001 Unit01 Basic Concepts of Surveying

Department of Geomatics Engineering
Principles of Surveying (GM314)
Michael Mutale
Telephone: +264 81 787 4083
Date: 07/03/23
1
Lecture Outline
• Definitions
• Types and Classification of Surveying
• Branches of Surveying
• Basic Concepts of Surveying
• Types of Errors
• Precision and Accuracy
• Units of Measurement
• Significant Figures and Round off Numbers
2
Definitions
The applied science of making
measurements (field work) of the
relative positions of natural and man-
made features on the earth's surface,
and the presentation (office work) of
this information either graphically or
numerically.
3
Definitions
• Surveying is process of measuring
horizontal distances, vertical distances and
included angles to determine location of
points on, above or below the earth surface
• Plane Surveying is the representation of

surface features in a horizontal plane
• Levelling is the process of determining the

relative heights in the vertical plane
4
Definitions
• Operation of making such measurements
that the relative position of various
features, natural or artificial on the surface
of the earth can be exhibited in their
correct horizontal and vertical relationship
• Normally determining position in
horizontal plane is called plane surveying
• Determining relative heights or depth is
called levelling
5
Definitions
• Observation and measurement determining boundaries, size, position, quantity,
condition, value etc. of land, estates, building, farms mines etc. and finally
presenting the survey data in a suitable form
• Act of making measurement of the relative position of natural and man-made

features on earth’s surface and the presentation of this information either
graphically or numerically
• Determination of the relative spatial location of points on or near the surface of

the earth. Art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of
measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements
6 (Singh, Artman, Taylor, & Brinton, 2000)
Definitions
The measuring and presenting of
horizontal and vertical positions of objects
is achieved by:
- Determining horizontal and vertical
distances between objects through the
measurement of lines and angles
between those lines to determine true
directions from one point to the other
i.e., angular and linear measurements
- Angular and linear measurements are
used to determine positions of features.
- The measurements can be obtained by
survey methods such as polars, joins,
7 GNSS, traversing, resection, etc.
Definitions
Surveying involves:
• Fieldwork (the actual measurements)

and
• Office work (calculations and drawings).
8
FIG Definition of a Land Surveyor
• According to the International
Federation of Surveyors (FIG) a land
surveyor is a person who may be
involved in any of the following
disciplines that may occur either on,
above or below the surface of the land or
the sea and may be carried out in
association with other professionals
9
1. Determination of the size and shape of the
earth,
2. Positioning of objects in space,
3. Positioning of physical features, structures,
and engineering work
4. Determination of property boundaries,
including national and international
boundaries in support of registration of land
rights
10
5. Administration of land and geographic
information systems
6. Study of the natural and social environment
(disaster management)
7. The planning development or redevelopment
of property
8. Assessment of property value.
9. The production of plans, maps, files, charts,
and reports.
11
Evolution of Land Surveying
• Traditional Land Surveying has
evolved (changed and expanded) so
much leading to a more
contemporary term ‘Geomatics’
which encompasses other facts of the
profession which were not considered
to form part of the traditional
definition of surveying.
12
Definitions
• Geomatics Engineering: Geomatics refers
to methods and technologies used to
collect, distribute, store, analyze, process,
and present geographic data.
• Geomatics encompasses fields of geodesy,
geographic information systems (GIS),
global navigation satellite systems (GNSS),
hydrography, mapping, photogrammetry,
remote sensing, and surveying.
13
Definitions
• Geomatics engineering professionals use a
wide range of technologies, such as acoustic,
laser, satellite, and information technologies,
for applications related to geography,
information systems, law and commerce, land
development and planning, and land
surveying.
• Geomatics Engineering incorporates aspects
of Computer Engineering, Software
14 Engineering, and Civil Engineering.
Working Areas of Geomatics Engineers
Geomatics engineering graduates can work in public
and private institutions in the following areas;
• Establishment of horizontal and vertical control networks
that will form a base for professional activities,
• Monitoring earth movements and deformation
measurements for the control of engineering structures,
• Road, railway, bridge, dam, subway, tunnel projects and
land application,
• Location determination and vehicle tracking systems
using satellites
15
Working Areas of Geomatics Engineers
Geomatics engineering graduates can work in public
and private institutions in the following areas;
• Data collection and processing using aerial photographs
and satellite images,
• Drawings of plans that will form a base for restoration
activities with terrestrial photographs,
• Production of large, medium and small scale digital and
printed topographical and thematic maps which will form a
variety of working bases,
• Various multimedia, visualization studies related to spatial
data and maps, and presentations via the internet and
16
mobile devices.
Principle Classifications of Surveying
Concept:
• Since shape of the earth is spheroidal, the line connecting any two
points on the earth surface is not a straight line, but a curve
• When a survey extends over a large area or when higher accuracy is

required, curvature of earth has to be taken into account
• For small areas the earth is assumed to be flat
17
Plane Surveying
• In Plane Surveying the earth is assumed as flat.
When surveying over a small area, the effect of the
curvature of the earth is negligible. This makes life
easy in data handling.
• Surveys that cover small projects with area less than
200km2
• Earth curvature is not accounted for, and the earth
surface is considered as flat
• The degree of accuracy in this type of surveying is
comparatively low
• Plane surveying is mainly conducted for the purpose
18 of engineering projects
Geodetic Surveying
• In Geodetic Surveying the true shape of the earth is
considered
• When surveying over very large area like international
boundaries, the curvature of the earth cannot be ignored,
otherwise one introduces serious inaccuracies in the
survey
• When survey extends over a large area of more than
200km2 and high degree of accuracy is demanded,
curvature of earth should be considered
• Geodetic surveying is used to provide control points to
which small surveys can be connected to
• It is a special branch of surveying in which measurements
are taken with high precision instruments
•19 Calculations are made with help of Spherical Trigonometry
Branches of Land Surveying
Cadastral Surveying
Surveying of land parcels (parcels, farms)

performed by a Professional Land
Surveyor in order to register (mainly in
the Deeds Office) and preserve land
rights hence aiding land taxation.
20
Topographic Surveying
Surveying for mapping of natural and

artificial features of the earth
(terrain), like hills, valleys lakes,
rivers, roads, railways, power lines,
buildings etc
21
Engineering Surveying
Surveying concerned with the

planning, design and setting out in
the field of engineering works,
such as roads, railways, dams,
canals, tunnels, services in
townships, etc.
22
Mining Surveying
Surveying for mining works e.g.,
blasting sights, excavations,
underground mining tunnels
Hydrographical Surveying
Surveying dealing with bodies of
water, e.g., ocean bathymetry,
maritime zones and boundaries.
23
Aerial Surveying or
Photogrammetry
Surveys using aerial

equipment. Flying an area
and taking photographs of
the terrain in order to
develop plans, maps, from
such photography.
24
Related Fields
Surveying also includes related activities of:
Cartography
The design and production of maps compiled
from existing data, and the development and
maintenance of map information systems.
Geographic (Land) Information Systems
(GIS/LIS)
An organized collection of computer hardware,
software, geographic data, and personnel
designed to efficiently capture, store, update,
manipulate, analyse, and display all forms of
geographically referenced information.
25
Outputs of Surveying
• Maps or Plans – surveying forms the basis for planning and design of
engineering projects such as route location of railway line, roads and water
supply scheme
• Survey Data – surveying data is used to prepare plans or maps showing
ground features
• Plans – used when an area surveyed is small and scale to which result is
plotted is large (e.g., 1:500)
• Maps – used when an area surveyed is large and the scale to which result
is plotted is small (e.g., 1:200,000)
• Setting Out of any engineering work like buildings, roads, railway tracks,
26 bridges and dams involves surveying
Principles of Land Surveying
The position of a point is said to be "determined", if its distance and
direction are known from one or more given known points, i.e., if its
location relative to other known points is known.
Methods for determining the position of a point include trilateration,

triangulation, polar and traversing
27
Methods for Determining Point Position
1. Trilateration (ties) – measure only distances.
28
2. Triangulation (intersection, resection)– measure only angles
29
3. Polar, traversing – Combination of the above two (distance and
direction)
30
Observations in Surveying
• It is a FACT that no matter how observations (measurements) are
carefully made, they are never exact and will always contain error
• Its important to understand types of errors, their sources and
expected magnitudes under varying conditions, and their manner of
propagation
• Good observations will always require
– Good field observation skills
– Well calibrated equipment
31
Characteristics of Observations
NO
observations
are exact
ALL
The EXACT observations
sizes of errors contain
are unknown ERRORS
TRUE VALUE of a
measured quantity is
NEVER KNOWN
32
Observables and Observations
• a survey network random variable or a

Observable network element that, when measured
repeatedly, can have several possible values
• Slope or horizontal distance

• Horizontal direction (or angle)
Examples •
•
Vertical (or zenith) angle
Azimuth (or bearing)
• Elevation difference
• Coordinate difference (in GPS surveys)
33
Observables and Observations
Observation • An operation or numerical outcome of an

operation.
or • Not to be confused with elements
Measuremen (observables) that are to be measured.
• A numerical value assigned to an observable
t is an observation or a measurement.
34
Error vs. True Value vs Residual vs. Correction
• Since True Value can never be • Difference between
known but only estimated, observed value and
likewise, True Error can only be true value
estimated • Error = Observation -
True Value
True Value Error
Residual Correction
• Discrepancy remaining after correcting a • Quantity used to

measurement eliminate error
(opposite in sign)
• Residual = Corrected Observation – True
Correction = –(Error)
Value
35
Types of Errors
36
Gross Errors
• Misunderstanding the problem
• Carelessness
• Fatigue (being tired)
Common Causes • Miscommunication
of Observer • Poor judgment
mistakes • Failure of equipment
• NOTE: Gross errors are big in
magnitude compared to other
types
37
Gross Errors
• Wrong booking, Wrong readings
• Misinterpretation of results
Examples: • Calculation errors
• Bad instrument height
• Setup on wrong point
• Measure angles several times and take average

• Take more than one arc of angular readings
Precautions: • Re-check readings after recording or booking
• Carry out quick checks as often as possible
• Always introduce check readings or observations
38
Systematic Errors - Controllable
Not determined by chance but introduced by inaccuracy in the system.
(Predictable and expected!)
Constant errors appearing in a series of repetitions of same experiment or
observation
Dependent on:
• Observer
• Instrument (system)
• Physical and/or environmental conditions
Follow defined pattern under similar conditions and include:
• Constant errors (same value & sign under all conditions)
• Counteracting errors (eliminating one another)
39 • Periodic errors (same error appearing or occurring at intervals)
Systematic Errors - Controllable
Examples:
• Observer errors: caused by limitations of observer’s natural senses (e.g. vision & hearing),
consistently improper use of equipment
• Instrument errors: include collimation & index errors as well as errors caused by un-
calibrated instrument, zero error caused by an incorrect position of the zero point, an
incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument
• Environmental conditions: Temperature, humidity, pressure and visibility
Precautions:
• Taking extra care during observations
• Repeating observations using different instruments
• Formulation and applying corrections to raw observations
• Careful calibration and adjustment of instruments
40
Random Errors - Uncontrollable
• Error that does not follow any fixed relation to conditions or circumstances
of observation
• Error with random distribution and attributed to chance or probability
• Error wholly due to chance and does not repeat
• Error in measurement caused by factors that vary from one measurement
to another
• Small unaccountable errors beyond observer’s control after accounting for
gross and systematic errors
41
Random Errors - Uncontrollable
Examples:
• Centering Optical Tribrach: Surveyor attempts to center optical plummet exactly but in reality, tribrach
may be left or right. (Centering error always present when centering optical tribrach, or prism pole)
• Reading Level Staff: Surveyor reads staff to nearest hundredth of meter (0.002m). Cross hair is seldom
at an exact hundredth therefore surveyor must make a decision
• Total Station Reading and Pointing: Surveyors do their best to align and read the instrument. In reality
instrument may be pointing slightly left or right
Precautions:
• Carry out one or more repetitions of observations under same conditions
• Do a LSQs Adjustment of observations (Note: Least Squares cannot adjust for Gross and Systematic
Errors)
42
Nature of Random Errors
Plus or minus error occurring with same frequency
Minor errors occurring more often than large ones
Very large errors rarely occurs (opposite of mistake)
43
Natural Errors
Natural Errors
Examples:
Temperature different from standard Errors caused by conditions in the
when taping, atmospheric pressure environment that are not
variation, gravity variation, magnetic nominal or predictable
fields, wind
44
Personal Errors
Examples:
These factors may be
Ability to centre a influenced by
bubble, steadiness of conditions such as
the hand, estimate weather, insects,
between graduations, hazards, etc.
etc.
Errors due to
limitations in human NOTE: Some of these
senses or skill errors (instrumental,
Personal natural, and personal)

occur in systematic
manner and others are
Errors random
45
Instrumental Errors
Caused by imperfections in
instrument construction or
adjustment
Instrumental
Errors
Fundamental Principle: Examples:

Keep instrument in adjustment to extent Imperfect spacing of graduations, nominally
feasible, but use field procedures that perpendicular axes not at exactly 90°, level
assume maladjustment bubbles or crosshairs misadjusted, etc.
46
Precision vs. Accuracy
Precision: degree of refinement or consistency of a group of
observations. Note: High precision – does not indicate accuracy
Accuracy: denotes absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true
values
Difference between Precision and Accuracy
 Let centre of target to be “TRUE VALUE“

 Figure A - NEITHER PRECISE NOR ACCURATE
 Figure B – PRECISE BUT NOT ACCURATE
 Figure C – MEAN VALUE IS ACCURATE BUT POOR PRECISION
 Figure D – PRECISE AND ACCURATE
47
Units of Length
Basic SI unit: 1 metre (m)
• The General Conference on weights and Measures (CGPM) defines METRE as the
length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 seconds (Speed of light)
Derived units:
• 1 kilometre (km) = 1 000 m
• 1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1 m
• 1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 m
• 1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m
48
Units of Angles
• Sexagesimal System
– The whole circle = 360 degrees (360˚)
– 1˚ = 60 minutes = 60΄
– 1΄ = 60 seconds = 60˝
• Centesimal System
– Whole circle = 400 grads = 400g
– 1 grad = 100 centesimal minutes = 100c
– 1c = 100 centesimal seconds = 100cc
• Radians (Arc Units)
– Radian is an angle subtended at center of a circle by an arc on the circumference
equal in length to the radius of the circle
– 1 whole circle = 2π radians
49 – 1 rad = 57˚ 17΄ 44.8˝ = 57.2958˚ = 206 265˝
Significant Figures
Defn: A Significant figure is all the figures in a measured quantity
(counting from left) whose values are considered as exactly known,
plus one more whose value could be one more or one less
Examples:
• In “157900” (four significant digits), the leftmost three digits are known
exactly, but the fourth digit, “9” could well be “8” if the “true value” is within
the implied range of 157850 to 157950
• In “158000” (three significant digits), the leftmost two digits are known
exactly, while the third digit could be either “7” or “8” if the true value is
50 within the implied range of 157500 to 158500
Rules for Rounding Off
Rules;
• Most significant digit is leftmost digit
(not counting leading zeros) Leading
zeros are placeholders and never
significant digits
• When rounding off to n significant
figures, least significant digit is nth digit
to the right of most significant digit
• Least significant digit can be zero
• First non-significant digit is n+1th digit
51
• If first non-significant digit is less than 5, then least significant digit remains unchanged
• If the first non-significant digit is greater than 5, the least significant digit is increased
by 1
• If the first non-significant digit is 5, the least significant digit can usually either be
incremented or left unchanged
• All non-significant digits are removed
52
• Decide the number of significant numbers in the following numbers:
5
6
4
3
4
5
53
Addition and Subtraction Rules
• When combining measurements with different degrees of precision:
– the precision of the final answer can be no greater than the least precise
measurement
– When measurements are added or subtracted, the answer can contain no
more decimal places than the quantity with the least number of decimal
places
54
Multiplication and Division Rules
• Final result can be no more precise than the least precise
measurement:
– When measurements are multiplied or divided, the answer can contain no
more significant figures than the quantity with the least number of significant
figures
55
Dimensional Analysis
• A certain process yields 4.85 x 10-2 g of a chemical product per second.
How many kilograms will be produced in five days of continuous
reaction?
• Start with what you know on the left and what you are trying to find
on the right.
56
The End!!!
QUESTIONS/DISCUSSION
57

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Department of Geomatics Engineering

Principles of Surveying (GM314)

• Plane Surveying is the representation of

• Levelling is the process of determining the

• Act of making measurement of the relative position of natural and man-made

• Determination of the relative spatial location of points on or near the surface of

• Fieldwork (the actual measurements)

• Office work (calculations and drawings).

• When a survey extends over a large area or when higher accuracy is

• For small areas the earth is assumed to be flat

Surveying of land parcels (parcels, farms)

Surveying for mapping of natural and

Surveying concerned with the

Surveys using aerial

Methods for determining the position of a point include trilateration,

• a survey network random variable or a

• Slope or horizontal distance

Observation • An operation or numerical outcome of an

True Value Error

• Discrepancy remaining after correcting a • Quantity used to

• Measure angles several times and take average

Minor errors occurring more often than large ones

Very large errors rarely occurs (opposite of mistake)

Personal natural, and personal)

Fundamental Principle: Examples:

 Let centre of target to be “TRUE VALUE“

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