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FUNDAMENTALS OF
AEROACOUSTICS WITH
APPLICATIONS TO
AEROPROPULSION SYSTEMS
This page intentionally left blank
FUNDAMENTALS OF
AEROACOUSTICS WITH
APPLICATIONS TO
AEROPROPULSION SYSTEMS
Elsevier and Shanghai Jiao Tong
University Press Aerospace Series
XIAOFENG SUN
Fluid and Acoustic Engineering Laboratory,
School of Energy and Power Engineering,
Beihang University, Beijing, China
XIAOYU WANG
Fluid and Acoustic Engineering Laboratory,
Research Institute of Aero-Engine,
Beihang University, Beijing, China
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
© 2021 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. Published by Elsevier Inc.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions,
or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-0-12-408069-0
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Publisher: Matthew Deans

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Typeset by SPi Global, India
Contents
Preface vii
1. Basic equations of aeroacoustics 1

1.1 Sound sources in moving media 3
1.2 Generalized Green’s formula 17
1.3 Lighthill equation 20
1.4 Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings equation 24
1.5 Generalized Lighthill’s equation 29
References 32
2. Propeller noise: Prediction and control 33

2.1 Noise sources of propeller 33
2.2 Propeller noise prediction in frequency domain 41
2.3 Propeller noise prediction in time domain 57
References 70
3. Noise prediction in aeroengine 73

3.1 Noise sources in aeroengine 73
3.2 Tone noise by rotor/stator interaction in fan/compressor 78
3.3 Shockwave noise in fan/compressor 98
3.4 Combustion noise 117
3.5 Jet noise 119
References 130
4. Linearized unsteady aerodynamics for aeroacoustic

applications 135
4.1 Introduction 135
4.2 Basic linearized unsteady aerodynamic equations 136
4.3 Unsteady loading for two-dimensional supersonic cascades with
subsonic leading-edge locus 143
4.4 Lifting surface theory for unsteady analysis of fan/compressor
cascade 165
References 203
v
vi Contents
5. Vortex sound theory 207

5.1 Introduction to sound generation induced by vortex flow 207
5.2 Basic equations of vortex sound 208
5.3 Vortex sound model of trailing edge noise 217
5.4 Vortex sound model of liner impedance 223
5.5 Effect of grazing flow on vortex sound interaction of perforated
plates 231
5.6 Nonlinear model of vortex sound interaction 242
References 257
6. Sound generation, propagation, and radiation in/from an

aeroengine nacelle 261
6.2 Basic theory of sound propagation in ducts 262
6.3 Computational approaches for duct acoustics 265
6.4 Fan noise source modeling 346
6.5 Interaction effect 391
References 410
7. Thermoacoustic instability 415

7.1 Basic concepts of thermoacoustics 415
7.2 One-dimensional calculation method 417
7.3 Three-dimensional linear combustion instability analysis method 421
7.4 Control of thermoacoustic instability in a Rijke tube 467
Appendix A Coefficients of the matching conditions 486
Appendix B Coefficients of the matching conditions for variable
cross-sections cases 488
Appendix C Coefficients in Eq. (7.149) 495
Appendix D Coefficients in Eq. (7.169) 497
References 498
8. Impedance eduction for acoustic liners 501

8.2 Straightforward method of acoustic impedance eduction 504
8.3 Shear flow effect on the impedance eduction 511
8.4 3-D straightforward method of acoustic impedance eduction 517
References 530
Index 533
Preface
Aeroacoustics had its beginnings in the early 1950s thanks to the pioneering
work of Sir James Lighthill about aerodynamic sound. Since then, this dis-
cipline has concentrated on understanding noise generation by either turbu-
lent fluid motion or aerodynamic forces interacting with surfaces. In
particular, emphasis has also been placed on aeronautical applications for
noise reduction of both aircraft and aeropropulsion systems. At present,
there are already several books available that introduce basic knowledge
and progress in its various aspects. It is noted, however, that the most prom-
inent noise sources of modern aircrafts originate from the aeropropulsion
system in many situations; meanwhile, the thermoacoustic oscillations
occurring in the combustion chamber of the aeroengine has received great
attention on its prediction and control, which is equally related to aeroa-
coustics. Therefore, it is necessary to have a book dedicated to aeroengine
acoustic problems.
As is well known, there are various scales, such as different vortex struc-
tures, entropy, and pressure fluctuations in moving flow media, which make
it extremely difficult to accurately calculate and analyze all flow and acoustic
field details under the condition of multiscales. There are thus two ways to
get work done. One method is Lighthill’s acoustic analogy theory, which is
still widely applied in various aerodynamic noise calculations, especially for
rotating source prediction. The other method is numerical techniques like
computational aeroacoustics (CAA), which suppresses both dissipation and
dispersion on the basis of the differential schemes. There is no doubt that
CAA has shown great potential for the study of jet noise and other flow-
induced acoustic problems. Still, given the limits of current computational
capabilities, acoustic computation for a problem of practical interest is still
out of reach by directly solving Navier-Stokes equations, particularly for
a numerical simulation of rotating or moving sound source problems in asso-
ciation with aeroengine noise generation.
With reference to the context, the aim of this book is to develop a unified
framework to handle the acoustic problem of aeropropulsion systems for the
design phase of an aeroengine; meanwhile, it is also intended for scientists,
engineers, and graduates who are interested in modeling and doing it right.
Therefore, the core parts of this book are still based on the acoustic analogy
theory or the unified solution approach of flow and acoustic fields under the
vii
viii Preface
linearizing assumption. More importantly, the theoretical work described

herein is substantially a compilation of our research publications, except
the basic knowledge of aeroacoustic equations. In addition, it is worth not-
ing that understanding the mechanism of the aeroengine noise generation
and what methods can be used to predict or suppress the resulting noise have
been the core problem of aeroacoustic research. This book will focus on pre-
senting our research results and other important progress in these regards.
The outline of the book is as follows: Chapter 1 consists of a colloquial
introduction to basic equations of aeroacoustics with an emphasis on the
application of Green’s function method. Advanced propeller noise genera-
tion and prediction are given in Chapter 2, accompanied by the solution of
Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings equation using both frequency and time
domain methods. This is followed in Chapter 3 by a brief introduction of
various aerodynamic noise sources in the aeroengine. This chapter also
involves certain algorithm details for both rotor/stator interaction and shock
noise predictions. Chapter 4 is composed of a detailed description of
unsteady aerodynamics of compressor cascade, which shows how to calcu-
late aerodynamic blade loading under linearizing assumption. A description
of vortex sound theory is provided in Chapter 5, which introduces discus-
sion and analysis on how to use the discrete vortex method to study the
energy exchange between vortex and acoustic waves. Then in Chapter 6,
the Transfer Element Method (TEM) and its applications are introduced
in detail. The TEM can be applied to study various interacting problems like
the interaction between a sound source and acoustic treatment in flow ducts.
This is also one of the core parts of our research work presented in this book.
Chapter 7 deals with the thermoacoustic problem or combustion instabilities
in an aeropropulsion system. This chapter is particularly devoted to the
recent progress, both algorithmical and theoretical, in applying the three-
dimensional thermoacoustic model, including acoustic treatment, to a more
complex combustion system. Finally, Chapter 8 touches upon the eduction
of wall acoustic impedance, which is considered one of the most important
aeroacoustic tests. The straightforward impedance eduction method and its
latest developments are expounded along with the relevant experimental
and computational results.
The writing of this book tremendously benefits from the existing theo-
ries and various research results openly published in this discipline. We are
particularly grateful to these authors for their valuable contributions together
with various citations marked in this book. Professor Vigor Yang introduced
us to the field of thermoacoustics, and some joint research with his help has
Preface ix
been reflected in Chapter 7. His precious contribution is very much appre-

ciated. Moreover, the core contents of this book originate from the work
of our faculty and graduates in different periods of time at the Fluid and
Acoustic Engineering Laboratory, BUAA. Accordingly, we would like to
take this opportunity to thank these people who partly contributed and read
the manuscript and suggested definite improvements, including Professor
Xiaodong Jing, Dr. Zhiliang Hong, Mr. Guangyu Zhang, Mr. Lingfeng
Chen, Dr. An Liang, Dr. Weiguang Zhang, Ms. Yu Sun, Mr. Zhuo Wang,
Dr. Lin Du, Dr. Lei Li, Dr. Xiwen Dai, Mr. Wei Dai, Ms. Lei Qin, and
Mr. Shuo Tian.
Furthermore, we are indebted to the continuous support of our research
by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), and by the
973 projects of the Ministry of Science and Technology, China.
Finally, we wish to express our gratitude to Dr. Fangzhen Qian of Shang-
hai Jiao Tong University Press for her indispensable enthusiasm, patience,
and care throughout this project.
Xiaofeng Sun
Xiaoyu Wang
Beihang University
Beijing, China
February 2020
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CHAPTER 1
Basic equations of aeroacoustics
Aeroacoustics is a discipline that investigates noise generation by either tur-

bulent fluid motion or aerodynamic forces interacting with surfaces, which
first originated from the publication of Sir James Lighthill in the early 1950s
[1], when aerodynamic noise associated with an aeroengine was beginning
to receive great attention due to the application of new jet aircraft [2]. Rel-
evant knowledge has been developed since then, which can be applied in
aeronautical engineering to study how to quiet aircraft, including airframe
and aeroengine noise. Understanding the mechanism of aeroengine noise
generation and what methods can be used to predict or suppress the resulting
noise have been core problems of aeroacoustic research. This chapter will
focus on introducing the fundamental knowledge of aeroacoustics and rel-
evant progress in this regard.
As is well known, there are various scales such as different vortex struc-
tures, entropy, and pressure fluctuations in moving flow media, which
make it extremely difficult to accurately calculate and analyze all the flow
details under the condition of multiscales. Lighthill [1] found a smart way
to overcome the difficulties of theoretical analysis and numerical simula-
tion due to the multiscale effect based on the assumption of “acoustic
analogy”. By proper manipulation of the Navier-Stokes equations, a wave
equation was derived with the stress tensor as its source term. The result-
ing wave equation can then be integrated with the help of Green’s Func-
tion, or it can be solved numerically, whereas the source term can be
independently obtained either by experimental measurement or numer-
ical approach. Thus, this equation can represent the sound propagation
from an independent flow sound source in an ambient condition. With
the success of the acoustic analogy, many improvements and develop-
ments were made on the derivation of the wave equation for the situation
of flow-body interaction. In particular, Curle [3] extended Lighthill’s
equation to deal with sound generation by a static body in flow, whereas
the most general equation for sound generation by a moving body was
Fundamentals of Aeroacoustics with Applications to Aeropropulsion Systems © 2021 Shanghai Jiao Tong
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-408069-0.00001-4 University Press. 1
Published by Elsevier Inc.
2 Fundamentals of aeroacoustics with applications to aeropropulsion systems
obtained by Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings [4] via application of gener-

alized function.
There is no doubt that computing techniques will play a more and more
important role in the course of aeroacoustic development. One of the main
difficulties in computational techniques related to aeroacoustics is still the
treatment of a multiscale problem in flow. An acoustic wave has a high prop-
agation velocity relative to the flow structures and, at the same time, its
amplitude is nearly 10 orders of magnitude smaller than the average quantity
in flow or atmospheric environment. Also, it was found that the numerical
schemes for an aeroacoustic problem must be capable of suppressing both
dissipation and dispersion [5, 6]. This also means that it is difficult to apply
an ordinary computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver to solve an aeroa-
coustic problem. With the appearance of various new schemes such as Dis-
persion Relation Preserving schemes [6] and compact schemes [5] aimed at
less dissipative and dispersive solutions, computational aeroacoustics (CAA)
have shown great potential for the study of jet noise and other flow-induced
acoustic problems [7, 8]. Still, given the limits of current computational
capability, acoustic computation for a problem of practical interest is still
out of reach, especially for the numerical simulation of a rotating or moving
sound source problem in association with aeroengine noise generation
[9, 10].
In scientific terms, no complete theory of noise generation by aerody-
namic flows has been established up to now. In contrast, most practical aero-
acoustic analysis still relies upon “acoustic analogy” methodology. More
importantly, the main methods widely used in the prediction of aeroengine
noise are also based on acoustic analogy, especially for rotating sources.
Therefore, an emphasis in this book will be placed on the mechanism of
aerodynamic sound generation and the relevant analytical method for prac-
tical application.
It is noted that many concepts and techniques used in aeroacoustics have
been taken directly from the acoustics in moving media. Section 1.1 is
devoted to a brief introduction to those aspects of these subjects necessary
for understanding the theory of aerodynamic sound. Section 1.2 is used
to develop certain mathematical tools with an emphasis on the application
of Green’s function, which is required in succeeding Section 1.3 on the der-
ivation of aeroacoustic equations.
Basic equations of aeroacoustics 3
Table 1.1 Common notations and special terminologies.
ρ Density
v Velocity
p Pressure
S Entropy
!
p 0 , v 0 , ρ0 Mean flow quantities
!
p 0 , v 0 , ρ0 Fluctuations
q An external volume flow source within the fluid
c0 Speed of sound
f An externally applied volume force
U Mean flow velocity
E Acoustic energy density
!
I Acoustic energy flux
τ Time associated with emission of sound wave
t Time associated with the arrival of sound wave at observation point
G Green’s function, i.e., fundamental solution of wave function
G0 Free-space Green’s function
R Distance between the sound source and the observation point
ψ Velocity potential
M Mach number, M ¼ U/c0
Tij Lighthill stress tensor
1.1 Sound sources in moving media

1.1.1 Basic equations of sound propagation
Considering that the effects of viscosity and heat conduction can be ignored,
fluid motion can be determined by solving Euler’s equation. Besides, we
assume that the following inequalities exist:
! !
jp0 j=p0 << 1, v 0 = v 0 << 1, jρ0 j=ρ0 << 1, (1.1)
!
where p0 , v 0 , and ρ0 represent average pressure, velocity, and density,
!
respectively, whereas p0 , v 0 , and ρ0 denote the relevant fluctuations. For
convenience, the common notations and special terminologies that used
in this chapter are listed in Table 1.1.
Euler’s equations are described as:
8
>
> ∂ρ
>
> + v rρ + ρ rv ¼ ρ q
>
< ∂t
>
∂v
> ρ + v rv ¼ rp + f , (1.2)
>
> ∂t
>
> ∂S
>
: + v rS ¼ 0
∂t
whereρ, v, p, and S stand for fluid density, velocity, pressure, and entropy,
respectively, whereas q and f denote an external volume source and an
externally applied volume force, respectively. There are four unknowns
in Eq. (1.2), and an additional equation is required to close the equation.
Assume that:
ρ ¼ ρðp, SÞ,
thus,

∂ρ ∂ρ
dρ ¼ dp + dS: (1.3)
∂p S ∂S p

∂p
Considering c02 ¼ Dt ¼ 0, therefore
, and for an isotropic motion, DS
∂ρ S
it follows from Eq. (1.3) that:

∂ρ 1 ∂p
+ v rρ ¼ 2 + v rp : (1.4)
∂t c0 ∂t
Applying the following relations:
p ¼ p0 + p0 , v ¼ v0 + v0 , ρ ¼ ρ0 + ρ0 , S ¼ s0 + S0 ,
and the steady Euler’s equation:
8
>
> r ρ0 v0 ¼ 0
<
ρ0 v0 rv0 ¼ rp0
, (1.5)
>
> v0 rS0 ¼ 0
: 2
c0 v0 rρ0 ¼ v0 rp0
the basic equations of sound propagation in moving media can be derived as:
8
>
> ∂ρ0
>
> + r ðρ0 v0 + v0 ρ0 Þ ¼ ρ0 q
>
> ∂t
>
> ∂v 0
>
> 0 0
+ v0 rv + v rv0 + ρ0 v0 rv0 ¼ rp0 + f
< ρ0
∂t
(1.6)
>
> ∂s0 0 0
>
> + v rs + v rS ¼ 0
>
> 0 ∂t
0

0
>
> ∂ρ ∂p0
>
> 0
+ v rρ0 + v0 rρ ¼ 0
+ v0 rp0 + v0 rp0
: c02
∂t ∂t
The results are actually consistent with linearized aerodynamic equa-
tions. Under different simplified conditions, the equations can be used to
y2
U(y 2)
y1
Fig. 1.1 Schematic of parallel shear, mean flow.
study the sound propagation in ducts. For example, if a parallel shear flow is
considered as shown in Fig. 1.1, along with the assumption that
v0 ¼ i U ½rðy2 , y3 Þ, ρ0 ¼ constant, p0 ¼ constant, S0 ¼ constant: (1.7)
Substituting Eq. (1.7) into Eq. (1.6) yields:
8
>
> 1 D0 p 0 0
>
>
> 2 Dt + ρ0 r v ¼ ρ0 q
>
< 0 0
c
D0 v dU
ρ0 + i vr g ¼ rp0 + f , (1.8)
>
> Dt dr
>
>
>
> D 0s
0
: ¼0
Dt
where
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D0 ∂ ∂ rr
¼ +U , vr ¼ v 0 , gðy2 , y3 Þ ¼ jrr j, r ¼ y22 + y23 :
Dt ∂t ∂y1 jrr j
D0
Applying to the first equation of Eq. (1.8), and imposing r to the
Dt
second equation in Eq. (1.8) yields:
1 D20 p0 dU ∂vr D0 q
r2 p0 + 2ρ0 g ¼ r f ρ0 : (1.9)
2
c0 Dt 2 dr ∂y1 Dt
Because:
0
D0 v 0 ∂v ∂v0 D0 dU ∂vr
r ¼r +U ¼ ðr v0 Þ + g ,
Dt ∂t ∂y1 Dt dr ∂y1

dU ∂ dU dU ∂vr ∂ dU
r i vr g ¼ vr g ¼ g + vr g
dr ∂y1 dr dr ∂y1 ∂y1 dr
dU ∂vr
¼ g ,
dr ∂y1
and for uniform flow, v0 ¼ U ¼ constant, Eq. (1.9) can be written as:
1 D20 p0 D0 q
r2 p0 ¼ r f ρ0 ¼ γ: (1.10)
c02 Dt 2 Dt
This is the basic equation used to study sound propagation in ducts with
uniform flow [11]. When U ¼ 0, the resulting equation becomes:
1 ∂2 p0 ∂q
r2 p0 ¼ r f ρ0 : (1.11)
c02 ∂t2 ∂t
This is the basic equation for classical acoustics.
1.1.2 Energy relations in moving media

For classical acoustics, the energy flux is defined by:
1 !2 1 c 2 2 1 !2 1 p0 2
E ¼ ρ0 u + 0 ρ0 ¼ ρ0 u + , (1.12)
2 2 ρ0 2 2 ρ0 c02
where the first term is the kinetic energy per unit volume carried by the
wave, and the second term denotes the potential energy per unit volume
associated with the acoustic filed.
Considering that:
! ! !
I ¼ p0 u ¼ ρ0 c02 u , (1.13)
a conservation relation can be given in the form of:
ð ð
∂ ! !
Edy + I n dS ¼ 0, (1.14)
∂t V S
or
∂E !
+ r I ¼ 0:
∂t
Eq. (1.14) means that, no matter what form of definition of sound energy
flux is given, it must satisfy the conservation law. However, as far as moving
media are concerned，it is still very difficult to give a reasonable definition
for a general case [12, 13]. But for an isentropic irrotational flow, sound
energy flux and sound intensity can be given by:
!2 !
p0 ρ0 ρ0 u 0* !
E¼ + + ρ u v0 , (1.15)
2ρ0 2
0
! p * ! * !
I¼ + u v 0 ρ0 u + ρ0 v 0 : (1.16)
ρ0
It can be verified that Eqs. (1.16) and (1.15) satisfy the conservation law
!
in Eq. (1.14). When v 0 ¼ 0, the relevant equations reduce to Eqs. (1.12) and
(1.13) for classical acoustics.
1.1.3 Sound field of moving sound sources

To aim at a more general case, emphasis is placed on sound generation by
monopole and dipole sources with arbitrary motion. The source path and
observer are described in Fig. 1.2.
(1) Monopole source with arbitrary motion
Giving:
1 ∂2 p0 ∂
r2 p0 ¼ fρ0 q0 ðτÞδ½y y0 ðτÞg,
c0 ∂τ
2 2 ∂τ
Ð
where V is the instantaneous velocity of a moving source and y0 ¼ Vdτ.
Introducing ψ and p0 ¼ ∂ψ
∂τ yields:
1 ∂2 ψ
r2 ψ ¼ ρ0 q0 ðτÞδ½y y0 ðτÞ: (1.17)
c02 ∂τ2
R(x,t)
R( x,t e)
Source at emission q (t)

time te dx
V(t)
q (te) Path followed
V( te) by source
Source at time t
Fig. 1.2 Geometrical relation of a moving point source.
In terms of generalized Green’s function theory, the solution of

Eq. (1.17) for free space can be written as:
ðT ð
!
ψ t, x ¼ G0 ðy, τ=x, tÞ γ ðy, τÞdydτ, (1.18)
vðτÞ
T
where γ(y, τ) is the source term, whereas G0(y, τ/x, t) denotes Green’s func-
tion for free space, which can be expressed as:

1 R
G0 ¼ δ τt + : (1.19)
4πR c0
Hence the solution of Eq. (1.17) is:
! ρ0 q0 ðτ∗ Þ
ψ t, x ¼ , (1.20)
4πR∗ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ
where
Ri V
R ¼ jx y0 ðτÞj, Mr ¼ , Ri ¼ xi y0i ,
R c0
and τ∗ is the root of the retarded time equation g ¼ τ t + jx y0(τ)j/c0
(noting that τ∗ can have several different choices, and superscript “*”
denotes the value of the corresponding quantity at time τ∗), whereas the
derivative of g is:
dg 1 ½x y0 ðτÞ dy0 R Ri
¼1 ¼1 V¼1 Vi ¼ 1 Mr
dτ c0 jx y0 ðτÞj dτ R c0 R c0
(1.21)
Consequently, the solution of sound pressure is:
∂ψ ρ0 q0 0 ðτ∗ Þ ∂τ∗ ρ0 q0 ðτ∗ Þ ∂ ∗
p0 ¼ ¼ ½R ð1 Mr ∗ Þ: (1.22)
∂t 4πR∗ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ ∂t 4πR∗2 ð1 Mr ∗ Þ2 ∂t
In consideration of

∂τ∗ ∂ R∗ 1 ∂R∗ 1 ∂R∗ ∂τ∗ 1 Ri ∗ ∂τ∗
¼ t ¼1 ¼1 ¼1 ðVi Þ
∂t ∂t c0 c0 ∂t c0 ∂τ∗ ∂t c0 R∗ ∂t
∂τ∗
¼ 1 + Mr ∗
∂t
i.e.,
∂τ∗ 1
¼ , (1.23)
∂t 1 Mr ∗
and
∂ ∗ ∂R∗ ∂τ∗ ∂Mr ∗ ∂τ∗
½R ð1 Mr ∗ Þ ¼ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ R∗ ,
∂t ∂τ∗ ∂t ∂τ∗ ∂t
where
∂R∗ Ri ∗ V
¼ ¼ c0 Mr ∗
∂τ∗ R∗
and

∂Mr ∗ ∂ Ri ∗ ∗ Ri ∗ ∂Mi∗ ∗ 1 ∂ ∗ ∂ ∗
¼ Mi ¼ + Mi 2 R∗ Ri Ri ∗ R
∂τ∗ ∂τ∗ R∗ R∗ ∂τ∗ R∗ ∂τ∗ ∂τ∗
Ri ∗ ∂Mi∗ c0
¼ M ∗2 Mr∗2
R∗ ∂τ∗ R∗
we obtain
∂ ∗ Ri ∗ ∂Mi ∗ M ∗2 Mr ∗
½R ð1 Mr ∗ Þ ¼ + c0 (1.24)
∂t 1 Mr ∗ ∂τ∗ 1 Mr ∗
Substituting Eqs. (1.23) and (1.24) into Eq. (1.22) yields:
ρ0 q00 ðτ∗ Þ ρ0 q0 ðτ∗ Þ Ri ∗ ∂Mi ∗

p0 ðx, tÞ ¼ +
4πR∗ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ 2
4πR∗ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ R∗ ∂τ∗
3
2 (1.25)
ρ0 q0 ðτ∗ Þc0
3 M ∗ Mr ∗
4πR∗ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ
2
Eq. (1.25) denotes the sound field generated by a monopole source with
arbitrary motion. For a far-field solution, the third term including 1/R∗2 can
be ignored. Compared with the first term and second term, the solution is
thus expressed as:

0 ρ0 ∂q0 q0 ðτ∗ Þ Ri ∗ ∂Mi
p ðx, tÞ ¼ + , (1.26)
4πR∗ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ2 ∂τ τ¼τ∗ ð1 Mr ∗ Þ R∗ ∂τ τ¼τ∗
and the near-field solution becomes:
ρ0 c0 q0 ðτ∗ Þ ∗
p0 ðx, tÞ ¼ 3 Mr M ∗2 : (1.27)
4πR∗2 ð1 Mr ∗ Þ
It is shown that, if the intensity of sound source does not depend on

time and the acceleration is zero, the sound pressure is also zero in the
far field.
When the monopole source has a rectilinear motion described by
! !
y0 ðτÞ ¼ V0 τ i , where i stands for the unit coordinate vector which is
the moving direction of the point source, whereas M ¼ M0 ¼ V0/c0,
Mr ¼ RRi Vc00 ¼ M0 cosθ, and θ is the angle between the observer and mov-
ing direction, the relevant Mr is the projection of the moving Mach number
in the direction of the observer. Under the condition of knowing the point
source path, the root of the retarded
time equation can be solved with the
!
help of g ¼ τ t + x V0 τ i =c0 ¼ 0, and the distance between the
observer and source can also be given. In fact, the retarded time equation
gives:
½c0 ðt τÞ2 ¼ ðx1 V0 τÞ2 + x22 + x23 : (1.28)
Taking (t τ) as an unknown, Eq. (1.28) becomes:

! !2
1 M0 ½c0 ðt τÞ 2ðx1 V0 tÞM0 ½c0 ðt τÞ x V0 t i ¼ 0
2 2
(1.29)
For an observer at time t, the solution of Eq. (1.29) may give two differ-
ent source radiation timeτ; thus, the distance between the observer and
source can be expressed as:

R ¼ c t τ
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

! !2
M0 ðx1 V0 tÞ ½M0 ðx1 V0 tÞ2 + ð1 M02 Þ x V0 t i
¼ :
1 M02
(1.30)
Obviously, only the positive real root of Eq. (1.30) has an exact physical
meaning. On the other hand, for subsonic motion, i.e., V0 < c0, Eq. (1.30)
has only one real root, and R+ is a physical solution. This can also be seen
with the help of the geometrical relation described in Fig. 1.3. Therefore,
when the point source is rectilinearly moved in subsonic speed, the expres-
sion for the sound field reduces to:
ρ0 q00 ðτÞ ρ0 q0 ðτÞV0
p0 ðx, t Þ ¼ 2 + ð cos θ M0 Þ: (1.31)
4πRð1 M0 cos θÞ 4πR ð1 M0 cos θÞ3
2
R=c 0(t–τ)
x
R
x–v0 t
v 0τ θ
v0 t
Fig. 1.3 Rectilinear motion of point source.
Besides, when the moving speed is zero, i.e., V0 ¼ 0, the previous equa-
tion further becomes:
ρ0 q00 ðτÞ
p0 ðx, tÞ ¼ : (1.32)
4πR
Eq. (1.32) is the expression of the sound field generated by monopole for
classic acoustics.
When the point source moves in supersonic speed, i.e., V0 > c0,
Eq. (1.30) may have two positive real roots. This means that the observer
can receive two signals at time t, which radiate from two different positions.
But the condition for two positions of R is:
! !2

½M0 ðx1 V0 tÞ2 + 1 M02 x V0 t i > 0, (1.33)
or
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
M02 1 jx1 V0 t j
< !
(1.34)
M0 !
x V 0t i
It is seen that the left side of Eq. (1.34) denotes the cosine relation of the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Mach angle, i.e., α ¼ cos 1 M02 1=M0 . As shown in Fig. 1.4, the right
side represents the cosine relation of the angle between the moving direction
and the connecting line from the observer
i to the vertex of the Mach cone, i.e.,
h
! !
δ ¼ cos 1 ðx1 V0 t Þ= x V0 t i . As shown in Fig. 1.5, Eq. (1.34) can
be expressed as δ < α. This indicates that the condition that R has two
positive real roots is that the observer must be located inside the Mach cone.
Q
a
R+ R–
q–
q+
–
t t t
Fig. 1.4 Geometrical relation for an observer receiving two signals.
Fig. 1.5 Observer within the Mach cone will hear the sound coming from two different
points.
If the condition is satisfied, the observer can hear two different signals at time t
from different positions as shown in Fig. 1.5.
When the point source is moving at supersonic speed, the acoustic field
can described as:
ρ0 q00 ðt R + =c0 Þ ρ0 q00 ðt R =c0 Þ
p0 ðx, tÞ ¼ +
4πR + ðM0 cosθ + 1Þ
2
4πR ðM0 cos θ 1Þ2
ρ0 V0 q0 ðt R + =c0 ÞðM0 cos θ + Þ
3 (1.35)
4π ðR + Þ2 ðM0 cosθ + 1Þ
ρ0 V0 q0 ðt R =c0 ÞðM0 cos θ Þ
+ :
4π ðR Þ2 ðM0 cos θ 1Þ3
It is seen that, compared with the subsonic case, the sound pressure in
Eq. (1.35) has some additional terms. In addition, if the strength of sound
source q0(τ) is constant, the sound pressure in far field will be approximately
zero. However, for some practical situations related to accelerating motion,

such as the rotating motion of a propeller, the sound generation will be inev-
itable, even though the sound source q0(τ) is not dependent on time. This
means that the acceleration of a sound source is one of the key factors to
determine the sound field.
(2) Dipole source with arbitrary motion
A dipole point source in free space can be described by:
1 ∂2 p0 ∂
r2 p0 ¼ ffi ðτÞδ½y y0 ðτÞg: (1.36)
c0 ∂τ
2 2 ∂xi
Introducing variable A and assuming p0 ¼ ∂A
∂xi , Eq. (1.36) is changed to:
i
1 ∂2 Ai
r2 A i ¼ fi ðτÞδ½y y0 ðτÞ: (1.37)
c02 ∂τ2
Its solution is similar to that of the monopole source mentioned earlier.
According to generalized Green’s function formula, the solution of
Eq. (1.37) can be expressed as:

fi ðτÞ
Ai ¼ s (1.38)
4πRð1 Mr Þτ¼τ∗
For simplicity, in the following content we drop the superscript “*,” so it
should be noted that the corresponding values at τ∗ are assigned to those rel-
evant variables. One obtains:

0 ∂ fi ðτÞ
p ðx, tÞ ¼
∂xi 4πRð1 Mr Þ
(1.39)
1 ∂fi ðτÞ ∂τ fi ðτÞ ∂½Rð1 Mr Þ
¼ + ,
4πRð1 Mr Þ ∂τ ∂xi 4π ½Rð1 Mr Þ2 ∂xi
∂τ
where ∂x i
and ∂½Rð1M
∂xi
r Þ
are all derivatives of the compound function. In
terms of the relevant derivative rule, the following relations can be obtained:

∂τ ∂ Rðx, τÞ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂τ
¼ t ¼ ½Rðx, τÞτ¼const + ½Rðx, τÞx¼const ,
∂xi ∂xi c0 c0 ∂xi ∂τ ∂xi
and
∂τ Ri
¼ : (1.40)
∂xi c0 Rð1 Mr Þ
Similarly,
∂½Rð1 Mr Þ ∂ ∂ ∂τ
¼ ½Rð1 Mr Þτ¼const + ½Rð1 Mr Þx¼const : (1.41)
∂xi ∂xi ∂τ ∂xi
The first term of Eq. (1.41) can be written as:

∂ ∂R ∂Mr Ri ∂ Rj
½Rð1 Mr Þτ¼const ¼ ð1 Mr Þ R ¼ ð1 Mr Þ RM j
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi R ∂xi R

Ri Ri Rj Ri
¼ ð1 Mr Þ Mj δij ¼ Mi :
R R R R
The second term of Eq. (1.41) deals with:

∂ ∂R ∂Mr
½Rð1 Mr Þx¼const ¼ ð1 Mr Þ R
∂τ ∂τ ∂τ
Ri Ri ∂Mi ∂ Ri
¼ ð1 Mr Þ Vi R + Mi
R R ∂τ ∂τ R
Rj
∂Mi RM i + Ri Mj
¼ ð1 Mr ÞMr c0 Ri RM i c0 R
∂τ R2
∂Mi ∂Mi
¼ ð1 Mr ÞMr c0 + c0 Mi2 c0 Mr2 Ri ¼ c0 Mi2 Mr Ri :
∂τ ∂τ
Substituting these relations and Eq. (1.40) into Eq. (1.41) leads to:

∂½Rð1 Mr Þ Ri Ri c0 Mi2 Mr Ri Rj ∂Mj
¼ Mi +
∂xi R c0 Rð1 Mr Þ c0 Rð1 Mr Þ ∂τ
(1.42)
Ri 1 Mi2 Ri Rj ∂Mj
¼ Mi + :
Rð1 Mr Þ c0 Rð1 Mr Þ ∂τ
In addition, substituting Eqs. (1.40) and (1.42) into Eq. (1.39) results in:

0 1 Ri ∂fi fi ðτÞ Ri Rj ∂Mj
p ðx, tÞ ¼ +
4πc0 Rð1 Mr Þ R ∂τ ð1 Mr Þ R R ∂τ
2
(1.43)
1 fi Ri
+ 1 Mi fi Mi :
2
4πR2 ð1 Mr Þ2 ð1 Mr Þ R
In view of different influences for the terms related to 1/R and 1/R2, the
solution of a far sound field is:

0 1 Ri ∂fi fi ðτÞ Ri Rj ∂Mj
p ðx, tÞ ¼ + , (1.44)
4πc0 Rð1 Mr Þ R ∂τ ð1 Mr Þ R R ∂τ
2
whereas the solution of the near sound field is:

0 1 fi Ri
p ðx, tÞ ¼ 1 Mi2 fi Mi : (1.45)
4πR ð1 Mr Þ ð1 Mr Þ R
2 2
From Eq. (1.44), if the required solution of a far sound field is zero, the
relevant conditions are that the dipole source must be steady, i.e.,
∂ fi/∂ τ ¼ 0, and at the same time there is no accelerating motion for the
source, i.e., ∂Mj/∂τ ¼ 0.
For uniform rectilinear motion of a dipole source, this means that
y0(τ) ¼ V0τ, M1 ¼ M0 ¼ V0/c0, and Mr ¼ RR1 Vc00 ¼ M0 cosθ, where θ
is the included angle between the moving direction and observer point,
whereas Mr is the projection of the Mach number of the moving direc-
tion with respect to the direction of the observer point. Eq. (1.43) thus
reduces to:
f10 ðτÞcos θ f1 ðτÞð cos θ M0 Þ
p0 ðx, t Þ ¼ 2 + : (1.46)
4πc0 Rð1 M0 cosθÞ 4πR2 ð1 M0 cosθÞ3
This is the solution of sound pressure for a point dipole source with uni-
form rectilinear motion when the moving direction of the dipole is consis-
tent with the pole of the sound source. When V0 ¼ 0, Eq. (1.46) becomes:
f10 ðτÞcos θ f1 ðτÞ cos θ
p0 ðx, tÞ ¼ + : (1.47)
4πc0 R 4πR2
This is the expression of sound pressure for a longitudinal dipole.
As for a transversal dipole that is perpendicular to the moving direction,
considering R2/R ¼ sin θ and fiMi ¼ 0, Eq. (1.43) reduces to:

0 f20 ðτÞsin θ f2 ðτÞsin θ 1 M02
p ðx, t Þ ¼ + : (1.48)
4πc0 Rð1 M0 cosθÞ2 4πR2 ð1 M0 cosθÞ3
When the moving speed of the source is zero, this formula will become:
f20 ðτÞsin θ f2 ðτÞ sinθ
p0 ðx, tÞ ¼ + : (1.49)
4πc0 R 4πR2
This is also a classical expression for a point dipole source.
1.1.4 Frequency features of moving sound source—Doppler

effect
Consider a point monopole with uniform rectilinear motion. Assume that
the strength of the source is given by
qðτÞ ¼ q0 sinω0 τ
where ω0 is the radian frequency of the source. Therefore, the phase at the
observer point is:

R
φ ¼ ω0 t : (1.50)
c0
For a point source with subsonic speed, the receiving frequency at the
observer point is:
dφ ω0 dR ω0
ω¼ ¼ ω0 ¼ : (1.51)
dt c0 dt 1 M0 cosθ
From this formula, it can be seen that, if the observer lies in front of the
sound source, the frequency will increase due to positive cosθ, and in con-
trast, if the observer is behind the sound source, the frequency will decrease
due to negative cosθ. This is called a typical Doppler effect. Also, it is found
that the range of the receiving frequency is:
ω0 ω0
<ω< : (1.52)
1 + M0 1 M0
For a point source with supersonic speed, the phase at the observer point
has different values, i.e.,

R+ R
φ ¼ ω0 t
+
, φ ¼ ω0 t (1.53)
c0 c0
The corresponding frequency is, respectively,
ω0 ω0
ω+ ¼ + ,ω ¼ , (1.54)
1 M0 cos θ 1 M0 cosθ
where

1 dR + 1 ðM0 cosθ + ÞM0 M0 cos θ +
¼ 2 M02 + ¼ ,
c0 dt M0 1 M0 cos θ + 1 M0 cosθ + 1
and

1 dR 1 ðM0 cos θ ÞM0 M0 cos θ
¼ 2 M02 + ¼ :
c0 dt M0 1 M0 cosθ 1 M0 cosθ 1
It can be seen that, for the supersonic case, the range of receiving fre-
quency at the observer point corresponds to two different intervals, i.e.,
ω0 ω0
∞ < ω < , < ω < + ∞:
1 M0 M0 + 1
The results also indicate that the observer will receive different frequen-
cies simultaneously if the sound source moves at supersonic speed. The
interaction between different frequencies will cause dramatic pressure
fluctuations.
It can be verified that [14], no matter how the sound source moves,
supersonically or subsonically, the sound radiation power in far field is:
Es
E¼ 2, (1.55)
ð1 M02 Þ
where Es represents the sound power for a static source; if the source is har-
monic with the frequency f0, its expression is:
π ðq0 f0 Þ2
Es ¼ : (1.56)
2ρ0 c0
1.2 Generalized Green’s formula

Consider a solution of wave equation with retarded time in form of
Eq. (1.10). The corresponding Green’s function is given by:
1 D20 G ! !
r2 G ¼ δðt τ Þδ xy , (1.57)
c02 Dτ2
which satisfies the condition:
D0
G¼ G ¼ 0 ðt < τÞ: (1.58)
Dτ
Let v(τ) denote an arbitrary region of space bounded by S(τ); VS stands
for the velocity of the arbitrary point on the boundary surface, A is an arbi-
trary vector in defined onv(τ), and Ψ, Φ are any two functions defined on
v(τ). Then the divergence theorem states that:
ð ð
!
A n dSðyÞ ¼ r A dy: (1.59)
SðτÞ vðτÞ
The three-dimensional Leibniz’s rule shows that:

ð ð ð
d ∂Ψ !
Ψ dy ¼ dy + VS n Ψ dSðyÞ: (1.60)
dτ vðτÞ vðτÞ ∂τ SðτÞ
In addition, the Green’s theorem states that:

ð ð
∂Ψ ∂Φ
Φ Ψ dSðyÞ ¼ Φr2 Ψ Ψr2 Φ dy, (1.61)
S ðτ Þ ∂n ∂n v ðτ Þ
!
where ∂Ψ∂n ¼n rΨ. By applying these relations, Eq. (1.57) can be
rewritten as:
ðT ð ðT ð
∂p0 ∂G
G p0 dSðyÞdτ ¼ Gr2 p0 p0 r2 G dydτ
SðτÞ ∂n ∂n v ðτ Þ
T T
ðT ð
1 D20 p0 2
0 D0 G
¼ G 2 p dydτ (1.62)
c02 vðτÞ Dτ Dτ2
T
ðT ð
! !
Gγ p0 δðt τÞδ x y dydτ:
vðτÞ
T
However, because:

D20 p0 2
0 D0 G D0 D0 p0 0 D0 G
G 2 p ¼ G p
Dτ Dτ2 Dτ Dτ Dτ
0

∂ D0 p 0 D0 G ∂ D0 p0 0 D0 G
¼ G p +U G p ,
∂τ Dτ Dτ ∂y1 Dτ Dτ
it can be shown that:
ð 2
D20 p0 0 D0 G
G 2 p dy
vðτÞ Dτ Dτ2
ð ð
∂ D0 p0 D0 G ∂ D0 p0 D0 G
¼ G p0 dy + U G p0 dy
vðτÞ ∂τ Dτ Dτ vðτÞ ∂y1 Dτ Dτ
ð ð
d D0 p0 D0 G ! D0 p0 D0 G
¼ G p0 dy + ðiU VS Þ n G p0 dSðyÞ:
dτ vðτÞ Dτ Dτ SðτÞ Dτ Dτ
Integrating the result with respect to time τ yields:

ðT ð
D20 p0 2
0 D0 G
G 2 p dydτ
vðτÞ Dτ Dτ2
T
ð τ¼T
D0 p 0 D G
p0
0
¼ G dy (1.63)
vðτÞ Dτ Dτ
τ¼T
ðð
T
D0 p 0 D0 G
Vn0 G p0 dSðyÞdτ:
SðτÞ Dτ Dτ
T
!
where Vn0 ¼ ðVS iU Þ n denotes the projection of the relative velocity on
the normal direction of v(τ). Considering the causality condition, the first
integrated term vanishes at the upper limit (τ ¼ T), whereas at the lower
limit (τ ¼ T), it stands for the effect of initial conditions in the remote
past. This factor should be possible to ignore. Then we have:
ð
T ð ðT ð
D2 p0 D2 G D0 p0 D0 G
G 0 2 p0 0 2 dydτ ¼ Vn0 G p0 dSðyÞdτ:
vðτÞ Dτ Dτ SðτÞ Dτ Dτ
T T
(1.64)
Consider the boundary condition and domains shown in Fig. 1.6 and the
relation given by:
ðT ð 0 ! !
0
! ! p t, x , for x is in vðτÞ
p δðt τÞδ x y dydτ ¼ ! :
vðτÞ 0, for x is out of vðτÞ
T
Observer
x
Source
y
v c(τ) v(τ)
Moving body
S(τ)
Fig. 1.6 Sound radiation from bounded source region.
Substituting Eq. (1.64) into Eq. (1.62) yields:

ðT ð
0
!
p t, x ¼ Gðy, τ=x, t Þ γ ðy, τÞdydτ
vðτÞ
T
ðT
ð !
∂ Vn0 D0 0 for x is in vðτÞ: (1.65)
+ dτ G + 2 p ðy, τÞ
SðτÞ ∂n c0 Dτ
T
0 ∂ Vn0 D0
p ðy, τÞ + Gðy, τ=x, tÞ dSðyÞ,
∂n c02 Dτ
This is called the generalized Green’s formula, which plays a very impor-
tant role in the derivation of aeroacoustic equations.
1.3 Lighthill equation

1.3.1 Derivation of basic equations
In the first section, emphasis was placed on how a specific source (dipole or
monopole) radiates acoustic waves in moving media. As for the practical
problems, there are more concerns to describe the sound generation by tur-
bulent motion itself and its interaction with a static or moving body. In this
section, we begin with the Navier-Stokes equation and then discuss how to
introduce Lighthill’s acoustic analogy theory.
Consider the following continuity and momentum equations,
∂ρ ∂ρui
+ ¼ 0, (1.66)
∂t ∂yi
∂ρui ∂ρui uj ∂p ∂eij
+ ¼ + , (1.67)
∂t ∂yj ∂yi ∂yj
where eij denotes viscous stress tensor. Taking the derivative of Eq. (1.66)
with respect to time t, and the divergence of Eq. (1.67), it shows that:
∂2 ρ ∂2 p ∂2 ρui uj ∂2 eij
¼ : (1.68)
∂t2 ∂y2i ∂yi ∂yj ∂yi ∂yj
Subtracting c20 r2ρ on both sides of Eq. (1.68) yields:
∂2 ρ 2 2 ∂2 Tij
c r ρ ¼ , (1.69)
∂t 2 0
∂yi ∂yj
where

Tij ¼ ρui uj eij + δij p c02 ρ ,
and

0 i¼j
δij ¼ :
1 i¼
6 j
After linearizing the equation, the wave equation with fluctuating den-
sity as a variable can be given in the form of:
2 0
∂2 ρ0 2 2 0 ∂ Tij
c0 r ρ ¼ , (1.70)
∂t 2 ∂yi ∂yj
where ρ0 ¼ ρ ρ0, whereas Tij0 ¼ ρuiuj eij + δij[(p p0) c20(ρ ρ0)] is
called Lighthill’s turbulence stress tensor.
Eq. (1.70) is Lighthill’s equation on the basis of the concept of acous-
tic analogy. However, it is difficult to find its analytic solution because
the two sides of Eq. (1.70) all contain unknown variables. The only pos-
sibility is to directly solve Eq. (1.70) using a numerical approach. How-
ever, this equation actually deals with various flow scales; it was found
that the numerical solution with such a multiscale problem was also very
difficult in a long period of time. However, in terms of Lighthill’ theory,
the right term of Eq. (1.70), i.e., the source term, can be independently
obtained either by numerical simulation with a single-flow scale or by an
experimental approach. With a known source term, the sound pressure
can be given by solving the conventional wave equation. In fact, Light-
hill’s acoustic analogy offers a very successful application for various prac-
tical problems.
1.3.2 Effect of solid boundary on sound generation

Note that the solution of the wave equation similar to Eq. (1.70) sometimes
needs to consider the effect of a solid boundary on the sound field. In this
section, emphasis is placed on how to include the effect of a solid boundary
using Green’s function formula.
Consider a moving body with volume v(τ) bounded by surface S(τ), and
let VS denote the velocity of an arbitrary surface point of the body. Suppose
the media is static, i.e., U ¼ 0，then introducing generalized Green’s func-
tion formula yields:
ðT ð
0
1 ! ∂2 Tij0
ρ t, x ¼ 2 G dydτ
c0 vðτÞ ∂yi ∂yj
T
ðT ð
∂ Vn0 ∂ 0 0 ∂ Vn0 ∂
+ G + ρ ρ + G dSðyÞdτ:
SðτÞ ∂n c02 ∂τ ∂n c02 ∂τ
T
(1.71)
It is known that:
0
∂ ∂Tij ∂ 0 ∂G ∂2 Tij0 ∂2 G
G Tij ¼G Tij0 ,
∂yi ∂yj ∂yj ∂yi ∂yi ∂yj ∂yi ∂yj
and using ni ∂y∂ i to replace ∂n∂ ，the application of the divergence theorem
results in:
ð 0 ð
∂ ∂Tij ∂Tij0 !
G dy ¼ G n dSðyÞ,
vðτÞ ∂yi ∂yj SðτÞ ∂yj
ð ð
∂ 0 ∂G ∂G !
Tij dy ¼ Tij0 n dSðyÞ:
vðτÞ ∂yj ∂yi SðτÞ ∂yi
Hence,
ðT ð
! 1 ∂2 G
0
ρ t, x ¼ 2 Tij0 dydτ
T
ðT ð
1 ∂ 2 0 ∂ρ0
+ 2 Gni c0 δij ρ + Tij0 + Vis dSðyÞdτ (1.72)
c0 SðτÞ ∂yj ∂τ
T
ðT ð
1 ∂G ∂G
2 nj Tij0 + c02 δij ρ0 + Vjs ρ0 dSðyÞdτ,
c0 SðτÞ ∂yi ∂τ
T
0
where ni ∂y∂ j δij ρ0 ¼ ni ∂ρ
∂yi . Replacing the second and third terms on the right
side of Eq. (1.72) using Lighthill’s stress tensor, the corresponding solution
becomes:
ðT ð ðT ð
! 1 ∂2 G 1 ∂G
0
ρ t, x ¼ 2 Tij0 dydτ + 2 fi dSðyÞdτ
c0 vðτÞ ∂yi ∂yj c0 S ðτ Þ ∂yi
T T
(1.73)
ðT ð
1
2 ni hi dSðyÞdτ,
c0 SðτÞ
T
where
fi ¼ nj eij ni ðp p0 Þ, (1.74)
which denotes force per unit area acting on the body. Besides,
0

∂ s ∂ρ
ni hi ¼ Gni ρui uj eij + δij ðp p0 Þ + Vi
∂yj ∂τ
(1.75)
∂G ∂G
+ nj Vjs ρ0 + ρui uj :
∂τ ∂yi
In terms of Eq. (1.67), it is known that:
∂ρui uj ∂eij ∂p ∂ρui
+ ¼ :
∂yj ∂yj ∂yi ∂t
Introducing this relation into Eq. (1.75) yields:

∂ρui ∂ρ0 ∂G ∂G
hi ¼ G Vis + ρui uj + ρ0 Vis : (1.76)
∂τ ∂τ ∂yj ∂τ
Assume the body is impenetrable, so this means niui ¼ niVsi . Naturally,

∂ρui ∂ρ0 ∂G ∂G
ni hi ¼ ni G Gui + ρui uj + ni ui ρ0 :
Notice that ρ0 ¼ ρ ρ0, hence:

∂ρui G ∂ρ ∂G ∂G
ni hi ¼ ni Gui + ρui uj ni ρ0 ui :
Substituting Eq. (1.66) into the previous equation yields:

∂ρui G ∂ρuj G ∂G
ni hi ¼ ni + ui ni ρ0 ui : (1.77)
∂τ ∂yj ∂τ
The application of Leibniz’s rule results in:
ð ð ð
d ∂ρuj G ∂ ∂ρuj G ∂ρuj G
dy ¼ dy + ni ui dSðyÞ, (1.78)
dτ vðτÞ ∂yj vðτÞ ∂τ ∂yj SðτÞ ∂yj
and by applying the divergence theorem, we have:
ð ð
d ∂ρuj G ∂ρui G ∂ρuj G
dy ¼ ni + ui dSðyÞ: (1.79)
dτ vðτÞ ∂yj S ðτ Þ ∂τ ∂yj
Hence,
ðT ð ðT ð
! 1 ∂2 G 1 ∂G
0
c0 vðτÞ ∂yi ∂yj c0 SðτÞ ∂yi
T T
(1.80)
ðT ð
1 ∂G
+ ρ0 Vn dSðyÞdτ,
c02 SðτÞ ∂τ
T
where the following relation has been used,

ðT ð ð τ¼T
d ∂ρuj G ∂ρuj G
dy ¼ dy ¼ 0,
dτ vðτÞ ∂yj vðτÞ ∂yj
T τ¼T
whose physical explanation has been given during the derivation of gener-
alized Green’s function formula.
Eq. (1.80) is a basic expression including the effect of a solid boundary
on sound generation. Among which, the first term denotes the sound
source due to the moving volume belonging to a quadruple source,
whereas the second term represents the source due to the force belonging
to dipole source, and the last term stands for the source due to the displace-
ment of the moving body belonging to a monopole source. This equation
can be applied to any aeroacoustic problem with the effect of a solid
boundary.
1.4 Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings equation

With a general expression similar to Eq. (1.80), it is convenient to consider a
solution in free space for a moving body denoted by volume vc(τ) and
bounded by S(τ). In fact, the Green’s function for free space is:

R
δ τt +
c0
G¼ , (1.81)
4πR
where R ¼ j x 2 y j denotes the distance from the source point y(τ) to an
arbitrary observer point x(t), τstands for emission time, and t represents
receiving time. It is noted that:
∂G ∂G
¼ :
∂xi ∂yi
Introducing this relation into Eq. (1.80) yields:

R
ðT ð δ τ t +
! 1 ∂2 c0
0
ρ t, x ¼ 2 Tij0 dydτ
c0 ∂xi ∂xj vðτÞ 4πR
T
R
ðT ð δ τt +
1 ∂ c0
2 fi dSðyÞdτ (1.82)
c0 ∂xi SðτÞ 4πR
T
2 3
R
ðT ð δ τt +
1 ∂6 c0 7
+ 2 ρ0 Vn 6 4
7dSðyÞdτ:
5
c0 SðτÞ ∂τ 4πR
T
Especially, for the third term, the partial derivative with respect to time
needs to be moved out of the integration. Substituting Ψ ¼ Vi ∂G ∂xi into
Eq. (1.60) results in:
ðT ð ðT ð
d ∂G ∂ ∂G
0¼ Vi dydτ ¼ Vi dydτ
T dτ vc ðτÞ ∂xi T vc ðτÞ ∂τ ∂xi
ðT ð (1.83)
∂G
Vj nj Vi dSðyÞdτ,
T SðτÞ ∂xi
where the second term takes a negative sign because nj is the outward normal
vector of v(τ) and the outward normal vectors of vc(τ) and v(τ) oppose each
other. Again, in terms of the divergence theorem, the third term of
Eq. (1.82) can be expressed as:
ðT ð ðT ð
∂G ∂G
ρ0 Vn dSðyÞdτ ¼ ρ0 ni Vi dSðyÞdτ
SðτÞ ∂τ SðτÞ ∂τ
T T
(1.84)
ðT ð
∂ ∂G
¼ ρ0 Vi dydτ:
vc ðτÞ ∂yi ∂τ
T
Moreover,
ðT ð
∂G
ρ0 Vn dSðyÞdτ
SðτÞ ∂τ
T
(1.85)
ðT ð
∂ ∂G ∂G ∂ ∂G
¼ ρ0 Vj + Vi + Vi dydτ:
vc ðτÞ ∂yj ∂τ ∂xi ∂τ ∂xi
T
For a rigid body, the projection of the velocity on the body is zero, i.e.,
∂Vi
∂yi ¼ 0, hence,

∂ ∂G ∂G ∂ ∂G
Vj + Vi + Vi
∂yj ∂τ ∂xi ∂τ ∂xi
∂G
2
∂Vi ∂G ∂2 G ∂Vi ∂G ∂2 G
¼ Vj + Vj + Vj Vi + + Vi :
∂yj ∂τ ∂yj ∂xi ∂yj ∂xi ∂τ ∂xi ∂τ∂xi
Considering ∂G ∂G
∂xi ¼ ∂yi , it is shown that:

∂ ∂G ∂G ∂ ∂G ∂G DV i ∂2 G
Vj + Vi + Vi ¼ Vj Vi , (1.86)
∂yj ∂τ ∂xi ∂τ ∂xi ∂xi Dτ ∂xj ∂xi
Dτ ¼ ai denotes the accelerated velocity of the

where the total derivative DV i
moving body. Notice that:

∂G ∂2 G ∂ ∂2
ai Vj Vi ¼ ðGai Þ GV j Vi ,
∂xi ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
so, introducing this expression into Eq. (1.82) yields:

R
ð ðT δ τ t +
! 1 ∂2 c0
0
ρ t, x ¼ 2 Tij0 dτdy
c0 ∂xi ∂xj vðt0 Þ 4πR
T
R
ð ðT δ τ t +
1 ∂ c0
2 fi dτdSðyÞ
c0 ∂xi Sðt0 Þ 4πR
T (1.87)
R
ð ðT δ τ t +
1 ∂ c0
2 ρ0 ai dτdy
c0 ∂xi vc ðt0 Þ 4πR
T
R
ð ð δ τt +
T
1 ∂2 c0
+ 2 ρ0 Vi Vj dτdy:
c0 ∂xi ∂xj vc ðt0 Þ 4πR
T
Notice that the integration of any function f(τ) with δ function gives:
ðT X f ðτi Þ
f ðτÞδ½gðτÞdτ ¼
dgðτi Þ , (1.88)
i
T dτ
where τi is the ith root determined by the retarded time equation g(τi) ¼ 0,
whereas:
R jx2yj
g ðτ Þ ¼ τ t + ¼τt + : (1.89)
c0 c0
Its derivative is:
dg 1 R dy R
¼1 ¼ 1 M, (1.90)
dτ c0 R dτ R
where R ¼ x 2 y, M ¼ V
c0 . Integrating Eq. (1.87) with respect to time gives:
ð
0
! 1 ∂2 Tij0
ρ t, x ¼ dξ
4πc02 ∂xi ∂xj vðt0 Þ Rj1 Mr j τ¼τe
ð
1 ∂ fi
2 dSðξÞ
4πc0 ∂xi Sðt0 Þ Rj1 Mr j τ¼τe
ð (1.91)
1 ∂ ρ0 ai
2 dξ
4πc0 ∂xi vc ðt0 Þ Rj1 Mr j τ¼τe
ð
1 ∂2 ρ0 Vi Vj
+ dξ,
4πc0 ∂xi ∂xj vc ðt0 Þ Rj1 Mr j τ¼τe
2
where Mr ¼ R R M is the projection of the Mach number of a moving body in

the direction of the observer, whereas the emission time is determined by:
jx2yj
gðτe Þ≡τe t + ¼ 0:
c0
This equation was presented by Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings in 1969,
which is now named as Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings equation or shortened as
an FW-H equation. In Eq. (1.91), v(τ) is the volume without the body,
whereas vc(τ) is the volume of the moving body. It is also seen that the first
term is a quadruple source due to the moving effect, the second term is a
dipole source due to the force on the body, and the third and fourth terms
represent the dipole and quadruple sources due to the displacement and
acceleration of the body, respectively. It is shown that the last two terms
are equivalent to a monopole source. In this case, the FW-H equation
can also be expressed as:
ð
0
! 1 ∂2 Tij0
ρ t, x ¼ dξ
4πc02 ∂xi ∂xj vðt0 Þ Rj1 Mr j τ¼τe
ð
1 ∂ fi
2 dSðξÞ
4πc0 ∂xi Sðt0 Þ Rj1 Mr j τ¼τe
ð
∂ ρ0 Vn0
+ dSðξÞ,
∂t Sðt0 Þ Rj1 Mr j τ¼τe
where Vn0 denotes the dot product of the outward normal vector of vc(τ)and
the moving velocity of the body, i.e., Vn0 ¼ Vn.
When the body is static, i.e., a 5 M 5 V 5 0, then Eq. (1.91) becomes:
ð
0
! 1 ∂2 Tij0 R
ρ t, x ¼ y, t dy
4πc02 ∂xi ∂xj vðt0 Þ R c0
ð (1.92)
1 ∂ fi R
2 y, t dSðyÞ,
4πc0 ∂xi Sðt0 Þ R c0
which was presented by Curle [3]. Now it is named Curle’s equation.
For some specific cases, its far-field solution is interesting. Consider any
time-correlation function A(τ), similar to the integration function in
Eq. (1.91), by introducing

^ AðτÞ
A¼ ,
RjC { j τ¼τe
where C† ¼ 1 Mr stands for the Doppler factor. Notice that:

∂g ∂g ∂τe
+ ¼ 0: (1.93)
∂xi τe ∂τe x ∂xi
It is shown that:

∂τe Ri
¼ :
∂xi c0 C { R τ¼τe
Then for any function f(x, τe), we obtain:

∂f ∂f ∂f Ri
¼ ,
∂xi ∂xi τe ∂τe x c0 C { R τ¼τe
whereas for a specific function R, i.e., the distance from the observer to the
source point, it is shown that:
∂R Ri Ri ∂R ∂yj Ri
¼ ¼ :
∂xi R c0 C R ∂yj ∂τe RC {
{
^
In this case,
^
for any function similar to A, when R ! ∞，it is easy to
verify that ð∂A=∂xi Þτe ¼ OðR2 Þ. Therefore, the ^
first and second order par-
tial derivatives with respect to xi for function A are:
^
∂A Ri ∂ A
¼ { {
+ O R2 ,
∂xi c0 C R ∂τ jC j τ¼τe
2
and
^
∂A Ri Rj ∂ 1 ∂ A
¼ 2 { 3 + O R2
∂xi ∂xj c0 C R ∂τ C { ∂τ jC { j τ¼τe
Then, the far-field solution for FW-H can be written as:

ð
0
! 1 Ri Rj ∂ 1 ∂ Tij0
ρ t, x dξ
4πc04 vðt0 Þ C { R3 ∂τ C { ∂τ jC { j τ¼τe
ð
1 Ri ∂ fi
+ dSðξÞ
4πc0 Sðt0 Þ C { R2 ∂τ jC { j τ¼τe
3
ð (1.94)
1 Ri ∂ ρ0 ai
+ dξ
4πc0 vc ðt0 Þ C { R2 ∂τ jC { j τ¼τe
3
ð
1 Ri Rj ∂ 1 ∂ ρ0 Vi Vj
+ dξ:
4πc04 vc ðt0 Þ C { R3 ∂τ C { ∂τ jC { j τ¼τe
The corresponding far-field solution for Curle’s equation is given by:
ð ð
0
! xi xj ∂2 Tij0 xi ∂fi
ρ t, x dy + dSðyÞ (1.95)
4πc0 x vðt0 Þ ∂t
4 3 2 4πc0 x Sðt0 Þ ∂t
3 2
1.5 Generalized Lighthill’s equation

Lighthill’s equation exists under the assumption of static media with respect
to the observer. However, in some cases, it is necessary to consider the sit-
uation with both the moving body and the flow media. For example, for any
reasonable noise prediction for a fan/compressor, it is inevitable to include
the effect of duct flow on the sound generation. For convenience, a typical
treatment is to assume the media has a uniform flow. Now, emphasis is
placed on how to extend Lighthill’s equation to be suitable for uniform
moving media.
Assume that the media has a uniform velocity U in the parallel direction
of y1. Now, introducing a moving coordinate, yi0 ¼ yi δ1iUτ, and consid-
ering that the derivation of Lighthill’s equation is based on conservation
laws, it is shown that, in the moving coordinate system, Lighthill’s equation
is still:
∂2 ρ0 2 ∂2 ρ0 ∂2 Tij0
c ¼ , (1.96)
∂τ2 0
∂y0i ∂y0j ∂y0i ∂y0j
where the Lighthill’s stress tensor Tij0 ¼ ρui0 uj0 eij + δij[(p p0) c20 ρ0 ] is
defined by the relative velocity
u0i ¼ ui δ1i U
In practical problems, it is more convenient to use a ground-fixed coor-
dinate. It is shown that Eq. (1.96) can be written by:
D20 ρ0 2 ∂2 ρ0 ∂2 Tij0
c ¼ , (1.97)
Dτ2 0
∂yi ∂yj ∂yi ∂yj
where
D0 ∂ ∂
¼ +U :
Dτ ∂τ ∂y1
Eq. (1.97) is named a generalized Lighthill equation, which is an exten-
sion of Lighthill’s equation in moving media.
To derive the solution of generalized Lighthill’s equation, consider
sound generation by a moving body with velocity Vs and volume vc(τ)
bounded by S(τ). Now the right term of Eq. (1.97) is assumed to be known,
and in terms of generalized Green’s function formula, it is shown that:
ðT ð
0
1 ! ∂2 Tij0
ρ t, x ¼ 2 G dydτ
T
ðT ð
∂ Vn0 D0 0 0 ∂ Vn0 D0
+ G + ρ ρ + G dSðyÞdτ,
SðτÞ ∂n c02 Dτ ∂n c02 Dτ
T
where Green’s function satisfies Eq. (1.57) and the causality condition of
Eq. (1.58), besides, Vn0 ¼ V0 n，V0 ¼ Vs iU, and ∂n ∂
¼ ni ∂y∂ i . Applying
the same approach within Section 1.1.3 yields:
ðT ð ðT ð
! 1 ∂2 G 1 ∂G
0
c0 vðτÞ ∂yi ∂yj c0 S ðτ Þ ∂yi
T T
(1.98)
ðT ð
1
ni h0i dSðyÞdτ,
c02 SðτÞ
T
where

∂ h 0 0 i D0 ρ0
h0i ¼ G ρui uj eij + δij ðp p0 Þ + Vi0
∂yj Dτ
(1.99)
D G ∂G
+ Vi0 ρ0 + ρui 0 u0j
0
:
Dτ ∂yj
Considering the different forms of the continuity and momentum equa-

tions, i.e.,
8
> D0 ρ0 D0 ρ ∂ρu0j
>
< ¼ ¼
Dτ Dτ ∂yj
> D ρu 0
∂ h i, (1.100)
>
: 0 i
¼ 0 0
ρui uj eij + δij ðp p0 Þ
Dτ ∂yj
and using the impenetrable condition niVi0 ¼ niui0 , we have:

D0 ρu0i D0 G
ni h0i ¼ ni G + ρu0i
Dτ Dτ
0
∂ρuj ∂G D0 G
+ ni u0i G + ρu0j ni u0i ρ0 (1.101)
∂yj ∂yj Dτ
0
D0 Gρu0i ∂Gρuj D0 G
¼ ni + u0i ni u0i ρ0 :
Dτ ∂yj Dτ
Combining the divergence theorem and Leibniz rule yields:
ð ð ð
d D0 Ψ
Ψ dy ¼ dy + Vn0 Ψ dSðyÞ:
dτ vðτÞ vðτÞ Dτ SðτÞ
Hence,
ð ð ð
d ∂Gρu0j D0 ∂Gρuj
0
∂Gρu0j
dy ¼ dy + Vn0 dSðyÞ
dτ vðτÞ ∂yj vðτÞ Dτ ∂yj SðτÞ ∂yj
ð
D0 Gρu0i 0
∂Gρu0j
¼ ni + ui dSðyÞ:
SðτÞ Dτ ∂yj
This expression is zero after the integration with respect to time τ.
Therefore, it is shown that only the last term of Eq. (1.101) remains after
some mathematical treatment, and Eq. (1.98) becomes:
ðT ð ðT ð
! 1 ∂2 G 1 ∂G
0
c0 vðτÞ ∂yi ∂yj c0 SðτÞ ∂yi
T T
(1.102)
ðT ð
1 D0 G
+ 2 ρ0 Vn0 dSðyÞdτ,
c0 SðτÞ Dτ
T
where Vn0 is the projection of the relative velocity in the normal direction of
the body. Eq. (1.102) is a general expression for a moving body with flow
media. The first term denotes the sound caused by a volume source belong-
ing to a quadruple source, the second terms stands for the sound due to the
force on the body belonging to a dipole source, and the last term represents
the sound due to the displacement of the volume of a moving body belong-
ing to a monopole source.
References
[1] J. Lighthill, On sound generated aerodynamically I: general theory, Proc. Roy. Soc. A
211 (1952) 564–587.
[2] J. Lighthill, Early development of an “acoustic analogy” approach to aeroacoustic the-
ory, AIAA J. 20 (1982) 449–450.
[3] N. Curle, The influence of solid boundaries upon aerodynamic sound, Proc. Roy. Soc.
A 231 (1955) 505–514.
[4] J.E. Ffowcs Williams, D.L. Hawkings, Sound generation by turbulence and surfaces in
arbitrary motion, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 264 (1969) 321–342.
[5] S.K. Lele, Compact finite difference schemes with spectral-like resolution, J. Comput.
Phys. 103 (1992) 16–42.
[6] C.K.W. Tam, J.C. Webb, Dispersion-relation-preserving finite difference schemes for
computational acoustics, J. Comput. Phys. 107 (1993) 262–281.
[7] T. Colonius, S.K. Lele, Computational aeroacoustics: progress on nonlinear problems
of sound generation, Prog. Aerosp. Sci. 40 (2004) 345–416.
[8] C.K.W. Tam, Recent advances in computational aeroacoustics, Fluid Dyn. Res.
38 (2006) 591–615.
[9] E. Envia, A.G. Wilson, D.L. Huff, Fan noise: A challenge to CAA, Int. J. Comput.
Fluid Dyn. 18 (6) (2004) 471–480.
[10] N. Peake, A. Parry, Modern challenges facing turbomachinery aeroacoustics, Annu.
Rev. Fluid Mech. 44 (2012) 227–248.
[11] M. Goldstein, Aeroacoustics, McGraw-Hill International Book Company, 1976.
[12] C. Morfey, Acoustic energy in non-uniform flows, J. Sound Vib. 14 (1971) 159–170.
[13] M. Myers, Transport of energy by disturbances in arbitrary steady flows, J. Fluid Mech.
226 (1991) 383–400.
[14] M. Lowson, The sound field for singularities in motion, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 286 (1965)
559–572.
CHAPTER 2
Propeller noise: Prediction

and control
2.1 Noise sources of propeller

2.1.1 An overview, the developing history of propeller
noise prediction
Propeller noise can be classified into two categories according to the char-
acteristics of the sound pressure spectrums: rotational noise (i.e., pure tones)
and broadband noise. The interaction between the rotor blades and the peri-
odic oncoming flow gives rise to the pure tones; whereas broadband noise
results from the interaction between the blades and a randomly fluctuating
part of the surrounding flow field. It is the pure tones, compared with broad-
band noise, that play the predominant role in the total sound field generated
by airplane propellers. Therefore, most of the studies on numerical predic-
tion of propeller noise focus on the pure tones [1].
2.1.1.1 Noise generation due to steady blade force and blade

thickness effect
Both the blade forces and the volume displacement effect contribute to the
typical rotational noise, which are the most dominant sound sources of pro-
peller noise. Thus, most of the efforts in the early stage are devoted to the
study of these two kinds of sound sources. Lynan [2] presented the first
attempt to build a theoretical model for propeller noise radiation. It is
believed that the rotation of propeller blades will cause periodic fluctuation
in the flow passing the rotor, which can cause sound perturbation to the far
field. Consequently, we are able to use a continuous ring of stationary sound
sources and a rotating point source to model the propeller blades’ effect.
Under some fundamental simplification assumptions, Bryan [3] obtained
the solution of the sound field due to a circumferentially moving point
source, which attracted great attention for solving the retarded time equa-
tion at that time.
Fundamentals of Aeroacoustics with Applications to Aeropropulsion Systems © 2021 Shanghai Jiao Tong
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-408069-0.00002-6 University Press. 33
Published by Elsevier Inc.
Both of these papers did not predict the absolute amplitude of a radiated
sound field. This instead was accomplished by Gutin [4] in 1948. He pointed
out that, based on the linearized acoustic analysis, the steady aerodynamic
force exerted on each propeller blade can be represented by a dipole distri-
bution on the blade surface. To generate the same pressure distribution
caused by the rotating blades, it is assumed that the stationary disk surface
is covered with the sound sources radiating with specific phase and strength.
Then, by conducting the Fourier analysis for the solution, one can obtain the
amplitudes of the noise due to the torsion and the thrust, respectively. It is
worth mentioning that, although the solution was obtained under many
simplifications, the basic ideas revealed in this work still have a great effect
on the subsequent researches.
With the development of computers in the 1950s, more complicated
numerical computations could be realized. Hence, many simplifications
are not necessary anymore.
Hubbard [5] further developed Gutin’s theory to calculate the fluctuat-
ing amplitude and sound field at the points that are one chord-length away
from the blade tip. Also, he conducted some parameter studies and com-
pared the theoretical calculation with the experimental results. Moreover,
Garrick and Watkins [6] generalized Gutin’s theory to consider the effect
of forward flight. In their approach, the sound field was calculated by an
integration over the propeller disk surface, this method was further simpli-
fied as the integration over an effective ring, thus the formulae for the near
field as well as the far field could be obtained. The analysis for a specific pro-
peller indicates the maximum noise point would move forward as the for-
ward flight speed increases.
Furthermore, Watkins and Deming [7] extended the work of Garrick
and Watkins to investigate the influence of spanwise and chordwise load dis-
tribution on the harmonic distribution as well as the total sound pressure
level. According to the calculation and analysis, with the radial distribution
of thrust and torque prescribed, the noise distributions showed negligible
difference compared with the results obtained through an effective radius
simplification. Therefore, it is appropriate to concentrate propeller force
on an effective radius to take into the effect of real load distribution when
concerning the noise variation trend. Inevitably, this simplification will
bring about certain errors in the prediction of total sound pressure level.
On the other hand, it was found that the chordwise load distribution had
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notice . . . let it ride . . . throw the six—without looking, of course . . .
we’ll take the jack for two M’s. . . .”
The host, accompanied by no less a personage than the
manager himself, had come up. They stood quietly and listened as
Cloud took three bills out of the box, leaving one, and went on:
“The next card is either a five or a trey. That M there is to find out
which it is.”
“Are you sure of that?” the manager asked.
“Not absolutely, of course,” Cloud admitted. “There’s one chance
in approximately fourteen million that both my partner and I are
wrong.”
“Very good odds. But since you lose in either case, why bet?”
“Because if it’s a trey, she solved your system first. If it’s a five, I
beat her to it.”
“I see, but that isn’t necessary.” The manager took the remaining
cards out of the rack, and, holding them carefully and firmly, wrapped
the M-note tightly around them. Then, picking up the two small
stacks of played cards, he handed the whole collection to Cloud, at
the same time signalling the dealer to go ahead with his game. “We’ll
be smothered in a crowd very shortly, and I would like very much to
play with you myself. Will you, sir and madame, be gracious enough
to continue play in private?”
“Gladly, sir,” Joan assented, at Cloud’s questioning glance. “If it
would not put you out too much.”
“I am delighted,” and, beckoning to a hovering waiter, he went on:
“We will have refreshments, of course. In uniform, you might possibly
prefer soft drinks? We have some very good Tellurian ginger ale.”
“That’d be fine,” Cloud said, even while he was thinking at the
Lensman in contact with his mind: “Safe enough, don’t you think? He
couldn’t be thinking of any rough stuff yet.”
“Perfectly safe,” Nordquist agreed. “He’s just curious. Besides,
he’s in no shape to handle even the Vortex Blaster alone, to say
nothing of the task force he knows would be here two hours after
anything happened to either of you.”
The four strolled in friendly fashion to the suggested private
room. As soon as they were settled:
“You said the top card would be either a five or a trey,” the
manager said. “Shall we look?”
It was the trey of spades. “Congratulations, Joanie, a mighty
swell job. You really clobbered me on that one.” He shook her hand
vigorously, then handed the bill to the manager. “Here’s your M-note,
sir.”
“I couldn’t think of it, sir. No tipping, you know. . . .”
“I know. Not a tip, but your winnings. I called the play, remember.
Hence, I insist.”
“Very well, if you insist. But don’t you want to look at the next
one?”
“No. It’s the ace of hearts—can’t be anything else.”
“To satisfy my own curiosity, then.” The manager flipped the top
card delicately. It was the ace of hearts. “No compulsion, of course,
but would you mind telling me how you can possibly do what you
have just done?”
“I’ll be glad to,” and this was the simple truth. Cloud had to
explain, before the zwilniks began to suspect that they were being
taken by an organized force of Lensmen and snoopers. “We aren’t
even semi-habitual gamblers. The lieutenant-commander is Doctor
Joan Janowick, the Patrol’s ace designer of big, high-speed
electronic computers, and I am Neal Cloud, a mathematical analyst.”
“You are ‘Storm’ Cloud, the Vortex Blaster,” the manager
corrected him. “A super-computer yourself. I begin to see, I think . . .
but go ahead, please.”
“You undoubtedly know that random numbers, which underlie all
games of chance, must be just that—purely random, with nothing
whatever of system or of orderliness in their distribution. Also that a
stacked deck, by definition, is most decidedly not random. We were
kicking that idea around, one day, and decided to study stacked
decks, to see how systematic such distributions actually were. Well
—here’s the new part—we learned that any dealer who stacks a
deck of cards does so in some definite pattern; and that pattern,
whether conscious or unconscious, is always characteristic of that
one individual. The more skilled the dealer, the more complex,
precise, complete, and definite the pattern. Any pattern, however
complex, can be solved; and, once solved, the cards might just as
well be lying face up and all in sight.
“On the other hand, while it is virtually impossible for any dealer
to shuffle a deck into a really random condition, it can approach
randomness so nearly that the patterns are short and hence very
difficult to solve. Also, there are no likenesses or similarities to help.
Worst of all, there is the house leverage—the sevens of hearts,
diamonds, and clubs, you know—of approximately five point seven
seven percent. So it is mathematically certain that she and I would
lose, not win, against any dealer who was not stacking his decks.”
“I . . . am . . . surprised. I’m amazed,” the manager said. He was,
too; and so was the host. “Heretofore it has always been the guest
who loses by manipulation, not the house.” It is noteworthy that
neither the manager nor host had at any time denied, even by
implication, that their games of “chance” were loaded. “Thanks,
immensely, for telling me. . . . By the way, you haven’t done this very
often before have you?” the manager smiled ruefully.
“No.” Cloud smiled back. “This is the first time. Why?”
“I thought I would have heard of it if you had. This of course
changes my mind about wanting to deal to you myself. In fact, I’ll go
farther—any dealer you play with here will be doing his level best to
give you a completely random distribution.”
“Fair enough. But we proved our point, which was what we were
primarily interested in, anyway. What’ll we do with the rest of the day,
Joan—go back to the ship?”
“Uh-uh. This is the most comfortable place I’ve found since we
left Tellus, and if I don’t see the ship again for a week it’ll be at least
a week too soon. Why don’t you send a boy out with enough money
to get us a chess kit? We can engage this room for the rest of the
day and work on our game.”
“No need for that—we have all such things here,” the host said
quickly. “I’ll send for them at once.”
“No no—no money, please,” the manager said. “I am still in your
debt, and as long as you will stay you are my guests. . . .” he
paused, then went on in a strangely altered tone: “But chess . . . and
Janowick . . . Joan Janowick, not at all a common name . . . surely
not Past Grand Master Janowick? She—retired—would be a much
older woman.”
“The same—I retired for lack of time, but I still play as much as I
can. I’m flattered that you have heard of me.” Joan smiled as though
she were making a new and charming acquaintance. “And you? I’m
sorry we didn’t introduce ourselves earlier.”
“Permit me to introduce Host Althagar, assistant manager. I am
called Thlasoval.”
“Oh, I know of you, Master Thlasoval. I followed your game with
Rengodon of Centralia. Your knight-and-bishop end game was a
really beautiful thing.”
“Thank you. I am really flattered that you have heard of me. But
Commander Cloud. . . ?”
“No, you haven’t heard of him. Perhaps you never will, but
believe me, if he had time for tournament play he’d be high on the
Grand Masters list. So far on this cruise he’s won one game, I’ve
won one, and we’re on the eighty fourth move of the third.”
The paraphernalia arrived and the Tellurians set the game up
rapidly and unerringly, each knowing exactly where each piece and
pawn belonged.
“You have each lost two pawns, one knight, and one bishop—in
eighty three moves?” Thlasoval marveled.
“Right,” Cloud said. “We’re playing for blood. Across this board
friendship ceases; and, when dealing with such a pure unadulterated
tiger as she is, so does chivalry.”
“If I’m a tiger, I’d hate to say what he is.” Joan glanced up with a
grin. “Just study the board, Master Thlasoval, and see for yourself
who is doing what to whom. I’m just barely holding him: he’s had me
on the defensive for the last forty moves. Attacking him is just like
trying to beat in the side of a battleship with your bare fist. Do you
see his strategy? Perhaps not, on such short notice.”
Joan was very willing to talk chess at length, because the fact
that Fairchild’s Chickladorian manager was a chess Master was an
essential part of the Patrol’s plan.
“No . . . I can’t say that I do.”
“You notice he’s concentrating everything he can bring to bear on
my left flank. Fifteen moves from now he’d’ve been focused on my
King’s Knight’s Third. Three moves after that he was going to
exchange his knight for my queen and then mate in four. But, finding
out what he was up to, I’ve just derailed his train of operations and
he has to revise his whole campaign.”
“No wonder I didn’t see . . . I’m simply not in your class. But
would you mind if I stay and look on?”
“We’ll be glad to have you, but it won’t be fast. We’re playing
strict tournament rules and taking the full four minutes for each
move.”
“That’s quite all right. I really enjoy watching Grand Masters at
work.”
Master though he was, Thlasoval had no idea at all of what a
terrific game he watched. For Joan Janowick and Neal Cloud were
not playing it; they merely moved the pieces. The game had been
played long since. Based upon the greatest games of the greatest
masters of old, it had been worked out, move by move, by chess
masters working with high-speed computers.
Thus, while Joan and Storm were really concentrating, it was not
upon chess.
Chapter 14
▂▂▂▂▂▂VESTA THE GAMBLER

JOAN WAS HANDLING the card games, Cloud the wheels. The
suggestion that it would be smart to run honest games had been
implanted in the zwilniks’ minds, not because of the cards, but
because of the wheels; for a loaded, braked, and magnetized wheel
is a very tough device to beat.
Joan, then, would read a deck of cards, and a Lensman or a
Rigellian would watch her do it. Then the observing telepath would,
all imperceptibly, insert hunches into the mind of a player. And what
gambler has ever questioned his hunches, especially when they pay
off time after time after time? Thus more and more players began to
win with greater or lesser regularity and the gambling fever—the
most contagious and infectious disorder known to man—spread
throughout the vast room like a conflagration in a box-factory.
And Storm Cloud was handling the wheels.
“Place your bets, ladies and gentlemen, before the ball enters
Zone Green,” the croupiers intoned. “The screens go up, no bets can
be placed while the ball is in the Green.”
If the wheels had not been rigged, Cloud could have computed
with ease the exact number upon which each ball would come to
rest. In such case the Patrol forces would not, of course, have given
Vesta the Vegian complete or accurate information. With her
temperament and her bank-roll, she would have put the place out of
business in an hour; and such a single-handed killing was not at all
what the Patrol desired.
But the wheels, of course, were rigged. Cloud was being
informed, however, of every pertinent fact. He knew the exact point
at which the ball crossed the green borderline. He knew its exact
velocity. He knew precisely the strengths of the magnetic fields and
the permeabilities, reluctances, and so on, of all the materials
involved. He knew just about how much braking force could be
applied without tipping off the players and transforming them
instantly into a blood-thirsty mob. And finally, he was backed by
Lensmen who could at need interfere with the physical processes of
the croupiers without any knowledge on the part of the victims.
Hence Cloud did well enough—and when a house is paying
thirty-five to one on odds that have been cut down to eight or ten to
one, it is very, very bad for the house.
Vesta started playing conservatively enough. She went from
wheel to wheel, tail high in air and purring happily to herself, slapping
down ten-credit notes until she won.
“This is the wheel I like!” she exclaimed, and went to twenties.
Still unperturbed, still gay, she watched nine of them move away
under the croupier’s rake. Then she won again.
Then fifties. Then hundreds. She wasn’t gay now, nor purring.
She wasn’t exactly tense, yet, but she was warming up. As the tenth
C-note disappeared, a Chickladorian beside her said:
“Why don’t you play the colors, miss? Or combinations? You
don’t lose so much that way.”
“No, and you don’t win so much, either. When I’m gambling I
gamble, brother . . . and wait just a minute . . .” the croupier paid her
three M’s and an L. . . . “See what I mean?”
The crowd was going not-so-slowly mad. Assistant Manager
Althagar did what he could. He ordered all rigging and gimmicks off,
and the house still lost. On again, off again; and losses still
skyrocketed. Then, hurrying over to the door of a private room, he
knocked lightly, opened the door, and beckoned to Thlasoval.
“All hell’s out for noon!” he whispered intensely as the manager
reached the doorway. “The crowd’s winning like crazy—everybody’s
winning! D’you s’pose it’s them damn Patrolmen there crossing us
up—and how in hell could it be?”
“Have you tried cutting out the gimmicks?”
“Yes. No difference.”
“It can’t be them, then. It couldn’t be anyway, for two reasons.
The kind of brains it takes to work that kind of problems in your head
can’t happen once in a hundred million times, and you say
everybody’s doing it. They can’t be, dammit! Two, they’re Grand
Masters playing chess. You play chess yourself.”
“You know I do. I’m not a Master, but I’m pretty good.”
“Good enough to tell by looking at ’em that they don’t give a
damn about what’s going on out there. Come on in.”
“We’ll disturb ’em and they’ll be sore as hell.”
“You couldn’t disturb these two, short of yelling in their ear or
joggling the board.” The two walked toward the table. “See what I
mean?”
The two players, forearms on table, were sitting rigidly still,
staring as though entranced at the board, neither moving so much as
an eye. As the two Chickladorians watched, Cloud’s left forearm,
pivoting on the elbow, swung out and he moved his knight.
“Oh, no . . . no!” Shocked out of silence, Thlasoval muttered the
words under his breath. “Your queen, man—your queen!”
But this opportunity, so evident to the observer, did not seem at
all attractive to the woman, who sat motionless for minute after
minute.
“But come on, boss, and look this mess over,” the assistant
urged. “You’re on plus time now.”
“I suppose so.” They turned away from the enigma. “But why
didn’t she take his queen? I couldn’t see a thing to keep her from
doing it. I would have.”
“So would I. However, almost all the pieces on that board are
vulnerable, some way or other. Probably whichever one starts the
shin-kicking will come out at the little end of the horn.”
“Could be, but it won’t be kicking shins. It’ll be slaughter—and
how I’d like to be there when the slaughter starts! And I still don’t see
why she didn’t grab that queen. . . .”
“Well, you can ask her, maybe, when they leave. But right now
you’d better forget chess and take a good, long gander at what that
Vegian hell-cat is doing. She’s wilder than a Radelgian cateagle and
hotter than a DeLameter. She’s gone just completely nuts.”
Tense, strained, taut as a violin-string in every visible muscle,
Vesta stood at a wheel; gripping the ledge of the table so fiercely that
enamel was flaking off the metal and plastic under her stiff, sharp
nails. Jaws hard set and eyes almost invisible slits, she growled
deep in her throat at every bet she put down. And those bets were all
alike—ten thousand credits each—and she was still playing the
numbers straight. They watched her lose eighty thousand credits;
then watched her collect three hundred and fifty thousand.
Thlasoval made the rounds, then; did everything he could to
impede the outward flow of cash, finding that there wasn’t much of
anything he could do. He beckoned his assistant.
“This is bad, Althagar, believe me,” he said. “And I simply can’t
figure any part of it . . . unless. . . .” His voice died away.
“You said it. I can’t, either. Unless it’s them two chess-players in
there, and I’ll buy it that it ain’t, I haven’t even got a guess . . . unless
there could be some Lensmen mixed up in it somewhere. They could
do just about anything.”
“Lensmen? Rocket-juice! There aren’t any—we spy-ray
everybody that comes in.”
“Outside, maybe, peeking in. Or some other snoopers, maybe,
somewhere?”
“I can’t see it. We’ve had Lensmen in here dozens of times, for
one reason or another, business and social both, and they’ve always
shot straight pool. Besides, all they’re getting is money, and what in
all eleven hells of Telemanchia would the Patrol want of our money?
If they wanted us for anything they’d come and get us, but they
wouldn’t give a cockeyed tinker’s damn for our money. They’ve
already got all the money there is!”
“That’s so, too. Money . . . hm, money in gobs and slathers. . . .
Oh, you think . . . the Mob? D’ya s’pose it’s got so big for its britches
it thinks it can take us on?”
“I wouldn’t think they could be that silly. It’s a lot more reasonable,
though, than that the Patrol would be horsing around this way.”
“But how? Great Kalastho, how?”
“How do I know? Snoopers, as you said—or perceivers, or any
other ringers they could ring in on us.”
“Nuts!” the assistant retorted. “Just who do you figure as ringers?
The Vegian isn’t a snooper, she’s just a gambling fool. No
Chickladorian was ever a snooper, or a perceiver either, and these
people are just about all regular customers. And everybody’s
winning. So just where does that put you?”
“Up the creek—I know. But dammit, there’s got to be snoopery or
some other funny stuff somewhere in this!”
“Uh-uh. Did you ever hear of a perceiver who could read a deck
or spot a gimmick from half a block away?”
“No, but that doesn’t mean there aren’t any. But what stops me is
what can we do about it? If the Mob is forted up in that hotel across
the street or somewhere beside or behind us . . . there isn’t a damn
thing we can do. They’d have more gunnies than we could send in,
even if we knew exactly where they were, and we can’t send a
young army barging around without anything but a flimsy suspicion
to go on—the lawmen would throw us in the clink in nothing flat. . . .
Besides, this Mob idea isn’t exactly solid, either. How’d they get their
cut from all these people? Especially the Vegian?”
“The Vegian, probably not; the rest, probably so. They could have
passed the word around that this is the big day. Anybody’d split fifty-
fifty on a cold sure thing.”
“Uh-uh. I won’t buy that, either. I’d’ve known about it—somebody
would have leaked. No matter how you figure it, it doesn’t add up.”
“Well, then?”
“Only one thing we can do. Close down. While you’re doing that
I’ll go shoot in a Class A Double Prime Urgent to top brass.”
Hence Vesta’s croupier soon announced to his clientele that all
betting was off, at least until the following day. All guests would
please leave the building as soon as possible.
For a couple of minutes Vesta simply could not take in the import
of the announcement. She was stunned. Then:
“Whee . . . yow . . . ow . . . erow!” she yowled, at the top of her
not inconsiderable voice. “I’ve won . . . I’ve won . . . I’VE WON!” She
quieted down a little, still shell-shocked, then looked around and ran
toward the nearest familiar face, which was that of the assistant
manager. “Oh, senor Althagar, do you actually want me to quit while
I’m ahead? Why, I never heard of such a thing—it certainly never
happened to me before! And I’m going to stop gambling entirely—I’ll
never get such a thrill as this again if I live a million years!”
“You’re so right, Miss Vesta—you never will.” Althagar smiled—as
though he had just eaten three lemons without sugar, to be sure, but
it was still a smile. “It’s not that we want you to quit, but simply that
we can’t pay any more losses. Right now I am most powerfully
psychic, so take my advice, my dear, and stop.”
“I’m going to—honestly, I am.” Vesta straightened out the thick
sheaf of bills she held in her right hand, noticing that they were all
ten-thousands. She dug around in her bulging pouch; had to dig half-
way to the bottom before she could find anything smaller. With a
startled gasp she crammed the handful of bills in on top of the others
and managed, just barely, to close and lock the pouch. “Oh, I’ve got
to fly—I must find my boss and tell him all about this!”
“Would you like an armed escort to your hotel?”
“That won’t be necessary, thanks. I’m going to take a copter
direct to the ship.”
And she did.
It was not until the crowd was almost all gone that either
Thlasoval or Althagar even thought of the two chess-players. Then
one signalled the other and they went together to the private room,
into it, and up to the chess-table. To the casual eye, neither player
had moved. The board, too, showed comparatively little change; at
least, the carnage anticipated by Thlasoval had not materialized.
Althagar coughed discreetly; then again, a little louder. “Sir and
madam, please. . . .” he began.
“I told you they’d be dead to the world,” Thlasoval said; and,
bending over, lifted one side of the board. Oh, very gently, and not
nearly enough to dislodge any one of the pieces, but the tiny action
produced disproportionately large results. Both players started as
though a bomb had exploded beside them, and Joan uttered a half-
stifled scream. With visible efforts, they brought themselves down
from the heights to the there and the then. Cloud stretched
prodigiously; and Joan, emulating him, had to bring one hand down
to cover a jaw-cracking yawn.
“Excuse me, Grand Master Janowick and Commander Cloud, but
the Club is being closed for repairs and we must ask you to leave the
building.”
“Closed?” Joan parroted, stupidly, and:
“For repairs?” Cloud added, with equal brilliance.
“Closed. For repairs.” Thlasoval repeated, firmly. Then, seeing
that his guests were coming back to life quite nicely, he offered Joan
his arm and started for the door.
“Oh, yes, Grand Master Janowick,” he said en route. “May I ask
why you refused the Commander’s queen?”
“He would have gained such an advantage in position as to mate
in twelve moves.”
“I see . . . thanks.” He didn’t, at all, but he had to say something.
“I wonder . . . would it be possible for me to find out how this game
comes out?”
“Why, I suppose so.” Joan thought for a moment. “Certainly. If
you’ll give me your card I’ll send you a tape of it after we finish.”[3]
The two Patrolmen boarded a copter. Joan looked subdued,

almost forlorn. Cloud took her hand and squeezed it gently.
“Don’t take it so hard, Joan,” he thought. He found it remarkably
easy to send to her now; in fact, telepathy was easier and simpler
and more natural than talking. “We had it to do.”
“I suppose so; but it was a dirty, slimy, stinking, filthy trick, Storm.
I’m ashamed . . . I feel soiled.”
“I know how you feel. I’m not so happy about the thing, either. But
when you think of thionite, and what that stuff means. . . ?”
“That’s true, of course . . . and they stole the money in the first
place. . . . Not that two wrongs, or even three or four, make a right
. . . but it does help.”
She cheered up a little, but she was not yet her usual self when
they boarded the Vortex Blaster II.
Vesta met them just inside the lock. “Oh, chief, I won—I won!”
she shrieked, tail waving frantically in air. “Where’d you go after the
club closed? I looked all over for you—do you know how much I
won, Captain Nealcloud?”
“Haven’t any idea. How much?”
“One million seven hundred sixty two thousand eight hundred
and ten credits! Yow-wow-yow!”
“Whew!” Cloud whistled in amazement. “And you’re figuring on
giving it all back to ’em tomorrow?”
“I . . . I haven’t quite decided.” Vesta sobered instantly. “What do
you think, chief?”
“Not being a gambler, I don’t have hunches very often, but I’ve
got one now. In fact, I know one thing for certain damn sure. There
isn’t one chance in seven thousand million of anything like this ever
happening to you again. You’ll lose your shirt—that is, if you had a
shirt to lose,” he added hastily.
“You know, I think you’re right? I thought so myself, and you’re
the second smart man to tell me the same thing.”
“Who was the first one?”
“That man at the club, Althagar, his name was. So, with three
hunches on the same play, I’d be a fool not to play it that way.
Besides, I’ll never get another wallop like that . . . my uncle’s been
wanting me to be linguist in his bank, and with a million and three-
quarters of my own I could buy half his bank and be a linguist and a
cashier both. Then I couldn’t ever gamble again.”
“Huh? Why not?”
“Because Vegians, especially young Vegians, like me, haven’t got
any sense when it comes to gambling,” Vesta explained, gravely.
“They can’t tell the difference between their own money and the
bank’s. So everybody who amounts to anything in a bank makes a
no-gambling declaration and if one ever slips the insurance company
boots him out on his ear and he takes a blaster and burns his head
off. . . .”
Cloud flashed a thought at Joan. “Is this another of your strictly
Vegian customs?”
“Not mine; I never heard of it before,” she flashed back. “Very
much in character, though, and it explains why Vegian bankers are
regarded as being very much the upper crust.”
“. . . so I am going to buy half of that bank. Thanks, chief, for
helping me make up my mind. Good night, you two lovely people; I’m
going to bed. I’m just about bushed.” Vesta, tail high and with a
completely new dignity in her bearing, strode away.
“Me, too, Storm; on both counts,” Joan thought at Cloud. “You
ought to hit the hammock, too, instead of working half the night yet.”
“Maybe so, but I want to know how things came out, and besides
they may want some quick figuring done. Good night, little chum.”
His parting thought, while commonplace enough in phraseology, was
in fact sheer caress; and Joan’s mind, warmly intimate, accepted it
as such and returned it in kind.
Cloud left the ship and rode a scooter across the field to a very
ordinary-looking freighter. In that vessel’s control room, however,
there were three Lensmen and five Rigellians, all clustered around a
tank-chart of a considerable fraction of the First Galaxy.
“Hi, Cloud!” Nordquist greeted him with a Lensed thought and
introduced him to the others. “All our thanks for a really beautiful job
of work. We’ll thank Miss Janowick tomorrow, when she’ll have a
better perspective. Want to look?”
“I certainly do. Thanks.” Cloud joined the group at the chart and
Nordquist poured knowledge into his mind.
Thlasoval, the boss of Chickladoria, had been under full mental
surveillance every minute of every day. The scheme had worked
perfectly. As the club closed, Thlasoval had sent the expected
message; not by ordinary communications channels, of course, but
via long-distance beamer. It was beamed three ways; to Tominga,
Vegia, and Palmer III. That proved that Fairchild wasn’t on
Chickladoria; if he had been, Thlasoval would have used a
broadcaster, not a beamer.
Shows had been staged simultaneously on all four of Fairchild’s
planets, and only on Vegia had the planetary manager’s message
been broadcast. Fairchild was on Vegia, and he wouldn’t leave it: a
screen had been thrown around the planet that a microbe couldn’t
squirm through and it wouldn’t be relaxed until Fairchild was caught.
“Simultaneous shows?” Cloud interrupted the flow of information.
“On four planets? He won’t connect the Vortex Blaster with it, at all,
then.”
“We think he will,” the Lensman thought, narrowing down. “We’re
dealing with a very shrewd operator. We hope he does, anyway,
because a snooper put on you or any one of your key people would
be manna from heaven for us.”
“But how could he suspect us?” Cloud demanded. “We couldn’t
have been on four planets at once.”
“You will have been on three of them, though; and I can tell you
now that routing was not exactly coincidence.”
“Oh . . . and I wasn’t informed?”
“No. Top Brass didn’t want to disturb you too much, especially
since we hoped to catch him before things got this far along. But
you’re in it now, clear to the neck. You and your people will be under
surveillance every second, from here on in, and you’ll be covered as
no chief of state was ever covered in all history.”
[3] A few months later, Joan did send him the full
game, which white of course won. Thlasoval studied
it in secret for over five years; and then, deciding
correctly that he never would be able to understand
its terrifically complex strategy, he destroyed the
tape. It is perhaps superfluous to all that this game
was never published. E.E.S.
Chapter 15
▂▂▂▂▂▂JOAN AND HER BRAINS

THE TRIP FROM Chickladoria to Vegia, while fairly long, was
uneventful.
Joan spent her working hours, of course, at her regular job of
rebuilding the giant computer. Cloud spent his at the galactic chart or
in the control room staring into a tank; classifying, analyzing, building
up and knocking down hypotheses and theories, wringing every
possible drop of knowledge from all the data he could collect.
In their “spare” time, of which each had quite a great deal, they
worked together at their telepathy; to such good purpose that, when
so working, verbal communication between them became rarer and
rarer. And, alone or in a crowd, within sight of each other or not, in
any place or at any time, asleep or awake, each had only to think at
the other and they were instantly in full mental rapport.
And oftener and oftener there came those instantaneously-
fleeting touches of something infinitely more than mere telepathy;
that fusion of minds which was so ultimately intimate that neither of
the two could have said whether he longed for or dreaded its full
coming the more. In fact, for several days before reaching Vegia,
each knew that they could bring about that full fusion any time they
chose to do so; but both shied away from its consummation, each as
violently as the other.
Thus the trip did not seem nearly as long as it actually was.
The first order of business on Vegia, of course, was the
extinguishment of its five loose atomic vortices—for which reason
this was to be pretty much a planetary holiday, although that is of
little concern here.
As the Vortex Blaster II began settling into position, the two
scientists took their places. Cloud was apparently his usual self-
controlled self, but Joan was white and strained—almost shaking. He
sent her a steadying thought, but her block was up, solid.
“Don’t take it so hard, Joanie,” he said, soberly. “Margie’ll take
’em, I hope—but even if she doesn’t, there’s a dozen things not tried
yet.”
“That’s just the trouble—there aren’t! We put just about
everything we had into Lulu; Margie is only a few milliseconds better.
Perhaps there are a dozen things not tried yet, but I haven’t the
faintest, foggiest smidgeon of an idea of what any of them could be.
Margie is the last word, Storm—the best analogue computer it is
possible to build with today’s knowledge.”
“And I haven’t been a lick of help. I wish I could be, Joan.”
“I don’t see how you can be. . . . Oh, excuse me, Storm, I didn’t
mean that half the way it sounds. Do you want to check the circuitry?
I’ll send for the prints.”
“No, I couldn’t even carry your water-bottle on that part of the job.
I’ve got just a sort of a dim, half-baked idea that there’s a possibility
that maybe I haven’t been giving you and your brains a square deal.
By studying the graphs of the next three or four tests maybe I can
find out whether. . . .”
“Lieutenant-Commander Janowick, we are in position,” a crisp
voice came from the speaker. “You may take over when ready,
madam.”
“Thank you, sir.” Joan flipped a switch and Margie took control of
the ship and its armament—subject only to Cloud’s overriding right to
fire at will.
“Just a minute, Storm,” Joan said then. “Unfinished business.
Whether what?”
“Whether there’s anything I can do—or fail to do—that might
help; but I’ve got to have a lot more data.”
Cloud turned to his chart, Joan to hers; and nothing happened
until Cloud blew out the vortex himself.
The same lack of something happened in the case of the next
vortex, and also the next. Then, as the instruments began working in
earnest on the fourth, Cloud reviewed in his mind the figures of the
three previous trials. On the first vortex, a big toughie, Margie had
been two hundred fifty milliseconds short. On the second, a fairly
small one, she had come up to seventy-five. On Number Three,
middle-sized, the lag had been one twenty-five. That made sense.
Lag was proportional to activity and it was just too bad for Margie.
And just too damn bad for Joanie—the poor kid was just about to
blow her stack. . . .
But wait a minute! What’s this? This number four’s a little bit of a
new one, about as small as they ever come. Margie ought to be
taking it, if she’s ever going to take anything . . . but she isn’t! She’s
running damn near three hundred mils behind! Why? Oh—
amplitudes—frequencies extreme instability. . . . Lag isn’t
proportional only to activity, then, but jointly to activity and to
instability.
That gives us a chance—but what in all nine of Palain’s purple
hells is that machine doing with that data?
He started to climb out of his bucket seat to go around to talk to
Joan right then, but changed his mind at his first move. Even if
Margie could handle this little one it wouldn’t be a real test, and it’d
be a crying shame to give Joan a success here and then kick her in
the teeth with a flat failure next time. No, the next one, the only one
left and Vegia’s worst, would be the one. If Margie could handle that,
she could snuff anything the galaxy had to offer.
Hence Cloud extinguished this one, too, himself. The Vortex
Blaster II darted to its last Vegian objective and lined itself up for
business. Joan put Margie to work as usual; but Storm, for the first
time, did not take his own place. Instead, he came around and stood
behind Joan’s chair.
“How’re we doing, little chum?” he asked.
“Rotten!” Joan’s block was still up; her voice was choked with
tears. “She’s come so close half a dozen times today—why—why
can’t I get that last fraction of a second?”
“Maybe you can.” As though it were the most natural thing in the
world—which in fact it was—Cloud put his left arm around her
shoulders and exerted a gentle pressure. “Bars down, chum—we
can think a lot clearer than we can talk.”
“That’s better,” as her guard went down. “Your differential ’scope
looks like it’s set at about one centimeter to the second. Can you
give it enough vertical gain to make it about five?”
“Yes. Ten if you like, but the trace would keep jumping the screen
on the down-swings.”
“I wouldn’t care about that—closest approach is all I want. Give it
full gain.”
“QX, but why?” Joan demanded, as she made the requested
adjustment. “Did you find out something I can’t dig deep enough in
your mind to pry loose?”
“Don’t know yet whether I did or not—I can tell you in a couple of
minutes,” and Cloud concentrated his full attention upon the chart
and its adjacent oscilloscope screen.
One pen of the chart was drawing a thin, wildly-wavering red line.
A few seconds behind it a second pen was tracing the red line in
black; tracing it so exactly that not the tiniest touch of red was to be
seen anywhere along the black. And on the screen of the differential
oscilloscope the fine green saw-tooth wave-form of the electronic
trace, which gave continuously the instantaneous value of the brain’s
shortage in time, flickered insanely and apparently reasonlessly up
and down; occasionally falling clear off the bottom of the screen. If
that needle-pointed trace should touch the zero line, however briefly,
Margie the Brain would act; but it was not coming within one full
centimeter of touching.
“The feeling that these failures have been partly, or even mostly,
my fault is growing on me,” Cloud thought, tightening his arm a little:
and Joan, if anything, yielded to the pressure instead of fighting
away from it. “Maybe I haven’t been waiting long enough to give your
brains the leeway they need. To check: I’ve been assuming all along
that they work in pretty much the same way I do; that they handle all
the data, out to the limit of validity of the equations, but aren’t fast
enough to work out a three-point-six-second prediction.
“But if I’m reading those curves right Margie simply isn’t working
that way. She doesn’t seem to be extrapolating anything more than
three and a half seconds ahead—’way short of the reliability limit—
and sometimes a lot less than that. She isn’t accepting data far
enough ahead. She acts as though she can gulp down just so much
information without choking on it—so much and no more.”
“Exactly. An over-simplification, of course, since it isn’t the kind of
choking that giving her a bigger throat would cure, but very well put.”
Joan’s right hand crept across her body, rested on Cloud’s wrist, and
helped his squeeze, while her face turned more directly toward the

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1. Basic equations of aeroacoustics 1

2. Propeller noise: Prediction and control 33

3. Noise prediction in aeroengine 73

4. Linearized unsteady aerodynamics for aeroacoustic

5. Vortex sound theory 207

6. Sound generation, propagation, and radiation in/from an

7. Thermoacoustic instability 415

8. Impedance eduction for acoustic liners 501

linearizing assumption. More importantly, the theoretical work described

been reflected in Chapter 7. His precious contribution is very much appre-

Basic equations of aeroacoustics

Aeroacoustics is a discipline that investigates noise generation by either tur-

obtained by Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings [4] via application of gener-

Table 1.1 Common notations and special terminologies.

1.1 Sound sources in moving media

Fig. 1.1 Schematic of parallel shear, mean flow.

1.1.2 Energy relations in moving media

1.1.3 Sound field of moving sound sources

Source at emission q (t)

In terms of generalized Green’s function theory, the solution of

ρ0 q00 ðτ∗ Þ ρ0 q0 ðτ∗ Þ Ri ∗ ∂Mi ∗

It is shown that, if the intensity of sound source does not depend on

Fig. 1.3 Rectilinear motion of point source.

zero. However, for some practical situations related to accelerating motion,

The second term of Eq. (1.41) deals with:

whereas the solution of the near sound field is:

1.1.4 Frequency features of moving sound source—Doppler

1.2 Generalized Green’s formula

The three-dimensional Leibniz’s rule shows that:

In addition, the Green’s theorem states that:

Integrating the result with respect to time τ yields:

Substituting Eq. (1.64) into Eq. (1.62) yields:

1.3 Lighthill equation

1.3.2 Effect of solid boundary on sound generation

where the following relation has been used,

1.4 Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings equation

Introducing this relation into Eq. (1.80) yields:

Dτ ¼ ai denotes the accelerated velocity of the

moving body. Notice that:

where Mr ¼ R R M is the projection of the Mach number of a moving body in

Then for any function f(x, τe), we obtain:

Then, the far-field solution for FW-H can be written as:

1.5 Generalized Lighthill’s equation

Considering the different forms of the continuity and momentum equa-

Propeller noise: Prediction

2.1 Noise sources of propeller

2.1.1.1 Noise generation due to steady blade force and blade

▂▂▂▂▂▂VESTA THE GAMBLER

The two Patrolmen boarded a copter. Joan looked subdued,

▂▂▂▂▂▂JOAN AND HER BRAINS

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