S. 2720 (Part-17)-1986

Objective:
To determine the co-efficient of permeability of soil sample in the laboratory.

Theory:
The passage of water through porous material is called seepage. The material with continuous voids is
called as permeable material. Hence permeability is a property of porous material which permits passage
of fluids through inter connecting voids. Permeability is defined as the rate of flow of water under
laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow
through porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient and under standard temperature condition. The
principle behind the test is Darcy’s law for laminar flow. The rate of discharge per unit time is
proportional to hydraulic gradient. i.e. ‘q’ is directly proportional to ( i x A ).

Q=kxIxA

But V= q /A i.e.; V = k x I Where,

Q= Discharge per unit time.

A= Total area of cross section of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow.

38
I = Hydraulic gradient.

K = Darcy’s co-efficient of permeability which is equal to the mean velocity of flow

(V) that will occur through the cross sectional area under unit hydraulic gradient.

Therefore the dimensions of the ‘k’ are same as that of velocity.

q =VxA

= V, x Av

Where

Av

= Area of voids

V3=seepage velocity

= rate of discharge of percolating water per unit cross section of voids perpendicular

to the direction of flow

Vs=V x A/Av Vv= Vs = e = Voids ratio

But A/Av

= (1+e)/e Vv= Vs = n = Porosity

Hence the factors affecting permeability are;

1) Particle size

2) Structure of soil mass

3) Shape of particles

4) Void ratio

5) Properties of pore fluid

6) Degree of saturatio

7) Adsorbed water

8) Impurities in water

39
A) Constant head permeability test:

The coefficient of permeability of relatively more permeable soil can be determined in a laboratory by the
constant head permeability test.

B) Variable head permeability test or Falling head permeability test:

For relatively less permeable soils, the quantity of water collected in the graduated jar of the constant
head permeability test is very small and cannot be measured accurately. For such soils, the variable head
permeability test in used.

This test is recommended for soils with coefficient of permeability in the range 10 -3 to 10-7cm/s and
maximum particle size of 9.5 mm.

For this test only de-aired water is used.

Table 8: Typical Values Of Permeability k

Sr No Soil Type Coefficient of Drainage property

permeability
(mm/sec.)
1 Clean Gravel 10+1 to 10+2 Very Good
2 Coarse & medium sand 10-2 to 10+1 Good
3 Fine sands, loose silt 10-4 to 10-2 Fair
-5 -4
4 Dense silt, clayey silts 10 to 10 Poor
5 Silty clay, clay 10-8 to 10-5 Very Poor

The silts having the coefficient of permeability greater than 10 -3mm/sec are classified as

pervious and these with a value less than 10 -5 to 10 -3mm/sec are designated as semi-pervious.

Material and Equipment:

Permeameter mould (Fig 4.1-4.2) including drainage base and drainage cap. The compaction
rammer, glass stand pipe for falling head (Variable head) test arrangement, constant head tank,
Vacuum pump, mixing pan, IS sieves, graduated cylinder, meter scales. Stop watch, 75 micron wire
gauge, thermometer and a source of de-aired water.

40
Procedure:
Preparation of remolded specimen.

Choose moisture content and the density at which the specimen has to be remoulded

from the compaction cure. Let …… (g/cm3) be the dry density and w% is the water content.

Weight dry soil equal to 1000 … dg.

Add 100 pd x w/100 g of water to this soil. Mix the soil with water thoroughly. Fix the base plate and
collar to the permeameter mould. Fill the soil water mix in the mould and compact it in three layer giving
25 blows of the rammer per layer. Trim of the top surface of the soil to be in flush with the top of the
mould.

Detach the base plate and the collar from the mould. Fix the mould with soil to the base plate

and drainage cap.

Saturation:

In the case of soils of medium to high permeability the specimen shall be subjected to

sufficient head flow or immersion so as to obtained full saturatio. Soils of low permeability

require flow under a high head for periods ranging from a day to week d epending upon the

permeability and the head. Alternatively, in the case of soils of low permeability the

specimen shall be subjected to a gradually increasing vacuum with bottom outlet closed so as

to remove air from the soil voids. The vacuum shall be increased to at least 70 cm of mercury which shall
be maintained for 15 minutes or more depending upon the soil type.

The evacuation shall be followed by a very slow saturation of the specimen with desired water from the
bottom upwards under full vacuum. When the specimen is saturated, both the top and bottom outlets shall
be closed.

1) Procedure for constant head test:

Connect the outlet tube of the constant head tank to inlet nozzle of permeameter after

removal of air. Measure the value of constant head. Star the stop watch and simultaneously start cock of
permeameter and collect the discharge in measuring cylinder in a convenient time interval.

41
Repeat the procedure and take more readings.

Observations:
Diameter of specimen = Diameter of mould = D = -------------- cm

Length of specimen = Length of mould = L = -------------- cm

Area of specimen A = ( /4) = -------------- cm2

Volume of specimen V = -------------- cm3

Head causing flow = -------------- cm

Hydraulic gradient = I = h=I =--------------cm

Figure 10: Base cap

42
Figure 11: Permeability Apparatus

Table 9:Permability Test Calculations

Sr. No. Time ‘t’ sec. Quantity ‘Q’ ml K=Q/ Aitcm/sec KAvg.
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:
The coefficient of permeability is calculated from equation.
43
K = Q / t x L / h x 1/A

Where;

Q = Quantity of flow

t = Time interval

L= Length of the sample

A = Cross sectional area of the sample

h = Constant head.

Sample calculation no.-

Results –
The coefficient of permeability is =

B) Procedure for falling head permeability test

Prepare the remoulded soil specimen in the permeameter and saturate it. Connect the water inlet to nozzle
of mould of stand pipe filled with water. Permit water to flow for some time till steady state of flow is
[Link] the help of the stopwatch, note the time interval required for the water level in the standpipe
to fall from some convenient initial value to some final value.

Data and observations:

1) Area of stand pipe (a) cm2 -------------------------------

2) Cross section area of the soil sample (A cm2) -------------------------------

3) Length of the sample (L cm) -------------------------------

4) Initial head (h1) cm -------------------------------

5) Final head (h2) cm -------------------------------

6) Time interval -------------------------------

i) 1st test sec. = -------------------------------

ii) 2nd test sec.= -------------------------------

iii) 3rd test sec. = -------------------------------

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7) Coefficient of permeability at test temperature cm / sec.

8) Test temperature =

Calculations:
The coefficient of permeability is calculated from equation,

2.3 c L log 10 h1

K = ------------- -----------

At h2

Result:
Coefficient of permeability is. -----------------------.cm / sec.

Significance:
The knowledge of permeability is essential in the solution of may engineering

problems involving flow of water through soils such as.

a) De-watering and drainage of excavations, back fills and sub-grades;

b) Determining yield of water bearing strata;

c) Assessing seepage through the body of earth dams;

d) Computing losses from canals;

e) The permeability of soil governs the type of soil to be used.

TEST No: 6 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Reference : I.S. 2720 (Part-XIII) 1965

Objective:
To determine shear parameters of a soil with the help of direct shear test.

Theory:
The shear strength of soil means is its property against sliding along internal planes within itself.
The stability of slope in an earth dam of hills and the foundation of the structure built on
different types of soil depend upon the shearing resistance offered by the soil along the possible
slippage surface. Shear parameters are also used in computing the safe bearing capacity of
the foundation soils and the earth pressure behind retaining walls.

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Shear strength is determined as below (after Coulomb)

S= c+ …. σTanƟ

Where S = Shear strength of soil

C= Cohesion

σ= Normal stress

Ɵ= Angle of shearing resistance.

The parameters c and for a particular soil depend upon its degree of saturation, density and the
condition of laboratory testing. In a direct shear test, the sample is sheared along a horizontal
plane. This indicates that the failure plane is horizontal. The normal stress (σ) on this plane
is the external vertical load divided by the area of the soil sample. The shear stress at failure is
the external lateral load divided by the corrected area of soil sample. The main advantage of
direct shear apparatus is its simplicity and smoothness of operation and the rapidity with
which testing programmes can be carried out. But this test has the disadvantage that lateral
pressure and stresses on planes other than the plane of shear are not known during the test.

Type of laboratory tests.

1) Unconsolidated untrained (Quick test) : The sample is tested in its natural state without

applying any pressure from outside and also not letting pore water from the specimen to

come out during test. This test can be performed both on disturbed and undisturbed soil

samples.

2) Consolidated untrained or consolidated Quick test: Here the initial normal

pressure(equivalent to the pressure to be applied during test) is applied on the specimen after
putting the same in shear box so that it gets consolidated. For consolidation perforated grids are
kept at the top and bottom of the specimen to let the pore water come out of the specimen for
consolidation. After the consolidation of the specimen is complete, the perforated grids are
carefully replaced by plain grids and test is carried out under undrained condition.

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3) Drained test : In this test the pore warier within the specimen (if any) is allowed to come

out throughout the test both during applying normal and shear stress. The specimen is sheared

at a slow strain rate so that no pore pressure within the specimen develops through out the test.

Apparatus used:
1) Shear box: of non corrosive metal, size 60 mm x 60 mm x 50 mm (large size box e.g.

300 mm x 300 x 200 mm) are also used in special test containing gravel up to 25 mm

size) open at top and bottom, divided horizontally in to halves (Fig. 5)

Proving ring (with dial gauge) and strain dial gauge to record the share stress and

strain.

2) Container for shear box : it holds the bottom of the shear box and filled up with

water surrounding the shear box when sample is to be tested at saturated condition.

3) Grid plates: Two plain, two perforated with serratios of 1.5 mm depth.

4) Porous stone: Two nos. each 6 mm thick, 60 mm x 60 mm in size.

5) Base plate: non corrosive metal containing cross groves on its top face.

6) Loading pad: Non corrosive metal to be fitted in the shear box.

7) Loading frame: The important requirement of the frame is that the normal load is

applied uniformly on the soil specimen in the shear box, without any eccentricity.

8) Proving ring with dial gauge : capacity 250 kg and least count of dial gauge as
0.002 mm.

9) Other Accessories: Weights, strain dial gauge (least count as 0.002 mm), two fixing screws,
two spacing screws, spatula, a straight edge, compction devices for remoulded specimen, oven
balance and crucibles.

Procedure:
For undisturbed specimen:

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Specimen of required size (6 cm x 6 cm x 2.5 cm) shall be prepared from a natural

undisturbed chunk. Weight the mould empty and with the specimen also.

Figure 12: Shear Box Test Apparatus

Fore remoulded specimen / Disturbed sample

The dried soil passing though 2.36 mm sieve size is compacted at the desired density (and
desired moisture content, if soil is to be tested in moist conditions) in to the shear box after
keeping both the halves of the shear box together by means of the fixing [Link] insure the
correct density of sample, take the weight of sample as multiplication of volume of soil 90 cm 3,
if shear box size is (6 cm x 6 cm x 2.5) and desired density. Divide the sample in to two equal
parts. One half of sample should be fully consumed in to lower half of the box and other half
should be fully consumed in upper half of the box. Gentle tamping of the soil sample should be

48
done while filling in the shear box. Keep the base plate, grid plate or porous stone, before
compacting the soil specimen in the shear [Link] undrained test place the plain grid plate (non
perforated ) below the porous tone. Care should be taken to see that serratios of the grid plate are
at right angle to the direction so shear. For consolidation of specimen and testing at drained
condition : Keep the perforated grid plate instead of plain grid to enable to pore water of
specimen to pass through. Weight the box with soil specimen to determine the density of
specimen. Keep the porous

stone upper grid and loading pad on the soil specimen. Place the shear box inside the

container. Keep it on the loading frame. Make adjustment that the upper half of the box is in

proper contact with the proving ring assembly. Fill the container with water if the test is to be

carried out at saturated [Link] a ball on the loading pad and mount the loading yoke on
it. Adjust one on. Dial gauge on the loading pad to record the vertical movement, (if required and
other dial gauge on container to observe the shear movement. Put the weight on the loading yoke
to apply the normal stress of desired intensity. For consolidated undrained and drained test,
the full consolidation of the specimen should be permitted under this normal load. For

unconsolidated undrained test the consolidation step is avoid. Remove the fixing screws

from the box and raise the upper half of the shear box by about 1 mm, with the help of the
spacing screws. The spacing screws pass only through the upper part of the box,
abutting against the top of the lower pat. Now adjust the dial gauges to zero and apply the shear
load at the constant rate of strain by a motorized gearing arrangement . Record the readings on
proving ring and dial gauge for every minute or so. Continue the test till specimen fails or at
arrival of shear displacement of approximately 20 per cent (1.2 cm in case of 6 cm x 6 cm shear
box. This can be noted by shear dial gauge) of the specimen length. Repeat the test
observations on identical specimen under increasing normal stress corresponding to the field
condition and design requirements. Measure the moisture content of the soil before and after the
test, if the test was conducted on wet/ moist sample. At least three tests should be
conducted on different normal loads.

Precautions:
1) The dimensions of the shear box should be measured accurately.
49
2) Before allowing the sample to share, the screw joining the two halves of the box

should be taken out.

3) Rate of strain or shear displacement rate should be constant throughout the

4) For drained tests, the porous stones should be saturated by boiling in water.

5) Failure of the soil specimen is assumed when the providing ring dial gauge reading begins to
recede after reaching its maximum or at 20% shearing displacement of the specimen length.

Observations and calculations:

Soil sample measurements:

Dimensions : 6 cm x 6cm Area of specimen (A..) : 36cm2

Thickness: 2.5 cm Volume of specimen: 90 cm3

Moisture content : ---------- Bulk density ------------Multiplying factor of proving ring :

------- (For the proving ring used for the test) (i.e.1 division of proving ring dial gauge)

Table 10:Shear Box Test Observations

Sr No Reading on Strain Proving Ring Shear Corrected

dial gauge Div Load stress area cm2
Div delta 1 Kg / cm2

Normal Stress Kg/cm2 =

50
Table 11: Shear Test Calculations

Sr No Normal Stress Stress dial Shear Shear Remarks

applied kg/cm2 guage force (kg) Stress
observations at kg/cm2
failure

The above readings are plotted on an arithmetic scale with normal stress along abscissa and
shearing stress along ordinate shown in figure. Care should be taken that while drawing this
curve, the horizontal and vertical scale should be same. The slope of this curve ( Generally the
points are joined with best fit straight line) shows the value of ( the angle of shearing
resistance ) and its intercept on vertical line ( ordinate) shows the value of ‘c’ (cohesion).

Results:
From the above observations, following results are obtained.

c=

Ɵ=

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