HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources

Department of GIS

Course title: Ground Surveying

Course code: GISc2030
Reading material
Compiled by
Serawit Mengistu
2023
3/17/2023 1
Contents to be covered:-
• Unit 1 Introduction
• Unit 2 Methods of spatial/ Geographic Data Collection
• Unit 3 Major application of ground measurements and observations
• Unit 4 Principles and techniques of ground surveying
• Unit 5 Measurements of Horizontal Distance
• Unit 6 Electromagnetic Distance Measurement
• Unit 7Leveling
• Unit 8: Angle and direction measurements
• Unit 9 Traverse survey & Computations
• Unit 10 Compass surveying
• Unit 11 Theodolites
• Unit 12 Total Station
• Unit 13 Area & volumes
• Unit 14 Global positioning system (GPS)
1. Definition of SURVEYING

• Surveying defined as the science of determining the position in 3D of natural and

man-made features on or below the surface of the Earth. Surveying is science of

accurately determining 2D/3D space position of points, the distances and angles

between them.

• Surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine

the relative position of physical and cultural details on surface of the Earth, and

represent them in a usable form.

• More specifically, surveying is the science of making measurements,

relative to known or assumed datum’s and standards, and applying the

principles of mathematics to such measurements to determine existing or

future horizontal and vertical position, from area, magnitude, boundaries,

and extent of land parcels and topographical features.

•
• Gound/land surveying is the technique, profession, and

science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-

dimensional position of points and the distances and angles

between them, commonly practiced by licensed surveyors,

and members of various professions.

In surveying…
• Surveyors play an integral role in:

o land development,

o land subdivision

o planning and design

o road, utility and landscaping construction.

• Surveyors are the first people to calculate and chart the land on any construction

site
• Surveyor needs understanding of:

‾ rigorous mathematical to analyze and adjust and

‾ scientific principles underlying and affecting measurements

1.1. History of Surveying

• Land surveying is an ancient practice that dates back at least to 1,400 B.C.,

when the ancient Egyptians used land surveying for the taxation of land plots.

• 4000 years ago, Egyptians used

omeasuring ropes, plumb bobs, and

oother instruments to measure the dimensions of plots of land.

• The Egyptians would stretch a piece of rope between two

stakes and rub it down with resin and beeswax, treating it so

it would hold its length.

• The surveyors then used the treated rope to measure

distances, sometimes tying it in knots at intervals that marked

significant places.
• Egyptians also used plumb bombs and leveling tools to measure vertical

distances. Two short-distance leveling devices (one using water and one

using an A-frame) used in land surveying were also employed in the

creation of pyramids.

• However, we do know their techniques were incredibly accurate – the

Great Pyramid of Giza (built 2,700 B.C.) has a near-perfect north-south

orientation.
---History of Surveying----

1. First Land Surveyors: Ancient Egypt

• The history of surveying dates back to ancient times, with a recorded land

register in Egypt in 3000BC, and re-establishment of farm boundaries

following floods of the Nile River and construction of the Great Pyramid of

Giza recorded about the same time.

• The ancient Egyptians used land surveying for the taxation of land plots.
2. Land Surveying in Mesopotamia, 400 B.C.

• An early surveying instrument that came after the Egyptian’s rope method is Groma.

• The Romans and Greeks used Groma in land surveying as early as 400 B.C. to divide the

Roman Empire for taxation. Under the Romans, land surveying was established as a

profession and land surveyors established the basic measurements under which the Roman

Empire was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands.

• Groma comprised a vertical staff with horizontal cross-pieces mounted at right angles on a

bracket. Each cross piece had a plumb line hanging vertically at each end.

• It was used to survey straight lines and right angles, or rectangles.

Groma Measurement
3. Chinese Invent the First Magnetic Compass, 221-206 B.C.

• In the Qin dynasty in China, around 221-206 B.C., the first magnetic

compass was born, and it would become a backbone in land surveying.

• They used the first compass to mark constellations and map out important

points and boundaries.

• 4. Greeks Create the Diopter, 120 B.C

• Around 120 B.C., the Greeks further developed geometry and created a

new land surveying tool called the diopter.

• Many experts compare the ancient diopter tool with today’s theodolite, a

surveying instrument that uses a rotating telescope to measure accurate

geometric angles.

• The Greeks developed the first standardized methods for land surveying.
Diopter
5. William the Conqueror Creates a Record of Land Plots

• William ordered a “Domesday Book,” which was a record of people who owned land in

England and the size of the plots they owned. The Book placed greater importance on

mapping the boundaries of owned property.

6. Creation of New Land Surveying Tools, 1570-1787

• In 1571, Joshua Habermel created the first theodolite. This highly precise instrument for land

surveying uses a setup with a tripod and compass to create boundary lines.
7. Industrial Revolution Land Surveying, Early 19th Century

• Land surveying became an official profession, and more

developments of creating surveying tools. The industrial revolution

period was advantage to the land surveying industry, with the

profession in greater demand during the development of cities,

roads, and railways.

8. Land surveying today

• In the 20th and 21st centuries, land surveying has relied on the same basic methods and

principles of measurement that have existed for thousands of years.

• The development of technologies such as

o GPS, GIS software,

o Laser scanners, and Terrestrial scanning, Digital level and electro magnetic device

o Total station

o Remote sensing and Advanced instruments:

o This technologies made land surveying more efficient, accurate, as well as faster & easier.
1.2. Modern trend of surveying

• Between an increase in drone usage, improvements in mobile 3D mapping and

changes in data management, surveying has many developments ahead of it.

• The trends have implications for the industry that can improve:

o Data collection,

o Data storage approaches

o Offer more accessible and

o Flexible information gathering

DGPS
Modern Surveying instruments
Total station
• The principles of surveying have not changed, but the way the surveyor completes a

project is continually undergoing transformation.

• For example, a job completed by a surveyor ten years ago, compared to a job completed

today could be different in the following three areas:

• The positioning equipment that is used

• The information that is used and how it is accessed

• The deliverables that are provided to the customer

Generally, surveying is the art of:

o Measuring horizontal and vertical distances,

o Measuring horizontal angles of lines,

o Determining the direction of lines, and

o Establishing points in the field by predetermined angular & linear measurements.

o The Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes determined

from the data of the survey.

o Also much of the information of the survey is communicated graphically, by using

maps, tables and diagrams of map sheets.

Surveying…
• OBJECTIVE OF SURVEYING

1. To collect field data.

2. To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.

3. To analyze and calculate the field parameters

4. for setting out operation of actual engineering work .

1.3. Importance and Uses of Surveying

• The earliest survey was used to establish boundaries of land.

• Uses of surveying in forestry and natural resource management are:

• To establish land use boundaries.

• To determine the area of land units such as forest compartments.

• To provisionally align forest roads (route surveying),

• To prepare a section of an area to be covered by the project.

• The design of all projects such as railways, irrigation, dams, reservoirs, water works, airfields, ports,

massive buildings, etc.

• For measurement of land and fixation of its boundaries,

• To prepare topographical maps showing hills, rivers, towns, villages, forests etc.

• To prepare Cadastral Map providing detailed information about boundary of property in specific area.

• To help military strategic planning, military maps are prepared by surveying.

• For exploring mineral wealth,

• To determining different strata in the earth crust,

 •Chapter 2
Methods of spatial/
Geographic Data Collection
2.1. Classification of Surveying

Surveying is primarily divided in to two parts. These are Plane and Geodetic Surveying

1. Plane Surveying

• It is type of surveying which assumes that the Earth is flat, and is the most commonly practiced

form of surveying.

• The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane, or in which

its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to horizontal distances and directions.

• Plane surveying is a common method of calculating land composition and topography that

considering land as a flat plane.

• In such surveying a line joining any two stations is considered

to be straight. The triangle formed by any three points is

considered as a plane triangle, and the angles of the triangle are

considered as plain angles.

• Surveying is carried out for a small area of less than 250 km2 .
• Curvature is ignored and calculations are performed using the formulas of

plane trigonometry and the properties of plane geometry.

• Larger areas cause the systematic errors caused by the flat Earth assumption

to become apparent in the measurements.

• It is used in designing of structures like the highway, bridge, railway,

canal dam, boundary pillar, factories, etc.

Note: Horizontal plane is the plane, which is normal to the direction of gravity.

Figure 1.1 Plane Surveying

2. Geodetic Surveying

• It is a branch of surveying in which account is taken of figure and size of earth.

• Geodetic surveying is type of surveying which consider the shape of the earth as spherical

or ellipsoid of revolution.

• Geodetic Surveying is basically control surveying on a large scale, this means that it is

control survey over long distances where measurements are taken and the earth’s curvature

and atmospheric pressures deductions are considered and applied. The word geodesy is

from a Greek word geodasia meaning dividing and the study of the earth’s shape and size.
• In most cases this type of survey is carried out when establishing

control network of large magnitude, i.e. the network of

trigonometrical survey beacons of the country. If you can imagine

the daunting task of measuring these in Ethiopia, with all the

mountains, valleys and rivers, this is why the curvature of earth

calculations are of vast importance in geodetic surveying.

• As we all know ,the earth’s surface is round , however highly irregular and not suitable as a

computational surface because of the mountains, valleys, rivers and the surface of the sea, it

is because of this reason that the more suitable surfaces were assumed for computational

purposes, namely the Geoid and an Ellipsoid. Below are the illustrations that show the

relationship between the earth’s surface, the geoid and an ellipsoid.

• Geodetic surveying uses: the principles of geodesy and Uses longitudes and latitudes

to define locations of features

• Latitude is the angular distance of point from above or below the plane of the equator.

Latitudes (parallels) are measured from the equator and may range from 0° to 90° N or

from 0° to 90° S.

• Longitude is the angular distance in the plane of the equator east or west of the

Greenwich meridian. Longitudes (meridians) are measured from the Greenwich

meridian and may range from 0° to 180° E of from 0° to 180° W

• Geodetic survey:

The curved shape of the earth is taken in to account.

The objective of geodetic survey is to determine the precise

position on the surface of earth of widely distant points.

It is carried out if the area exceeds over 250 km2.

Geodetic surveys are precise over large areas.

• In geodetic survey:

• The line joining any two stations is considered as curved line.

• The triangle formed by any three points is considered to be spherical and

• the angles of the triangle are considered to be spherical angles.

•
 Plain Surveying Vs Geodetic Surveying

No Plain Surveying Geodetic Surveying

The earth surface is considered as plain

1 The earth surface is considered as Curved Surface.
Surface

2. The Curvature of the earth is ignored The curvature of earth is taken into account.

Line joining any two stations is considered to

3 The line joining any two stations is considered as spherical
be straight
The triangle formed by any three points is The Triangle formed by any three points is considered as
4.
considered as plain spherical
The angles of triangle are considered as plain
5. The angles of triangle are considered as spherical angles
angles.

6. Carried out for a small area < 250 km2 Carried out for a small area > 250 km2
1.5. Secondary classification of Surveying

• Surveying based on Nature of Survey

i. Land Surveying

A . Cadastral Surveying: - The name Cadastre is a Latin base term which refers to a registry of lands.

Cadastral Surveying is surveying of land so as to determine and define land ownership and boundaries.

o The main aim of these surveying is to fix boundary lines, calculation of area of land properties and

preparation of revenue map for the state. Cadastral survey deals with measurements of land, subdivisions

and sectional tittles. It is used to determining property boundaries including those of fields, houses, plots

of land, etc. This kind of survey can only be carried‐out by a Professional Land Surveyor
B. Topographical Surveying: - This kind of surveying is to show the topography of mountain,

terrain, river, water bodies, and roads. It is three-dimensional. Collect field data to prepare

topographic maps.

Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the configuration of the terrain and the

location of natural and man-made objects.

C. City Surveying: -The surveys involving the construction and development of towns including

roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally referred to as city survey.

This carried out for construction of roads, parks, water supply for any developing township.
ii. Hydrographic Surveys: - This survey deals with the surveying of mapping of large water bodies for the

purpose of navigation and construction of harbor works etc. This survey is conducted on or near the body of

water such as lake, river, coastal area. This Survey consists of locating shore lines of water bodies.

iii. Photogrammetric Survey: Made to utilize the principles of aerial photogrammetry, in which

measurements made on photographs are used to determine the positions of photographed objects.

Photogrammetry is the science of taking measurements with the help of photographs taken by aerial camera

from the air craft.

iv. Astronomical survey: generally involve imaging or "mapping" of

regions of the sky using telescopes. This survey is conducted for the

determining of latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local time, etc. for various

places on earth by observing heavenly bodies ( sun or the stars).

• Reconnaissance:

• This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be surveyed. It may be either ground

reconnaissance or aerial reconnaissance survey.

• Reconnaissance is made on arrival to site during which an overall picture or view of the area is

obtained. The most suitable position of stations is selected, the purpose of the survey and the accuracy

required will be drawn, and finally the method of observation will be established.

• Objectives of reconnaissance

1. To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing route or track through the area

2. To choose the best one or more routes and record on amp

3. To estimate probable cost and draft airport.

Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose

Surveying is also classified based up on purpose as.

o Engineering Surveying- for the execution of engineering works such as roads, railways, dams.

o Mine Survey- for the control of underground workings for mineral extraction.

o Geological Survey- for determining different strata in the earth

o Military survey - for determining points of strategic importance

o Archeological Survey

5. Classification based on instruments

According to the instruments used Surveying is classified in to:

Chain Surveying, Compass Surveying,

Theodolite Surveying, Photogrammetric Surveying

a) Chain Surveying

• Chain surveying is the basic and oldest type of surveying.

• It is the branch of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the field. This is suitable for the

survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is fairly flat.

• It is the simplest method of surveying. It is relatively simple to conduct and does not require any costly

equipment and tools.

b) Compass Surveying

• Compass surveying is a type of surveying in which the directions of surveying lines are determined

with a magnetic compass, and the length of the surveying lines are measured with a tape or chain.

The compass is generally used to run a traverse line.

• A series of connecting lines is prepared using compass.

• It is suitable for large area surveying crowded with many details.

c) Theodolite Surveying

• In theodolite survey the horizontal angles are measured with the theodolite more precisely than

compass and the linear measurements are made with a chain or tape.

• It is an instrument used mainly for accurate measurement of the horizontal and vertical angles. They

are accurate to measure up to 10″ or 20″ angles.

• Theodolite can be used to measure: Horizontal angles Vertical angles Deflection angle Magnetic

bearing , Horizontal distance between two points, Vertical height between two points, Difference in

elevation
d) Photogrammetric Surveying

• Photographic survey is based on technique of taking photographs from different angle to prepare

topographic details with relative high speed.

• There are two type of photographic surveying

i). Terrestrial or ground photogrammetry

In terrestrial photogrammetry maps are prepared from ground photographs from different points on the earth

surface for measurement purpose.

ii). Aerial photogrammetry

In aerial photogrammetry maps are produced from air from an airplane or helicopter.
e. Plane Table Surveying: It is a graphical method of surveying in which field works and plotting both are done

simultaneously. The principle of plane tabling is parallelism, meaning that the rays drawn from stations to objects on the

paper are parallel to the lines from the stations to the objects on the ground. The relative positions of the objects on the

ground are represented by their plotted positions on the paper and lie on the respective rays. The table is always placed

at each of the successive stations parallel to the position it occupied at the starting station. Plane tabling survey does not

involve the use of a field book. Plane table survey is mainly suitable for filling interior details when traversing is done

by Theodolite sometimes traversing by plane table may also be done.

• But this survey is recommended for the work where

great accuracy is not required. As the fitting and fixing
arrangement of this instrument is not perfect, most
accurate work cannot be expected.
The shape and size of the earth

• Earth, with an average distance of (149,597,890 km) from the sun, is the third planet and

one of the most unique planets in the solar system.

• It formed around 4.5 to 4.6 billion years ago and is the only planet known to sustain life.

• This is because of factors like:

o Its atmospheric composition

o physical properties

o (presence of water over 70.8% of the planet allow life to thrive).

 ----The shape and size of the earth---

• Geodesy is the science that studies the shape and size of the Earth.

• Earth is not a perfect sphere.

• It’s flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator.

• The Earth is 12,756km at the equator and 12,714km from pole to pole.

• It is thought this shape was caused by the rotation of the early molten Earth.

• The equatorial bulge at Earth's equator is measured at 42.72 km and is caused

by the planet's rotation and gravity.

• Equatorial bulge is a difference between the equatorial and polar

diameters of a planet due to centrifugal force exerted by the

rotation about body axis.

• Gravity itself causes planets to contract and form a sphere.

• Because Earth rotates, this sphere is distorted by the centrifugal

force.
• The earth’s shape is not truly spherical, but can be described in 3 different

approximations.

• These are spheroid, ellipsoid and geoid

 2.2. Spatial / Geographic Data
• What is Spatial or Geographic Data?

• It is the data that identifies geographic location and boundaries of features on the Earth

surface , i.e. natural or man-made, oceans , etc.

• Spatial data is any type of data that directly or indirectly references a specific

geographical area or location.

• Sometimes called geospatial data or geographic information, spatial data can also

numerically represent a physical object in a geographic coordinate system.

• Spatial data is a data that can be mapped and usually stored as coordinate.
There are two major types of data: spatial and non-spatial data

1. Spatial data: are characterized by information about location of

features, and their relationship with other feature.

:It is a data about the geographic position of features.

:It answers the question “Where is it?”

:It is also called Geographic data, or Geospatial data in some cases

• There are three main types of spatial (vector) data representation:

• points,

• lines, and

• polygons.

• Connecting points create lines, and

• connecting lines that create an enclosed area create polygons.

• Non-spatial data: is data that describes properties of features.

• data that describes geographic features

• attribute or non-geographic data

• descriptive data/ table data

• is descriptions, measurements & classifications of geographic features

• It answers the question “What is at??”

• Non-spatial data is Information about a geographic feature generally

stored in a table and linked to the feature by a unique identifier.

• Non-spatial data is information attached in tabular format to spatial

features.

• Non-spatial data provides characteristics about spatial data.

• Non-spatial data usually stored in a table and linked to the feature by a

unique identifier.

• For example, attributes of a river might include its name, length, and

sediment load at a gauging station.

 Spatial Non-spatial (attribute)

ID Shape X, Y Owner Area Length km

Coord

001
001 polygon 456, 234 Alemu 876.098

002 Line …… Tesfaye 50

002

003 Line …… Kebede 40

003
004 Line ….. Abebech 30

004
Geographic Data Collection approaches

• In principle, there are two main categories of spatial data acquisition. These are (ground and

remote sensing based methods).

• 1.Ground based data collection methods:

• This kind of data collection methods include:

o field observations, in-situ measurements and performing land surveying on the field

• Using ground-based methods, you can operate the real world environment.
Ground surveying is one of the spatial data capturing techniques in a way that sensors used

or mounted on the ground basically on level, theodolite, total station, Global Navigation

Satellite Systems (GNSS) receiver and other instruments. It is a very time-consuming and

expensive activity, but it is still the best way to obtain highly accurate point locations.

Typically used for capturing buildings, land and property boundaries, manholes, and other

objects that need to be located accurately. Also it is employed to obtain reference marks for

use in other data capturing projects.

2. Remote sensing methods

• This method is based on use of image data acquired by sensor such as aerial

cameras, scanners or radar.

• Remote sensing approach deals with driving information from image data

which represent limited form of real world.

Airborne-platform

• Aerial platforms are primarily stable wing aircraft, although helicopters are

occasionally used. Aircraft are often used to collect very detailed images and facilitate the

collection of data over virtually any portion of the Earth's surface at any time.

• Aerial remote sensing started few decades ago with photographic (i.e.

recording on film) cameras and the technology is now well established with

the development of sensors.

• High from 100m – 50km height from earth.

• Aerial photographs have been a main source of information about the Earth’s surface

almost since the beginning of aviation more than a century ago. Aerial photographs

are obtained using mapping cameras that are usually mounted in the nose or

underbelly of an aircraft that then flies in discrete patterns or swathes across the area

to be surveyed.

•
Aircrafts have following advantages as platforms for remote sensing systems:

‾ Aircraft can fly at relatively low altitudes thus allowing for High spatial resolution (20 cm or less)

‾ aircraft can easily change their schedule to avoid weather problems such as clouds, which may block a

passive sensor’s view of the ground

‾ sensor maintenance, repair and configuration changes can be easily made

‾ Analog photography is possible (analog photo gives high resolution)

Dis Advantages:

• Permission to intrude into foreign airspace is required

• Many passes to cover larger area

• Swath is much less compare to satellite

• High cost per unit area

…….Airborne method …….

• Are primarily stable wing aircraft, (or helicopters) are occasionally used.

• Used to collect very detailed images and facilitate the collection of data.

• from 100m – 50km height from earth.

• Examples:

• NCAR, NOAA, and NASA research aircrafts.

3. Space borne method of data collection in Remote sensing
• Platforms that located from 100 to 36000 km from earth.

• Examples:

• rockets, satellites, shuttle

• Types of spaceborne platforms:

• Space shuttle: 250-300 km

• Space station: 300-400 km

• Low-level satellites: 700-1500 km

• High-level satellites: about 36000 km

• 3. Spaceborne platforms

• In spaceborne, remote sensing is sometimes conducted from the space

shuttle or, more commonly, from satellites.

• Satellites are objects which revolve around another object - in this case,

the Earth. Man-made satellites include those platforms launched for remote

sensing, communication, and location and navigation purposes.

• Platforms that located from 100 to 36000 km from earth. Examples: rockets, satellites,

shuttle.

• Spaceborne sensors: Cover large area and Repetitive coverage of an area of interest

• Types of spaceborne platforms:

 Space shuttle: 250-300 km

 Space station: 300-400 km

 Low-level satellites: 700-1500 km

 High-level satellites: about 36000 km

• Because of their orbits, satellites permit repetitive coverage of the Earth's surface on a

continuing basis. Cost is often a significant factor in choosing among the various

platform options.
Space borne remote sensing has the following advantages:

‾ large area coverage

‾ frequent and repetitive coverage of areas of interest

‾ quantitative measurement of ground features possible using radiometrically calibrated

sensors

‾ relatively lower cost per unit area coverage

‾ one obvious advantage satellites have over aircrafts is the global accessibility; there are

numerous governmental restrictions that deny access to airspace over sensitive areas or

over foreign countries.

 Sources of Geographic Data

• GIS data is obtained from various sources,

However they are classified into 2 types.

– Primary data sources

– Secondary data sources

Primary data sources

– Data measured directly by surveys,

– field data collection,

– Remote sensing
Primary Data Capture is:

• Surveying Locations of objects determined by angle and distance

measurements from known locations

• Most accurate method for large scale, small areas

• GPS Collection of satellites used to fix locations on Earth’s surface

• Differential GPS used to improve accuracy

Obtaining Primary (Directly Sensed) Data

• The volume and accuracy of primary data, will be a function of many variables, the

important ones include:

• Time availability,

• Capital outlay allowed,

• Skills and number of personnel involved,

• Amount of secondary data already available,

• Size of the area being studied,

• Terrain of an area, and The equipment available.

Secondary data sources: these are data obtained from

– existing maps, tables or other data sources

• Secondary data are existing datasets

• More and more ready-made digital GIS data sets

Secondary data become available in:

o Government agencies

o census geography

o Topographic surveys

o Private companies
Secondary Geographic Data Capture

oData collected for other purposes can be converted for use in GIS.

oRaster conversion

oScanning of maps, aerial photographs, documents, etc.

oReusing data collected by somebody for some purpose

• Stages in Geographic Data Collection

Planning----what to do, who will involve, when and how be done…

Preparation– adjusting instruments

Evaluation----examining your field works

Editing / Improvement…editing or checking fields works

Digitizing / Transfer--- final output mapping

 Unit 3

Major application of ground measurements

and observations
3.1. Observation and Measurement

• Observations in surveying defined as registrations of the real world on a sense or by

sensing instrument.

• Observation is the act of noticing something or a judgment from something seen or

experienced.

• Measurements are captures of these real-world observations on a standard scale.

• Measurement: the assignment of numbers or codes according to prior-set rules.

• The purposes of measurement can be categorized as measurement being in the

service of:

o quality, monitoring, safety,

o making something fit (design) and

o problem solving

• It is possible to have observation without measurement, but not to have

measurement without observation. Therefore, measurement is one outcome

of observation.
• How to Conduct Observations for Study

‾ Identify Objective.

‾ Determine what you want to observe and why.

‾ Establish Recording Method.

‾ Develop Questions and Techniques..

‾ Observe and Take Notes. ...

‾ Analyze Activities and Readings.

 3.2 Boundary surveying & mapping
• Boundary in general terms defined as the extreme limit of something. As for land parcel, a

boundary may be defined as the line, alone or together with others, which encloses or defines

the limits of the land parcel. The word limit here has a divisive connotation as it divides

between one land parcel and another. Such limits may be described in terms of numerical

data, (such as bearings and distances or coordinate value), in which case this give rise to

fixed boundaries e.g. boundaries that are numerically described. These limits may also be

described by the location of a physical feature, (such as river, a ditch, a road, and a mountain

range) on the ground.

• Basically, there are two types of boundaries: general and fixed boundaries.

• A. General Boundary

• General boundary is one whose position is not usually determined. For this reason, such a boundary is

said to be indeterminate or indefinite. A boundary of this type may be marked by some physical feature

such as stream, a wall and a hedge or its position may be described relative to features such as wall, a

road, a stream etc. and the boundary may be unmarked. The use of general boundaries relies heavily on a

number of things including the existence of a physical feature on the ground and permanence of such a

feature with lapse of time. Lost boundaries can be a source of headache to re-establish, particularly

where the boundaries including all neighboring reference objects and features have been destroyed.
• B. Fixed Boundary: is a boundary line whose precise position has been created or determined and

recorded by a survey operation. It make use of markers which are emplaced on the ground and are

defined in accordance with specified accuracies that will enable individual land parcels so surveyed

to be readily and reliably identified or relocated. Such boundaries are usually linked to framework

of horizontal geodetic control established over a country. Because coordinates are ultimately, or can

be, computed for the boundary markers, the name coordinated boundary is often used for fixed

boundaries. The demarcation and delineation of the boundaries are aimed at defining the parcel on

the ground and securing evidence for the re-establishment of the boundary if it disappears.
• Beacons and Boundaries

• A property beacon is a natural or artificial feature which marks the boundary corner

of a piece of land/property. A boundary is an imaginary line between the beacons.

The types of beacons that can be used are prescribed by the regulations, but it is

usually an iron peg of specified dimension, corner of a permanent building, well

constructed corner post or a drilled hole in rock/concrete. All beacons used need to

be described on the general plan or diagram.

 Ownership right and interest in land

• Ownership evidences: documents confirming holding right that emanate from land use

• The international association of geodesists (FIG) statement on the cadastre states that a cadastre is normally

a parcel based, and up-to-date land information system containing a record of interests in land (e.g. rights,

restrictions and responsibilities). It usually includes a geometric description of land parcels linked to other

records describing the nature of the interests, the ownership or control of those interests, and often the value

of the parcel and its improvements. It may be established for fiscal purposes (e.g. valuation and equitable

taxation), legal purposes (conveyancing), to assist in the management of land and land use (e.g. for planning

and other administrative purposes), and enables sustainable development and environmental protection.
• Cadastral surveys are surveys whose aim is to demarcate or create, measure,

define, describe and record the position of boundary land as property. Their

ultimate purpose being to give unambiguous, graphical, numerical or

descriptive information relating to location, extent, shape and size of land

parcels. Such information is vital in the support of a register of titles for land

ownership and transfer of rights in land.

3.2.Topographic Survey and Contour lines

 Topographical surveying is a method to produce a map showing

elevations, natural and artificial features and forms of the earth's‘ surface.

 Topographic maps use a combination of colors, shading and contour lines

to represent changes in elevation and terrain shape within the 2D space of

a map.

 Topographic maps also indicate the shape and elevation of the land.
• These are surveys where the physical features on the earth are measured and maps/plans

prepared to show their relative positions both horizontally and vertically.

• Topographic surveys are performed in order to determine the position of natural and man-

made features (e.g., buildings, utilities, trees, roads, developments, contour lines, and

streams). After location, these features can then be drawn to scale on a plan or map.
• The purpose of topographic survey is to gather survey data about the natural and manmade features of the

land as well as its elevations. Maps are then prepared from this information.

• The work usually consists of the following:

• Establishing horizontal and vertical control that will serve as reference points for the survey. The most

accurate method of establishing the vertical control is by levelling.

• Collecting enough horizontal and elevation of ground points to provide enough data for plotting when the

map is prepared. For example, when surveying for upgrading a taxi rank, the features to be located will be:

existing sidewalks, curbs, trees, island, etc. And also for a road intersection features like: curbs, road

marking (white/yellow lines), islands will be located.

• the Position and shape of natural and manmade features that may be required for the survey.

• Calculating distances, angles and elevations.

• Key elements included in topographic data are:

o Physical contours and elevations

o Cultural features such as buildings, schools and hospitals

o Hydrology features including lakes, river, coastline and drainage patterns

o Transport features such as road, rail and ferry routes

o Utility features such as electricity transmission lines and pipelines

 Contour Lines

• A contour survey illustrates the elevation differences across your land, in regular

intervals, from the lowest point to the highest point.

• A contour line is an imaginary line containing points of equal elevation .

• A Contour Line is a line on a map that connects places of equal elevation.

• Contour Lines used to show elevation and land shape.

Understanding contour
• Every fifth contour line is often darker and has the elevation

marked on it.

• Index Contour- a contour line that is numbered with the elevation.

• Contour interval is the difference in elevation between two

consecutive contour lines/Vertical distance between lines

 The vertical distance between any two successive contours is known as contour interval.

 The contour interval is kept constant for a contour plan. Otherwise interpretation of

contour will be difficult.

• The contour interval depends on:

 Nature of the ground,

 Scale of the map.

 Purpose and extent of survey,

 Time and expense of field and office work.

 The contour interval should be small when the ground is flat.

 The contour interval may be large when the ground is of steep slope.
• characteristics of Contour

• Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills

• Evenly spaced contours indicate uniform slope.

• Widely spaced contours indicate a gentle slope

• Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.

• Close together contours indicate a steep slope, wall or cliff.

• Similarly a single contour cannot split into two lines

• Contours can never branch into 2 contours of the same elevation

• Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards

Centre indicate hills. Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards

lower ground indicate ridge (below). Contour lines with V-shaped with

convexity towards higher ground indicate valley

Hills
Methods Of Locating Contours

There are two principal methods of locating contours

(1) Direct method also known as trace contour method;

(2) Indirect method also known as controlling point method.

The direct method,

o The contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground

o Locations directly measured by the field

o This method is slow, tedious but accurate.

o It is suitable for small areas.

o This method of plotting contours is accurate and is useful for an engineering study
Indirect method,

• The contours are located by determining the elevations of well chosen

points from which the positions of points on the contours are determined by

interpolation.

• Done by interpolating known point elevation values for unknown locations.

• Contours will be interpolated by topographer from experience and by

judgment.
How contour is made practically on the ground?

1. The land is surveyed to find the elevation.

2. Contour interval is chosen based on how steep the land is.

3. Lines are drawn connecting places with equal elevation.

Interpreting land shape using contour

• Contour lines that are spaced close together show STEEP land and Elevation increasing over a

short distance.

• Contour lines that are spaced far apart show land that is NOT steep (gentle slope) and Elevation

isn’t changing much in a given distance.

• Contour lines form closed circles around mountain peaks.

• Route surveying

• Route Survey: Refers to those control, topographic, and construction surveys necessary for

the location and construction of highways, railroads, canals, transmission lines, and

pipelines.

• Designing and constructing engineering projects associated with transportation and

communications.

• In transportation engineering, surveying provides the foundation and continuity for route

location, design, land acquisition, and all other preliminary engineering.

 CHAPTER 4
Principles and techniques of ground
surveying
4.1.The basic principles of surveying

Basically, there are 2 types of principles in surveying, these are;

1. Working from whole to part

2. Fixing position of the third point using two measurements (references)

1. Working from whole to the parts,

oThe main framework of any survey should be set out as large scale and should

involve minimum number of measurements.

oOnce the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be surveyed later

over main frame.

oThis will help minimizing accumulation of measurement errors when the survey is

plotted in a large scale.

oWe can minimize the cumulative effect of error in this way.

• It is a fundamental rule to always work from the whole to the part. This implies a precise

control surveying as the first consideration followed by subsidiary detail surveying.

• This surveying principle involves laying down an overall system of stations whose

positions are fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then the survey of

details between the control points may be added on the frame by less elaborate methods.

• Once the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be surveyed in the

knowledge that they must (and will if care is taken) put into the confines of the main

overall frame.
• It is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with a number of spaced out control point called

primary control points called primary control points whose pointing have been determined with a

high level of precision using sophisticated equipments. Based on these points as theoretic, a number

of large triangles are drawn. Secondary control points are then established to fill the gaps with

lesser precision than thebprimary control points. At a more detailed and less precise level, tertiary

control points at closer intervals are finally established to fill in the smaller gaps. The main purpose

of surveying from the whole to the part is to localize the errors as working the other way round

would magnify the errors and introduce distortions in the survey.

• In partial terms, this principle involves covering the area to be surveyed with

large triangles. These are further divided into smaller triangles and the process

continues until the area has been sufficiently covered with small triangles to a

level that allows detailed surveys to be made in a local level. Error is in the

whole operation as the vertices of the large triangles are fixed using higher

precision instruments.
• Always work from whole to the part:

• According to the first principle, the whole survey area is first enclosed

by main stations (i.e.. Control stations) and main survey lines. The area

is then divided into a number of divisions by forming well conditioned

triangles.
• The process of surveying:

• The survey process passes through 3 main phases

– the reconnaissance,

– field work and measurements

–and the office work.

The purpose of working from whole to part is

o•To localize/ to limit the errors

o•To control the accumulation of error

o•Minimizing the amount of error being achieved by establishing

networks of control points.

• This involves skilled man power and costly resources which are rare and

cost intensive.
2. Fixing position of third point using two measurements (references)

To fix the third point, if a base is known, (i.e. known distance determined in

survey) only two measurements are required with reference to the two initial

points, this third point defines two new bases used to further points.

• After fixing the position of any point, its reference must be kept from at

least two permanent objects or stations whose position have already been

well defined.

•
• The reference of any point X, has to kept with at least two permanent or well
defined points Y and Z. This has been achieved by taking measurement of two
parameters.
• The location of a point X can be done as shown in the figure below.

(a) Distances YX and ZX

(b)Perpendicular distance OX and distance OY or OZ

(c)Angles YZX and ZYX

The point of intersection of two measured parameters defines the position third point.
 4.2. Surveying Techniques

There are Three techniques for fixing a point relative to known points (Trilateration, traversing and

triangulation)

1.Trilateration:

It is a technique used to define position of points with distance measurement only. This technique

used where only distance measuring equipment is available. Tri means three and lateral means side.

The principle works on dividing the area into a series of joined triangles and measures the lengths of

sides. The basic instruments employed for these methods are chain/tape, ranging poles, arrows,
2. Traversing:

It is a technique used to define positions of points by combining distance and angular measurements.

Traverse is a series of straight lines through the area to be surveyed.

 A Traversing is circuit of survey lines. It may be open or closed.

Distances along lines between successive points and angular measurements is taken.

A Traversing is circuit of survey lines. When the linear measurements are done with

a chain and a tape and the directions or horizontal angles are measured with a compass or a theodolite

respectively the survey is called traversing.

3. Triangulation:
 Define position by using angular measurement
 The principle of triangulation is that, if two angles of a triangle are known it is possible to define the triangle.
Triangulation is basic method of surveying, when the area to be surveyed is large, triangulation is adopted. The
entire area is divided into network of triangles.
 Thus, if a base side is established, and two angles are measured from the terminals of the base side to a third
point whose position is required, the position of the third point can be fixed.
• 4.3. Measurement in Surveying

• Measuring the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of

earth is one of the most fundamental surveying operations. It is also one of the most basic

engineering measurements. It can be measured in millimetres, centimetres, metres, and

kilometres in SI unit system and in inches, foot, yard and mile in FPS unit system.

• The conversion factors are:

• 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m 1 ft = 12 in

• 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 km = 0.62 miles 1 yard = 3 ft

• 1 mile = 5280 ft 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km 1 in = 2.54 cm

• Measurement is application of a device for determining an unknown quantity.

• It is the act of determining:

• size, capacity, or quantity of objects surveyed.

• The instruments provide accurate measurement of the extent, size, capacity, or amount of

something as has been determined.

• Eg. The room's measurements are 20m by 14m.

• It is the entire process of obtaining a desired (wanted) quantity.

• Measuring distances along straight lines

• 1. In topographical surveys, you measure distances along straight lines. These lines either join two fixed

points or run in one direction starting from one fixed point. They are plotted in the field with pegs, pillars

or ranging poles.

• Expressing distances as horizontal measurements

• 2. You should always measure distances as horizontal distances. You may have to measure on ground

which has no slope, or only a very small slope that is less than or equal to 5 percent. The distance

measured on this type of ground will be equal to or very close to the horizontal distance. When the slope

of the terrain is greater than 5 percent, however, you will have to find the horizontal distance. To do

this, you must correct any measurements made along the ground or use another method of measurement.
Measuring on straight and sloppy ground
In general Surveyors can measure:

Horizontal angles and Horizontal distances

Vertical angles and Vertical distances (elevations)

Slope distances

Characteristics of Measurements in ground surveying

No measurements are exact.

All measurements contain errors.

The true value of a quantity being measured is never known

The exact sizes of errors are unknown

Types of measurements

There are two types of measurements. Linear and angular.

1. Linear Measurement

• No angles are measured in Linear Surveying, only distances recorded.

• There are various methods of making linear measurements and their relative value depends upon the degree

of precision required.

• If a distance is measured along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal equivalent.

They can be mainly divided into three:

i. Direct

ii. Optical and

iii. Electronic measurement methods

i. Direct Measurements:

• Distances are measured on the ground with the help of tape or any other instrument.

• The various methods of measuring distances directly are as follows : Pacing, Measurement with Passometer,

Measurement with Pedometer, odometer, Chaining, etc.

• Pacing: A pace is a unit of length consisting either of one normal walking step, or of a double step, returning to

the same foot. The normal pace length decreases with age and some health conditions. The word "pace" is also

used for units inverse to speed, used mainly for walking and running, commonly minutes per kilometer.

• A pace is the distance on level ground between the heel of one foot and the heel of the same foot where it

next touches the ground while walking normally (two normal steps). As everyone's pace differs, it is important

to determine one's individual pace length.

• Odometer: An odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of a known

circumference to a distance. This has advantage in preliminary surveys where

precise distances are not necessary. Odometer distances should be converted to

horizontal distance when the slope of the ground is steep. With odometers, an

accuracy of approximately 1/200 of the distance is reasonable. Distance can be

found by the following formula:

• Distance = (number of revolutions of the wheel) x (circumference of the wheel)

• Odometer:

• Wheel tape provides a convenient way

• to conduct fast measurement on a path

• or road including its curves.

• It does not provide high precision (which

• is around 1:200),

• Wheel typically has installed odometer

• to count the number of turns.

• Used for preliminary measurements

ii. Measurements by Optical Means: Observations are taken through a

telescope and calculations are done for the distances, such as in

triangulation.

iii. Electronic Methods: Distances are measured with instruments that rely

on propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either radio or light

waves.
2.Angular Measurements

• As the name suggests, the two sides meeting at an angle are measured.

• Angular measurement can be defined as the measure of angle formed by the two rays or arms at

a common vertex.

• The angle between them is measured and represented in degrees or radians.

• The Angular Measurements are taken using an instrument known as compass and theodolite.

• Horizontal angular measurements are made between survey lines to determine angle between the

lines.

• Measurement of horizontal angle is required in traverse surveying and other types of surveying.
• Angle and Direction

Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently depends on measurements of

angles and directions. In surveying, directions are given by bearings and azimuths.

• Angles are measured by

• Total station

• Theodolite

• Transit

• Compass

• By tape: - indirect measurement.

• There are three basic requirements to determine an angle.

They are:

1. Reference/starting lines

2. Direction of turning.

3. Angular distances (Values of the angle)

Readings in angular measurement
• Magnetic bearing: is bearing of a line measured with respect to magnetic north in
clockwise direction.
• True bearing (W.C.B) of a line is the horizontal angle measured clockwise from the
North limb of the meridian.
• Types of Norths

• There are three types of North:

a) True (sometimes called Geographic) North: If you drew a line between where you are and the center of the

North Pole that would be true north

b) Magnetic North: The earth acts like a big magnet and magnetic north is the north to which a compass needle

points.

c) Grid North: the direction at the top (usually) of written maps

• We get magnetic north from compasses

• We get grid north on maps

• We use something called a declination diagram on a map to help us know where

true or geographical north is

• Bearings in Angular Measurement
• There are two types of reading angular measurements/ bearings. These are:
• Whole circle Bearing: A bearing that defines the direction of a survey line by its horizontal
angle measured clockwise from true north. The value of W.C.B. varies from 0º to 360º.
• Quadratic Bearings: A horizontal angle or bearing less than 90 degrees , measured to north,
south, east, or west from a survey line. quadratic bearing the value ranges from 0o to 900 based
on North and south as reference.

Quadratic Bearing system Whole Circle Bearing System

4.4.Units of measurements in Surveying

• Land surveying is primarily concerned with the measurement of length (distances) and

angles (bearings).

• The standard unit of measurement for length is the meter.

• For angular measurement either the sexagesimal or centesimal system is used.

• In the sexagesimal system the basic unit is the degree. There are 3600 in a full circle, right

angle is 900 and a straight line is 1800.

• The degree subdivided into minutes and seconds, 10 = 60’ or 10 = 3600” and 1’= 60”

Convert 1.960 to degree, minute and second format

• Convert 1.960 to degree, minute and second format
10 = 60’
1’ = 60’’
10 = 60’
0.960= x?

 0.960 *60’ = 57.6’

10

1’ = 60’’
0.6’ = x’’ 0.6’’*60’’ =36’’

Therefore, 1.960 = 10 57’ 36’’

4.5. Measurements and Error

• Error is difference between a measured quantity and its true value.

• An error is a mistake or shortcoming that happens during the survey process leading to wrong measurements.

• The true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a series of repeated measurements.

• An error is a mistake or shortcoming that happens during the survey process leading to wrong measurements.

• It is sometimes called differences. Caused by:

• Carelessness

• Poor Judgement Where:

• Incompetence ε = the error in the measurement
  y y = the measured value
μ = the true value
• 4.5.1. Error Sources
• There are basically three sources of error during measurement.
These are:
i. Instrumental errors
ii. Natural errors
iii. Personal errors
• i. Instrumental Errors

• Errors caused by imperfections in construction/adjustment of the measurement

instruments.

• When the instrument being used does not function properly cause error in the

experiment.

• Example: a long or short tape, angle measurement instrument without proper adjustment,

Instruments reading above or below the actual weight.

• Keep instrument in adjustment to the extent feasible, but use field procedures that assume

miss-adjustment.
 ii. Natural Errors
• Variation of natural phenomena is also a possible source of error.

• Errors caused by conditions in the environment that are not normal.

• Variation of temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, refraction, magnetic declination etc.

are most common natural phenomena which may cause measurement errors.

• If they are not properly observed while taking measurements, the results will be

incorrect. Example: Length error of tape or chain due to temperature change (contracts

and expands ).
3. Personal Errors
• Error may also arise due to imperfection of human sight in observation and of touch in

manipulating instruments. These man made errors are known as personal error.

• Errors due to limitations in human senses or skill.

• Limits of Human Performance Factors like: Sight, Strength, Judgement & Communication

• Examples of personal errors include:

• Wrong reading, wrong recording, reading from wrong end of chain etc.,

• These errors are serious errors and cannot be detected easily.

• Care should be taken to avoid such errors.

• Some of the mentioned errors (instrumental, natural, and

personal) occur in a systematic manner and others behave

with apparent randomness.

• They are therefore referred to as systematic and random

errors.
 i. Systematic Errors
Errors that occur each time a measurement is made.

Systematic errors come from identifiable sources.

These Errors can be eliminated by making corrections to your measurements

• Tape is too long or to short

• Theodolite is out of adjustment

• Eg. temperature effects are systematic

Can be reduce by calculation

These can be corrected as long as they are identified and the proper mathematical model is available.

Example: Temperature correction in taping

 ii. Random Errors
• These are the remaining errors which can not be avoided.

• Random errors are the result of unpredictable changes.

• They are sometimes referred to as accidental errors.

• Reduce by averaging

• Personal errors are typically random.

• Human errors are a nice way of saying carelessness.

• They can be analyzed using the concepts of probability and statistics.

• Random errors cannot be removed from observation but methods can be

adopted to ensure that they are kept within acceptable limits.

• In order to analyze random errors or variable, statistical principles must be

used and in surveying their effects may be reduced by increasing the number

of observations and finding their mean.

• It is therefore important to assume those random variables are normally

distributed.
• Attention:

• When any surveying such as land survey, topographical survey, building survey,

structural survey, boundary survey, property survey etc. or any other measurements are

done these possible sources of errors should be highly considered for an accurate

measurement.

• All the surveying tools and surveying equipment should be selected in such that they are

free from any errors.

• The surveyor’s should be careful during taking measurements. They should make proper

adjustment for any natural phenomena occurs.

 Accuracy and Precision

o “accuracy” refers to how closely a measurement or observation comes to measuring a "true value," since

measurements and observations are always subject to error. “Precision” refers to how closely repeated

measurements or observations come to duplicating measured or observed values.

o Accuracy measures how close results are to the true or known value. Precision, on the other hand,

measures how close results are to one another. They're both useful ways to track and report on project results.

Accuracy and precision are often used interchangeably in normal life.

4.6. Tools and instruments of
ground surveying
Basic instruments for surveying during taping:

 Tapes –are made of a variety of materials, lengths, and weights. They are used to determine the lengths of lines

by direct measurements.

 Arrows- are commonly employed to mark the ends of the tape during process of taping between two points more

than a tape length apart.

 Ranging poles –are used as temporary signals to indicate the location of points (stations) or the direction of lines.

 Hand level –can be used to keep the two ends of the tape at the same elevation when measuring over irregular

terrain.

 Compass: used to measure angel and direction

 Clinometer: is another instrument used to measure inclination (slope) of the ground along which survey data is

undertaken.
 Tapes/meter

Linen Tape Metallic Tape

ii. Arrows (Chain pin):
Arrows are made of steel wire.
An arrow is inserted into the ground after every chain length measured on the ground.
The length of arrow may vary from 25 cm to 50 cm (generally 40 cm).
One end of the arrow is made sharp and other end is bent into a loop or circle for
facility of carrying.

Arrows wooden pegs

iii. Ranging Rods:

 Ranging rods have a length of either 2 m or 3m, the 2 meter length being more common. They are combined at

the bottom with a heavy iron point, and are painted in either black and white or red and white or black, red and

white in succession.

 The main utility of range poles is to mark the line being measured so that the tape’s alignment can be

maintained.

 Ranging rods are used to range some intermediate points in the survey line. The rods are almost invisible at a

distance of about 200 meters; hence when used on long lines each rod should have a red, white or yellow flag,

about 30 to 50 cm square, tied on near its top.

• Clinometer Compass

• A clinometer or inclinometer Compass measures the inclination or dip of any

rock bed or slope of a plane. ‘Cline’ or ‘incline’ means dip or inclination and a

‘meter’ means the measuring instruments.

• A clinometer (also known as a declinometer or inclinometer) is used to

measure the steepness of a slope, and can be used to work out the heights of tall

things, such as buildings or trees.

• Basic Terminology for Clinometer Compass Survey:

• Strike line of a bed is a line representing the intersection of that feature with a horizontal plane.

• Dip or Angle of dip is the acute angle that a rock surface makes with a horizontal plane.

• Dip direction is the azimuth of the direction of an inclined plane. It can be true dip

direction and apparent dip direction.

• Using a Clinometer to Estimate Heights

• Clinometers can also be used to measure the heights of things such as trees (for other methods see ‘How Tall

is It? Measure Something Tall Without Climbing It’).

• Find an area of flat ground with a tall tree, and plenty of room to walk away from the tree. Look through the

clinometer to find the top of the tree, and walk away from the tree in a straight line until the angle on the

clinometer reads 45 degrees. The distance between you and the tree is now the same as the distance from the

trunk of the tree at eye level to the top of the tree. Measure the distance from the clinometer to the tree – this

gives the height of the tree from eye level to the top. Add the height from the ground to the clinometer (eye

level) to total an estimate of the height of the tree. This works because, by walking away from the tree until

the clinometer reads 45 degrees, it makes a right-angled triangle between the clinometer, the tree trunk and the

top of the tree. The distance along the base of a right-angled triangle is always the same as the height.
• Slope generally is measured with an instrument called a clinometer. When sighting

through a clinometer, the measuring line is placed on the target, and %slope is read from

the scale. Both eyes are open, as one eye reads the scale, and the other eye sights on the

target.
• To determine %slope, one partner walks up or down the slope to a point where a reading

should be taken, such as a major change in slope. A reading is taken and recorded to the

nearest percentage
• To determine a tree’s height:

• 1. Hold the clinometer with the red dot pointing away from you. The red dot marks your line of sight

between your eye and the object you are measuring.

• 2. Look through the glass meter. The glass meter contains a dial with two rows of measurements, a

left-hand scale and a right-hand scale. Keep BOTH EYES OPEN.

• 3. Walk away from tree 50 feet. (Use a measuring tape.)

• 4. Face tree. Hold the clinometer near your eye with red dot pointing away from you. (You may want

to put a finger on the red dot to remind you that this is the line of sight you are following to the top

and bottom of tree.)

• 5. Look through the level clinometer until you see the scale reads “0” on both sides.
• Without moving your head, tilt the clinometer down to the base of the tree. Try to keep the

glass eyepiece steady in at the same point from where you took the top reading. Record the

number from the right-hand scale that corresponds with your line of sight at the bottom of the

tree.
• Determining Height Using Percent Scales To acquire height measurements with a percent

scale clinometer, stand any convenient horizontal baseline distance from an object in

which you can see both the top and bottom of the object. Then sight the top of the object

for the top % reading and the bottom of the object for the bottom % reading.

• Then follow a simple mathematical formula to calculate the

• height: % to top - % to bottom = total % height then total % height x horizontal baseline

distance = height.
• Uses of Clinometers

• Clinometers are used for many things. People who work in forests use clinometers to

measure the heights of trees. Builders and architects use them to measure the heights of

buildings.

• Clinometers are also used by surveyors to measure the steepness of slopes, or the difference

between two slopes.

• Other uses include working out latitude (the distance north or south of the Earth’s equator);

measuring movement in buildings; monitoring the angles of the booms in cranes; checking

the angle of drilling for wells; or showing the pitch and roll of a ship or plane.
 CHAPTER 5
Measurements of Horizontal Distance
5.1. Methods of Horizontal Distance measurement

o Horizontal distance is measured directly using different surveying instruments.

o The techniques include pacing, taping/chaining, stadia and EDM.

o To measure horizontal distance with a chain, a level and plumb bob must be used.

– The chain is held level, horizontal, and the measurement at the elevated end is transferred

using a plumb bob

– This method is limited to slopes of 5% or less.

When horizontal distances are measured by chaining on slopes > 5%, the technique called

“breaking chain” must be used.

• Breaking chain or sectioning the slope into classes to have horizontal distance.

Eg, A at high slope and B at low slope.

 Methods of horizontal distance measurement
a. Pacing or Stepping:

• Pace is the length of one natural step of a person.

• Pacing provides convenient means of obtaining approximate.

• For rough and speed work, distances are measured by pacing, i.e. by counting the

number of walking steps of a man.

• The walking step of a man is considered as 2.5 ft or 80 cm. This method is generally in

the reconnaissance survey of any project.

• It may also be used to roughly check the distances measured by other means.
• Count the number of steps and multiply by the known length of each step. This is used to

provide distance estimates when no measuring device is available or precision is not

required. Experienced personnel may achieve a precision of 1/50. Pacing consists of counting

the number of steps or paces in a required distance. Distances obtained by pacing are

sufficiently accurate for many purposes in surveying. Pacing is also used to validate survey

work and eliminate any taping blunders. Measuring your pace length requires a measured

100-foot distance. You then walk this distance and count the number of steps. It is best to

repeat the process four times and average the results.

• Pace Factor (P.F.) is defined as the ratio of the measured distance in the

number of paces made by an individual to cover the measured distance or: In

determining the P.F., the measured distance is at least 200 m or more. The 200

m distance is walked at normal pace, counting the number of paces to cover it.

PF= measured distance/paces

Rules for Accurate Pacing

1. Be systematic. Because the method is rough, it should not be remained valueless by careless recording

of paces, ignoring changes of slope and by failing to check paced measurements against measured

distances at every opportunity.

2. On level ground adopt a pace that can be held all day. This should be your Natural-Walk.

 On flat open ground, pace repeatedly over measured distance until accuracy of 1 to 100 can be obtained.

3. Pacing in mountainous terrain is not the same as pacing on flat open ground. It is not often that a

normal step can be taken in the woods. Thus, one must use other procedures to help, such as

estimating by eye the number of paces ahead to some recognizable point.

4. It is suggested that pacing results be regularly recorded and checked against known distances under

various conditions.
 b. Taping/ Chaining:

o Traditional method of measuring distance.

o A measuring tape is a flexible ruler and used to measure distance.

o It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fibre glass, or metal strip with linear-measurement markings.

o It is a common measuring tool.

o Its design allows to be easily carried in pocket and permits to measure around curves or corners.

o The distances determined by chaining form the basis of all surveying.

o The various instruments used for the determination of the length of line by taping are as follows:

o Chain or tape, Arrows Pegs, Ranging rods, Plumb bob

Taping procedures
• Tape must always be straight

• Tape must not be twisted

• Use chaining arrows for intermediate points

• Tape horizontally if possible

• Tape on the ground if possible

• Slope taping needs to be reduced

• Step taping suits some applications

• Catenary taping requires correction

 Disadvantages
Advantages
– Multiple people
– High precision
– Must have a clear, travelable route.
– 0.001 foot accuracy
– High precision requires
– Can be used to measure horizontal distances.
temperature and tension

correction.
•
• Sources of Errors in Tape measurement:

• Incorrect length of the tape

• Temperature difference

• Sag

• Poor alignment

• Tape not horizontal

• Improper Plumbing
C, Stadia & EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement Device)

oStadia is used on topographic surveys.

oThe distances can be determined simply by sighting a rod with the telescope

level and determining the rod (thin straight bar of wood/metal) interval.

oElevation can be determined by using stadia.

oCurrent EDM instrument use infrared light laser light or microwaves.

o The slope measurement is accomplished by simply pressing the measure

button.
• The signal from an EDM travels in a straight line.

• When the instrument is level the distances is horizontal.

• If the instrument is not level, the distance is slope

measurement.
5.2. Chain and Tapping Accessories

• Chain surveying is the type of surveying in which only linear

measurements are made in the field.

• Chain survey is the simplest and oldest method of surveying.

• In this survey measurements are only taken in the field, and the rest

work, such as plotting, calculation etc. are done in the office.

• This is most suitable to small plane areas with very few details.
The Procedures in Chain Surveying

There are 5 procedures in chain surveying

1. Fixing Survey Stations

 Survey stations are the points at the beginning and end of the chain line.

 They may also occur at any convenient position on the chain line.

 They should be Mutually visible (e.g. Point A & B visible)

 Few as far as possible and Pass through level ground and Should contain sufficient check line

• Such stations may be :

1. Main stations

2. Subsidiary stations

3. Tie stations
a. Main stations-

• Stations taken along the boundary of area as controlling points.

• The lines joining the main stations are called ‘main survey lines’.

• The main survey lines should cover the whole area to be surveyed.

• The main stations are denoted by ‘▲ ’ with letters A,B,C,D, etc.

b. Subsidiary/ minor stations :

• Stations which are on the main survey lines or any other survey line.

• These stations are used to run lines for dividing the area into triangles ,

• For checking the accuracy and for locating interior details.

• These stations are denoted by ‘ ●‘ with letters S1, S2, S3, etc.

c. Tie stations :

• These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main survey lines.

• Lines joining the tie stations are known as ‘tie lines’.

• Tie lines are taken to locate interior details.

 2. Locating the ground features
• Selecting objects to be included in the survey
• Offsets are taken in the order of their arrangement during chaining.
• Number of offsets depends upon the shape of objects

P Q

900 ≠ 900
 3. Field work
• Equipment required for Field Work
• Chain/Tape, Arrows, Raging rods, Cross staff or Optical square
• Field book, pencil, Plumb bob, Pegs, wooden hammer, chalks
• Field work consists of steps like:
• Reconnaissance

• Marking and fixing survey stations

• Running survey lines

• Taking measurement
 4. Office Work

• Part of office work

• Calculation of data and Plotting the work

5. Plotting work

• Fix the scale of survey before starting based on: Purpose and Extent of survey,

• Finance available
• North upward rule (north arrow)
• Nice lettering (Always in the drawing)
• Use tracing paper for proper orientation
 During plotting
• Start with base line
• Verification of check lines
• Represent Ground features with symbol
• Title box and legend box should be included
5.3. Obstacles in horizontal distance Measurement

o It is a thing that blocks one's way or prevents progress during survey or measurement.

o An obstacle is something, that stands in the way of progress and prevent passage.

o There are various obstruction such as streams, river, canal, ditches, hills, bushes,

buildings, etc. are continually met with in ground surveying, and special techniques of

surveying required to be applied in such challenges.

o These obstacles can be avoided in chaining operation by applying some fundamental

geometric rules. Some are described below;

1. Drawing a line parallel to the chain line
o The following are the geometrical figures by which chaining can be done in spite of
obstacles lying on the chain line.

o The figure shows the method of chaining when it is obstructed by a hill.

o A and D are the foot-hill points, each hidden from view of the other on the either side of hill.
o Points B and C are chosen in such a way that a man at B can easily see ranging rods at C and D, while at
C, can see the ranging rods at B and A.
o Now C puts B in the line with A, and B puts C in the line with D. Hence, A, B, C, D are in the same line.
o The method is also known as reciprocal ranging. From the Figure we found that BC= AD.
 There are two main situations to be considered in obstacles:
Obstacles which obstruct taping but not ranging
• Obstacle round which ranging is possible
• Obstacles round which taping is not possible

 Figure above shows the procedure of chaining when it is obstructed by a river. A and P are
the two points close to the bank on opposite sides of the river.
 At P a perpendicular PR is drawn. Q is the midpoint of PR, At R again a perpendicular RC
is drawn.
 Point C is fixed by extending AQ.
 From two similar triangles APQ and QRC, RC=AP
 Obstacles which obstruct both taping and ranging

Building

o Make triangle from main survey line to point where you can see the other part
of the survey line,
 5.4. Offset Method of Surveying

Is the amount or distance by which something is out of line.

It is a short distance measured perpendicularly from a main survey line.

The procedure of offset method

1. Set up two control points on site, through the middle of the area to be recorded ensuring

a clear line of sight between them.

2. Lay a tape measure between the two points, ensure that the tape is at the correct tension.

3. Ensure each point is securely fit

 Unit 6
 Electromagnetic Distance Measurement
Electronic Distance Measurements (EDM)

• EDM was first introduced in the 1950s and has undergone several modifications.

• Direct measurement of distances and their directions can be obtained by using

electronic instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and reception of either

light waves or radio waves.

• In the early 1950’s the first Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment were

developed. These primarily consisted of electro-optical (light waves) and electromagnetic

(microwave) instruments. They were bulky, heavy and expensive.

• The typical EDM today uses the electro-optical principle. They are small,

reasonably light weight, highly accurate, but still expensive.

• Electronic Distance Measurement: - are indirect distance measuring

instruments that work using the invariant velocity of light or electromagnetic

waves in vacuum. They have high degree of accuracy and are effectively used

for long distances for modern surveying operations.

• An electronic distance-measuring (EDM) instrument can determine distances by

measuring phase changes that occur as electromagnetic energy of known wavelength

travels from the instrument and returns.

• Accurate distance measurements can be obtained rapidly and easily. Distances can

be measured over bodies of water or rugged terrain that is inaccessible for taping.

• According to wavelength of transmitted electromagnetic energy, EDM instruments

are classified as Electro-optical and Microwave instruments.

In this type of survey all measurements ( length, angles, co-ordinates) are

made with the help of EDM instrument ( i.e.. Total Station).

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining

the length between two points using electromagnetic waves.

 EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying

equipment and can be used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometers

• Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a way of determining the length

between two points by looking a phase changes that occur as electronic

energy waves travel from one end of a straight line to the other.

• Electronic distance measuring instruments, as the name implies:

• use electromagnetic energy for measuring distances between points

• measure the distance between two points electronically

• signal travels from one point to the other

• The EDM is set up at one end of the distance to be measured and a reflector at the other end.

• The EDM generates an infrared continuous-wave carrier beam, which is modulated by an

electronic shutter (Quartz crystal oscillator).

• This beam is then transmitted through the aiming optics to the reflector.

• The reflector returns the beam to the receiving optics, where the incoming light is converted to an

electrical signal, allowing a phase comparison between transmitted and received signals.

• The amount by which the transmitted and received wavelengths are out of phase, can be

measured electronically and registered on a meter to within a millimeter or two.

• Linear measurements, in any practical range, can be made speedily

and precisely due to the development of short, medium, and long-

range EDMI. To realize the many benefits of EDMI, each surveyor

should become familiar with the application, operation, and

maintenance of EDMI.
Accuracy of EDM Instruments

• An EDM instrument with an accuracy of ±(5 mm + 3 ppm) indicates a fixed

error of 5 mm regardless of the distance measured, and a variable error of 3

parts per million (ppm) of the measured distance.

Some of EDM instruments are:-

• Infrared wave instruments

• Light wave instruments

• Micro wave instruments

• Theodolite

• GPS
o The early versions of the instrument was:

o precise over long distances,

o were very large,

o Were very heavy,

o complicated and expensive.

o Rapid advances in related technologies have provided:

o lighter, simpler and less expensive instruments.

o Earlier versions of EDM instruments used natural light for calculation of distances, but the

latest version of EDM uses infrared light, laser light or microwaves.

Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument Characteristics

The characteristics of EDM instruments are as mentioned below:

1. Distance Range: Distance can be measured up to 1 km using a single prism under average

atmospheric conditions.

2. Accuracy: It is better for short range EDM instruments than for long range EDM

instruments

3. Measuring Time: The measuring time required is 1.5 sec for short range measurements and

up to 4 sec for long range measurements.

4.Battery Capability: measurements depend on the power of battery and temperature.

Different Wavelength Bands Used by EDM

Usually, EDM uses three different wavelength bands and their characteristics are:
3. Infrared Systems
1. Microwave Systems
Range up to 3 km
Range up to 150 km
Limited to line of sight
Wavelength 3 cm
Limited by rain, fog, other airborne particles
Not limited to line of sight 2. Light Wave Systems

Unaffected by visibility • Range up to 5 km (for small machines)

• Visible light, lasers

• Distance reduced by visibility

EDM instruments can be classified as:
1. Microwave instruments

2. Visible light wave instruments

3. Infrared wave instruments.

1. Microwave Instruments

• These instruments were invented as early as 1950 in South Africa

• These instruments use high frequency radio waves

• The range of these instruments is up to 100 km and can be used

during both day and night.

• One of the mobile hand work today is applied in wildlife

monitoring, traffic control and airport etc.

2. Light Wave Instruments

• These are the instruments which measure distances

based on propagation of modulated light waves.

• The accuracy of such instrument varies from 0.5 to

5 mm / km distance

• It has a range of nearly 3 km.

3. Infrared Wave Instruments

• Measures distance by using amplitude modulated infrared

waves

• Prisms mounted on target are used to reflect the waves.

• Can be mounted on theodolites for angular measurements

o In the past, measuring could only be recorded on paper media such as field books.

o One of the best features of total station is:

o ability to collect and

o download data directly into a computer without human errors.

o accurately gather enormous amounts of survey measurements quickly.

o Even though total stations have been in use for more than 20 years, they are only now

beginning to become popular among the surveying and engineering community.

o Over the last 10 years, total stations and data collectors have become common field

equipment.
o Electronic Distance Measurement Properties

o They come in:

o long (10-20 km),

o medium (3-10 km), and

o short range (.5-3 km).

o They are typically mounted on top of a theodolite, but can be mounted directly to

tribrach.

o EDM is very useful in measuring distances that are difficult to access or long distances.

o It measures the time required for a wave to sent to a target and reflect back.
 Front and
back views

Geodimeter Total station

Principles of EDM

A wave is transmitted and the returning wave is measured to find the distance traveled.

Errors are generally small and insignificant for short distances

oPrisms are used with electro-optical EDM instruments to reflect the

transmitted signal

oA single reflector is a cube corner prism that has the characteristic to

reflecting light rays precisely back to the emitting EDM instrument

oThe quality of prism is determined by the flatness of the surface and the

perpendicularity of the 90˚ surface.

• Sources of Error in EDM:

 Personal:

• Careless centering of instrument and/or reflector

• Faulty temperature and pressure measurements

• Incorrect input of Temperature and pressure

 Instrumental

• Instrument not calibrated

• Electrical center

• Prism Constant

 Natural

• Varying ‘seen’ along line

• Turbulence in air
• EDM instrument operation
1.Set up
• EDM instruments are inserted in to the tribrach
• Set over the point by means of the optical plummet
• The EDM turned on
• The height of the prism and the EDM should me measured
2. Measure
• The slope measurement is done by simply pressing the measure button
• The measurement is shown in two decimals of a foot or three decimals of a meter
• horizontal and vertical distances, coordinate, curvature and prism constant corrections measured
3. Record
• The measured data can be recorded in the field note format
• Can be entered manually into electronic data collector
Advantages EDM

• Reduction in the time and size required for most measurements.

• The ability to measure across traffic or construction operations

• The ability to measure inaccessible points

• The ability to set many points from a relatively sparse control network.

• The ability to measure with increased precision and consistency

• The ability to quickly establish better supplemental control for construction staking

interface with a data collector

Chapter-7

Levelling
Leveling

• This is the measurement and mapping of the relative heights of points on the

earth’s surface showing them in maps, plane and charts as vertical sections or with

conventional symbols.

• Leveling is a branch of surveying which deals with the measurement of relative heights of

different points on, above or below the surface of the earth. Thus in leveling, the

measurements (elevations) are taken in the vertical plane.

Levelling

o It is the process used to determine a difference in elevation between two points.

o A Level is an instrument with a telescope that can be leveled with a spirit bubble.

o Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

o It is a method which deals with determining points above sea level.

o The basic equipment required in levelling is

-a device that gives a truly horizontal line (the level); and

-a suitable graduated staff for reading vertical heights (the levelling staff).
Terms in Levelling

• Reduced level ( R.L) :- Is the high point from datum line.

• Benchmark (B .M ) :- is a point of reference for a measurement.

- Is any permanent marker with a precisely known vertical elevation.

-The points of known height.

• Level surface is a surface, all points of which are normal to the pull of gravity.

• A water surface with no motion. The Instrument’s Bubble is in the normal.

• Height: is distance measured vertically to point from a level reference plane or surface.

• Datum line ( M.S.L. ) :- It is an arbitrary level surface to which the heights of all points are referred.

• The reference plane used in surveying (reference point).

Datum.

Geoid represents the shape of earth but ellipsoid is a model

Benchmark Is a point of reference for a measurement.
Parts of Level (Digital)
1. Base Plate
2. Horizontal Circle
3. Eyepiece
4. Circular Bubble
5. Sighting Pointer
6. Objective Lens
7. Focusing Knob
8. Fine Motion Drive
9. Foot screw
10. Bubble Mirror
7.2. Basic Principle of Leveling

Levelling Measures height differences between points either,

• Along a line and Several points from one occupation

• Back sight (BS)- The first reading from a new instrument stand point

• Fore sight (FS)-The last reading from the current instrument station

• Intermediate sight (IS)-Any reading which is not a back sight or fore sight. It is reading taken between the

back sight and fore sight reading Leveling rods

Line of sight
Back sight Fore sight

Gravity Gradient
 Equipment for Levelling
Level, Tripod, Staff/Pole, Change plate, Pole staff bubble, Marker
1. Level – to give the true horizontal line
There are 3 types of level
i. Automated Levels
• Easy to use and Robust even in hostile environment
• Instrument setup be leveled within its circular level bubble
ii. Digital Levels
• Push-button technique
• No reading errors,
• Readings are stored and analyzed digitally
iii. Water Level
• Transparent flexible tube (Local levelling technique)
• The tube is filled with water
2. Tripod/Boning Rod

• Tripod is a portable three-legged frame, used as a platform for supporting the weight and

maintaining the stability of some other object.

• They are T-shaped and made of wood.

• Their height is normally 100 cm and the cross-lath is 50 cm x 10 cm.

• From “easy to sit” to “ this is high”

3. Levelling Staff/Pole

o Used to read vertical height

o Is simply a large ruler, available in lengths of 3, 4 or 5 metres and

o Usually made of aluminium with telescopic sections (Wood, aluminum)

o INVAR type for high precision leveling

4. Bubble Level

ois an instrument to indicate whether a surface is level or not.

oKeep the pole upright (Any tilt will disturb your readings)

oVarying Lengths of 300mm to 2400mm

oCan also be magnetic

oQuality of Levels vary

5. Survey Markers

In marking of boundaries the holders will use boundary markers commonly

used in the adjudication areas including boundary tracks, footpaths, ditches, fences, trees, plants

and stones.

o Gives you a fixed point

o Should be of good quality

o Should be long-term

o Preferable in bedrock, settled buildings, or bridges

o Do not use fences or walls

7.3. Types of Leveling in Surveying

1. Direct leveling

2. Trigonometric leveling

3. Barometric leveling

4. Stadia leveling
1. Direct Leveling :

o It is direct measurement, precise and commonly used method of leveling.

o Measurements are observed directly from leveling instrument.

o Direct leveling is divided into different types based on the observation points and instrument positions:

Simple leveling

Differential leveling

Fly leveling

Profile leveling

Precise leveling

Reciprocal leveling
i. Simple leveling :

It is simple and basic form of leveling to find elevation.

Requires one set up of level.

The difference of level between two points is determined by setting leveling

instrument midway between the points.

Performed only when the points are nearer to each other without any obstacles.
ii. Differential leveling :

• Used to find elevation of non-inter visible points.

• In this process, number of inter stations are located.

• Instrument shifted to each station and observe elevation of inter station points.

• Finally difference between original two points is determined.

o Differential leveling is adopted when :

i. the points are at a great difference apart,

ii. the difference of elevation between the points is large,

iii. there are obstacles between the points.

• A Level is an instrument with a telescope that can be leveled with a spirit bubble. The optical

line of sight forms a horizontal plane, which is at the same elevation as the telescope crosshair.

By reading a graduated rod held vertically on a point of known elevation (Bench Mark) a

difference in elevation can be measured and a height of instrument (H.I.) calculated by adding

the rod reading to the elevation of the bench mark. Once the height of instrument is established,

rod readings can be taken on subsequent points and their elevations calculated by simply

subtracting the readings from the height of instrument.

iii. Reciprocal Leveling

o Used when it is not possible to locate leveling instrument between inter visible points.

o This technique is used when it becomes necessary to determine the relative elevations of two widely

separated inter-visible points between which levels cannot be run in an ordinary manner. For

example, it may be desired to transfer levels from one side to the other of a wide river. The technique

was devised to compensate for unbalanced backsights and foresights between consecutive turns.

o This type of levelling used in case of ponds or rivers etc.

o Instrument set nearer to 1st station and sighted towards 2nd station.
2. Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling : done by measuring vertical angles and horizontal distance;

and is Less precise.

• This procedure determines elevations by trigonometric means. Vertical differences in

elevations are computed from slope distances and zenith (or vertical) angle measurements. With

modern total stations, difference in elevation is calculated automatically; all the operator has to

do is push the correct button on the instrument to display this value.

• When Used - Trigonometric Leveling is often the most practical (and economical) method for

establishing elevations in rolling to steep terrain.

3. Stadia Leveling : Using tachometric principles. stadia topo

is shown with a sketch showing the objects located and the measured

angles and distances applied to a line.

4. Barometric Leveling : Based on atmospheric pressure difference;

Using altimeter; is very rough estimation

Levelling using pole, string and water level

o Materials required are: water level, thin rope (11 meter), 2 wooden poles 2 meter long, marked every 10 cm, meter band or

meter stick, and pegs for marking grounds.

o Procedure for measuring height variation between two points using water level

o select any distance so that the rope can be fixed on both poles and remains level

o Move the rope on pole B until the line levels.

o Measure the distances on the poles (distance from ground to rope fixed on both poles)

o Calculate difference of measurements (reading on pole A – reading on pole B).

o This is the height (the vertical interval)

between the points on the ground (between A and B)

7.4. Basic Rules for Leveling
• Always start and finish a leveling run on a Benchmark
• Keep fore sight and back sight distances as equal as possible
• The instrument must be check before use
• The instrument and level must be stable settled-up
• The bubble tube must be leveled before the reading
• The instrument must be set up in the middle between two staffs
• Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m)
• Use stable, well defined change points
• Beware of shadowing effects and crossing waters
• Staff should be set up vertically
• A change plate should be used
• Leveling must be done in two opposite directions but the same line
7.5. Errors in leveling

There are potential sources of errors in leveling. To list some:

• Collimation (distant virtual image)

• Parallax (position or direction of object appears different viewed from different positions)

• Change point / staff instability

• Instrument or Benchmark instability

• Refraction/bending

• Uncalibrated staff or levels

• Reading, booking, or computation errors

• Fore- and back sight distances different

• Error due to Earth Curvature

• Collimation Error:

• Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly horizontal when the instrument is

level.

• The effect is illustrated in the sketch below, where the collimation axis is tilted with respect to the

horizontal by an angle :

• That is, the effect of the collimation error is eliminated if sight lengths are kept equal.
• Refraction:

• The variable density of the Earth's atmosphere causes a bending of the ray from the staff to

the level.

• The effect is illustrated in the sketch below:

7.6. Applications of levelling,

• To determine the elevations of given points with respect to a datum

• To establish the points of required height above or below the datum line.

• Without leveling and proper surveying you can’t design

• To determine the topography of sites to design projects

• Set grades (marks) and elevations for construction projects

• It help to lay a level ground on which they can elect the building

• It is also important in the construction of routes of transport like roads and railways

• To determine or to set the base level of building.

• To decide or set the road, railway, canal or sewage line alignment.

• To determine or to set various levels of dams, towers, etc.

• To determine the capacity of a reservoir.

 Unit 8: Angle and direction measurements
• Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently

depends on measurements of angles and directions. In surveying, directions

are given by bearings and azimuths.

• An angle is defined as the difference in direction between two convergent

lines. A horizontal angle is formed by the directions to two objects in a

horizontal plane. A vertical angle is formed by the directions to two objects

in a vertical plane.
• Angles are usually measured directly by compass, total station,

theodolite, or transit. An interior angle is on the inside of an

enclosing figure, and an exterior angle is on the outside of an

enclosing figure.

• A deflection angle is that angle which any line extended makes with

the succeeding or forward line.

•
• The direction of the deflection is identified as right or left. An angle-to-the-

right is the clockwise angle at the vertex between the back line and forward

line.
• There are three basic requirements to determine an angle.

• They are:

1. Reference/starting lines

2. Direction of turning.

3. Angular distances (Values of the angle)

• Determination of the direction of a line, azimuth or bearing is a fundamental requirement for

establishing the horizontal position of one point and its relationship with any other point in

the survey. Distance and angular measurements are of equal importance in establishing point

positions.
Types of Angles

I. Horizontal Angle

• A horizontal angle is the difference in direction between:

• Two intersecting lines in a horizontal plane;

• Two intersecting vertical planes; or

• Two intersecting lines of sight to points in different vertical planes.

• It is measured in the horizontal plane in degrees of arc. Horizontal angles usually are measured

clockwise (an angle-right), but may be measured counter-clockwise (angle left).

II. Vertical angles

• Vertical angles can be expressed either as a true vertical angle or as a zenith angle. A

true vertical angle is an angle measured from the horizontal either upward or

downward. Vertical angles measured upwards from the horizontal are positive angles

and those measured downward are negative angles. Angles may be measured in

degrees or in percent scale.

III. Zenith angles

• Zenith angles are measured downward from a vertical plumb line above the point. The zenith

angle is measured from 0 degrees directly above and is equal to 90degrees minus the vertical

angle. Certain instruments have vertical verniers that read zenith angles while total stations

generally read both. It is important that the instrument person check to see which vertical

angle is read.
Systems of Angle Measurement

• The most common ones are sexagesimal system and centesimal system.

The Sexagesimal System:

• This system uses degrees, minutes and seconds. In this system, a complete rotation of a line

(circle) is divided in to 360 degrees of arc. One degree is divided in to 60 minutes and 1

minute is further divided in to 60 seconds of arc. The symbols for degree, minutes and

seconds are ⁰, ‟ and ‟‟ respectively.

• E.g. 35⁰ 17‟ 46‟‟

• 90⁰, 00‟ 00‟‟

• The Centesimal System

• This system uses the grad for angular measurement. Here, a complete rotation

is divided in to 400 grads. The grad is sub divided in to 100 parts called

centigrad and the centigrad is further sub divided in to100 centi-centigrad (1c

=100cc)

• For conversion 1g = 0.9⁰

• Example. 100 grad = 90 degrees

• Representation of Bearing

• Bearings are expressed in the following two systems.

• Azimuth (Whole circle bearings) system.

• Bearing (Quadrantal bearings) system.

• Azimuth (Whole circle bearings) system

• In this system, the direction of a line is always measured

clock wise from the direction of the north of the meridian

towards the line around the circle.

• Bearings and Azimuths

• The Relative directions of lines connecting survey points may be obtained in a variety of ways. The

figure below on the left shows lines intersecting at a point. The direction of any line with respect to an

adjacent line is given by the horizontal angle between the 2 lines and the direction of rotation.

• The figure on the right shows the same system of lines but with all the angles measured from a line of

reference (O-M). The direction of any line with respect to the line of reference is given by the angle

between the lines and its direction of rotation.

• Bearing (Quadrantal bearings) system

• In this system the bearings of a line is measured from either the north or the south, clock wise

or counter clockwise whichever is nearer to the line towards the east or west. The angle at

any station in a plane is divided into four quadrants by two lines at right angles to each other.

• These are the north south and east-west lines. The bearing is reckoned from 0⁰ to 90⁰ in each

quadrant. Quadrantel bearings are also called as reduced bearings.

• The line of reference (Meridian)

• There are several types of meridians: Astronomical or True, Magnetic, Grid, and Assumed. Astronomical or

True Meridians A plane passing through a point on the surface of the earth and containing the earth’s axis of

rotation defines the astronomical or true meridian at that point. Astronomical meridians are determined by

observing the position of the sun or a star. For a given point on the earth, its direction is always the same and

therefore directions referred to the astronomical or true meridian remain unchanged. This makes it a good line of

reference. Astronomical or true meridians on the surface of the earth are lines of geographic longitude and they

converge toward each other at the poles. The amount of convergence between meridians depends on the distance

from the equator and the longitude between the meridians.

• Magnetic Meridian

• A magnetic meridian lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the earth. The earth acts very

much like a bar magnet with a north magnetic pole located considerably south of the north pole

defined by the earth’s rotational axis. The magnetic pole is not fixed in position, but rather changes

its position continually. The direction of a magnetized needle defines the magnetic meridian at that

point at that time. Because the magnetic meridian changes as magnetic north changes, magnetic

meridians do not make good lines of reference.

• Grid Meridians: In plane surveys it is convenient to perform the work in a rectangular XY

coordinate system in which one central meridian coincides with a true meridian. All remaining

meridians are parallel to this central true meridian. This eliminates the need to calculate the

convergence of meridians when determining positions of points in the system. The methods of plane

surveying, assume that all measurements are projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridians

are parallel straight lines. These are known as grid meridians. The Oregon Coordinate System is a

grid system.
• Azimuths

• The azimuth of a line on the ground is its horizontal angle measured from the meridian to the line. Azimuth

gives the direction of the line with respect to the meridian. It is usually measured in a clockwise direction with

respect to either the north meridian or the south meridian. In plane surveying, azimuths are generally measured

from the north. When using azimuths, one needs to designate whether the azimuth is from the north or the

south. Azimuths are called true (astronomical) azimuths, magnetic azimuths, grid azimuths, or assumed

azimuths depending on the type of meridian referenced. Azimuths may have values between 0 and 360 degrees.
• Magnetic Bearing

• The magnetic bearing of a survey line is the angle between

the direction of the line and the direction of the magnetic

meridian at the beginning of the line.

• Conversion of Azimuth (Whole Circle bearings) into Bearings (Quadrantal Bearings)

The azimuth of a line can be converted to bearing by reducing it to an angle less than 90⁰

which has the same numerical value of the trigonometric functions. Rule of conversion of

azimuth into bearing. R.No. Azimuth (W.C.B) Bearing (Q.B) Rule

1 Between 0⁰ to 90⁰ N.E Q.B = Azimuth

2 Between 90⁰ to 180⁰ S.E Q.B = 180⁰ - Azimuth

3 Between 180⁰ to 270⁰ S.W Q.B = W.C.B -180⁰

4 Between 270⁰ to 360⁰ N.W Q.B = 180⁰ -W.C.B

 Unit 9
Traverse survey and Computations
• A traverse is series of connected lines of known lengths related to one

another by known angles.

• A Traverse is a succession of straight lines along or through the area to be

surveyed. The directions and lengths of these lines are determined by

measurements taken in the field. A traverse is currently the most common of

several possible methods for establishing a series or network of monuments

with known positions on the ground.

• Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control

networks. It is also used in geodetic work. Traverse networks involved

placing the survey stations along a line or path of travel, and then using

the previously surveyed points as a base for observing the next point.
• Traverse networks have many advantages of other systems, including:

• Less reconnaissance and organization needed

• While in other systems, which may require the survey to be performed along a rigid polygon shape, the

traverse can change to any shape and thus can accommodate a great deal of different terrains

• Only a few observations need to be taken at each station, whereas in other survey networks a great deal of

angular and linear observations need to be made and considered

• Traverse networks are free of the strength of figure considerations that happen in triangular systems

• Scale error does not add up as the traverse as performed. Azimuth swing errors can also be reduced by

increasing the distance between stations

• The lengths of the lines are determined by:

• direct measurement of horizontal distances,

• slope measurement, or

• by indirect measurement.

• The line sequences run between a series of points are called traverse stations.
• In traversing the positions of points are fixed by measuring:

• horizontal angles, at each station, subtended by the adjacent

stations and

• horizontal distance between consecutive pairs of stations.

• The angles define the shape of the network, whereas the lengths

establish the scale.

• Traverse networks involved placing the survey stations along a line of travel, and then

using previously surveyed points as a base for the next point.

• The angles at the traverse stations, between the lines are measured by:

• tape,

• transit,

• theodolite,

• compass, or

• plane table.
9.2. Types of Traverse

There are two types of traverse:

• Open/Free traverse and

• Close traverse
1. Open traverse: When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction &

does not return to the starting point, it is known as „open traverse‟ or (unclosed traverse).

• Open traverse is called a first class traverse.

• It starts at a point of known or assumed horizontal position and terminates at unknown

horizontal position.

• open traverses end without closure.

• The product of an open traverse is always a polyline.

• Open traverses cannot be properly checked.

• Measurements in open traverses should be repeated to minimize mistakes.

Open traverse.

• Is a traverse which neither start and end at the same point nor start and end

at known point.

• It does not form a polygon.

• Open traverses are mainly used in underground digging and mining works

where physical situation does not allow closing the traverse.

• Open traverse has no means of checking.

• Set a marker on the ground at Point A. From Point A

take a compass bearing on Point B, then measure the

distance between Point A and Point B. From Point B

take a compass bearing on Point C, then measure the

distance between Point B and Point C. Repeat for

the remaining legs of the traverse.

2. Closed Traverse

• Closed traverse is called a second class traverse.

• It has close and comeback to starting station.

• It will provide a check on the angles and the distances.

• It starts at a known or assumed horizontal position and terminates at that point (i.e., loop traverse), or it

starts at a known horizontal position and terminates at another known horizontal position.

• A known horizontal position is defined by its geographic latitude and longitude, its Y- and X coordinates

on a grid system,

• This method will help in the property surveys, construction surveys, topographic surveys and control

surveys and useful in marking the boundaries of wood or lakes .

• Closed traverse may be polygonal traverse or link traverse.

(a) Polygonal traverse is the one, which close back to its starting point.

(b) A link traverse is the one, which starts at a known point and ends to another known

point (points with known position).

• Close traverse is useful in marking the boundaries

• The advantage of closed traverse is that the amount of angular and linear disclosures can be

detected and corrected.

• Set a marker on the ground at Point A. From Point A

take a compass bearing on Point B, then measure the

distance between Point A and Point B. From Point B

take a compass bearing on Point C, then measure the

distance between Point B and Point C.

• Repeat for the remaining legs of the polygon, ending at

the starting point.

 Surveying by offsets (polyline or polygon):

• The product of a survey carried out by offsets is a polyline whose corner, A to M in the example,

might represent points whose positions it is wished to plot or points on a linear feature. In this

example the feature under survey, represented by a broken black line, might be thought of as the

edge of a stream.

• Markers are placed at Station 1 and Station 2, and their positions are determined. The line

connecting Station 1 and Station 2 is the baseline for the survey. Offsets are measured at intervals

from the baseline to the feature under survey. The offsets must be at right-angles to the baseline. In

the example, the first offset starts at a distance of 19.20 m from Station 1 and is 25.90 m long.
9.3. Measurements made in traversing

• Linear measurements: Measured by;

• electromagnetic distance measuring instrument (EDM),

• tachometric method (optical means) or

• by direct taping with steel tapes.

• Angular measurements.

• These are obtained by using theodolites.

• Total stations are used to obtain both linear and angular measurements and

• make the use of theodolite and tape measure being obsolete in traversing.
9.4. Traverse Surveying Fieldwork

The general duties of the traverse field party is to :

1. Select suitable stations.

2. Measure and record distances between stations.

3. Set, and move the sighting targets from station to station.

4. Measure and record the angles.

5. Reference the stations for further use.

• Surveying by close-compass traverse (polyline)

• It forces Map Maker to close the polygon.

• The product of a closed traverse is always a polygon.

• The corners of the polygon may represent points whose positions wished to plot.

• On the figure Below,

• Set marker on the ground at Point A. From Point A take a compass bearing on Point B,

• then measure the distance between Point A and Point B. From Point B take a compass

• bearing on Point C, then measure the distance between Point B and Point C.

• Repeat for the remaining legs of the polygon, ending at the starting point.
• Traverse surveys are made for many purposes to include:

• To determine the positions of boundary markers.

• To establish the positions of boundary lines.

• To determine the area encompassed within a boundary.

• For preparing various types of maps (i.e., establish control for map making).

• To establish ground control for photographic mapping.

• To establish control for locating railroads, highways and other construction work.

• Natural resource experts may need to run a boundary survey for a recreation site,

forest stand or wildlife habitat area.

Traverse field work consists of the following steps:

• Select station positions as close as possible to the objects to be located.

• The forward and backward directions for any traverse need to be defined.

• Mark the stations with stone or concrete monuments set

• Place signals at each station such as range pole to be used for taping and

angle measurement
• The order in which measurements are made is called the forward direction.

• The angles of the traverse should be measured clockwise from the backward

direction to the forward direction.

• You would measure interior angles A, B, C, and D in that order and take field

notes for each angle and associated forward distance as described above for

angle DAB and line AB.

• Traverse calculations include the following:

• The sum of interior angles of polygon must sum to (n-2)*180º where n is the number of

sides

• The sum of measured interior angles will usually not sum to this figure because of

measurement error.

• Calculate the latitudes (north or south directions) and departures (east or west directions)

for each line of the traverse.

Areas of triangle = 1/2 base x height

Area of any polygon= (n-2)*1800

Use of coordinates;

The coordinate values are used for:

1. Adjusting the traverse

2. Plotting accurately the traverse on the constructed grid system

3. Computations of data for setting out engineering works

 Chapter-10:
Compass Surveying
10.1. Compass surveying

• Compass surveying is the branch of surveying in which the position of object is

located using angular measurements determined by a compass.

• Compass is a small instrument consisting of graduated circle and line of sight.

• Compass surveying is used in following circumstances:

• If the surveying area is large,

• If the surveying area has obstacles and undulations which prevent chaining.

• If there is a time limit for surveying, compass surveying is usually adopted

• In compass survey, the direction of the survey line is measured by the use of a magnetic

compass while the lengths are by chaining or taping. Where the area to be surveyed is

comparatively large, the compass survey is preferred, whereas if the area is small in extent

and a high degree of accuracy is desired, then chain survey is adopted.

• However, where the compass survey is used, care must be taken to make sure that magnetic

disturbances are not present. The two major primary types of survey compass are: the

prismatic compass and surveyors compass.

• Compass surveys are mainly used for the rapid filling of the

detail in larger surveys and for explanatory works. It does not

provide a very accurate determination of the bearing of a line as

the compass needle aligns itself to the earth's magnetic field

which does not provide a constant reference point.

• Eye Vane – Placed opposite to guide vane with an eye hole.

• Object Vane – Placed opposite to eye vane. It bears a thin black wire to sight.

• Circular Metal Body (Dia 8 – 12 cm) – The outer body layer of the instrument.

• Magnetic needle – the core of the instrument. Points towards North and South Pole

• Graduated Circle Ring – Used to measure the angle (0 – 360 degree)

• Glass Cover – It covers the instrument from dust and water

• Pivot – placed at the center and supports the magnetic needle to move freely

• Lifting Pin – Placed below the guide vane.

• Reflecting Mirror – Used to adjust the level of an object above or below the instrument level.

• SunGlasses – Used when some bright objects intersect the view.

Magnetic compass

oMagnetic compass is used to find out the magnetic bearing of survey lines.

oThe bearings may be either measured in:

o Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) system or

oQuadrant Bearing (Q.B) system

Major types of magnetic compass are:

1. Prismatic compass

2. Surveyor’s compass

3. Level compass
1. Prismatic compass

It is a magnetic compass which can be used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on tripod.

It contains a prism which is used for accurate measurement of readings.

The greatest advantage of this compass is: both sighting and reading can be done

simultaneously without changing the position.

Major parts of a Prismatic Compass are:

o Magnetic needle o Graduated ring o Adjustable mirror
o Sliding arrangement for mirror o Object vane o Eye vane
o Metal box o Glass cover o Horse hair
Adjustment of prismatic compass

• Two types of adjustments: Temporary adjustment and Permanent adjustment

Temporary adjustments

1. Centering: is the process of fixing the compass exactly over the station

:is usually done by adjusting the tripod legs.

:a plumb-bob used to judge the accurate centering of instruments over station

2. Leveling: instrument has to be leveled if it is used as in hand or mounted over tripod

3. Focusing the prism: Prism can be slide up or down for focusing to make the readings clear and readable.
Permanent adjustments are:
•Adjustments in level

•Adjustment of pivot point

•Adjustment of sight vanes

• Adjustment of needle
2. Surveyor’s compass

o Surveyor’s compass consists of a circular box containing a magnetic needle

which swings freely.

o The horizontal angle is measured using a pair of sights located on north – south

axis of the compass.

o They also have two types of adjustments, temporary and permanent.

o Adjustments are same as described in prismatic compass.

Different Types of Compasses

• There are several different types of compasses available to

consumers. Though each type has its pros and cons, we will focus

exclusively on how to use a baseplate compass

1. Baseplate Compasses (aka orienteering compass)

• Because it is used for orienteering, a baseplate compass is designed to be used with a map. It has a clear

rectangular, plastic base that lets you see the features of the map while using the compass. It also has a

ruler to measure map distances and a magnifying glass for reading the small print and topographical

features. Some compasses even have luminous components for night-time use. Baseplate compasses excel

at finding your location and calculating a bearing using a map. Because they don’t have a sighting

mechanism, the baseplate compass is more difficult to use when walking according to a bearing.
• 2. Lensatic Compasses (aka military)

• Also known as a military compass, the lensatic compass is one of the most accurate compasses you can use for

walking has three basic parts - a cover, a base and a reading lens. The cover protects the compass and has a

sighting wire to help you sight an object in the distance, while the base has the dial and the magnetic compass

components. The base also has a thumb loop to help steady the compass while you are holding it. You look

through the reading lens when lining up an object with the sight line. A lensatic compass is designed for walking

according to a bearing and is less useful when working with a map because it doesn't have a straight edge.
• 3. Pocket Compasses

• Pocket compasses have been around for ages. They are a small, round compass with a flip-

style cover over the dial. As its name implies, this type of compass is small enough to fit in

your pocket. Pocket compasses often are cheaply made, so they don't perform as well as the

baseplate or lensatic compass. Though they work ok for following a bearing, the pocket

compass is not very helpful when reading a map.

• 4. Button Compasses

• Button compasses are probably the most common compass you will see because they are

attached to everything. They are small and extremely cheap. You'll see them attached to

keychains, weaved into paracord bracelets, and tacked on to mass-produced survival tools.

Buttons compasses are not accurate, break easily and are easy to lose. They should be used

only as a toy or a novelty item and not as a land navigation tool.

10.2. Advantages & Disadvantages of Compass surveying

Advantages

o They are portable and light weight.

o They have fewer settings to fix it on a station

o The error in direction produced in a single survey line does not affect other lines

Disadvantages

o less precise compared to other advanced methods of surveying.

o easily subjected to various errors

o Imperfect sighting of ranging rods and inaccurate leveling also causes error
10.3. Angle and Direction Measurement

o The bearing of line is the horizontal angle made with reference line (meridian).

o Depending upon reference meridian, there are two types of bearings; they are: true,

magnetic,

1. True Bearing: true bearing of a line is the horizontal angle between true meridian and

the survey line.

o The true bearing is measured from the true north in the clockwise direction.

2. Magnetic Bearing: magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which the line makes

with magnetic north.

o Magnetic declination:

o Horizontal angle between magnetic meridian and true meridian is known as magnetic declination.

• Since the magnetic poles of the earth do not coincide with the geographic poles and due to other irregularities of the earth's

magnetic field, the horizontal component of the magnetic field at a given position, called magnetic meridian, usually forms

an angle with the local geographic meridian.

• This angle is called magnetic declination or, in mariner's language, magnetic variation. Accordingly, the needle of a

magnetic compass, aligning itself with the local magnetic meridian, does not exactly indicate the direction of true north.
• Reading of the Bearing

 The bearing are designated in the following two system:

o Whole Circle Bearing System.(W.C.B) and Quadrantal Bearing System.(Q.B)

• 1. Whole Circle Bearing System.(W.C.B)

o The bearing of a line measured with respect to meridian in clockwise direction and its value varies

between 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ.

o The quadrant start from north in a clockwise direction as the:

o first quadrant is 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ, 2nd 90ᴼ to 180ᴼ ,

o 3rd 180ᴼ to 270ᴼ, and up to 360ᴼ is 4th one.

 Whole Circle Bearing

2. Quadrantal bearing system(Q.B.)

o In this system:

o the bearing of survey lines are measured respect to north or south line which is the

nearest to the given survey line.

o Can be measured either in clockwise or anti clockwise direction.

W.C.B of any line Quadrant in which Rules for conversion QUADRANT
it lies

0 to 90 I QB=WCB N-E
90 to 180 II QB=180-WCB S-E

180 to 270 III QB =WCB-180ᴼ S-W

270 to 360 IV QB=360ᴼ - WCB N-W

 Class Work
Calculate and draw or show on the graph
No. WCB QB

1 130

2 170

3 220

4 250

5 340

6 357
10.4. Direction of angle Measurement

Fore bearing and Back bearing

oEvery line has two bearings one observed at each end of the line.

oThe bearing of line measured in forward direction of survey lines is called ‘fore

bearing’(F.B.) of that line.

oThe bearing of a line measured in direction backward to the direction of the progress

of survey is called the ‘back bearing’(B.B.) of the line.

oIn WCB system ,the differences b/n the FB and BB should be exactly 180ᴼ.
 NORTH
FB of AB = Θ1(from A to B)
BB of AB= Θ2(from B to A)
NORTH

Θ1 Θ2

BB of line AB

FB of line AB
10.5. Errors in compass survey

Errors can be a rise due to various reasons during the process of surveying.

They are classified as:

1. Instrumental errors

2. Personal errors

3. Natural errors

1. Instrumental errors

 As the name suggests they rise due to the wrong adjustments of the instruments.

Some other reasons are: If the plane of sight not being vertical, it causes error in sighting and reading.

•If the magnetic needle is not perfectly straight readings may not be accurate.
2. Personal errors

• They a rise mainly due to the carelessness of the surveyor. They are:

 In accurate leveling,

 In accurate reading and In accurate centering

3.Natural errors

 Natural errors occur due to various natural causes which affect working of compass.

 To minimize them some corrections in calculations applied. They are:

o Local attraction

o Proximity to magnetic storms

o Declination
10.6. Local attraction

•It is the disturbance of magnetic needle by external attractive forces.

• Error introduced in direction of magnetic needle due to magnetic materials

•The magnetic needle does not point to the magnetic north when it is under influence of the

external attractive force.

•In the presence of magnetic materials such as iron pipes, steel structures, iron lamp, posts, rails,

cables, chain arrows, mineral deposits in the ground etc.

• The needle is deflected from its normal position.

•The amount of deviation of magnetic needle is the measure of local attraction

Detection of Local attraction

• The local attraction at any station is detected by observing the fore and back bearings of the line.

• If the difference between is 1800, both end stations are considered to be free from local attraction,

• If not, the discrepancy may be due to:

• error in observation of either fore or back bearings, or

• both Presence of local attraction at either or both of the stations

• All magnetic objects, such as belts, watches, keys, and other metal objects can interfere with the

compass reading.

• Hold compass away from metal objects while taking a reading.

There are two methods by which local attraction can be eliminated:

• i. Correction of local attraction at each station

• ii. Correction of local attraction using the method of included angle

Correction of local attraction at each station

• It is most suitable for open traverse and carried by correcting each station by the magnitude of local attraction.

Correction of local attraction using included angles

• This is most suitable for a closed traverse.

• It may be noted that the local attraction affects all the magnetic bearings observed at that station by a fixed amount and in

the same direction.

• To correct the affected bearings, Calculate the interior angles of the traverse and check their sum against right angle.
10.7. Principle of Compass Surveying

• The main principle of compass surveying is traversing.

• Fore bearings and back bearings between the traverse leg are measured

• Traverse, a series of connected line is measured by a compass.

• Traversing is adopted, when the area is large and ground is undulating and crowded with many details

• Compass surveying is employed in areas that is free from local attraction.

• Every bearing at each of station can be observed by conducting the compass survey.

• Compass surveying is not recommended for areas where local attraction is suspected due to the presence

of magnetic substances like steel structures, iron ore deposits, electric cables , and so on.
 Unit 11 Theodolites
• In theodolite survey the horizontal angles are measured with the

theodolite more precisely than compass and the linear measurements

are made with a chain or tape.

• A special type of theodolite known as tachometer is used to

determine horizontal and vertical distances indirectly.

• "theodolite“ refers to a tribrach-mounted, closed, optical-reading, angle-measuring instrument with

an optical plummet. That is, a theodolite is secured to a tripod by its separate base, the tribrach; the

circles are read through a microscope and prism system; and it can be plumbed over a point

without using a plumb bob.

• A Theodolite is a precision surveying instrument; consisting of an alidade with a telescope and an

accurately graduated circle; and equipped with the necessary levels and optical-reading circles. The

glass horizontal and vertical circles, optical-reading system, and all mechanical parts are enclosed

in an alidade section along with 3 leveling screws contained in a detachable base or tribrach.
Theodolites

o Theodolite is a very useful instrument for engineers, for measuring horizontal and vertical

angles.

o It is precision instrument used for measuring H & V angles accurately in the horizontal

and vertical planes

o However. the instrument can be used for other purposes like:

• Prolonging a line

• measuring distances indirectly

• Levelling
• The theodolite is an intricate instrument used mainly for

accurate measurement of horizontal and vertical angle up to

10’’ or 20’’, depending upon the least count of the instrument.

Because of its various uses, the theodolite is sometimes

known as ‘’universal Instrument’’.

oThe introduction of electronic theodolite helped for:

oelectronic data collection,

ominimizing reading errors

ominimizing writing errors.

oSince the data collector can be interfaced directly to a computer, errors

which occur in transferring the field information from the field book to

the computer are eliminated.

Theodolite Traversing

• Theodolites may be of two types

1. Transit-theodolite

2. Non-transit theodolite

• In the transit theodolite, the telescope, the can be revolved through a complete revolution

about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.

• In the non-transit theodolite, the telescope cannot be revolved through a complete

revolution in the vertical plane.

Types of Theodolite

• There are two different kinds of Theodolite: digital and non

digital.

• Non digital Theodolite are rarely used anymore. Digital

Theodolite consists of a telescope that is mounted on a base, as

well as an electronic readout screen that is used to display

horizontal and vertical angles. Digital Theodolite are convenient

because the digital readouts take the place of traditional graduated

circles and this creates more accurate readings.

• A Theodolite works by combining optical plummets (or plumb bobs), a spirit

(bubble level), and graduated circles to find vertical and horizontal angles in

surveying. An optical plummet ensures the Theodolite is placed as close to

exactly vertical above the survey point. The internal spirit level makes sure the

device is level to the horizon. The graduated circles, one vertical and one

horizontal, allow the user to actually survey for angles.

• Terminology of Theodolite

• It is important to clearly understand the terms associated with the Theodolite and its use and meaning.

• Vertical axis: It is a line passing through the centre of the horizontal circle and perpendicular to it.

• The vertical axis is perpendicular to the line of sight and the trunnion axis or the horizontal axis. The instrument is rotated

about this axis for sighting different points

• Horizontal axis: It is the axis about which the telescope rotates when rotated in a vertical plane. This axis is perpendicular

to the line of collimation and the vertical axis.

Telescope axis It is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the centre of the eyepiece

Line of collimation: It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs to the optical centre of the object glass and its

continuation. This is also called the line of sight.

Axis of the bubble tube: It is the line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the bubble tube at its centre
• Theodolite are mainly used for surveying, but they are also useful in these applications: Theodolite

• Navigating

• Meteorology

• Laying out building corners and lines

• Measuring and laying out angles and straight lines

Reflector
• Aligning wood frame walls, Forming panels

• Plumbing a column or building corner

• Data collection is done by reading distance, angular and direction, and height (vertical) through prism
reflected value on theodolite at mainstation. The starting location value if know, you fill it or if unknown, you
measure new x,y value where total station stand, then continue to take the required measurement (vertical or
horizontal) where reflector/prism located.
Main Parts of Vernier Theodolite

1.Telescope

• Telescope is one of measuring type, and has:

• object glass

• a diaphragm

• an eyepiece and internal focusing.

2. Vertical Circle

• Vertical circle is rigidly connected to the transverse axis of telescope and moves as the telescope is raised or

depressed. The vertical circle is graduated in degrees with graduations at 20'.

• The graduations in each quadrant are numbered from 0° to 90°

3. Index frame

• It consists of vertical portion and 'horizontal 'portion called an index arm.

• Reading is obtained with reference to the fixed Vernier

• Index arm helps in taking measurements of vertical angle with respect to horizontal plane

4. The Upper Plate

• Also called Vernier plate supports the standards at its upper surface.

• The upper plate is attached to the inner carries

• The purpose of the plate levels is to make the vertical axis truly vertical

5. The Lower Plate

• Also called the scale plate, it carries the circular scale which is graduated from 0 to 360°.

• Lower plate is used to measure horizontal angle.

6. The levelling head

oThe levelling head is used to level the instrument horizontal.

7. The shifting head

• It is a device which helps in centering the instrument over the station.

• Exact centering is done by using the shifting head.

8. Tripod

• The theodolite is fitted on a strong tripod when being used in the field.

• The tripod is used for theodolites where accurate centering is required.

Fundamental Planes and Lines of Theodolite

There are basically two planes and five lines in a theodolite.

The planes are:

(i) Horizontal plane containing the horizontal circle and

(ii) Vertical plane containing the vertical circle

The lines are:

(i) The line of collimation or line of sight.

(ii) The transverse or horizontal axis of the telescope,

(iii) The vertical axis,

(iv) Altitude level axis and

(v) The plate level axis,

• Temporary Adjustments of Theodolite

• The following are the five temporary adjustments of theodolite:

(i) Setting up,

(ii) Centering,

(iii) Levelling up,

(iv) Focusing the eye piece, and

(v) Focusing the objective.

• Sources of error in Theodolite

1. Instrument errors

2. Non-adjustment of plate bubble

• The axis of the plate bubble may not be perpendicular to vertical axis. So, when the plate level

are centered, the vertical axis may not be truly vertical. In such a case, the horizontal circle

would be inclined and the angle will be measured in an inclined plane. This would cause an

error in angle measured.

• This error may be eliminated by leveling the instrument with reference to the altitude bubble.
• Sources of error in Theodolite

 Instrument errors

 Non-adjustment of plate bubble

 Line of collimation not being perpendicular to horizontal axis

 Horizontal axis may not be perpendicular to vertical axis

 Line of collimation not being parallel to line of telescope

 Eccentricity of inner and outer axis

 Graduation not being uniform

 Personal error

 Natural error
Mistakes in Theodolite

Mistakes occur due to carelessness of the observer. Some of them are:

(0) Forgetting to level the instrument.

(b) Turning the, wrong tangent screw.

(c) Reading wrong numbers, say. 219° instead of 291°.

(d) Dropping one division of the main scale reading say 20'.

(e) Reading wrong Vernier

(f) Reading the wrong circle (clockwise or anticlockwise).

(g) Reading small elevation 'angle as depression angle or 'vice-verse. ...

(h) Sighting on the wrong target. .

(i) Missing the direction in measuring deflection angle. '

 Uses of theodolite

 Mapping applications and in the construction industry…

 Measurement of Horizontal and vertical angles

 Measurement of magnetic bearing of lines

 Locating points on line

 Determining difference in elevation

• Optical distance measurement

 Locating the position of piers for Bridge,

 Geographical position fixing from observation of sun and stars

 Alignment control in tunnel construction

 Mining works

 Setting out of subways and Railways curves, etc.

 Unit 12 Total Station

• A total station is a combination of three basic components an electronic distance

measuring (EDM) instrument, an electronic angle measuring component, and a

computer or microprocessor into one integral unit. With this device, as with a transit

and tape, one may determine angles and distances from the instrument to points to be

surveyed. With the aid of trigonometry, the angles and distances may be used to

calculate the actual positions (x, y, and z or northing, easting and elevation) of

surveyed points in absolute terms.

• The electronic transit provides a digital read-out of those angles instead of a scale; it is both more accurate

and less prone to errors arising from interpolating between marks on the scale or from miss recording. The

readout is also continuous; so, angles can be checked at any time.

• Total station also used for computing slant distances, horizontal and vertical angles, elevations in

topographic and geodetic works, tacheometric surveys, etc. The total station have preeminent contribution

to modern surveying and hence the equipment is designed for speed, range, and accuracy.
Total Stations

o It is a survey instrument that can measure horizontal and vertical angles

and distances.

o It is a light weight, compact and fully integrated electronic instrument

combining the capability of EDM and angular measuring instrument

such as theodolite.

o Measurements recorded by the total station will produce an x, y, and z

value. Where x value indicates easting, y value indicates northing, and

the z-value represents the elevation.

Total Station Surveying Instrument

• In the early 1980s, surveying instrument manufacturers introduced a true

total station, by creating an entirely electronic instrument.

• Total station is a digital theodolite with an EDM and a microprocessor.

• Conventional surveying has used analog methods of recording data.

• The present trend is to introduce digital surveying equipment into the

field for fully digitized work.

Electronic total stations now:

• perform the fastest digital data collection methods.

• increased the amount of topographic data collected during a day.

• well suited for topographic surveys in urban landscapes

• Well suited in huge construction sites

• programmed for construction and highway centerline surveys.

• can quickly transfer 3D coordinates and capable of storing mapping feature codes
• Reflector (Prism)--total station requires a solid reflector or retroreflector signal return from the remote

point to resolve digital angles and distances. Prisms are attached to a pole positioned over a feature.

Requires two-man field crew--operator and rodman.

 Reflector/prism

total station

• Data collection is done by reading distance, angular and direction, and height (vertical)
through prism reflected value on mainframe/total station. The starting location value if
know, you fill it or if unknown, you measure new x,y value where total station stand, then
continue to take the measurement where reflector located.
Fundamental Parameters of Total Station

These parameters are parameters for the calculation and correction factors and constants.

• Parameters for Calculation

o Theodolite measures the horizontal angle (Hz) and vertical angle (V) of the line of sight from the

center of the total station to the center of a target on a point to measure.

o The center of total station is at the intersection of rotation axes of horizontal and vertical circles.

o The EDM measures slope distance between the center of total station and the center of prism

o By using the measured polar coordinates: instrument height, target height and several correction

factors and constants can be calculated

Parameters for Correction Factors and Constants

o The correction factor is a sum of atmospheric correction, in reduction to mean sea level and the

projection scale factor.

o The atmospheric correction factor is:

o a function of temperature,

o Atmospheric pressure

o and humidity.

o Input of atmospheric correction is usually required.

o New total stations can calculate atmospheric corrections.

o In any case, a thermometer and barometer are necessary to estimate atmospheric correction.
 Tools and Instruments …
Functions of total station

It can perform the following functions.

• Distance measurement

• Coordinate determination

• Angular measurement

• Data processing

• Digital display of point details

• Storing data in electronic field book.

o Most total stations have the ability to record survey data as a digital file, which can

be imported to a data base for GIS program.

MAP

390
• Principle of Total Station

• The total station consists of a built-in emitter, capable of emitting microwaves and infrared

signals. The wavelength of these emitted waves helps in calculating the distance between the

points.

• Distance = Velocity * Time

• Here the distance is calculated by multiplying the time taken to cover a certain distance by

the velocity. However, triangulation and trigonometry methods are adopted for computing

the angles and determining the coordinates.

• Advantages of Total stations

Total stations are ideal for collecting large numbers of points.

They are commonly used for all aspects of modern surveying.

Disadvantages

Total stations are dependent on batteries and electronics.

The LCD screen does not work well when it is cold .

Battery life is short, batteries and electronics both do not work well when wet

Total stations are typically heavier than a transit and tape

Loss of data is an important consideration

• Tacheometry: Techniques that indirectly provide required measurements are called

tacheometry. Tacheometry (stadia in US) is a surveying method used to determine

the horizontal distance to, and elevation of, a point. In this, distance is measured not

directly but indirectly with the help of an optical instrument called tacheometer. A

theodolite with three cross-hairs can be used with the intercept on a levelling staff

between the top and bottom crosshairs multiplied by a constant giving the horizontal

distance. An accuracy of 1/500 of the distance is achieved with reasonable care.

 Unit 13 Area and volumes
• Areas and Volumes

• On an engineering site the measurement of areas is more often only a step in the

determination of volumes although occasions do arise when areas are only required for

example;

• Design and Costing : ‐ For capacity of the wall, volume of material within given limits, or

volume required to fill an empty space. All of these are determined by doing a survey and

certain calculations.
Area Measurement and Calculation

o It is often necessary to compute the area of land, which may be regular or irregular in shape.

o Land is ordinarily bought and sold on the basis of cost per unit area.

o To compute volumes of earthwork to be cut or filled in planning a highway, it is necessary to

compute the areas of cross sections.

o Area is measured in square meters, hectares or square kilometers.

o 1 hectare = 10000m2.

If the area is small, the simplest method used, which is

Area = Lenth x Width

Methods of measuring area
• There are many methods for measuring area. They are
1) geometrical methods when the area is divided into a number of:
• triangles,
• rectangles or
• Trapeziums
2) By making offsets from a straight line
3) Double meridian distances
The area of a triangle whose sides are known can be computed by the formula.
• Area =
• Where a, b, c are sides of the triangle and s =
Computation of area by geometrical figures

• For areas of small extent, the land can be divided into a series of triangles,

making the necessary measurements, calculating the area of each triangle by

the unusual geometrical and trigonometric formulae used for determining the

area (A) of various geometric figures as follows.

• Geometric formula for area

1. Triangle Area = base X half of the perpendicular

2. Parallelogram Area = base X perpendicular height

3. Trapezoid perpendicular height A = half of the parallels sides X

• Aerial Surveys

• Aerial survey is a method of collecting information conducted from

an airborne platform. This is collected by using aerial photography,

LiDAR or laser scanning. It is often recognized similarly as aero-

photogrammetry, part of photogrammetry where the camera is

mounted on an aircraft. Aerial survey is different to satellite imagery

because of its better resolution, quality and atmospheric conditions.

• Measuring the Area by Coordinates

• Area of a trapezoid: one-half the sum of the bases times the altitude. Area of a triangle:

one-half the product of the base and the altitude. The area enclosed within a figure can be

computed by coordinates. This is done by forming trapezoids and determining their areas.

Trapezoids are formed by the abscissas of the corners. Ordinates at the corners provide the

altitudes of the trapezoids.

 Chapter-14:
Global Positioning system
(GPS)

405
 The History of GPS
.
 Feasibility studies begun in 1960 .

 Pentagon appropriates funding in 1973.

 First satellite launched in 1978.

 System declared fully operational in April, 1995.

• GPS is a worldwide radio-navigation system formed from

constellation of satellites and their ground stations.

oGPS is a System to identify precise Position on the earth’s surface.

oDeveloped by the US Department of Defense. Originally GPS

intended for military use. In 1980s, made available for civilian use.
• GPS is a satellite navigation system designed to provide accurate:

• position,

• velocity, and

• time information anywhere in the world.

• For mapping, a GPS tells us “where” and allows us to input “what”

• The present system is known as NAVSTAR -NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging.

• GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day
• GPS is “…a network of satellites that continuously transmit coded

information, which makes it possible to precisely identify locations on

earth by measuring distance from the satellites.“

• The satellites are traveling at speeds of 7,000 miles per hour.

 There are four GNSS systems in existence
GPS, GLONASS,Galileo & Compass

1. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is also called NAVSTAR GPS ( Navigational System with

Time and Ranging )operated by United States Government.

2. The GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) operated by the Russian Government.

3. The Galileo Navigation Satellite System to be operated by European Union

4. The Compass Navigation Satellite System to be operated by Chinese Government.

Trip View
Main Menu
• Most functions found here like:

• Setup

• Waypoints
• Create, Edit, Delete

• Tracks
• Setup, Clear, Save, Turn on and off.

• Calibration

• Other
Setup
 Waypoints
• On most Garmins, hold enter key to mark a waypoint or go to main Menu to mark.

• Can then edit Name, Symbol, Location.

• Have a naming convention so waypoints show up in the list together.

• Group important points with the same symbol. like a folder – can bulk delete everything with the same

symbol and not others.

• Select named waypoint, then GOTO to start navigation.

Navigation

• Main Menu – Waypoints or Find

• Select desired waypoint

• Go To

• Map screen or compass screen comes up

 GPS Navigation
Once map or compass screen comes up:

• Start walking

• You must be moving for navigation mode to work.

• Turn so compass points to top of unit or the arrow points down the map track.

• When you get close

• Switch to coordinate screen to find final coordinates.

 GPS usually has a 5 to 10 meter error, more in poor conditions.

• Mark where the GPS takes you and search a 10 meter full circle around the

point
• Minimum of five satellites are in view from every point on globe.
• Satellites are reference points for locations on Earth

Change Use to scroll and

windows for keying
Confirm

Undo
Get back to a point 418
TURN ON
• Its possible to accurately measure distance and find out position from four satellites

position anywhere on earth.

• Basic calculations in measuring distance

• Velocity * Time = Distance

• Velocity = speed of light (186,000 miles per second or 3*108 m/s)

• Time = signal travel time

• The receiver uses four satellite to solve for x, y, z, and t which is used to correct the

receiver's timer
 Time Difference
• The GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite

with the time it was received. The time difference tells the GPS receiver

how far away the satellite is.

• Three okay, four or more better
• 3 satellites are needed to acquire a position fix. (2D mode)

• 4 satellites are needed for an accurate position and to get elevation. (3D mode)

• More satellites are really needed because of errors that arise from a variety of sources.

• Satellite positions (geometry)

• Weather

• Multipath

• Timing errors

• Typical error is 10+ meters.

• All GPS are 12 channel: can receive up to 12 satellites

Ideal Satellite Geometry
N

W E

S
Poor Satellite Geometry N

W E

S
14.1. Characteristics of GPS
• Free
• Precise
• Reliable
• All weather
• Anytime & anywhere
• Unlimited user capacity
 14.2. Sources of GPS errors

oGPS receivers have potential position errors due to result of accumulated

errors, primarily:

1. Ionosphere and troposphere delays-

oThe satellite signal slow as it passes through different atmosphere layer.

oThe system uses a built –in “model” that calculates average but not an exact

amount of delay.
425
2. Signal multi-path-

oOccurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall building or large rock

surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increase the travel time of the signal , thereby

causing errors.

oSome of the newer satellites and receivers can receive through thinner solid objects like cars,

building walls and forest canopy.

oTerrain and larger buildings are still too big.

3. Receiver clock errors –

oSince it is not practical to have an atomic clock in your GPS receiver,

the built-in clock can have very high slight timing errors.

4. Orbital errors –

oAlso it is known as “ ephemeris errors “, these are inaccuracies of the

satellite's reported location.

Sources of Signal Interference

Earth’s Atmosphere

Solid Structures

Metal Electro-magnetic Fields

Even the human body can cause signal interference.

Holding a GPS receiver close to the body can block some

satellite signals and hinder accurate positioning.

It is the user’s responsibility to insure the accuracy of

data being collected with the GPS.

 14.3. Segments Of GPS
There are 3 GPS Segments: these are;

 The Space Segment

 The Control Segment

 The User Segment

a. Space Segment

 The Space Segment consists of the GPS satellites.

 The space vehicles (SV) send radio signals from space.

 The satellite Constellation consists of 24 satellites in 6 orbits.

 They rotate the earth once a day.

 These satellites are 20,000km above the earth's surface.

 There are often more than 24 operational satellites as new ones are

launched to replace older satellites. 431

b. Control Segment

 These Segment consists of a tracking stations located around the world.

 The Master Control facility is located in Colorado.

 Control stations measure signals from the SVs incorporated into orbital models for each satellites.

 The control segment compute precise orbital data (ephemeris) and SV clock corrections for each satellite.

 The Master Control station uploads ephemeris (series of data) and clock data to the SVs (space vehicles).

 Continuous time and position corrections sent to space vehicles from ground control

 Time and position corrections re-transmitted from SVs to receivers

432
c. User Segment

o The GPS User Segment consists of the GPS receivers and user community.

o Users include –

o Military and

o Civilians

o GPS Receivers

o Decode the signals from Satellites.

o Calculate the distance.

o GPS receivers convert SV signals into position, velocity, and time estimates.
433
 Receiver
• Computer cable

• Download and upload maps, routes and waypoint.

• Upgrade over the internet

• Computer Mapping Software

• Can map out tracks and waypoints

• Can plan and upload routes, tracks and waypoints

• Receivers may also have

• Digital compasses

• Barometric Altimeters

• FRS Radio and Other features.

oFour satellites are required to compute the dimensions of: X, Y, Z

(position) and Time.

oGPS receivers are used for:

onavigation,

opositioning,

otime dissemination, and

o other research.
Planning a Navigation Route

= Waypoint
Start
 Hints
Check batteries and settings before setting out.
Use lithium batteries when available.
Practice with and know all needed screens on your receiver.
Have all your screens set the way you want them
If possible, set up trip screen to include both UTM and latitude/longitude fields.
Clear out old tracks, unneeded waypoints.
Organize waypoints by name and symbol for easier management.
Calibrate the compass and altimeter, if you have them.
Have all navigation equipment together and readily available.
Tie your navigation equipment onto yourself.
 Some GPS Applications
• military
• Providing Geodetic Control General application areas:
• maritime
• Photogrammetry • automotive • Communication, power grids,

• Finding out location of offshore

• surveying • Tracking and shipping
• aviation
drilling • personal navigation
• agriculture
• Pipe line and power line survey • forestry • Mining and engineering
• Environmental science • safety of life
• Navigation of civilian ships and
• public safety
planes • Transportation

• Crustal movement studies

 Forestry Applications
• mapping roads

• juvenile spacing

• insect and disease tracking

• forest fire monitoring

• research plot monitoring

14.4. GPS Strengths and Weaknesses?

Strengths

The system is self calibrating – Just turn on and use.

Can be used in the field – doesn't require laboratory/artificial environment.

The technology is relatively small-- (typical GPS is now no larger than a small mobile phone).

Supplies the user with Location Based information

Works anywhere on earth

Can give bearings, directions.

There is currently no charge to use the signal

Weaknesses

 The technology is very power hungry,

 The GPS signal is unable to pass through solid structures so is unable to work indoors,

underground, under the water, or under a dense canopy of trees.

 Can be affected by large buildings

 GPS accuracy is related to the quality of signal reception,

In general GPS used for:

o positioning,

o navigation and

o recreation.
 Differential GPS
• Differential GPS (DGPS) is a system in which differences between

observed and computed co-ordinates ranges( known as differential

corrections) at a particular known point are transmitted to users (GPS

receivers at other points) to upgrade the accuracy of the users

receivers position.
 Differential GPS
•This is a way to dramatically increase the accuracy of GPS positioning to a matter of a few

meters, using basic concepts of geometry

•This was used in the past to overcome SA, but with that gone, is now used for reducing the

30m error

•DGPS uses one stationary and one moving receiver to help overcome the various errors in the

signal

•By using two receivers that are nearby each other, within a few dozen km, they are getting

essentially the same errors (except receiver errors)

 Differential GPS Positioning
• Differential positioning user finds the point position derived from the satellite

signals and applies correction to that position.

• These corrections, difference of the determined position and the known

position are generated by a Reference Receiver ,whose position is known and is

fed to the instrument and are used by the second Receiver to correct its

internally generated position.

• This is known as Differential GPS positioning.

 How does DGPS work?
•The stationary receiver must be located on a control point whose position has been

accurately surveyed: eg. USGS benchmarks

•The stationary unit works backwards—instead of using timing to calculate position, it uses

its position to calculate timing

•It determines what the GPS signal travel time should be and compares it with what it

actually is

•Can do this because, precise location of stationary receiver is known, and hence, so is

location of satellite
 Differential Correction
• Differential correction is a technique that greatly increases the accuracy of the

collected DGPS data. It involves using a receiver at a known location - the

"base station“- and comparing that data with DGPS positions collected from

unknown locations with "roving receivers."

Differential GPS survey Differential GPS Positioning
Limitation & Errors of GPS/DGPS

a) International Limitation of Accuracy

b) Receiver Independent Exchange Format

c) Reference System Co-ordinates

 Selection of DGPS observation Mode
• Static: are used to produce baselines between stationary GPS units by recording data over an extended

period of time during which the satellite geometry changes. you need to stay at least 15 mins (depends on

the baseline) to get an accurate solution. GPS surveying are processed after the session is completed. In

other words, the data is typically post-processed. The majority of GPS surveying control and geodetic work

still relies on static applications

• Rapid Static/PPK: resolves errors after all the data is collected. corrects after flight . PPK enables a

larger baseline, compared to RTK

• Real Time Kinematic (RTK):this applies all corrections in real-time during the data collection. corrects

during the flight

 DGPS survey
Establishment of Ground Control Points :

• Primary Control Points ( PCPs) and Secondary Control Points (SCPs)

• Ground control points (or GCPs) are points on the ground with known

coordinates.

• In an aerial mapping survey, GCPs are points which the surveyor can

precisely pinpoint: with a handful of known coordinates, it’s possible to

accurately map large areas.

Primary Control Points ( PCPs) and Secondary Control Points (SCPs)
 ALMANAC DATA

• The Almanac data tell the GPS receiver where each GPS satellite

should be at any time through out the day.

• Each satellite transmits the almanac data showing the orbital

information for that satellite and every other satellite in that

system.
1.Concept of map

2.Types of Map

3.Map elements

4.Map Layout, Printing/Exporting maps

 Concept of map

What is a Map?

• Map is a simplified model of reality containing geographical information on flat

surface

• A map is a way of representing object on two-dimensional surface,(a paper, computer).

• Map can show many things that a picture cannot show.

• We be must selective on which information to include based on our purpose map

production.
• The fundamental characteristics of map,

1. Every map is drawn to a particular and definite scale.

2. Every map should have a reference system.

3. Every map is made on a certain projection

4. In each map, a certain feature or information is emphasized.

5. Every map uses symbols.

6. Maps are lettered, titled and labelled

 Essential Requirements for map reading:

1. Scale of the map:

• A scale is a statement of the relationship between distances on a map and distances on the

ground. Scale is the ratio of objects on the map to the real world.

• The scale depends on the purpose and extent of details desired to be represented in the map.

• From the scale of a map an idea of the ground distances can be effectively and correctly

obtained.

• Scale = map distance / ground distance

• Calculate the distance on the ground if

map distance = 3cm and scale is 1:50000?

• GD=MD/Scale

• GD=3cm/1/50000

• GD=1.5km or 150,000cm

• Exercise 2: Calculate scale when

• Ground distance is 2km and Map distance is 5cm

 If the distance between point A and B is 5cm on the map and Ground measured
distance of point A to B is 10 Km, calculate the scale
 Scale= MD/GD
5cm/10km= 5cm/10000000= 1:5000000?? Check it
• Types of Scale

• There are three Types of Scale

1. Word scale…scale written by word.

• Eg. One centimeter equal hundred meter.

2. Bar scale.. Scale represented by bar or graph

Km
0 135 270 540 810 1,080

3. Ratio scale…scale written in the form of fraction or ratio.

It is very accurate.
• 1/500000,
Large Scale vs. Small Scale

A map showing the whole world is on a very small scale

(1:360 000 000 000) which allows for overall view, but not much detail.

A town plan is on a much larger scale so that features such as roads can be

shown clearly (1cm:500m).

Large scale maps are better for showing individual buildings in detail because

they only cover a small area of land.

Large scale Small scale
 2. Conventional signs

 A conventional sign is the name given to the symbol used to indicate a feature

on the map.

 These signs are the alphabets of map reading.

 For facility of recognition, conventional signs should be supportive of the

objects represented.

 Signs should be as simple as possible to facilitate drawing. These signs are not

drawn to scale.
Classes of conventional signs

Those designed to represent natural relief features such as hills,

valleys, streams, contours, hachure, layers, etc.

Those designed to represent artificially made features such as:

 roads,

 buildings,

 gates,

 watercourses,

 water channels, etc.

 3. Orientation (Setting up) of a map

It consists of setting up the map and its north direction coincides

with the actual Geographical North.

When properly oriented, a line from the observer's position on the

map to any other point on the map is the real direction of the same

point on the ground.

A map has to be oriented for any or all of the following purposes.

 For the purpose of studying it

 For finding one's ground position on the map

 For ascertaining directions of places, objects, etc., shown on the map.

 Examples are boundary pillars, vehicle and compartment boundaries,

roads, habitations, etc.

Types of Map

1. General Reference Maps

 These are simple maps showing important natural and man–made features in an area.

 They are usually easy to read and understand.

2. Topographical Maps

 Like General Reference Maps, Topographic Maps are a summary of the landscape and show important

physical (natural and man-made) features in an area.

 The primary difference is that they show elevation in detail.

3. Thematic Maps

 These are maps which represent information on a particular topic or theme. Weather, population density,

forest and geology maps are examples of thematic maps.

4. Navigational Charts

• Navigation Charts combine aspects of topographic, general reference and thematic

maps and are produced as navigation aids for ships, boats and aircraft.

• Specialist knowledge is usually required to read charts.

5. Cadastral Maps and Plans

• The information recorded includes accurate description of location of a parcel of land

and who owns it.

• It may also record what the land can be used for and may also show the location and

shape of buildings.
• Map Generalization:

• It used to fit picture of selected features to the map scale and to requirements of effective

communication :it intended to remove unnecessary detail.

• It is removing unnecessary details.

 Map cannot show every thing, the mapmaker must Select which feature to show and

which to omit.

 Feature need to be simplified to be legible at small scale

 Data need to be classified (divided in to groups of similar values).

 Finally symbols must be chosen to represent features on the map.

 Elements of Generalization
1. Classification: ordering, categorizing & grouping features by their attribute

2. Simplification: Determining important characteristics of features attribute and

eliminating unwanted details

3. Symbolization: Using graphic marks to encode the features for visualization

and place them into map

4. Exaggeration: Enhancing, emphasising important features

Main factors when selecting symbols for a map

• The scale of the map

• The nature of the phenomena being mapped

• The available data

• The display method of the finished work

Map Elements

Reading information from a map requires certain skills.

Besides to the skill of map reading a given map should have the of marginal information

placed correctly and completely.

The major elements that am map is supposed to have are:

1.Data on map (Primary content) 5. North Arrow

2. Title of the map 6. Grid references

3. Scale of the map 7. The Date when the map is published

4. The Legend of the Map 8. Author

 Title of the map North Arrow

Grid references

Scale

June 2020 Legend

Author Date