Gateways To Art Understanding The Visual Arts Compress

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GATEWAYS TO ART
priated by TreeHunterBooks
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Debra J. DeWitte
• Ralph M. Larmann
• M. Kathryn Shields
Understanding the Visual Arts
With 1013 illustrations, 865 in color
Thames & Hudson
I
GatewaystoAit copyright S2012Thames&Hudson
Text copyrights 2012Debra J.DeWitte, Ralph M.Larmann andM. Kathryn Shields
All Rights Reserved.No part of thispublication maybe reproduced ortransmitted

in anyform or byanymeans, electronic ormechanical, including photocopy,
recording or any other information storage and retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing fromthe publisher.
First published in 2012 in paperbackin the United States of America by

Thames &Hudson Inc, 500 F ifth Avenue, New York, New York 101 10
thamesandhudsonusa.com
Libra ryof CongressCatalogCard Number201 1922637
ISBN 978-0-500-28956-3
ISBN 978-0-500-77041-2 Ipdfebook)
Desig ned by Geoff Pen na
Printed and bound in China by C&C Offset Printing Ltd
FRONTCOVER
Henri Matisse, Icarus, Plate VII I from Jazz, 1 943-47. The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
The LouisE. Stern Collection. 930.1 964.8.Digital image, TheMuseum of Modern Art, New York/Sea la, Floience.
S Su ccession H. Mat isse/DACS 20 12
BACK COVER
Above, left to right:
KatsushikaHokusai, 'The Great Wave off Shore at Kan agawa," from Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji,
1 826-33 (printed later).Library of Congress, Washingt on, D.C.
Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Decapitating Holofernesc. 1620. Ufftzi Gallery, Florence
Raphael, The School of Athens, 15 10- 11. Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican City
Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 1 936. Library of Congress Washington, D.C.
The Great Pyramid cfKhufu, Giza, c. 2,500 BC. PhotoHeidi GrassleyS Thames& HudsonLtd, London
Francisco Ce Goya, The Third of May, 1808 1814. MuseoNacional del Prado, Madrid
Below:
Colossal Head, Olmec, Basalt, 1 500-1300BCE.Museo de Antropologia, Veracruz, Mexico.

Photo Irmgard Groth-Kimball SThames&Hudson Ltd, London
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Contents
How to Use Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts 13

Gateway Features for Gateways to Art 16
Introduction 26 What Is Art? 26

Where Is Art? 29
WhoMakesArt? 30
The Value of Art 36
Censorship of Art 39
Why Do We Study Art? 61
FEATURES:
Robert Wittman; What Isthe Value of an Artwork? 36
Tracy Chevalier: Art Inspires a Novel and a Movie 38
PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS 66 j
Chapter 1.1 Line 66
Art in Two Shape 57
Dimensions: Line, Contrast 58
Shape, and the Conclusion 61
Principle of FEATURE:
Contrast 66 Gateway to Art; Goya. 77?e Third of May. 1808: Using Line to Guide the Viewer's Eye 56
Chapter 1.2 Form 62

Three-Dimensional Form in Relief and inthe Round 66
Art: Form,Volume, Volume 68
Mass, and Texture 62 Mass 70
T extu re 72
Conclusion 75
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art:The Great Pyramid of Khufu: The Importance of Geometric Form 66
Gateway to Art: Colossal Olmec Heads: Mass and Power 70
The Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao 76
Chapter 1.3 Value 77

ImpliedDepth: Value Space 80
and Space 76 Perspective 86
Conclusion 91
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FEATURES:
Gateway to Art; Hokusai. "The Great Wave offShore at Kanagawa"; Methods for Implying
Depth 8i
Gateway to Art; Raphael. The Schoolof Athens: Perspective and the Illusion of Depth 89
Chapter 1.4 Light and Color 92

Color 92 Dimensions of Color 93
ColorSchemes 96
Our Perceptions of Color 99
Color in Design 101
Color and the Brain 103
Conclusion 105
FEATURE:
Gateway to Art; Matisse. Icarus . The Artist's Fascination with Color 97
Chapter 1.5 Time 106

T ime and Motion 106 Motion 108
Natural Processes and the Passage of Time 115
Conclusion 115
FEATURE:
Gateway to Art; Lange. Migrant Mother-. Time and Motion in Photography m
Chapter 1.6 Unity 116

Unity,Variety, and Variety 122
Balance 116 Balance 126
Conclusion 127
FEATURE:
Gateway to Art; Hokusai, "The Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa": A Masterpiece of Unity
and Harmony 117
Chapter 1.7 Scale 128
Scale and Proportion 131
Proportion 128 Conclusion 135
FEATURE:
Gateway to Art: Raphael. The Schoolof Athens: Scale and Proportion in a Renaissance
Masterpiece 133
Chapter 1.8 Emphasisand Subordination 136
Emphasis and Focal Focal Point 138
Point 136 Emphasisand Focal Point in Action 160
Conclusion ui
FEATURE:
Gateway to Art; Gentileschi. Judith Decapitating Holofernes: Emphasis Used to Create
Drama 139
Chapter 1.9 Pattern u2
Pattern and Rhythm U6
Rhvthm
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162 Conclusion 151
FEATURE:
Gateway to Art: Goya. The Third of May. 1808: Visual Rhythm in the Composition 150
Chapter 1.10 Content 152

Content and Modes of Analysis 156
Analvsis 152
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Imitationand IndividualStyle 162
Conclusion 163
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I PART 2 MEDIAAND PROCESSES 164 j
Chapter 2.1 Functions of Drawing 166
Drawing 166 TheMaterialsof Drawing: Dry Media 169
The Materials of Drawing: Wet Media m
Paper 176
The Drawing Process 177
Conclusion 179
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art; Raphael, The School of Athens: Drawing in the Design Process 168
Gateway to Art; Matisse. Icarus-. Line and Shape 178
Chapter 2.2 Encaustic 180

Painting 180 Tempera 181
Fresco 183
Oil 185
Acrylic 188
Watercolor and Gouache 188
Ink Painting 189
Spray Paint and Wall Art 190
Conclusion 191
FEATURES:
Melchor Peredo: Fresco Painting Inspired by the Mexican Revolution m
Gateway to Art; Ger\t\[escW\ Judith Decapitating Holofernes Paintings as Personal
Statements 187
Chapter 2.3 Context of Printmaking 192

Printmaking 192 ReliefPrintmaking 193
IntaglioPrintmaking 195
PlanographicPrintmaking 199
Editions 202
Monotypes and Monoprints 202
Conclusion 203
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art; Hokusai, "The Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa"; Using the Woodblock
Printing Method 195
Gateway to Art; Goya. The Third of May. 1808: Prints as Art and as
Creative Tools 198
Chapter 2.4 The Early History of Graphic Arts 204

Visual Graphic Design 206
Communication Layout Design 210
Design 204 Web Design 211
Conclusion 211
Chapter 2.5 Recording the Image 212

Photography 212 The History of Photography 212
Photographic Genres 215
Photojournalism 219
The Art of Photography 221
Conclusion 227
FEATURES:
Diagram of Film Photography Darkroom 215
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Gateway to Art: Lange, Migrant Mother. How the Photograph Was Shot 216
Steve McCurry: Howa PhotographerCapturesa Moment 220
Chapter 2.6 Moving Images before Film 228
Film/Video and Silent and Black-and-White Film 230
Digital Art 228 Sound and Color 231
Animation and Special Effects 232
Film Genres 235
Film as Art 236
Conclusion 239
FEATURE:
Bi llViola: How Did Video Become Art? 238
Chapter 2.7 Context of Alternative Media 240

Alternative Media Performance Art 241
and Processes 240 Conceptual Art 243
Installationand Environments 246
Conclusion 247
FEATURE:
Mel Chin: Operation Paydirt/Fundred Dollar Bill Project 245
Chapter 2.8 Ceramics 248

The Tradition of Glass 253
Craft 248 Metalwork 255
Fiber 256
Wood 258
Conclusion 259
FEATURES:
Hyo-ln Kim: Art or Craft: What's the Difference? 249
Gateway to Art: Colossal Olmec Heads: Sculpture in Stone and Clay 251
Faith Ringgold. Tar Beach. 1988 257
Chapter 2.9 Approaches to Three Dimensions in Sculpture 260
Sculpture 260 Methods of Sculpture 263
Light and Kinetic Sculpture 270
Installations 273
Conclusion 273
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art: Colossal Olmec Heads: HowSculptors Made the Colossal Heads 263
Michelangelo 264
Antony Gormley: Asian Field 272
Chapter 2.10 The Context of Architecture 274

Architecture 274 The Engineering and Science of Architecture 276
T raditional Construction in Natural Materials 276
The Emergence of Modern Materials and Modern Architecture 284
Contrasting Ideas in Modern Architecture 289
The Future of Architecture 291
Conclusion 291
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art: The Great Pyramid of Khufu: Mathand Engineering 277
Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye and Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater 286
ZahaHadid: ABuilding forExciting Events 290
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PART 3 HISTORY AND CONTEXT 292
Chapter 3.1 Prehistoric Art in Europe and the Mediterranean 295

The Prehistoric Mesopotamia: The Cradle of Civilization 298
and Ancient Ancient Egypt 300
Mediterranean 294 Art of Ancient Greece 304
Roman Art 309
Discussion Questions 312
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art;The Great Pyramid of Khufu: Belief in the Afterlife 301
Hieroglyphs 302
Zahi Hawass: The Golden Mask of King Tutankhamun 303
Classical Architectural Orders 306
Sculpture throughout Ancient Greece 308
Chapter 3.2 Art of Late Antiquity 315
Art of the Middle ByzantineArt 318
Ages 314 Manuscriptsand the Middle Ages 320
Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages 322
Symbolism in Medieval Churches 325
The Rise of the Gothic 327
From the Gothic to Early Renaissance in Italy 328
FEATURE:
Three Religions of the Middle Ages 316
Chapter 3.3 India 332

Art of India, China, China 336
and Japan 330 Japan 340
FEATURES:
Philosophical and Religious Traditions in Asia 331
TheThree Perfections: Calligraphy. Painting. Poetry 337
Sonoko Sasaki: Art and Tradition in Japan 341
Japonisme: The Influence of Ukiyo-e on French Artists 345
Gateway to Art: Hokusai, "The Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa"; Mount Fuji: The Sacred
Mountain of Japan 346
Chapter 3.4 The Americas: When's the Beginning? 348

Art of the South America 348
Americas 348 Mesoamerica 353
NorthAmerica 359
FEATURES:
How Do We Know? 349
The Importance of Wool 352
Gateway to Art: Colossal Olmec Heads: The Discovery of Monumental Portraits at
La Venta354
Chapter 3.5 Art of Africa 364
Art of Africa and the African Architecture 368
Pacific Islands 364 Art of the Pacific Islands 370
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FEATURE:
PaulTacon: Australian Rock Art 371
Chapter 3.6 The Early Renaissance in Italy 377

Art of Renaissance The High Renaissance in Italy 380
and Baroque Europe The Renaissance in Northern Europe 384
(1400-1750) 376 Late Renaissance and Mannerism 388
The Baroque 393
DiscussionQuestions 396
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art: Raphael, The Schoolof Athens-. Past and Present inthePainting 382
Pieter Bruegel: A Sampling of Proverbs 386
Depictions of David 392
Gateway to Art: Gentileschi. Judith Decapitating Holofemes: The Influence of Caravaggio 394
Chapter 3.7 Rococo 398

Art of Europe Neoclassicism 403
and America Romanticism 405
(1700-1900) 398 Realism 408
Impressionism 411
Post-lmpressionismand Symbolism 415
Fin desiecle and Art Nouveau 417
FEATURES:
European and American Art Academies: Making a Living as an Artist 400
Gateway to Art; Goya, The Third of May, 1808: The Artist and the Royal Family 406
Modern Sculpture: Auguste Rodin and Camille Claudel 414
The Museums of Paris 419
Chapter 3.8 The Revolution of Colorand Form 422
Twentieth and Expressionism 427
Twentv-First
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Dada 429
Centuries: The Age Surrealism 431
of G lobal Art 422 The Influenceof Cubism 433
AbstractExpressionism 437
Pop Art 438
Minimalism 441
Conceptual Art 442
Postmodernism, Identity, and Multiculturalism 443
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art: Matisse. Icarus : Cutouts as Finished Art 424
Gertrude Stein as an Art Patron 427
Religion and Symbolism in The Throne 440
Modern and Postmodern Architecture 444
The Complexity of Today's [Art] World 449
PART 4 THEMES 452
Chapter 4.1 Civic and Ceremonial Places 454

Art and Manmade Mountains 459
Community 454 Ritual: Performance, Balance, and Healing 464
Art in the Public Sphere 466
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FEATURES:
Art in Public Spaces 456
Gateway to Art;The Great Pyramid of Khufu: Community Art: The Building of
the Pyramids 460
Richard Serra; A Sculptor Defends His Work 466
Chapter 4.2 Deities 470

Spirituality Spiritual Beingsand Ancestors 472
and Art 470 Connecting with the Gods 474
Sacred Places 477
FEATURES:
What Makes a Place Sacred? 478
Gateway to Art: Matisse. Icarus: Designs with Cutouts 482
Chapter 4.3 Life's Beginnings and FamilyTies 484

Art and the Cvcle
4
Sacrifice, Death, and Rebirth 487
of Life 484 The Power of Nature 490
Judgment 492
FEATURE:
Gateway to Art:The Great Pyramid of Khufu; Astronomical Alignments of thePyramids 493
Chapter 4.4 Astronomical Knowledge in Art 496

Art and Science 496 Art Celebrating Science 498
Using Science to Create Art 500
The Science of Perception and the Senses 501
Science of the Mind 503
TheScientific Restoration of Artworks 506
FEATURE:
Martin Ramirez: Art Inspired by Insanity 505
Chapter 4.5 Artas an lllusionistic Window 508

Art and Illusion 508 lllusionism as Trickery 512
Illusionand the Transformation of Ideas 516
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art: Raphael. The School of Athens. Architectural Illusion 509
Satirizing lllusionism: Hogarth 'sFalse Perspective 518
Chapter 4.6 Regal Portraits 520
Art and Rulers 520 Art to Demonstrate Absolute Power 523
The Power toCommand 526
Art and Societal Control 528
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art: Colossal Olmec Heads; Portraits of Powerful Rulers 522
The Extravagance of the French Monarchy 524
Chapter 4.7 Documenting War: Unbiased Facts or Biased Judgments? 530

Art and War 530 Warriors and Scenes of Battle 534
The Artist's Response to War 537
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FEATURES:
Gateway to Art; Goya. The Third of May, 1808: Two Views of a Battle 532
Michael Fay; Storm andStone-. An Artist at War 538
Wafaa Bilal: Domestic Tension : An Artist's Protest agai nst War 5*0
Chapter 4.8 Art as Social Protest 562

Art of Social Art as the Object of Protest 566
Conscience 562 Memorialsand Remembrance 551
FEATURES:
Dan Tague; Art Made from DollarBills 563
Gateway to Art; Lange. Migrant Mother. The Impact and Ethics of Documentary
Photography 567
Iconoclasm; Destruction of Religious Images 550
Chapter 4.9 Archetypal Images of the Body 556

The Bodv in Art
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556 IdealProportion 556
Notions of Beauty 557
Performance Art; The Body Becomes the Artwork 562
The Body in Pieces 565
FEATURES:
Reclining Nudes 560
Spencer Tunick; Human Bodiesas Installations 566
Gateway to Art; Matisse, Icarus ; The Blue Nude-. Cutouts and the Essence of Form 566
Chapter 4.10 Gendered Roles 568

Art and G ender 568 Feminist Critique 572
Blurring the Lines: Ambiguous Genders 575
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art; Lange. Migrant Mother The Image of Motherhood 570
CindySherman: The Artist and Her Identity 571
Gateway to Art: Gentileschi. Judith Decapitating Holofemes; Professional Painter
of Women 573
Chapter 4.11 Making a Self-portrait 578

Expression 578 Finding an Artistic Voice 582
Borrowing an Image 588
FEATURES:
Gateway to Art; Gentileschi, Judith Decapitating Holofemes-. Self- Expression in the Judith
Paintings 583
Mona Hatoum; Art, Personal Experience, and Identity 585
Glossary 590
Further Reading 598
Sources of Quotations 602
Illustration Credits 605
Image Numbering/Acknowledgments 611
Index 612
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How to Use Gateways to Art:

Understanding the Visual Arts
Gateways to Art is a new introduction to appreciate art. But you can also choose your
/
the visual arts, divided into four parts: own patli. For example, in the Introduction
Fundamentals, the essential elements we discuss how art can be defined and
and principles of art that constitute the what it contributes to our lives. This might
"language" of artworks; Media, the many be a great time to read chapter 2.8, "The
materials and processes that artists use to Tradition of Craft," which deals with
make art; History,the forces and influences media that artists have used for centuries
that have shaped art throughout the to create artworks, butwhich in our
course of human history; and Themes, the Western culture have sometimes been
major culturaland historicalthemes that considered less important than "fine art."
have motivated artists to create. Each of You couldalso readthe discussion of
these parts is color coded to help you Japanese art in chapter 3.3, ".Art of India,
move easilvfrom one section to the next.
/
China, and Japan," where you will discover
Gateways to Art gives you complete that in Japan an expertly made kimono
flexibility in findingyour own pathway to (an item of traditional clothing), for
understanding and appreciating art. Once example, is appreciated as much as a
you have read the Introduction, which painting or a print that in our culture are
outlines the core knowledge and skills you usually considered more prestigious. After
will need to analyze and understand art, considering the contrast between human
you can read the chapters of our book proportion in the art of Ancient Greece
in any order.Each chapter is entirely and of Africa in chapter 1.7, " Scale and
modular, giving you just the information Proportion," you could next read chapter
you needwhen you need it. Concepts 4.9, "The Body in Art," to understandhow
are clearly explained and definitions of some artists have attempted to devise
terminology in the margins ensure that rules to portray the "perfect" body,while
you are never at a loss to understand a term. others have represented the human body
This means that you can learn about art as they see it in daily reality, challenging
in the order that works best for you. You traditional notions of beauty.
can, of course, readthe chapters in the order Gateways to Art aims to demonstrate
/
that they are printed in the book. This will how rewarding it is to look at a great work
certainly tell you all you need to know to of art many times and always discover
HOW TO USE GATEWAYS TO ART 13
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something new because there are many University, and the University of Texas at
ways of seeing and analyzing an artwork. Dallas. She has devised an award-winning
That is why our booktakes its title from a online art appreciation course at
unique new feature, not found in any other UT Arlington.
art appreciation textbook: what we call
the "Gateways to Art." Through eight Ralph M. Larmann
iconic works of world art (introduced on has a BFA from the University of
pp. 16-25),we will invite you to come Cincinnati and an MFA from James
back to these Gateways and look again to Madison University He currently teaches
discover something new: about the design at the University of Evansville and is a past
characteristics of the work; the materials President of Foundations in Art: Theory
with which it was made; the historical era and Education.
and culture that influenced its creation; or
how the work expressed something personal M. Kathryn Shields
(for example the artist's character, gender, has a PhD in art history from Virginia
or political views). These discussions also Commonwealth University and has
sometimes provide a comparison with taught at the University of Texas Arlington
another work on the same subject, or and at Guilford College.
consider what the artwork tells us about the
great mysteries of our existence, such as
spirituality or the cycle of life and death. Resources for
We hope this will encourage you to revisit Instructors
not only our Gateways, but also other
works, and continue to enjoy them for • The authors of Gateways to Art have
/
years to come.
/
written an Instructors' Manualthat is
Our Gateways to Art boxes are just one
Hi
1 Fifteen media and orocess
of numerous features we provide to help MEDIA AND PROCESSES videos made by art educators
you in your studies. Inmany chapters you at Bowling Green State
University demonst'ate how
will find Perspectives on Art boxes, in art 's made.
which artists, art historians, critics, and Glass
others involved in the world of art explain
Gateways to Art:
howdiverse people involved in art think
rn
Uiidemon flsumlAnt
and work. Other boxes will, for example,
help you to focus in depth on a single "£* Thame* a Mudaon
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artwork, or alternately to compare and
2 Twenty videos examine
contrast artworks that deal with a s imilar ndividual artworks in
subject or theme. Thomas Cole: depth or set a work
The Oxbow in a oÿoade" context.
The Authors A/ Gateways to Am

Understanding the Visual Aits
Debra J. DeWitte
has studied art history at the University
of Texas Arlington, Southern Methodist TtunwiaMKdso"
U HOW TO USE GATEWAYS TO ART
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available in print and digital form. In
addition, they have created a test bank Line, Shape and the Principle of Contrast:
Functions of Line
that is available in print, on disk with
free software, and also as a download Definition of line
from our instructors'website. Function of lint*
Contour line
• Images from the book are available as Communiaiivellne
Jpegs and PowerPoint slides. Contact Definitionof Shape
your W. W. Norton representative for Geomeuic and Organic Shape
Positiveand Negative Shape
details.
• The authors have worked with a team
of art educators and digital art
specialists at the Bowling Green State
Unirersity to create a range of
Goya uses directional linetoguideourattentiontospecifica reasof thecomposition. he-ghteningthe dram3and emotional
high-quality media to enrich your impactofthisvioient scene.
teaching:
51 multimedia animations to
3 Fifty-one Interactive Exercises help students to
demonstrate kev elements and
/
understand the elements and princ'oles o: art.
principles of art
U A ;_ee and open student website o'esents an array o:
15 videos demonstrating how art
review opportunities, us'ng the analytical framework o;
is made the te>:t throughout
20 video presentations that provide

a multimedia presentation of key Thames k Hudson
works of world art.

GATEWAYS ChWUic * Ljrms
For full details of all instructors' resources urtov r*«t

• fMU w« Min
go to thamesandhudsonusa.com/college.
StudySpace
Your Place for a Better Grade
Resources for fcuOySoictirtii

iiit'Mniidti (»<•"
Students
.UC-.VTfci t \ imikUiiam
Our student website offers a wide range of . M I'lUraiUraHin

review materials designed to improve your
understanding and your grades: self-test >.»I•iiiaaL • ul >•«•< ra anII. B«a» .4 a-
.•• iui nk .
iKtaimn
..I IK *.«
quizzes; flash cards; chapter summaries; a

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glossary, multimedia demonstrations of »»'« I
>v.«m imi
key concepts; and videos that explain how laaojn whim m.' •»: ÿ
art is made. Other content-rich resources ** 04 W • *» »*••!«< OF

Quiz*
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for students include an audio glossary of nr.oi
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llMalllta Hmm*
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hllm axra.1111W> II. HwuiaXIUMKIUlium
foreign- language terms and artists' names. .kiÿiMikrxx
For full details of our student resources go to

tliamesandhudsonusa.com/gateways_to_art.
HOW TO USE GATEWAYS TO ART 15
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Gateway
J
Features for
Gateways to Art
One of the important lessons you will You can appreciate a work of art by
learn from this book is that every time you examining it closely from one or more of
look at a great work of art, it will have these perspectives. You can also learn more
something new to say to you. Ifyou about one work bystudying another and
consider, for example, the way an artist comparing the two. For example, consider
designed the work, you may notice how an artist might depict a famous event,
something about the use of color or such as a battle, or render the dramatic
contrast that had not struck vou before.
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plight of sailors whose boat is caught in
When you study the mediumthe artist a terrible storm, or the poignancy of a
chose (such as the particular choice of family ruinedbv an economic disaster.
/ r
paint or the printing method selected), The artist might choose a large-scale work
you will appreciate how it contributed to that shows the enormous impact of events
the overall impact of the work. on a large number of people. But an
Another approach that we can take alternativewould be to create a work on
to an artwork is to look at it from a much more intimate scale, showing
a historical point of view: how does this how such events affect a single person or
work reflect the circumstances and the a family, or even portraying that family in
societv in which it was created? Does it
/
a moment of rest and quiet before the
express the values of those who held enormity of events becomes apparent.
political and economic power, or could There are many possible approaches
it tell us something about the status of to art, and to help you develop the
women at the time? Alternately, you could important skills of looking at, analyzing,
ask yourself whether the work addresses and interpreting works of art, we have
issues that have absorbed the attention of selected eight iconic works—the "Gateways
artists ever since humans began to paint, to Art"—which vou will encounter
/
draw, and make sculpture. Does it touch repeatedly as you read this book.
on very big questions, such as the nature Each time you see one, you will learn
of the universe, or life and death? Or is it something new about art and how to
engaged with more personal concerns, appreciate it. Let's begin bytaking our
such as gender,sexuality and our first look at the Gateways in the pages
own identities? that follow.
GATEWAY FEATURES 17
The Giza Pyramids FUNDAMENTALS
Three pyramids on the Giza plateau in Egypt, 12 (p. 64) Understand how the massive
southwest of Cairo, Egypt's modern capital, geometric forms of the pyramids reflect the
a re great monuments to the civilization of formality andorder of ancient Egyptian art.
ancient Egypt. They were built to house the
tombs of three Egyptian kings, or pharaohs: MEDIAAND PROCESSES
Khufu, his son Khafre, and Menkaure, son of
Khafre. Construction of the first pyramid 2.10 (p.277) Learn how the ancient Egyptians
began about 2551 BCEand allthree were usedtheir mathematical and engineering skills to
completed over three generations. buildthe pyramids.
The pyramids, built of stone clad in fine
white limestone,were a Iso temples to the HISTORY AND CONTEXT
gods worshiped byancient Egyptians. The
pharaohs who were buried there were believed 3.1 (p. 301) Discover how the bodies of Egyptian
to be representatives of the gods. The Great pharaohs were prepared for burial in their tombs
Pyramid of Khufu stands 481 feet high. deep inside the pyramids.
The central pyramid built by King Khafre
is 471 feet tall, slightly smallerthan his THEMES
father's. The height of Menkaure's pyramid
is 213% feet. 4.1 (p. 460) See how these great structures were
achieved through ahuge communal effort.
4.3 (p. 493) Learn how the ancient Egyptians
usedtheir mathematical and astronomicalskills
to align their pyramids with the points of the
compass and with the stars.
18 GATEWAY FEATURES
The Colossal Olmec FUNDAMENTALS
Heads 1.2 (p. 70) See how Olmec artists used the sheer
mass of colossal heads to create a sense of power.
The Olmecs, a people who lived on the Gulf
Coast of eastern Mexico from about 2500 bce MEDIAAND PROCESSES
to 400 CE, were great sculptors of stone.
Probably sometime around 900 bce they 2.8 (p. 251) Compare the colossal heads with an
made colossal heads likethe one shown here. Olmec ceramic sculpture.
These are amongst the most impressive 2 .9 (p. 263) Learn how the colossal heads were
sculptures of ancient Mexico. Seventeen such sculpted.
headshave been discovered at four sites.
They range in size from five to twelve feet tall HISTORY AND CONTEXT
and weigh approximately six to twenty-five
tons each. All portray mature males with flat 3.4 (p. 354) Experience the discovery and
noses, large cheeks, and slightly crossed eyes excavation of four colossal heads found buried at
Many scholars believethat the heads depict LaVenta, Mexico.
individual Olmec rulers.
THEMES
4.6 (p. 522) Examine how the evidence suggests

that the colossal heads were portraits of
Olmec rulers.
GATEWAY FEATURES 19
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Raphael, FUNDAMENTALS
The School ofAthens 13 (p. 89) Understand how the illusion of three-
dimensional depth is created on a flat surface.
In 1510-11 the Italianartist Ra phael(1483- 1.7 (p. 133) Discern how the artist drew the
1520) painted one of the great works of the attention of theviewer to the figures in the center
Italian Renaissance, The School of Athens. of the painting.
This was one of four wall paintings
commissioned by Pope Julius IIto decorate MEDIAAND PROCESSES
the Stanza della Segnatura (his private
library) intheVatican Palace in Rome, Italy. 2.1 (p. 168) Study how Raphael used drawings
The Schoolof Athens measures 16 'A feet high to plan and design this large wall painting.
by 25 feet wide.
The Schoolof Athens derives its name from HISTORY AND CONTEXT
the reputation of Athens, Greece, as the great
center of Classical learning, and from the 3.6 (p. 382) See how- Raphael used famous
painting's subject matter: the work depicts artists of his time as models for portraits of great
an imaginary gathering of the great scholars thinkers from ancient Greece and Rome.
of ancient Greece and Rome.
THEMES
4.5 (p. 509) Visualize how* the other paintings in

Pope Julius's library work in harmony with The
School of Athens to create the illusion of an
architecturally compellingspace.
20 GATEWAY FEATURES
c
Artemisia Gentileschi, FUNDAMENTALS
Judith Decapitating 1.8 (p. 139) Observe how the artist directs the
viewer's eye towardthe decapitated head.
Holofernes
MEDIAAND PROCESSES
Around 1613-1 4, the Italianartist Artemisia
Gentileschi (1593-c. 1656) made a dramatic
2.2 (p. 187) Examine Gentileschi's paintings as
painting of the story from the Old Testament
personal statements.
of the Israelite heroineJudith killing the
Assyrian general Holofernes,who had been
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
sent by his king to punish the Israelites for
notsupporting his reign. Gentileschi's
3.6 (p. 394) Compare Gentileschi's style with
dramatic work, executed in oil paint on
that of a leading male painter of her time.
canvas, and measuring 6 feet 6 inches by 5 feet
4 inches addressed a subject that was popular
THEMES
among painters of the Baroque era. The artist
is remarka ble,however, as a woman who
4.10 (p. 573) Discover how Gentileschi focused
was determined to succeed in the male-
her art on portraying women.
dominated art world of her time.
4.11 (p. 583) Interpret this painting as a response
to Gentileschi's experience as a victim of rape.
GATEWAY FEATURES 21
C
Francisco Goya, FUNDAMENTALS
The Third ofMay, 1808 1.1 (p. 54) Analyze Goya's use of line to guide the
viewer' s eye through his painting.
In 1814 the Spanish a rtist Francisco Goya 1.9 (p. 150) Understand how Goya uses visual
(1746-1828) painted a dramatic depiction of
rhythm to direct our attention to the victims of
war, The Third of May, 1808. Goya's work shows the French troops.
Spanish patriots being executed by invading
French troops. This large oil painting (it MEDIAAND PROCESSES
measures 8 feet 4 inches by 11 feet 4 inches)
was commissioned by King Ferdinand of Spain 2.3 (p. 198) Study the connection between
who had recently returned to the throne after Goya's famous print series Disasters of War and
the defeat of the French. Goya's work is his painting.
generally considered one of the finest
portrayals of the horrors of war. HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.7 (p. 406) Examine Goya's relationship with

Spain's royal family through his paintings.
THEMES
4.7 (p. 532) Consider how- Goya's painting of

Spanish resistance to the Frenchinvaders might
add to your views of the war depicted in The
ThirdofMay, 1808.
22 GATEWAY FEATURES
c
S3
Katsushika Hokusai, FUNDAMENTALS
"The Great Wave off 1.3 (p. 81) Examine the techniques Hokusai
used to give the illusion of depth on a flat surface.
Shore at Kanagawa" 1.6 (p. 117) Study how Hokusai arranges the
elements of his composition to create a
KatsushikaHokusai (1760-1869) is regarded
harmonious design.
as one of the great est Japanese printmakers.
In 1831 he published a series of woodblock
MEDIAAND PROCESSES
prints titled Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji : the
prints were so successful that in fact he made
2.3 (p. 195) Investigate the process Hokusai used
46 of them. All feature a view of Japan's sacred
to make this woodblock print.
mountain, Fuji. One of the prints, "The Great
Wave off Shore at Kanagawa," measuring 8 feet
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
2 inches by 12 feet 2 inches, portrays a dramatic
scene of fishermen caught in a storm at sea.
3.3 (p. 346) Learn about the importance of
Interestingly, Hokusai'swork became popular
Mount Fuji inJapanese culture.
in Europe before itdid in Japan.
GATEWAY FEATURES 23
C
Dorothea Lange FUNDAMENTALS
MigrantMother 1.5 (p. 114) Study the sequence of images taken

by Lange to see how time and motion are
The black-and-white photograph of a homeless captured even in a still photograph.
and hungry family, Migrant Mother, iswidely
recognized as an iconic image of the hardships MEDIAAND PROCESSES
of the Great Depression of the 1930s in
America. The documentary photographer *ÿ2.5 (p. 216) Read Dorothea Lange's own account
Dorothea Lange (1895-1965)tookthe picture of how and why she took photos of this family.
in 1936. She had been hired by a government
agency, the Farm Security Administration, THEMES
to record social and economic conditions in
California. Since then, Migrant Mother has been 4.8 (p. 547) Understand how the image became
frequently reproduced as a record of American a symbol of society's responsibility towardthe
social history. poor, and how the work and its reception affected
the family it portrayed.
4.10 (p. 570) Analyze the presentation of
motherhood in Lange's portrait.
24 GATEWAY FEATURES
c
U/KL TTtaTTlCÿ
cJc'6l.'&£A •
Henri Matisse, FUNDAMENTALS
Icarus 1.4 (p. 97) Appreciate what Icarus tells us about

Matisse's explorations of color.
Frenchman Henri Matisse (1869-1954) is
recognized as one of the most important artists MEDIAAND PROCESSES
of the twentieth century for his interest in the
vivid use of color, his exploration of the 2.1 (p. 178) Study how Matisse usedline and
treatment of the human figure, and his work shape to create form.
in an impressive range of media. His work
includes painting, drawing, printmaking, HISTORY AND CONTEXT
sculpture, and graphic and interior design.
He is also well-known for his "cutouts," works 3.8 (p. 424) Learnwhat led Matisse to begin
made from pieces of painted cut paper. creating cutouts.
The bold use of color and shape in Icarus,
a work published in 1947 in a book called Jazz, THEMES
is characteristic of Matisse's work. This piece
is also an example of the way Matisse could 4.2 (p. 482) Understand how Matisse used
work across different media. Icarus (the title cutouts to design inmany media, including
refers to a young man in Greek mythology who creating the entire interior of a chapel.
made wings so that he could fly) was designed 4.9 (p. 566) Read Matisse's own words as he
as a cutout, and then made into astencilto explains how he distilled forms to their simple
be printed in the book. essential truth.
GATEWAY FEATURES 25
c
Introduction
was an unconventional character, we cannot

What Is Art? be certain that the story is true,because
Maple Leaves on a River no longer exists. If we
The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai (1760— think about this curious story for a while,
1849) is said to have created a painting, titled however, we can begin to understand the most
MapleLeaves on a River,bv dipping the feet of basic question addressed in thisbook:What is
a chicken in red paint and letting the bird run art? This question is not an easy one to answer,
freely ona sheet of paper he had iust covered because people define art in many individual
inblue paint. Although we know that Hokusai ways. In Hokusai's case, he wanted to make
viewers of hiswork feel the peaceful sensations
of a fall dayby a river,without actually showing
them what a real river andreal leaveslook like.
In this instance, art communicated a sensation to
its audience.
In nineteenth-century Japan, art couldbe a
means to encourage the quiet contemplation of
nature, but to an Egyptian artist almost 3,000
years earlier, art would have meant something
very different. The Egyptian who in the tenth
century BCE decorated the wooden coffin of
Nespawershefiwith a painting of the Sun god
Re had a quite different idea of rivers in mind
from the one Hokusai conceived. For ancient
Egyptians, rivers wereimportant for survival.
The Egyptians depended on the flooding of the
River Nile to grow their crops. Rivers also had
religious significance. Egyptians believedthat
during the daytime Re sailed across a great
celestial ocean in his day boat. By night,the Sun
god traveled in his evening boat along a river in
0.1 7?ie journeyofthe Sun GodRe. detail from the nne-

coi;in o; Nespswersher, Th:-d lnte_rred'ate Fe-iod.
??0-?6? BCE. Plastered and oainted wood. FitzwilLam
Museum, Cambridge. England
26 INTRODUCTION
c
0.2 William G. Wall. Fort the underworld,butbeforehe could rise again continent could depict a river in yet another
Edward. ;-om The Hudson he had to defeat his enemy, the serpent Apophis, way. For William Wall (1792-1864), working
River Portfolio. 1B20.
Hand-colored aquatint,
which in 0.1 canbe seen swimming in the river. in the United States inthe early nineteenth
UV:x 21 Vs" Here the river is again suggested rather than century, rivers andthe landscape of which they
being realistically portrayed. It is a place of formed part were a vehicle for expressing
danger, not of contemplation, and if Re does not nationalistic sentiment and a way of celebrating
emerge victorious, the world will be deprived of the expansion and development of America.
the life-giving light of the Sun. Re,who in the Wall published the first book that made
image is seated, is protectedby another god Americans aware of the sublime beauty of their
carrying a spear. He travels with several attenda nts, own scenery. The work shown here is Fort
including a baboon. The choice of this subject Edward (0.2). Wall produced an attractive scene,
was appropriate for a coffin: no doubt but this was not all he wan ted to communicate
Nespawershefi hoped to emerge from the to his audience. His print recallsthe struggles
underworld to live a happy afterlife,just as Re rose of empire- and nation-building that tookplace
again every morning. For the painter of this coffi n, on this site. As the artist noted:"The ploughshare
art was a way to express profound religious ideas now peacefully turns up the soilmoistened by
and to invoke beliefs in a happy life after death. the blood of thousands: the dust of the merciless
Both of theworks we haveexamined so far Indianandthe ambitious European repose in
Medium: the material on or are paintings, even though they were painted awful amity together." As if to remind us that
from which an artist chooses to
on different materials for different purposes. the time of the Indianhas been replacedby new
make a work of art
Print: a picture reproduced on Ifwe consider another medium, a print, we can ways of life,a lone Indian woman passes in front
paper, often in multiple copies see how another artist from a different era and of prosperous European farmsteads. .Although
INTRODUCTION 27
C
Wall painted an original watercolor of this
scene, the print was made by another artist,
John Hill.
Finally, before we try to come to some
conclusions about the definition of art, consider
a work by Louise Neyelson (1899-1988) that also
features a river, or,more precisely; a waterfall ( 0 .3).
Nevelsonconstr uctedtwenty-five pa int ed
rectangular and square wooden sections
inside an overall rectangular frame, measuring
18 x 9 ft. Inside some of the rectangles we can see
undulating curved forms that suggest a cascading
waterfall or the froth of white water. Other forms
in the upper right of the square resemble squirmin g
fish. Clearly; Nevelson's purpose inthis artwork
is not to show to us an instantly recognizable
likeness of a waterfall full of fish. Insteadwe
are invited to examine closely her carefully
constructedworkandto feel the sensations of
watchingwater cascade and fish swimming.
Ifwegoback to our original question, what
is art?, can our consideration of these four very-
different works help us to find a quick and
simple definition that will tell us whether we are
looking at something called art? These four works
certainly do not have much in common in terms
of their appearance. The definition also cannot
include a common range of materials (in fact, art
can be made from almost anything). We cannot
define art in terms of the kind of choices an artist
makes: very few artworks involve a live chicken,
but Hokusaiused one to makehis painting. Nor
do these works have a common purpose. The
Egyptian coffin painting has a clear religious
message. Wall's print portrays a beautiful
landscapebut also carries a powerful message of
nationalism and colonial conquest. Hokusai's
painting used very simple means to convey restful
sensations. Nevelson's work also focuses on
communicatingthe sensation sofbeing by a river,
but in her case with a meticulously constructed
geometric suggestion of one.
Perhaps the works do have some things in
common, however. We can see that artworks
0.3 Louise Nevelson, VMe Vertical Water. 1972. Painted

wood. 13x9'. Solomon R. Guggenhe'm Museum, NewYork
28 INTRODUCTION
C
communicate ideasand emotions (religious
feelings or the sensation of watching beautiful
fall foliage, for example). The communicationof
ideas by visual means can help us see the world
in new and excitingways and strengthen our
understanding. Inother words, art is a form of
language. Inour contemporary world, some
people holdthe opinion that art has no
boundaries, and that anything can be a work
of art. In thisbook we will examine about 750
artworks made over thousands of years and in
all parts of the world, but there will still be mam-
kinds of art that we v\Tll not have space to include.
The language of art is a livingentity that is
constantlyevolving and changing. Perhaps the
most important qualities an artwork can possess
are the ability to move the spectator; to convev
a message; or to inspire thoughts a person
would not otherwise havehad.
Where Is Art?
.Although so far we haveexamined only four
works of art,you have probably already figured
out that there is no single place in which we can
find art. We can discover it in a coffin, a book,
or a museum. In the modern world we go to
museumÿndÿitÿalleneÿ—institutions
established specifically to display and care for
artworks. Ifwe visit a major museum, such as
the Metropolit an Museum of .Art in New \brk
or the British Museum inLondon,we will see
that visitors have come from just about even-
count rv intheworld. But ifwe consider only
works that are displayed in museums and
galleries,we will ignore many works that are town"). Rodia, a construction worker, made his 0.4 Simon Rodia, Watts
certainly art. In fact, a great deal of art exists structures out of materials he found or that local Towers, 1921-54. Seventeen
mortar- cove red steel
outside such institutions. people brought to him. The towers are made of sculptures with mosaic.
You almost certainly have some art in your steel rods and pipes, wire mesh, and mortar,and 99VV high at tallest point.
home: perhaps a painting in the living room, a decorated with bits of broken glass and potter}-. 1761-1765 East 107th Street.
Los Angeles. Cal;orn'a
poster in your bedroom, or a beautifully made Rodia' s neighbors andthe City of Los.Angeles did
flower vase. In parks or other public spaces not approve of his work, and efforts were made to
in most cities there are sculptures and memorials. destroy it,but in 1990 it was named a National
From 1921 to 1954 Simon Rodia built seventeen Historic Landmark.
interconnected structures ona residential lot in In most American cities there are civic
a neighborhood of Los .Angeles ( 0.4). Rodia's buildings (such as the courthouse or the
Watercolor. transparent paint
work is now known as the Watts Towers, although Capitol) that were designed to impress and to made from pigment anda binder
he named it Nuestro Pueblo (Spanish for "our communicate something about the strength of dissolved inwater
INTRODUCTION 29
c
0.5 Thomas Jefferson, the Republic and itsinstitutions. The Virginia The great temples of ancient Egypt,Greece, and
Virginia State Cao:tol
State Capitol (0.5), designed by Thomas Jefferson, Rome were certainly not the work of one person,
Building. 17S5-S. Court End
District. R'chmond. Virgin "a was modeled closely on a famous ancient Roman and in some cases,we cannot tell iftheir overall
temple in Nimes,France,built 1,800years before design was the idea of a single individual.
Jefferson's building. It thereby drew on the .Archaeologists have discovered in the Valley of
symbolic power of ancient Rome. the Kings in Egypt an entire village, Deir el-
Medina,which was occupied by artisans who
made the great monuments that we admire today.
Who Makes Art? The cathedrals of medieval Europe were the
result of the skills of many different artists and
Who decides what an artworklookslike? The artisans: stone carvers, the makers of stained-
simple answer might seem to be the artist who glass windows, and carpenters who made the
makes it. We know that art hasbeen made for furniture. These skilledworkers remain mostly
thousands ofyears: at least since humans first anonymous, except for a very few whose names
painted images on the walls of caves, and havebeen found in manuscripts or carved on
probably long before then. Much artwork made works of art—for example, the sculptor
in the past has not survived, however, so we do Gislebertus carved his name on sculptures that
not know what it looked like. Even when art did adornthe cathedral of Autun, France. But
survive, we often have no idea who made it. though we may never identify most of these
30 INTRODUCTION
c
early artists, it is clear that humans have always artists createdworkshops staffed bv artist
wanted to make art. This urge is part of our assistants who carried out most of the work
nature, iust like our need to eat and sleep. involved in turning their master's design
Inthe nineteenth and twentieth centuries into a work of art. Innineteenth-century Japan,
in the Western -world, the popular idea of the the eccentric Hokusai was famous aroundthe
artist was of a lone individual creating his ot¬ world for his prints, but he could not have made
her own work to express somethingvery them alone. A wood carver cut his designs into
personal. In these centuries it became more blocks from which a printer manufactured
common for artists to create their own work, copies. Even today, some famous artists, such
and, in their search for new forms of self- as Jeff Koons, employ other artists to realize
expression, to make art that was often very their ideas (0.6).
controversial. But for many centuries before In other words, there is no simple definition
this,very few artists worked alone. Renaissance to enable us to tell who is an artist andwho is
0.6 Jeff Koons, Rabbit. 1 936.

Sta'nless steel, 41x19x12".
Edition of 3 and artist's proo:
Medieval: relating to the Middle

Ages; roughly,between the fall
of the Roman Empire and
the Renaissance
Renaissance: a period of
cultural and artistic change in
Europe from the fourteenth to
the s eventee nth c enturv
INTRODUCTION 31
not. Ifwe take a global view,we certainly surface, and its shape. It was designed to be
cannot define an artist bv what he or she made. appreciated slowly as the user sipped tea. The
InWestern culture during some eras of history, artist who made this bowl worked at roughly
particularly since the Renaissance, painting the same time as the Italian Renaissance artist
and sculpture havebeen considered to be the Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), but the two
most important categories of art ("high art"), had different ideas of what it meant to be an
while others, such as ceramics and furniture, artist. The Japanese maker of the tea bowl
havebeen considered less important. The term worked in a society that valued tradition.
craft was usually applied to such works, and Japanese artists followed with supreme skill
their makers were consideredlessskilled or the establishedmethods of working and making.
of lower status than painters and sculptors. Leonardo,however, became famous in an era
This distinction arose partly because the cost in Europe thatvalued individual ingenuity.
of producing a fine painting or a beautifully He was a supremely talented artist whose
carvedmarble statue was high. Therefore, those visionary interests and inventions extended
became status symbols of the r ich and powerful. far beyond the visual arts,to engineering and
In other cultures the relative importance of science. Between 1500 and 1503 he created
different forms of art was quite different. The a portrait that is probably the most famous
people of ancient Peru seem to have placed painting in the world. Leonardo was not
special value on wool, andthose who made fine content to create a likeness of the subject (Lisa
woolen textiles were likely considered as skillful as Gherardini, wife of a silk merchant inFlorence).
a painter wouldbe in our society. In China the art The Mona Lisa smiles and looks out at the
of calligraphy (elegantly painted lettering) was viewer, inviting us to seek in her face, her pose,
considered one of the highest forms of art. andthe surrounding landscape a meditation
A Chinese encyclopedia of 624 CE included on the human soul ( 0.8). Both the tea cup and
calligraphy and painting in"Skills and arts," the portrait are great works of art, but they
alongside, for example, archery and chess. displayvery different ideas of what it means to
For centuries, in Japan, such ceramic objects be an artist.
as tea bowls havebeen highly esteemed for their We must also consider that artworks are
beauty. The bowl seen in 0.7 would havebeen not only the result of the work of thosewho
prized for its subtle variations of color, the made them, but are also influenced by the input
pleasant tactile sensations of its slightly irregular ofothers: the patrons who employ an artist
0.7 Tea bowl. 16th century.

Stoneware with red glaze
[Karatsu ware). 3x
Indianapolis Museum o; Art
32 INTRODUCTION
Calligraphy: the arc of emotive
or carefully descriptive hand
lettering or handwriting
Ceramic fire- hardened day,
often painted, and normally
sealed with shiny protective
coating
Patron: an organization or
individualwho sponsors the
creation of works of art
ÿ
Ik
0.8 Leonardo da Vine',

MonaLisa, 1503. Oil on wood.
30Vsx 20 V. Musee du
Louvre. Paris. France
to make a work; the collectors who buy it; and help to determine what art we see, and to some
the dealers and gallery owners who sell it. In extent the)- can influence what we consider to
contemporary times,both the publicist who be art. By controlling access to those who buy-
presents artworks and the critic who reviews art, the places where art is displayed, and the
them in a newspaper, on TV, or on the Internet media that inform the public about art and
help to make an artist's work well known and artists, the)- also ofteninfluence what kind of
desirable. All of these people, not iust the artist, art an artist actually produces.
INTRODUCTION 33
C
Gogh (1853-1890). In his ten years as an active
artist,Van Gogh produced about 1,000 drawings,
sketches andwatercolors, as well as around
1,250 other paintings. Very few- people saw his
work in his lifetime, however; he received onlv
one favorable notice in a newspaper; hiswork
wÿas shown in only one exhibition; and he
sold only one painting. Yet today his work is

extraordinarily famous, it sells for millions of
dollars, and in his native Netherlands an entire
museum is devoted to hiswork.
The training of artists also helps to
determine w*ho makes art andwhat art is
show-nin galleries and museums. For example,
traditional training for painters in China focused
on the passing of artistic skill from a master to
his students,who learned by copying hisworks
and those of other famous artists. Only scholars
and government officials couldbecome
professional painters. Other painterswere
0.9 Titian, Isabellad'Este. considered to be just craftspeople whose work
1 536. Oil on canvas. 4QV. x was of lower status. In medieval Europe,only
25 .'. ". Kunstnistorisches those trained in associations of craftsmen called
Museum, Vienna, Austria
guilds were allowed to make works of art. For
example, there were guilds of carpenters,
One individualwho greatly impacted the glassmakers, and goldsmiths. The system in
production and presentation of art was Isabella Europe changed in the sixteenth century. Schools
d'Este (1474-1539), Marchesa of the city of called Academies were organized (first in Italy)
Mantua, Italy, and the wife of the ruler of the city, to train artists in a very strict curriculum devised
which she governed in her husband's absence. by specialized teachers. It was very difficult to
As an influential patron of the arts, Isabella succeed as an artist without being trained in an
funded a variety of artists to create luxurious Academy. In modern Europe and NorthAmerica,
objects for her collections,including such things most practicing artists are trained in art schools,
as gems, musical instruments, manuscripts, which are sometimes independent schools,but
and ceramics. Her money and tastes therefore often part of a university or college that teaches
played an important part in determining many different subjects. It is possible, but more
what art was produced in Mantua. Titian's difficult, for artists who have not been formally
(1485- 1576) portrait of the Marchesa presents trained in this way to succeed in having their
her as a formidable woman who enjoys the finer work displayed and sold.
things in life ( 0.9) . This elegant woman w-ears
a turban she designed, fine embroidered clothes,
and a white ermine stole (a sign of wealth and The Value of Art
refinement) over her shoulder. Although
the Marchesa wÿas in her sixties when she On November 8, 2006 a sale at Christie's auction
commissionedthis painting,T itian portrays house in New York City broke records byselling
her as a youthful beauty. 491 milliondollars' worth of artworks. The most
Fame and success do not always come in an expensive item for sale that eveningwas a
artist's lifetime. Perhaps the most famous portrait of Adele Bioch- Bauer II( 0.10), painted in
example of this isthe Dutch painter Vincent van 1912 by the Austrian artist Gustav Klimt (1862-
3A INTRODUCTION
19 18) .It sold for S 135 million. Klimt made a sold in 2006. One reason for the painting's
comfortable living from painting portraits of increase in price was its controversial histon-.
the wives andsistersof wealthy Austrian In 1938 it had been lootedby the Nazis,who had
businessmen,but in his own lifetime he was occupied .Austria, andthe work later became
certainly never paid anything like the enormous the subject of a law-suit by the heirs of the
sum for which his portrait of MrsBloch-Bauer Bloch-Bauer family.
0.10 Gustav Klimt.Adele

Bloch-Bauer, 1912. Oil on
canvas, 6' 27; X 3 1 1Vt" .
" '
Private collection
Manuscripts: handwritten texts

Guilds: medieval associations o?
artists, craftsmen, or tradesmen
Academies: institutions
training artists in both the
theory of art and practical
techniques
INTRODUCTION 35
C
Perspectives on Art: Robert Wittman
What Is the Value of an Artwork?
A work of art will usually attract a high price if a willing buyer paid to a willing seller to obtain
works by the artist who made it are rarely a work of art that had a good provenance and
available for sale. Some artists ' works are so rare title that could be transferred on the market.
that thieves will go to great trouble to steal them. These are the legitimate prices in the art
Special Agent Robert Wittman is a former FBI world, but there are other prices that have no
investigative expert for stolen artworks. Here he basis in legitimacy. Theseothers are the prices
explains howcriminals valued a self-portrait by that are paid when an artwork is stolen and
Dutch artist Rembrandtvan Rijn (1606-691. sold on the black market. Even criminals need
a basis to place a value on their ill-g otten
Value can be defined as the price that a willing gains and that is usually about ten percent
buyer will pay to a willing seller. But that value of the legitimate market value of the stolen
0.11 Re"nbrandt van Riin, changes as a result of the circumstances artwork; but even that sum is usually not paid.
Self-portrai:. 1630. Oil on
surrounding an artwork. One needs only to look For example, in December2000 a
coooe'-. 6\6x63/i".
Nat'onalrnuseum, Stockholm. at auction recordsto determine the value of Rembrandt self-portrait (0.11) was stolen from
Sweden a painting. These pricesare recordsofwhat the Swedish National Museum in Stockholm.
Three men entered the museum wielding
machine guns. After placing the guards,
visitors, and guides on the floor, two of the
men raced around the museum and stole three
paintings: two by Auguste Renoir, and the
Rembrandt. The Self-portrait was painted in
1630 and is very rare: it is the only known
portrait by the Dutch master painted on
copper. Its market value is $35 million.
The men had set two car bombs off in the
city to snarl traffic and prevent the police
from responding. They made theirescape
in a motorboat moored to a pier near the
entrance of the museum.
It was not until nearly five years later,
in September 2005, that the Rembrandt self-
portrait was recovered in a multi-national
police undercoveroperation in Copenhagen,
Denmark. The thieves attempted to sell it to
me when I posed as an art expert working
for the Mafia. The price was $250,000, or
less tha n one percent of the market value
of the artwork. Stolen art has no real value:
the lack of good title, imp roper prove nance,
and inability of a buyerto sellthe painting
in the future all decrease the value of an
artwork. As most thieves eventually learn,
the true art in an art theft is in the selling,
not the stealing.
36 INTRODUCTION
When we read that some works of art sell for Artworks can also acquire great religious,
Provenance: the record of all
large amounts of money while others do not,we cultural, or political significance. For example,
known previous owners and
quite reasonably ask ourselves why such a high the Lincoln Memorial inWashington, D.C., was locations of a work of art
financial value is placed on a single work. Works dedicated in 1922 to honor a president who had Mural: a painting executed
directly on to a wall
of art by famous artists of the past tend to be become a symbol of American values and
valued at a high price, especially ifthey are very identity. The memorial was the work of three
rarelyavailable. artists. Architect Henry Bacon (1866-1924)
In our modern society art is often valued by designed in the form of an ancient Greek temple
its sale price, but there are many other ways of the building that houses Lincoln's statue ( 0.12).
valuing it. When we visit art museums and see Daniel Chester French (1850-1931) madethe 0.12 The Lincoln Memorial
statue by Daniel Cheste-
artworks displayed inside glass cases or at a over-life-sized statue of Lincoln,while Jules
F-ench. 1°20. Marble,
distance from the viewer who must not touch, Guerin (1866-1946) painted the murals { Reunion 19' high. The Mall,
the care to preserve them in perfect condition is and Emancipation) on the interior walls. Washington, D.C.
an indication that these works are highly valued.
Sometimes a work isvaluedbecause it is very
old or rare, or indeed unique.
In many societies, however, artworks were not
made to be sold or displayed where the}- cannot IN THIS TEMPLE
be touched. As we have seen, the Japanese made AS IN THE HEARTS OF THE PEOPLE
fine tea bowls. These bowls were to beused as FOR WHOM HE SAVED THE UNION
part of a ceremony, involving other fine objects, THE MEMORY OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN
good conversation, and, of course, excellent tea. IS ENSHRINED FOREVER
The tea bowl was valued because it formed part
of a ritual that hadsocial and spiritual significance.
Similarly, inthe African art section of many
museums we can see masks displayed that were
originally made to form part of a costume that, in
turn, was used in a ceremony involving other
costumed figures, music, and dancing. In other
words, the mask often had some kind of spiritual
or magic significance for its original creators: but
they would have regarded it as holding thisvalue
only when used as intended, not when displayed
in isolation in a museum.
So we see that price is,of course, not the only
measure of the value of an artwork. We might
place a high value on a work because it is
aesthetically pleasing or because its creation
invoked great skill. This can be true even if
there is no possibility of our owning it. Mam-
museums organize large exhibitions of the
work of famous artists because they know
that great numbers of people will pay to
see the work. Enthusiasts will travel long
distances, even to other continents, to
visit such exhibitions. In 2007, for example,
796,000 people visited an exhibition of the work
of Leonardo da Vinci at the Tokyo ÿtional
Museum, Japan.
INTRODUCTION 37
c
Perspectives on Art: Tracy Chevalier
Art Inspires a Noveland a Movie
Art can have value as a source of inspiration. penultimate chord. Vermeer draws us in with
T racy Cheva Iier is the author of the bestselt ing histechnique— his remarkable handling of light
novel Girl with a Pea rl Ea rring ( 1999), which in and color— but he holds us with her. He has
turn inspired a movie (2003) starring Scarlett somehow managed the impossible, capturing
Johansson andColin Firth. Tracy tells howher a flickering moment in a permanent medium.
novel was inspired by a poster of the famous You would think that, with the paint static, the
painting bythe Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer. girl would be too. But no, her mood is always
changing, for we ourselvesare different each
I first saw the painting Girl with a Pearl Earring time we look at her. She reflects us, and life, 0.13 Johannes Vermeer. Girl
(0.13) when I was nineteen and visiting my sister in allits variations. Few paintings do that so wth a Pearl Earring, c. 1665.
Oil on canvas, 1 7" ;x 15 A".
in Boston for spring break. She'd hung a poster well, which is why Girl with a Pearl Earring is
Mauritshuis. The Hague.
of it in herapartment. I was so struck by it— the a rare masterpiece. Nethe'lands
color! the light! the girl's look!—that
the next day I bought a poster of it
myself. That same poster has
accompanied me for twenty-nine
years, hanging in my bedroom or—
as it does now— in my study.
Over the years I've hung many
other paintings on my walls. But most
art, even great art, loses its punch
after a while. It becomes part of the
space designated for it; it becomes
decorative ratherthan challenging.
It turns into wallpaper. Occasionally
someone willask a question about
one of the paintings in my house,
or I'llnotice one's crooked and
straighten it, and I'lllook at it again
and think, "Oh yeah, nice painting.
I forgot about you."
Girl with a Pearl Earring is not
like that. She has never become
wallpaper. I have never grown tired or
bored of her. I notice her all the time,
even aftertwenty-nine years. Indeed,
you'd think I'd have nothing left to say
about the painting. But even after
writing a whole novel about her, I still
can't answer the most basic question
about the girl: Is she happy or sad?
That is the painting's power. Girl
with a Peart Earring is unresolved, like
a piece of music that stops on the
38 INTRODUCTION
0.1A Marc Qu inn.Self, 1991.
Blood (artist's), sta'oless
steel, perspex, and
-e;-'ge-ation equ'onnent.
31 7; x 24V- x 24V7.
Private collect'on
Sensation. The mayor of New"fork, Rudolph

Censorship of Art Giuliani, objected to a paintingby Chris Ofili,
The Holy \ 7rginMary.When the museum refused
Art can be a form of expression and communication to remove die work from public display, the mayor
so powerful that thosewho are challengedor attemptedto evictthe Brooklyn Museum from the
offendedby it wish to censor it. Ifwe examine the buildingit had occupiedfor 106years and to
history of the censorship of art,we find many withhold city- funding. He then objectedthat the
reasons for attacking, destroying, or preventingthe exhibition includedmanvworks that offended
display of artworks. Art maybecensoredbecause religioussensibilities,were sexual in nature, or were
some consider it pornographic; because it offends in someodier way offensive. One,titled Self, was
religious beliefs;because of objections to the political a self-portrait by Marc Quinn made from nine pints
message ofa work; or because it represents values of hisfrozen blood ( O.ia". The city argued that the
that somebody considers offensive or improper. For museumhadviolated the terms of its lease by
example, in 1999 the Brooklyn Museumheld an holdingan exhibition that was not appropriate for
exhibition of contemporary British art titled the citizens of Newfork,and in particular young
INTRODUCTION 39
people. A federal court protected themuseum's right act as if we were painters, poets, or whatever, but
toholdthe exhibition andprevented the city from •what we are is simply and ecstatically impudent.
evictingit or from withdrawing funding. In our impudence we take the world for a ride
In Germany in the 1930s, the Nazi regime of and train snobs to lick our boots!"
dictator Adolf Hitler launched a systematic and One of the artists whose work was r idiculed in
large-scale attack on modern art that did not the exhibitionwas Otto Dix (1891-1969). Dix
conform to Nazi party goals. The Nazis initially- hadbeen a machine-gunner in the German army
confiscated around 5,000 works of art from during World War Ifrom 1914 to 1918. He made
museums; the}- subsequently took a further many sketches of war scenes, andthe experience
16,500 from private collections. Some 4,000 of of war becamethe main subject of his work until
these were then burned,while othersbecamethe the 1930s. The Nazis dismissed him from his
property of Nazi collectors, or were sold to teaching position at the Prussian Art Academy in
foreign collectors for Nazi profit. The artists who 1933. The}- then confiscatedhis paintings from
hadmadethem were banned from working. The museums andbanned him from exhibitinghis
Nazis also dismissed museum directors, closed art work becausehis paintings were "likely to
schools, such as the famous Bauhaus, and adversely affect the military will of the German
burned books. On July 19, 1937 the Nazis opened people." Dix's drawing War Cripples (0.15)
an exhibition of "Great German Art." The next was one of the works that was included in the
day they opened a display of 730 works labeled Degenerate Art Exhibition. Dixwas then forced
"Degenerate Art" to suggest that these were the to join the government's Chamber of Fine Arts
0.1 5 Ctto Dix, Knegeskrueppel
(V/ar Cripplesi. 1920. Dp/point.
work of mentally deficient artists. Works were and to promise to paint only landscapes. He was
123/i x 1 9V2" (sheet size]. deliberately displayedawkwardly and labels on drafted into the German army in 1945 and taken
MOMA.NewYork the walls ridiculedthe artworks. One read: "We prisoner by the French.
AO INTRODUCTION
Thus the Degenerate Art Exhibition not only communicates so directly with our senses (of sight,
Bauhaus: design school
affected the lives of artists, but also restricted touch, even smell and sound) that it helps us to founded in Weimar, Germany,
what art Germans were allowed to see and how understand our own experiences. By learning to in 1919
thev wouldview it. Ironically,however, Hitler's see, we experience new sensations and ideasthat
attempt to censor art backfired: five times as expand our horizons beyond our daily lives.
many visitors attendedthe DegenerateArt Let us consider an artwork andthe fact that
Exhibition as the show of Great German Art. Very we may not see the work the way it was seen
few records survive to revealwhat viewers really when it was first made. Prisonerstrom the Front
thought of the art in this propaganda spectacle. (0.16) by American artist Winslow Homer was
painted in 1866. We can tell immediate!)- that die
subject is war and that it involves men from two
Why Do We Study Art? armies. But there are manyways in which we can
discover andlearn more from this painting: how
Finally,why take a course that teaches you how to really to look at it. We can begin by examining the
look at art? Surely we all have eyes and we all see way Homer organizes different aspects of the
the same thing when we look at a work of art, so painting to direct our eyes and to communicate
we can decide what we like or dislike about it. with us. How hashe placed the figures in the
In fact, it is not quite that simple. Our painting and what first attracts ourattention?
interpretations ofworks of art may differ from Perhaps we look first at the group of soldiers
other people's according to our perceptions, dressed in gray (especially the one standing in 0.16 Winslow Homer,
beliefs and ideas. Art is also a form of language; the center of the work)—but does the gaze of Prisoners frorr. the Prom, 1866.
Oil on canvas. 24x38".
one that can communicate with us even this group then direct us to the officer standing Metropolitan Museum of Art,
more powerfully than written language. Art alone on the right? What colors did Homer New York
INTRODUCTION A1
C
choose, why, andwhat impact do the}- have? in gray uniforms. The officer standing to the
What medium did the artist select? In this case, right is Homer s distant cousin: once we know
Homer chose neutraltones of oil paint, which this, it causes us to ask whether all these men
hasthe advantage that it dries very slowly and are real historical figures. In other words, Homer
allows the artist to make alterations almost was not simply showing his audience a dramatic
withoutlimit. Scientificstudies have shown that scene,but was also commenting on the
Homer made many changes to hiswork. Is the important issues that arose after the end of the
date of the painting ( 1866) significant? This was war. Finally,what is the painting about in a
one year after the end of the Civil War. Homer more general sense? It is a painting about war
hadwitnessed and recordedthe war personally. and history,but also about social concerns,
This paintingwas made during the period of and the artist's desire for reconciliation after a
Reconstruction, when the victorious Union devastating conflict. Ifwe study other paintings
troops forced changes on the slave- owning that address these themes, we will see that some
South, representedhereby Confederate soldiers aspects of the way Homer depicted this event are
0.17 Eugene Delacroix. 77ie

Massacre a: Chios, 1 32d. 0:1
on canvas, 13'S"x 1 1'73/s".
Museedu Louvre. F'aris.
France
U2 INTRODUCTION
similar to paintingsby other artists. Ifwe compare Thus, ifwe knowwhat questions to ask about
Neutraltones: colors (such as
suchworks with Prisonersfrom theFront we might a work of art, we can 1ear nmore about it than we
blacks,whites, grays, anddull
gray-browns) made bymixing learn more about portrayals of history and war in probably expected when we first saw it.What
complementary hues general and about Homer'sworks inparticular. happens if a work is several centuries old and
Oilpaint: paint made of
A very contrasting view of war andthe comes from a completely different culture? The
pigment suspended in oil
Ivory: hard, creamy-colored treatment of prisoners is found ina paintingby head of an African woman shown here ( 0.18) was
material from the tusks of such Eugene Delacroix! 1798-1863) ( 0.17). The island made in the mid-sixteenth century and comes
mammals as elephants
of Chios was ruled by the Ottomans of Turkey, from Benin inWest Africa. The artist has made
but for centuries the majority of the population the woman's face a perfect and pleasing oval
hadbeen Greek. In 1822 Greeks from a nearby shape. Everything inthe figure, from the faces
island attacked the Turks on Chios and destroyed on the -woman's headdress to the eyes that look
mosques. The Turks responded by killing down and the shape of the nose and mouth,
thousands ofGreek residents of Chios. Delacroix seems to direct our eyes downward. The effect is
portrays the victims as helpless: most are women to concentrate on the beaut}- of the woman's
and are partially nude, which emphasizes their features. The artist chose as materials ivory, iron,
helplessness. As in Honor's painting,a victorious andbronze, rare items inBenin,so presumably
soldier is seen to the right,but in Delacroix's the head -was made for someone wealthy.
painting he shows no pit}-, cutting down a woman Although we now see this work in a glass case in a
with his curvedsword. He andthe faceless museum, this was not how it was used in Benin.
Turkishsoldier behind the Greek civilians wear Research into its history tells us that this was a
exotic turbans, as if to makethem even more decoration worn on the belt of aking. Therefore,
fearsome to Delacroix's European audience. it formed part of the presumably impressive
finer}- of the king: the artist did not design it to be
0.18 Carved ivory mask-
seen alone in a glass case. We know that the king
shaped nip oendant, n- d-16th
century. Ivory inlaid with iron
maintained groups of specialist artists (including
an d Dronze. ?Vs x 5 X 23/a". ivory-carvers) and paid them in food, slaves,and
British Museum. London, wives. Anybody who made ivory-objects without the
England
agra king's permission was severely punished.Theretb re ,
we can tell that this was an object of great luxury-
intended to show the wealth and power of a ruler.
Finally,the headalso tells us something about
the historyof Africa and the religion of Benin.
Those odd- looking heads aroundthe top of
the headdress represent the faces of men from
Portugal,which was then a powerful European
trading nation that had conquered some parts of
Africa. The Portuguese were important in Benin
because the}- had worked with the king, whose
power had grown as a result. Alternating with the
Portuguese heads are mudfish that had sacred
significance, and were symbolically connected to
the god of the sea, Olukun. This pendant from
Benin means much more to us ifwe take the time
and effort to understand and analyze it.
Similarly, ifwe learn how- tolook at art,w-e
will discover how exciting it can be. Thisbook
aims tg lisle 'vungt iuit to set a aged sraAt ">
your course, but alsotobeginalifetimÿ
enjoying and being inspired by art.
INTRODUCTION 63
c
FUN
Art is a form of visual
language, andmuch as we use
vocabulary and grammar to
communicate verbally, artists
use a visual vocabulary (the
elements of art) andrules
similar to grammar (the
principles of art.) When we
study an artwork, we can use
the same elements and
principles to analyze the work:
a process calledvisual analysis.
Inthis part you will learn
about the elements and
principles and will be shown
how to apply them in a visual
analysis. You will also learn
how to use two other concepts
when you analyze a work of
art: style and content.
[C
PART 1 ÿ
The ten elements of art are: The ten principles of art are:
Color Balance
Form Contrast
Line Emphasis
Mass Focal Point
Shape Pattern
Space Proportion
Texture Rhythm
Time and Motion Scale
Value Unity
V olume Variety
FUNDAMENTALS
Art in Two Dimensions:

Line, Shape, and the Principle of Contrast
Just as we use the principles of grammar to turn include some of perhaps the most unusual
vocabulary- into sentences, so the language of art drayy-ings in the yy-orld. They- can show us much
consists of elements (the basic vocabulary- of about line and shape.
art) and principles (the"grammar ' that artists In the spider "drawing," lines define the
apply to turn the elements into art). The shape onto the landscape at such anenormous
principles of design are a set of rules that explain scale that it can only be seen from the sky
hoyy-the elements ofayvorkof art are organized. (1.1). (In fact, the Nazca Lines were first
Two-dimensional art is a remarkably- discovered in modern times by overflying
elegant yvay to express ideas andshare our commercial aircraft.) L'nlike most drayy-ings,
mental pictures of theworld A tyvo- dimensional the Nazca Lines cannot be rolled up in a tube
object, such as a drayvingofa triangle, is flat. or carried off in a portfolio. First of all, they
It has height and y\-idth,but not depth. It can be are too huge: the spider shoyy-nhere is 150 feet
made very- simply, for exampleyvith a pencil on long; side by side, tyy-o such spiders yy-ould
paper. The first plans for the grandest of designs nearly- fill up a football field Second, they-
can be drawn up on a cocktail napkin yvith a are hardly "drayy-ings1' at all. Instead, they
few squiggles of a pen. As y\-ell as drawing and yy-ere made by scraping off the layer of dark
painting tyvo- dimensional arts include the gravel that covers the flat Nazca plain, to expose
graphic arts: printmaking,graphic design, the yy-hite gypsum thatlies iust beneaththe
and photography. surface. In this sense, they- are a sort of incision
Elements: the basic vocabulary In this chapter we will look at line and shape, or engraving.
of art— line (form, shape, basic elements of any kind of tyvo- dimensional The lines are mysterious. Why yy-ould such
volume, mass, color, texture,
artyvork. We yvill then see hoyv to apply them to huge designs, so huge they- can hardly be
space, time and motion,and
value ( lightness/darkne ss ) the understanding of y\-orks of art by using th? understood at ground level,be made? Whatyvas
Principles: the 'grammar" principle of contrast. their purpose? The designs resemble symbolic
applied to the elements of art—
c ontrast,balance ,unity,varie ty, decorations found on local pottery- made at least
rhythm, emphasis, pattern,scale, 1,300 years ago. We do not knoyv what they were
proportion, and focal point
Two-dimensional: having
Line used for,but their size suggests they- played an
height andwidth important part in the lives of the peoplewho
Line: a mark, or implied mark, Lines are the most fundamental element ar tists made them. Hoyv yy-ere they- made? There are
between two endpoints use. They- are there in almost every yvork of postholes found at intervals along their
Shape: the two-dimensional
area the boundaries of which are
art or design. Lines organize thevisible yvorld edges— perhaps strings from post to post
denned bylines or suggestedby Without line,an artist hardly- knoyy-s where formed guidelines for the scraping of the
c han ges in c olor or value
to begin. pathway. Notably, the Nazca Lines do not cross
Contrast: a drastic difference
between such elements as color The ancient designs knoyy-n as the Nazca over themselves— in the photo,the parallel
or value (lightness/darkness) Lines, located on the high desert plains of Peru, tracks intersecting yvith the spider yy-ere made
46 FUNDAMENTALS
c
mm
flSSE
1.1 Spider, c. 500 BCE-500CE. by off-roadvehicles. The lines define the outline post at Nazca. Artists canuse lines to define the
Nazca, Peru of a shape. boundariesbetween planes in a two-dimensional
work of art: notice how the lines at Nazca divide
Definition and Functions of Line one area of the gravel surface of the land from
Outline: the outermost line of another. In two-dimensional art, line can also
an obj ect or figure, bywhich it
is defined or bounded A line can be a mark that connects two points, define shapes ( in this case the shape of a giant
Plane: a flat surface like the strings that must have run from post to spider). A line may direct our eyes to look at
ART IN TWO DIMENSIONS A7
C
1.2a (le;tj A modern photo
of the Ducal Palace and
F'azzetta in Venice; 1.2b
(below) Can a Lett o. The Maundy
Thursday Festival before the
DucalPalace in Venice, 1763/6.
Fen and brown ink with gray
wash, he'ghtened with white
gouache. 15Vsx213/-".
National Gallery of Art.
Washington. D.C. Lines drawn
on the Canaletto image
;ndicate his use of line to
de;' ne planes
A8 FUNDAMENTALS
something the artist particularly wants us to
notice. Finally, line can convey a sense of
movement and energy, even the movement
of a giant spider. We can see many of these
uses of line in two very different artworks, one
from eighteenth-centuryItaly andthe other
from modern Japan.
In Figs. 1.2a and i.2b we see a modern
photograph of the DucalPalace inVenice, Italy,
and a drawing, TheMaundyThursday Festival
before the DucalPalace in Venice, by Italian artist
Canaletto (1697-1768). Canaletto uses lineboth
to differentiate one part of the building from
another and to mark the boundary between the
building and its surroundings.Although lineis
two-dimensional,with line the artist points out
where one plane meets another, and creates an
impression of three dimensions. Lineis thus
a tool for describing, in a simple way and in two
dimensions, theboundaries and edges of three-
dimensional surfaces. For example, in the photo
we see the divisionbetween the top of the
building and the blue sky, but there is no line as
such. Canaletto uses line to define where the
pointed tracer)- at the top of the building ends
and the sky begins.
Some of Canaletto' s lines also give the
viewer a sense of the surface. The artist
accentuates the patterned surface (which can
barely be seen in the photograph) with diagonal
lines that fall across the facade of the building.
Canaletto uses line to emphasize surface
information that perhaps we overlook at
first glance.
Besides demarcating boundariesand surface
changes, line can also communicate direction
and movement. The page from the manga Linesto Regulate and Control 1.3 CLAMP, page f rorr
(Japanese comic/cartoonbook) Tsubasa the Tsubasa RESERVoir
CHRoNiCLE. volume 21,
RESERVoir CHRoNiCLE (1.3) is dividedinto two The variety of different types of line is virtually
page 47
major sections. A close-up sketch of a character infinite.Whether straight or curved, a line can
is compressed into the bottom, and a larger be regular and carefully measured. Regular
action scene occupies the upper two-thirds of lines express controland planning and impart
the page. In this section directional lines converge a sense of cool-headed deliberation and accuracy.
on a light area in the upper right of the page, Such lines are effective for communicating ideas
then our attention is redirected to the left,where that mustbe shared objectivelyby groups of
a figure is beingblasted away by an explosion. people, such as the plans an architect provides Facade: any side of a building,
The mangaka (group of manga artists) CLAMP to guide builders. usually the front or entrance
Conceptual art: a work in
has cleverly used the strong diagonals to add an American conceptual artist Mel Bochner which the ideas are often as
intense feeling of movement to the page. (b. 1940) uses ruledline in hiswork Vertigo important as how it is made
ART IN TWO DIMENSIONS A9
C
1.4 Mel Bochner, Vertigo, (1.4). By using a regular line drawn with the aid of
19B2. Charcoal. Conte a straightedge, Bochner speaks in the language
crayon, and pastel on canvas.
9' x6'2". Albright-Knox Art of mechanical planning. However, he seems to
Gallery. Bu;;alo, New York contradict the use of regular line to convey a sense
of control. The repetitious diagonal movement
and hectic crossing and overlapping of his lines
impart a sense of motion in disarray,as ifhis
machinehas somehow gone out ofwhack.
The British sculptor Barbara Hepworth
(1903-75) utilized regulated line in the
preliminary drawings she made for her sculptures.
The linesshe uses are crisp and clear. They
combine to represent feelings or sensations that
Hepworth wants to make visible in her sculpture.
Hepworth said, "I rarely drawwhat Isee. Idraw
what Ifeel in my body."
In 1.5, the artist has projected four views
of a future sculpture. As she rotates this imaginary
sculpture in her mind's eye, the precision of her
line helps her comprehend the complexity of her
sensations. Like a dancer who responds to the
1.5 Bsrdaÿc Hepworth,

Drawing for Sculpture
(with color], 1941. Pencil
snd gouache on paoer
mounted on Ooaÿd. 14x 1 6".
Private collection
50 FUNDAMENTALS
rhythm of music, Hepworth hasrevealedthe kind
of lines that she feels, rather than sees, and has
translated them into a visual "dance" Like an
architect preparing the blueprints of a real
building,Hepworth uses regulated line to
translateher feelings into drawing and then,
finally, into a real sculpture.
Lines to Express Freedom

and Passion
Lines can also be irregular, reflecting the wildn ess
of nature, chaos, andaccident. Such lines— free
and unrestrained— seem passionate and full of
feelings otherwise hard to express.
Some artists decide to use irregular lines to
reflect their drawing and thinking process. French
artist Andre Masson ( 1899- 1987) wanted to
create images that expressed the depths of his
subconscious. Sometimes he would go for days
without food or sleep in an attempt to force
himself to explore deeper- rooted sources of
creativity andtruth. His automatic drawings
look spontaneous and free, andalso perhaps
unstructuredand rambling (1.6). appear irregular and loose. At first sight, his 1.7 Jean Dubuffet,Suiteavec
The drawings of French artist Jean Dubuffet Suite with 7 Characters may seem chaotic and 7Personnages. 1981. Ink on
oaoe-, 13V. x 167=". Private
(1901-85) are uninhibitedin style. Their lines unpredictable, even scribbled, but the overall collection
composition is controlledand orderly ( 1.7).
.
1.6 Andre Masson, Automatic Drawing 1925-6. Ink on
paoe". 12x9 Musee Nationald'ArtModerne. Centre
Georges Pompidou, Paris. France
Regularand Irregular Lines Automatic: suppressing
consciouscontrol to access
subconscious sources of
Although line can be either regular or irregular, creativity and truth
most art exhibits a combination ofboth. Styie: a characteristic wa- in
American artist George Bellows (1882-1925) uses which an artist or group of
artists uses visual language to
both varieties of line in hiswork Woodstock Road, give a work an identifiable form
Woodstock, New York, 1924 (l.8). He contrasts of visual expression
1.8(right) George Bellows.

Woodstock Road. Woodstock.
New York. 1926. Black crayon
on wove paoe-. 'mage 6V; X
37=". sheet 9V, x 127V.
Collection of Mr. and Mrs.
fm
Paul Mellon, National Gallery
of Art. Washington, D.C.
-• *.JJU A -***
ART INTWO DIMENSIONS 51
C
the naturaland organic lines of landscape and Actual lines Implied lines
sky with the restrainedand regular line of the
man-madeandarchitectural features. It seems
that Bellows madethis drawing as a preliminary-
sketch for another work. In the center at the
bottom is the inscription,"all lights as high as
possible / get color out of shadows." He wrote
this to remind himself later of ideas he had
3 4
while sketching the scene. 1 2 5
r
Implied Line
The lines we havediscussed so far can be clearly-
TttTtt
seen as continuous marks. We can call these lines 1.9 labovel Actualand mplied l:n es
| A I!
iSyf ) fSffif
i% w - j M'J$k
. &/ fei *
JT// /:\] :1 IJ •NTr&J' !
Vvv J\ | ÿvn>TttT*r#rp:|;
•J
ÿ
fty J; i&ESSSSre . '/£%&ÿ/
(•@»| j
I j ' "r*r>r» s ' '

V'V<'5 h 1
,
J; rx\ \, C ÿ=5"1>-W7v<-Xn j ] % wi
IM srsÿ- yÿf
V IT f
1.10 (left] Franco-German hand, Pentateuch with
Prophetical Readings and the Five Scrolls, 13th— 14th
century. Illust'ated n-anusc" ot. E" t;sh Library. London,
England
1.11 (above) Detail of Pentateu ch with Prop he tea i

Readings and the Five Scrolls
52 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.12 S2ue-k:ds. The Devil actuallines. But line can also be implied by series (b. 1966). TheDevilMadeMeDolt uses implied
Made Me Do It. 2006. Digital of marks. An implied line gives us the impression line to influence visual rhythms that add to the
mage. 16'A X 8W
we are seeing a line where there is no continuous excitement of the design ( 1.12). The many
mark (1.9). dashes andthe grid of dots at the bottom
Implied line is important in the Jewish art of of thework imply vertical and horizontal lines.
micrography, the creation of designs using very Even the title of the work is spelled out using
smallwriting. At first glance, the textborder implied line.
in 1.10 appears to be an ornate line drawing
that has been used to help embellish the text. Directional Line
In fact, the ornate frame is made from tiny
Hebrewlettersandwords. Ifwe look at the detail An artist can use line to direct our attention to
Actual line: a continuous,
in 1.11it becomes more obvious there is no line something he or she wants us to notice (see
uninte rmpte d line
Impliedline: aline not actually at all, but an implied line createdby the skillful Gateway Box: Goya, 1.13, p. 54). An example
drawnbut suggested byelements arrangement of the lettering. The "microscopic" of directionalline occurs in the American
in the work text hasbeen added as a guide (called a masorah) artist James Allen's (1894-1964) etching of
Rhythm: the regular orordered
repetition of elements in the that provides advice about pronunciation Depression- era constructionworkers. They
work and intonation. are depicted working in New York City on the
Etching: a printmaking process
Implied line is used in a more freeform way Empire State Building,which was to become the
that relies on acid to bite (or
etch) the engraved design into in the work by Sauerkids, the Dutch graphic tallest building in the world. In The Connectors,
the printing surface designers MarkMoget (b. 1970) and Taco Sipma the steel girders are closer together at thebottom
ART IN TWO DIMENSIONS 53
C
Gateway to Art: Goya, The Third ofMay, 1808
UsingLine to Guide the Viewer's Eye
1.13 Francisco Goya, The Directional lines can be either actual or holds our attention by using other directional
Third of May, 1808, 18U. implied. Painters often use implied line to lines; (B), for example, follows the line
Oil on canvas. 8*4%" x 11*3%
guide a viewer's eye as it scans the canvas. implied by the feet of the soldiers. Then a
Museo Nacional del Prado,
Madrid.Spain In Goya's Third of May, 1808, the artist portrays shadowed area (C) at the bottom of the page
the execution of Spa niardswho had resisted directs our eye to the left,where other lines
the occupation of their country by the French such as (D) and ( El draw our gaze up toward
army of Emperor Napoleon (1.13). Goya uses the area of high contrast (A). Goya is keen to
contrast to draw our attention to a particular keep ourattention on the atrocities committed
line (A)— created in the place where the dark by the army of Napoleon.The strong
background sky meets and contrasts with the horizontal of the rifles is so distinct that our
lighted hillside—that separates the two eye is pulled toward the group of victims: we
areas of value. Our attention is drawn identify not with the line of executioners, but
downward and to the right toward an area with the victims.
where there is more visual activity. Goya
54 FUNDAMENTALS
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1.14 James Allen. The Connectors, 1934. Etcning.

12 /c x 9 British Museum, London, England T ' ( J iJAt // <
JK '*ÿy >1 \ \l / ./•*/' ," ft
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of the picture than at the top; the}- direct the

viewer's eye downward in order to accentuate /
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great height ( 1.14). The narrowing lines t I

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,
'/H11 f1 r.
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1mMrHw
Ail n I'/ iIHk
showing thebuil dings in the background of
the print help reinforce the same effect. Am
/ml v v/J < V
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Contour Line / T/
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A contour is the outer edge or profile of an object. !(/$'{Y
/ L/ T « 4 • •
4
Contour lines can suggest a volume in space by / '/? i

' ///Ml 1 1 >' : A\ ;
giving us clues about the changing character of
a surface. Communicative Line 1.15 Egon Schiele, Portrait of
Portrait of theArtist's Wife, Standing, with the Artist's V/ife. Standing, with
Hands on Hips, 1915. Black
Hands on Hips,by Austrian painter Egon Schiele The directions of lines (whether the}- go up,
crayon on paper, 13x11V-".
( 1890-19 18), is drawnalmost entirely using across, or diagonally) both guide our attention Private collect:on
contour lines ( 1.15). The lines of the fingers and suggest particular feelings. Vertical lines tend
and shirtsleeves express the pose with utmost to communicatestrength and energy; horizontal
economy, their simplicity is a sign of Schiele's lines can suggest calmness and passivity; Background: the part of a work
superb drafting skills. Compare the regularity diagonallines are associated with action,motion, depicted furthest from the
viewer's space, often behind the
of lines that indicatethe clothing with those and change. main subject matter
depicting the contours of the hair. The lines in Graphic designers use the communicative Volume: the space filled or
the hair vary in thickness and regularity. They enclosed bya three-dimensional
qualities of directional linewhen creating
figure or object
suggestan organic surface that contrasts with the logos ( 1.16, p. 56). To convey the strength Space: the distance between
machine-like print of the clothing. of government or the stability of a financial identifiable points or planes
Vertical lines Horizontal lines Diagonal lines
communicate strength. communicate calm. communicate movement.
stability, and authority peace, and passiveness action, and drama
1.17 Carolyn Dav'dson, Nike Company logo, 1971
up the roomare strongverticals. This suggests

that van Gogh's bedroom was not a calm place
of rest, as horizontal lines might imply. The floor
1.16 Communicative institution, the}- may choose verticals. Logos for also nervously changes color and value. The
qualities of line vacation resorts often havehorizontallines to varying width of the vertical lines communicates
communicate peaceful repose. Diagonals can the anxiety van Gogh may have felt in the months
express the excitement of athletic activity. For leading up to hissuicide in 1890. The strength of
example, Carolyn Davidson's (b. c. 1943) distinctive the verticals combined with the agitation of the
Nike "swoosh" conveys action with a shape emphatic diagonals makes for a powerful sense of
comprisinga stylized, diagonal line ( 1.1 7). unease. Yet van Gogh may also havebeen trying
Line gives an unsettling energy to a painting to groundhimself in the here- and-nowby
of the bedroom ( 1.18) of the Dutch artist Vincent painting the simple room where he slept—the
van Gogh (1853-90). Most of the lines that make same room in which he died a year later.
1.18 Vincent van Gogh. The

Bedroom, 1S3?. Oil on canvas,
2SV- X 36Vi". Art In sti tute of
Chicago
fj.
Color: the optical effect caused
when reflectedwhite light of the
spectrum is divided into a
m
separate wavelength
56 FUNDAMENTALS
Shape
A shape is a two-dimensional area the boundaries
of which are defined by lines or suggestedby
hanges incolor or value.
Geometncand Organic Shapes

Shapes can be classified into two types: geometric
and organic. Geometric shapes are composed
of regular lines and curves. Organic shapes,
however, as the examples in the right-hand part
of 1.19 show, are made up of unpredictable,
irregular lines that suggest the natural world.
Organic shapes may seem unrestrainedand
sometimes chaotic, reflecting the never-ending
change characteristic of livingthings.
Geometry is a branch of mathematics dating
back more than 2,000 years. It is concerned with
space, area, andsize. Traditionally defined, a
geometric shape is mathematically regular and
precise. The simple shapes we know— circle,
square, triangle— are all examples of geometric
shapes. Geometric shapes can be created by In Baby Blocks— also the name of a traditional 1.20 fv'riam Schao'_o,
plotting a series ofpoints and connecting them quilting pattern— images of flowers and Baby Blocks, 1933. Collage
on pacer, 297= x 30".
with lines, or simply enclosing a space using children's clothes overlap a tiling of orange, blue,
University o; South Florida
regulated andcontrolledline. Although artists andblack diamond shapes. The work's title Collection, Tamos
can draw by hand something similar to a suggests a pattern of diamond shapes creating
geometric shape, the)- often use tools to control an illusion of cubes. The organic shapes of
and regulate theprecisenessof the line. For the flowers are clearly distinct from the hard
example, an artist may use a ruler to create geometric shapes of the "blocks"andthe red
perfectly straight lines, or alternatively a frame; they overflowtheboundaries of both.
computer graphics application canbe used to The stylized floral designs, derived from old-
generate a clean sharp edge. Inboth cases the fashioned wallpaper and upholster)- patterns, are
artist adds a layer of control that gives the shape simplified representations of real flowers. Even so,
greater predictability. the shapes have an irregularity that reflects the
While line maybe the most fundamental kind of shapes we find in living things.
element of art, often shape isthe element we see. The interlockedblueandyellow blocks are so
The collage by Canadian-born feminist artist predictable and regular that we can even envision
Miriam Schapiro (b. 1923) illustrates differences the pattern where it disappears behind the
between geometric and organic shapes (1.20). flowers. This geometric regularity acts as a foil to
the organic shapes casuallvarranged"on" it.
1.19 Geometric and organic shapes By incorporating doll clothes, home
decorations, and sewing materials into her Collage: a work of art assembled
"femmages" (homages to the work of women), by gluing materials, often paper,
*
onto asurface. Fromthe French
Schapiro opens our eyes both to the remarkable
coUer, to glue
artistry of much traditional "women's work," and Pattern: an arrangement of
to the cultural forces that undervalue it. predictably repeated elements
c
1.21 Irrplied shsoes of positiveand negative, any color combination
• ~>
• •
'
1
- „
'
/
/
>
'
1
1
A can work the same way. Sometimes, too, the
lighter color becomesthe positive shape.
We can see the interlock of positive and
• ÿ * ÿ
>
y
/
negative shape in the work of American Shepard
mplied Shape
Most shapes are defined by a visible boundary,
but we can also see a shape where no continuous
boundary exists. Just as line can be implied,so
too can shape (1.21 ).
The AT&T logo, created in the 1980s by
American graphic designer Saul Bass (1920-96),
uses horizontallines to imply a sphere or globe
AT&T
(1.22). Twelve horizontal lines are trimmed
to form a circle. By constricting thewidth of nine
of these lines, a highlight appears on the circular
shape, implying the swell of a globe. This logo
1.22 Saul E= 55. Ea5S & communicates the idea of an expansive
Yager. AT&T logo. 1984
telecommunicationnetwork operating all over
the globe. The image is simple, creating an
appropriately meaningful and readily
recognizable symbol for a global company.
Contrast
When an artist uses two noticeably different states
of an element, he or she is applying the principle
of contrast. For example, lines can beboth regular
and irregular, or shapes can be both geometric
and organic. Strong differences inthe state of an
element can be a very useful effect for an artist to
use; it is especially effective to use opposites.
Positive and Negative Shapes

Ineveryday life,positive and negative are
opposites: one needs the other for contrast and
comparison. Without positives, negatives would
not exist andvice versa. When we speak of
Highlight: an areaoflightst positive and negative invisual form it is most
value in a work often representedbv black andwhite. Thewords
Positive shape: a shape defined
on this page, for example, are positive shapes of
by its surrounding empty space
Negativespace: an empty space printed black ink that we can see on the negative
given shape by its surround, for space of the white paper. The space supports the
example the right-pointing
arrow between the Eandx
solidity of the placement of the word or shape.
in FedEx Although black andwhite are common examples
58 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.23a and 1.23b [Left]

5hep3rdFa:rey.0£)e/. 1996.
Campaign ppste'and a view
p; the ppste's as they were
installed in public
1.24 Geprgia C'Kee;:e,

Music-Pink and Blue II, 1 91 9.
Oil on canvas. 35x 29V.
Whitney Museum o; Ame-'can
Art. New Yprk
Fairev (b. 1970). The black features and the blank tension between contrasting positive and negative
white space contrast with and complement each shapes draws our attention, while the cryptic
other, intensifying the design of this poster slogan makes us wonder what it is all about.
( 1.23a and 1.23b).Faireywants strong impact The works of the American artist Georgia
because, as a street artist, heneeds to catch his O'Keeffe (1887-1986) often play upon the
audience's attention quickly as they- pass by. In relationship between positive and negative
this case, the image is of the professional wrestler shape. Her abstract shapes derive from a close
Andre the Giant (Fessick in the movie The observation of organic objects. In the painting
Princess Bride), captioned by the word "Obey." Music—Pink andBlue II,O'Keeffe puts emphasis
Without seeking prior permission, Fairey posts on the negative blue shape in the bottom right
Abstract: art imagery that
departs from recognizable
these images in public spaces as an expression of the picture ( 1.24). That negative shape
images from the naturalworld of guerrilla marketing and street theater. The initially draws our attention into a deep interior
C
so that the positive shape of the pink arc above it
carries us back to the surface through a maze of
tender folds. O'Keeffe's paintings use landscape
and flower shapes to make associations to the
female body. The interplay of positive and
negative space becomes symbolic of the erotic
and life-giving nature of womanhood.
Sometimes graphic designers use negative 1.25 Al Grivetti. BigTen logo. 1991
shape to convey information subtly. For example,
when the Big Ten Conference—ten major (1.25). We can discernboth messages (Big Ten and
universities competing in many different 11) aswe viewthelogo. The alternation of
sports— expanded to eleven teams, the)- needed positive and negative shape communicates the new
a logo that announced the change. The only and oldtitles of the conference in a single image.
problem was that they wanted to retain the name, In the wood cut Sky and Water Ithe Dutch
"Big Ten," rather than use eleven and change the artist M. C. Escher ( 1898-1972) applies many of
conference title. The graphic designer Al Grivetti the concepts we havebeen exploring in this
ingeniously inserted the number "11"in the chapter (i.26).The negative shape changes
negative space on either side ofthecapital"T" from white in the upper part of the picture to
1 .26 M. C. Escher, Skyand

v/ater 1. 1938. Woodcut. 1 Th x
1V/f. The M. C. Esche-
Corroany. Netherlands
60 FUNDAMENTALS
black in the lower. The most refined version of
eachanimal occurs at the top and bottom
extremes of the image. As we follow each
transition upward or downward, eachanimal
becomes more simplified until it forms part
of the background negative shape. Strong
geometric patterns change into the organic
shapes of animals. The woodcut, where removed
material printswhite and preserved material
prints black, is conducive to exploring figure-
ground reversal, which is the very essence of
Escher's technique here.
Conclusion
Artists useline, shape, and contrast to
communicate in two dimensions. By combining
these different characteristics, artists can
communicatevisual ideas with elegance and
razor-edged efficiency. They can describe the
beautiful and ugly details of our world, and
express the deepest emotional experiences of the
humansoul. Within two dimensions we can
communicate nearly every interaction in
mankind's history of understanding.
The Banner of Las Navas de Tolosa (1.27),
a thirteenth-century Islamic tapestry, exemplifies
the themes of this chapter. Made during the time
when Spainwas under Islamic rule, it is supposed Thebanner also uses contrasting positive and 1.27 Banner of Las Navas de
to havebeen captured in battle from the Muslim negative shapes as a series of patterned organic Tolosa. 1212-50. Silk and gilt
thread tapestry. 10'l 0"x
occupying forces. To this day, patterns from shapes weave in and out of the enclosed central Monasterio delas
Islamic art can be found inthe designs and spaces. The line, principal shape, and contrasting Huelgas. Museo de Telas
architecture of Spain. shapes are used to great effect. A central square Medievales. Burgos. Spa n
The banner is composed of a central that meets the left and right edges of thebanner
medallion surroundedby several concentric encloses a series of other shapes. J ust insidethe
shapes. Within the circular medallion,squares are edges of the square is a series of roundmedallions
rotated to create a series of concentric eight- that create another implied square. That same
pointed stars. These star shapes are encircled by a implied square spills into a centered circular
large round shape with a border of smaller circles. shape that subdivides the square and leaves Woodcut: a print created from
an incised piece of wood
These circles in turn are surroundedby a square almost- triangular shapes in the corners. Centered
Figure-ground reversal: the
that sits insideanother square. within the circle is another series of shapes that reversal of the relati on shi p
.Along the margins at the top and bottom are are superimposed and subdivided again. This between one shape (the figure)
and its background (the
inscriptions inornate Arabic calligraphy. The multitude of simple shapes combines to create
ground), so that the figure
free-flowinga ndvi go rous lett erfor ms create a masterpiece of complexity that attests to the becomesbackground and the
strong horizontal implied lines. This ornamental power and majesty of .Allah. From humblest ground becomes the figure
Concentric: identical shapes
writing style is often used in Islamic art to simplicity to theboldest intricacies, thÿbasicsÿ
stacked inside each other sharing
—
communicate words in this case from the of two dimensions provide us with great visual the same center, for example the
Koran—richly and expressively. communicative power. circles of a target
c
FUNDAMENTALS
1.2
Three-Dimensional Art:
Form,Volume, Mass, and Texture
In 1802 a French artist and archaeologist create forms, they consider how wewill
described his impression of the great pyramids experience them in three dimensions. Architects
of Egypt: usually make building thataccordwith qui
physical size, in proportions that are convenient
Onapproachingthese colossal monuments, .
and easy to lne in but sometimes they might
their angular and inclined form diminishes build to a larger sta|g in order 10 leac e us in aw.
the appearance of their height and deceives A j eweler makes obi ects at a small scale that few-
the eye. ..but as soon as Ibegin to measure people can experience at once: we are drawn
...these gigantic productions of art, they closer to examine the work more intimately.
recover alltheir immensity. .. Forms have two fundamental attributes:
(VivantDenon, Travels in Upper andLower Eg,pT) volume and mass. Volume is the amount of
space a form occupies. Mass is the expression
"Hi ree- dimensional: having
height, width, and depth The massive structures that so impressed that a volume issolidand occupies space,
Elements: the basic vocabulary Denon havethree dimensions, like every obi ect whether it is enormous like a pyramid or
of art— line, form, shape,
in our world, which can be expressed as their relatively small like a piece ofj ewelry.
space, time and motion, and height, width, and depth ( 1.28). Because The surface of a form can be cool and slick,
value (lightness/darkness) the pyramids can bemeasured in these three rough and jagged, soft and warm. Such
Two-dimensional: having sensations arise from the texture of the form.
height andwidth
flassifiedas tof-
Shape: the two-dimensional dimensional works of art, and lÿe all the arf Texture can be experienced directly, but we can
area theboundahes ofwhich are discussed in this chapter they possess four of the also imagine how-the surface of a form may feel
denned bylines or suggestedby simplybylooking at it. Some hand-made objects,
visualelementsTonTiÿÿlumÿ
c han ges in c olor or value
Form: an object that can be
We need to understand these terms in sequence like ceramics or basketry, attract our touch
defined in three dimensions so that we can analyze andunderstand three- naturally. They were touched by the hands that
(height,width, and depth) dimensional art. formed them, and they fit in our hands j ust as
Scale: the size of an objector
artwork relative to another they used to fit in the hands of the artist. Some
object or artwork, or to a system machine-made forms reflect the crisp precision
of measurement
Volume: the space filled or
Form of mechanical perfection; their smooth, shiny
e ndos ed by a thr ee - di mensional
forms seduce our senses. Artists and designers
figure or object A two-dimensional object, such as a drawing create forms with full knowledge that they can
Mass: a volume that has, or gives of a triangle, iscalled a shape. Shapes are flat. evoke our memories of other three-dimensional
the illusion of having,weight,
density, andbulk A three-dimensional object, such as a pyramid, is objects intheworld andallow- us to experience
Space: the distance between called a form. Forms are tactile;we can feel them our own world in a richer way.
identifiable points or planes with our hands. Some forms are so tiny they The forms created bv artists in the ancient
Texture: the surface quality of a
work, for example fine/ coarse, cannot be seen with the naked eye, while others world reflected the everyday experiences of
detailed/lacking in detail areaslarge as a galaxy. When artists and designers people of that time. For example, stone was a
62 FUNDAMENTALS
common material in ancient Egypt, easily world made from a single stone. The sculpture
accessible and so durable that artists must have stands as a symbol of the power to change our
surroundings. The Egyptianswho created this
correct>assum£tioniiasiwecÿ work changed the very earth bysculpting the
The Great Sphinx of Giza guards the tombs living rock. We do not know what the Egyptians
of the Egyptian kings at Giza, near Cairo ( 1.29). called this half- man,half-lion,but we have come
The Great Sphinx is the largest carving in the to call it a "sphinx" after the creature from Greek
7.
*7
/ \
i , /
W
1.28 (above) Th ree

d Tens ons: height, width,
end deoth
-aVi •
j */* * >.1ÿ.- v. • • •"
. :\ - '
• ÿ
'
"... .-yj. igg&j. ÿ
-%
1.29 Great Sphinx of Giza,

C. 2650 5CE, Giza. Egypt
I a
-
THREE-DIMENSIONAL ART 63
C
mythology with the body of a lion, the wings cylinders, cones, and pyramids are simple
of an eagle, and the head of a woman. examples. The Great Pyramid ofKhufu is a
There are two types of form: geometric stunning example of geometric form in
and organic. architectural design (see Gateway Box: The
Great Pyramid of Khufu, 1.30).
Geometric Form Likethe ancient Egyptians, the American
sculptor Dayid Smith 1906—65 ) also relied on
Geometric forms are regular and are readily- geometric form- 10 create his compositions.
expressible inwords or numbers: cubes, spheres, ,
In CubiXLX made of stainless steel, Smith
1-30 Great Pyramid of Khufu. The regulated and controlled geometric form the desert sands. They point to the sky, the
c. 2560 bce. Giza, Egypt 0f Great Pyramid at Khufu in Giza, Egypt, realm of the sun god. Just as we ca n calculate
stands as a monument to the engineering and the result of a mathematical equation, if we
construction skills of the ancient Egyptians view a pyramid from its eastern side, we can
(1.30). The base of Khufu's pyramid islevel predict what its northern, southern, and
to within less than an inch, and the greatest western sides will look like. Egyptian art and
difference in the length of the sides is architecture exhibit carefully ordered and
VA inches.The pyramids at Giza (there are controlled characteristics. The work of these
three) were originally encased in fine white artists was governed by a canon, orset of rules,
limestone:the simplicity of their geometry that is also expressed in the strict formality of
must have stood out like gigantic crystals in ancient Egyptian art.
64 FUNDAMENTALS
C
uses cubes, cuboids, and a thickdisk ( 1.31). forms inangular relationships. The diagonal
Smith learnedwelding in an automobile factory angles imply movement, giving thesebasic
and became expert while fabricating tanks of geometric forms a visual energy. Smith burnished
Thick armor plate d nrino World War TT. The late their surfaces to create a counterpoint between
works of his Cubi series combine geometric industrial and natural form.
1.31 David Smith. Cubi XIX,

Organic Form
1964. Stainless steel. 1 13V-X
2 1Vs x 20=/;"
The form of most things inthe natural world is
organic: it is irregular and unpredictable. Living
things, such as plants and animals, change
constantly, and their forms change too. Artists
accentuat e the irr egula r cha ract er o f o rganic
form tor expressive effect.
The human figure gives an artist a subject
that can communicate the rich experience of
humanity and organic form in a way we can all
understand. The human body, like other organic
forms, constantly changes inconcert with its
surroundings. Forms representing the human
figure can provide the artist with a subject
conveying symmetry andbalance. But byvisually
contradicting such order, an artist can make a
work seem uncomfortable or uneasy to look at.
The unknown artist who carved the work
Vesyerbild in the fourteenth century expresses
the agonv of death and grief bv making the
bodies o f Jesus and Marv ir regular, awkwa rd,
and distortfd: i-32i.
The suffering of
torture is made
shockingby the
disjointedness of the
lifeless Jesus. Stiffly angular, he
is stretched across the lap of his mother
Mary. Prickly thorns, gushing wounds,
and crumpled drapery give texture
to pain and anguish. The
disproportionate size of Mary's
twisted face makes her unbearable
sorrow all the more inescapable.
1.32 Vesperbild[P\ ela).

Middle Rhine region, c. 1330.
Wood. 34V:" high. Rheinisches
LandesmuseuT. Bonn,
Germany
c
1.33 LinoTsglicpietra. The expression of vigor and uplift in Italian energy, and power of the superhero through an
Batman, 1998. Glsss. 1V/2X glass artist Lino Tagliapietra' s Batman (1.33) expressive form, rather than a carefully depicted,
15V;x3
contrasts with the expression of death and despair lifelike representation. Tagliapietra says of the
in Vesperbild. Tagliapietra (b. 1934) wanted to work,"I imaged pieces that allow theviewer to see
convey the idea of "a creature who emerges from both the reality and fantasy of Batman'sworld"
his dark cave to share goodness and light." He has
enhancedthe positive emotion of this abstract
image by usingbright color and stretching the
Abstract: arc imagery chat
departs from recognizable extreme edges upward as if this were a growing,
Form in Relief and
images from the natural world
Color: the optical effect caused livingobject. Rather than having hard, angular in the Round
when reflectedwhite light of distortions, the artist uses a form that is lively and
the spectrum is divided into organic. The natural energy of light is captured in An artist who works with three-dimensional
a separate wavelength
Relief: araisedformona largely the glowing transparenqÿ of the glass. form can choose to create a work in relief or
flat background. For example, Tagliapietra, a master of glassblowing technique, inthe round.A relief is a work inwhich forms
the design on a coin is "in relief' wants the form to allude, without making a literal project from a flat surface. It is designed to be
In the round: a freestanding
sculpted work that can be viewed
reference, to the idea behindthe character viewed from one side only. A form in the round
from all sides Batman. Thus we are free to revel in the life, can be seen from all sides.
66 FUNDAMENTALS
1.36 Impe" al Process:on,
"on the Aÿs Fee's Augustae,
13 EC E. Marble altar. Museo
dellAra Pads, Rorre. Italy
Facade: any side of a building,

usually the front or entrance
Foreground: the partofawork
deplete das nearest to the viewer
High relief: a carved panel
where the figures project with a
great deal of depth from the
background
Bas-relief: a sculpture carved
with very little depth
Stela (plural stele): upright
stone slab dec orated with
inscriptions or pictorial relief
carvings
Plane: a flat surface
Composition: the overall design
or organization of a work
Forms in relief combine aspects of two- folds in their togas are strongly delineat edbv
dimensional and three-dimensional works of art. shadows. But the artist wanted to imply a large
Like a two-dimensional work, a relief can be crowd rather than iust a line of people. The
mounted on a wall or other surface. figures behindthose in the foreground are also
Although relief may appear to limit carved in relief, but not quite so deeply. They
thework' s potentialvisual impact, appear to be further away because there is less
in fact the sculptor can create the shadow defining their shape. The artist suggests
illusion ofa three-dimensional even greater depthby using a third group of
space, with dramatic results. figures who are carved in shallow relief, so that
In the relief sculptures on the there is no shadow at all to make them stand out.
south facade of the Ara Pacis This effect is clear in the upper left-hand corner,
(Latin for Altar of Peace) inRome, where the caning overlaps and diminishes
Italy, a sculptor chose to fit many in height.
figures into a limited space (1.34). The Maya artist who carved 1.35 in
The unknown artist uses the depth bas-relief worked in a tradition quite different
of the carvings to suggest that some from that of the Roman sculptor of the Ara Pacis,
areas of the composition are further with its deeply incised figures. On the Maya stela
away from us than others. The all the caning is carefully arranged on the same
figures in the foreground are deeply plane. The sculptor has created a large figure of a
carved (in high relief) so that the Maya ruler, shown wearing a highly detailed and
elaborate costume. The Mayan writing to the left
of the figure seems to be of equal visual weight;
1.35 Stela with suoe-natural scene. Mexico
or Guatemala, 761 CE. Limestone. 92x62 X the sculptor intendedthe viewer to read every
3". FoeArts Museums o; San F-anc'sco element of the composition.
1.36 Volume and mass
Volume
Three-dimensional objects necessarilyhavc
plume. Volume is the amount of space occupied
by an object. Solid objects have volume; so do
objects that enclose an empty space. Mass,by
contrast, suggests that something is solid and
occupies space (1.36). Architectural forms
usually enclose a volume of interior space to be
used for living orworking. For example, some
hotel interiors feature a large, open atrium that
becomes the focal point of the lobby. Some
sculpt ures a ccentuat e weight a ndsolidity rather
than openness. Suchworks have very few open
spaces that we can see. The presence of mass
suggests weight, gravity, a connection to the
earth. The absence of mass suggests lightness,
airiness, flight. Asymmetrical masses— or masses
that cannot be equally divided on a central axis—
can suggest dynamism, movement, change.
Open Volume
When artists enclose a space with materials that
are not completely solid, the}- create an open
volume. In Ghostwriter, Ralph Helmick (b. 1952)
and Stuart Schechter (b. 1958) use carefully
suspended pieces of metal to make an open
volume that,when looked at as a whole, creates
the image of a large human head ( 1.37a and
1.37b). The small metal pieces,which represent
letters of the alphabet and other objects, are
organized so that they delineate the shape of the
headbut do not enclose the space. In the stairwell
where the piece hangs, the empty space andthe
"head'? are not distinct or separate,but the shape
is nonetheless implied.
1.37a (top right) Ralph Helm'ck and Stua-t Schechte-.

Ghostwriter. 1??i. Cast metal/ stainless cable, 36xSx 1 0'.
Evanston Public L'brany, Illinois
1.37b [right] Detail of Ghostwriter
68 FUNDAMENTALS
c
The Russian artist Vladimir Tatlin's ( 1885—
1953) Monument to the Third International was
intended to be a huge tower with rooms housing
the offices andchamber of delegates of the «mgk
Communist International. It was going to
commemorate the triumph of Russia's Bolshevik
Revolution. Never built, it would havebeen much
higher than the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. In its
form as we see it in 1.38, the spiraling open WWW
volume of the interior, and its proposed novel use
of suchmaterials as steel and glass,symbolize the
modernism and dynamism of Communism.
Tatlin believedthat art should support and reflect
the new socialand political order.
i
Open volume can make a work feel light.
In the Blue, a collaborative work by American
sculptors Carol Mickett (b. 1952) and Robert
Stackhouse (b. 1942),was created to imply
the presence of water ( 1.39). By creating
1.38 VladimirTatlin. Model for Monument tothe Third
negative space (the openings between the
International. 191?
wooden slats) with crowds of horizontal members,
the artists make the work seem to float. Mickett feeling of motion likethe gentle ripples of
and Stackhouse also curve the pieces and place flowing water. The artists hope that viewers will
them at irregular intervals to create many subtle experience a feeling of being surrounded by water
changes in direction. This arrangement gives a as the}- walk through the passage.
1.39 Carol Mickett and

Rooert Stackhouse, In the
BluelCrest}. 200S. Painted
cypress, 2dxlQ8x 1 ]'.
Installation atSt. Petersburg
Art Center. Florida
Focalpoint: the center or

interest or activity in a work
of art, often drawing the
viewer' s attention to the most
important element
Axis: an imaginary line showing
the center of a shape, volume,
or composition
Negative space: an empty space
given shape by its surround, for
example the right-pointing
arrow between the E and x
in FedEx
c
derived from our imagination, our previous
Mass experience with smaller objects, and our
understanding of the forces of nature. Artists
Mass suggests that a volume is solid and occupies tap into thesevarious intuitions when the}- create
space. Even- substance has mass. Our perception a work of art.
of mass influences how we reactto andwhat we Mass can suggest weight ina three-dimensional
feel about that substance ( see Gateway Box: object. Some artists imply mass (without it
Colossal Olmec Heads, 1.40).We can feel the necessarily being there) to give us the impression
weight of a pebble inthe palm of our hand, or that the object we are looking at is very heavy. In
the heaviness of a chair as we pull it away from a movies, special- effect artists use boulders made
table. Our perception of mass in largeobjects is of foam to give the impression of great weight.
Gateway to Art: Colossal Olmec Heads

Mass and Power
The monumental duality of some artworks is
directly related totheir mass. The eight-foot-
high Olmec sculpture of a Colossal Head has
an imposing physical presence (1.40).
Thesheersize of the work was almost
certainly intended to impress and overwhelm.
At La Venta, in Mexico,three heads were
positioned in a "processional arrangement"
requiring the viewerto walk from one head
to another, which must have increased their
visual impact. Some of the Olmec colossal
heads are flat at the back because they had
been carved out of earlier monuments known
as "altars," although they may in fact have
been thrones. The flat back to the head was
the base of the altar.While a similar head
could be carved on a pebble that would fit
in the palm of the hand, the massive scale
of this head makes an imposing statement.
Its intimidating size suggests the power of
a mighty ruler oran important ancestor.
The full lips and nose amplify the head's
massive scale.
1-40 Colossal Head, Olmec. 1500-1300 bce. Basalt.

Museo de Antropologfa. Veracruz. Mexico
70 FUNDAMENTALS
c
memorial of its former self. Whitereadhas taken
the volume of this building's interior and
transformed it into a lasting memorial of
the lives of the people who used to live in it,
and in other houses iust like it. We not only
comprehend the weight of the concrete,but the
related associations of life and death, memory
andchange.
The sculpture of Father Damien by the
Venezuelan-born artist Marisol (b. Maria Sol
Escobar, 1930) stands as an immovable object
against an irresistible force (1.42). It depicts
1.42 Marisol [Escobar], Faiher Darrtien. !969.E-onze.

State Capitol Euild'ng, Honolulu, Hawaii
1.41 RachelWhiteread Mass does not necessarily imply heaviness, only

House. 1993. Concrete. that a volume is solid and occupies space.
Eow, London, England
[demolished 1 994)
The mass of British sculptor Rachel
Whiteread's House suggests great weight and
solidity (1.41). To create this work,Whiteread
(b. 1963) filled the interior space of a house with
tons of concretebefore demolishing the exterior
walls andwindows. The empty volume that was
once filled with the happy andsad moments of
ordinary domestic life hasbeen turned into a
the courage of a humanitarian hero.Father
Damien was a Catholic missionaiy who Texture
supervised a leper colony on the Hawaiian island
ofMolokai duringthe nineteenth century. His Anv three-dimensional object that can be
steadfast compassion is suggested by the four¬ twM felt hp tyxuac tliÿ t»stjle
square mass of Marisol'swork,while his upr ight we experience when we physically encounter a
correctness is reflected in itsvertical lines—in threÿiimensionaHonnÿÿxtureÿarÿronuhe
the cane, in the cape, and in the straight row of slickcoldsurfaceofajinelvfinishedÿ
1A3 Nam June Paik, TV buttons.The stout form communicates stability to die rough-hewn splintery character of a broken
Buddha, 1 ?7«. Closed circuit anddetermination. Father Damien,who himself branch, to the pebbly surface of a rocky beach.
video installation with cronze died of leprosy while serving its victims, When you holdthis book in your hands, you
sculpture, monitor, and video
exemplified suchheroismthat the Hawaiian feel the surface of the pages and feel itsweight.
camera, dimensions vary with
installation.Stedeli]k Museum. legislature voted to place this memorial to him in We mostly rely on the impressions we receive
Amsterdam. Netherlands front of the State Capitol Building in Honolulu. from our handswhen we think of texture, and
72 FUNDAMENTALS
c
these tactile experiences influence the way we tactile memory. The texture can thenbe implied
Surrealist: an artist belonging
look at art. by the two-dimensional image on the screen. to the Surrealist movement in
Even ifwe do not touchthree- dimensional the 1920s and later,whose art
works of art, we can still think of them as having Subversive Texture was inspiredby dreamsand
the subconscious
"actual texture." We know what polished stone
feels like (cool and smooth), so when we look A subversive texture contradicts our previous
at a highly polished marble sculpture we can tactile experience. Some types of cactus appear
imagine how its texture feels, based on our past to have a soft, furry covering, but touching them
experience. Our experience of it will be different, will be painful. Artists and designers use the
though, ifwe look at a picture of it in a book or if contradictions and contrasts of subversive
we stand next to it in the same room. texture to inviteviewers to reconsider their
Viewers of Korean artist Nam June Paik's preconceptions about the world aroundthem.
sculpture TVBuddha experience actual texture In the early twentieth century, artists calling
when the)- see andtouch the work ( 1.43). themselves Surrealists createdwork thatdrew
We understandthe tactile sensations of touching on ideas and images from dreams andthe
a bronze sculpture, or a television screen, or a unconsciousmind. The Swiss Surrealist Meret
video camera. Paik (b. 1932) presents us with Qppenheim ( 1913-85 i used texture to contradict
a visual image of the Buddha contemplating the conscious logical experiences of viewers. In her
the world and meditatingthrough modern KulrtuK Oi'ii'ih Qmnham aki a tap, saure,
electronics. The artist successfully draws on and spoon, normally hard and cool to the touch,
our past tactile experiences to give us a fuller andinsteadmakes them soft and furrv f 1.44''.
experience of the artwork. The low-tech sense The idea of sipping tea from this object conjures
of touch contrasts with the high-tech process of up an unexpected sensation of fur tickling our
aaiauBfls a aaalimaaa and tmiaaaa it aata lips. The artist is counting on our tactile memory
a screen. A camera installed in the work shoots to conflict with the actual experience of sipping
video of the actual texture andtranslates it into tea from a shiny teacup. In this case, the form is
an image that can only be experienced from our recognizable, but the associated experience is not.
StfK
1.44 Meret Cppenheirn,

Object, 1936. Fur-covered cup.
sauce-, and spoon, 2/s" high.
MOMA, NewYork
The Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao
The American architect Frank Gehry (b. 1929) This could make some visitors feel disoriented,
designed the Guggenheim Museum, located but Gehry counters this at criticaljunctures by
between a river and a motorway, in Bilbao, using stronglygeo metric form. At the entrance,
Spain; it was completed in 1997 (lA5). for instance, the reassurance of geometric form
Bilbao was once a center for ship-building, and encourages even the most apprehensive visitor
the undulating surfaces of Gehry' s creation to enter the building.
suggest ships and ship construction. Gehry's Gehry employs both sculptural relief and
design uses contrasts in geometric and organic in-the-round forms. The surfaces of the organic
form. Historically, architectural design has portion of the building are covered with titanium
relied on geometric form. Organic forms, by tiles. The subtle changes to the surfaces of this
comparison, are more difficult to visualize and material resemble an abstract bas-relief.
plan in advance; curved and irregular structures But the entire building is also like a sculpture
are difficult to survey, measure, plumb, and in-the-round thatthe viewer can strollaround
level. ButGehry used computer programs to appreciate its unexpected juts and curves.
originally invented for aerospace design to plan Gehry's museum has reshaped its location.
buildings that contradict our preconceived ideas The interior space, designed to meet the
about architecture as geometric form. Most of changing needs of art and artists in the future,
the walls of the Guggenheim Museum consist of can also be extended or reduced, creating
irregular, curving organic forms that rise and interesting exhibition opportunities. The complex
1A5 Frank Gehry,
Guggenheim Museum, 1997. fall unpredictably. The undulating surfaces give shapes of the building extend out into space like
Bilbao, Spain a sense of movement and life to the structure. a huge boat, emphasizing its relationship to the
74 FUNDAMENTALS
1.46 Louise Bourgeo's.
Marten. 1??? [cast 2001].
Bronze. stainless steel and
marble, 2?'dW x32 x
3B' 1". Guggenne:m Museum,
Bilbao, Soa n
nearby River Nervion. The building stands

in stark contrast to the surrounding urban Conclusion
landscape, offering an optimistic vision in
a deteriorating industrial district of Bilbao. We see a three-dimensionalwork of art in term:
The shimmering titanium tiles of Gehry's of its height, width, and depth. The term form is
building are complemented by a sculpture that used to describe any three- dimensional work.
stands beside the museum, Maman (1.46; Three-dimensional forms canbe geometric or
meaning "Momma" in French), by French organic. The)- also havevolume (the amount
artist Louise Bourgeois (1 91 1-2010). The of space occupied by the form) and mass (the
Guggenheim's apparently so lid mass is impression that the volume is solid and occupies
contrasted with the spindly form and open space). The surface of the form can bedescribed
volume of Maman. The negative space in terms of its texture. Al'UitS fiffl Utt tils'
surrounding its legs and body imparts language of three-dimensional art to express
lightness. The subtle variations of angle in the many ideasand emotions. Meret Oppenheim
legs imply movement. The wobbly vulnerability playfully tests our assumptions about everyday
of the spider contrasts with the massive solidity objectswith a furry teacup and saucer. On a
of the building. Even though this spider is made much larger scale, the creators of the Colossal
of bronze, the effect is one of lightness. And by OlmecHeads express the power of their rulers or
suspending belowthe central body a container ancestors, while the fourteenth- century sculptor
of marble spheres like an egg sac, Bourgeois of Vesperbild communicates the terrible sorrow of
wants to suggest both the tenderness and Mary as she holds the lifelessform of Jesus.
fierce protectivenessof motherhood.
c
FUNDAMENTALS
1.3
ImpliedDepth:
Value and Space
Reality is merely an illusion, albeit a yen- visual experiences and the way we see. Value,
Three-dimensional: having
height, width, and depth
persistent one. the lightness or darkness of a surface, emulates
Two-dimensional: having (Albert Einstein, physicist and Xobel Prize winner) the effects of light and shadow, and can be
height andwidth used to suggest solidity. Artists have a variety
Value: the lightness or darkness
of a plane or area
When Albert Einstein suggested that not of techniques based on the optics of vision that
Space: the distancebetween even-thing we see is real, he probably did not enable them to create the illusion of pictorial
identifiable points or planes have art in mind. But artists readily understand space. One of these is called atmospheric
Perspective: the creationofthe
illusion of depth in a two-
his remark, becausewhen the}- create a picture perspective, a method that mimics our visual
dimensional imagebyusing of real space ona flat surface they know they are perceptions of color, clarity, and form at a
mathematical principles creating an illusion.When we watch a magician distance. Linear and isometric perspe:tive are
to the Surrealist movement in the
perform a trick, we instinctively wonder how the drawing methods that can express the idea of
1920s an dlater ,who se art was magic was achieved. In this chapter we will reveal three-dimensional space ona two-dimensional
inspiredby dreams andthe some of the secrets that artists rely upon to create surface. In this chapter we will introducethese
subconscious
the appearance of three-dimensional depth in methods of creating the illusion of space and
1.47 Rene Magritte, The
a two-dimensional work of art. discuss why some artists choose to use them.
Treachery of Images f This is
r,o:a pipe 1 929. Oil on canvas. The techniques artists use to imply depth— In The Treachery of Images,Belgian
23*4X32". LAC MA value, space, and perspective— evoke our past Surrealist artist Rene Magritte ( 1898- 1967)
uses value and perspective to imply depth (1.47).
The pipe is painted invarying values (light and
dark tones), which gives the appearance of
shadows that suggest depth. The top of the pipe
bowl (where the tobacco wouldbe stuffed) is
composed of two concentric ellipses,which is
how circles appear in perspective. We know what
a real pipe lookslike in real space, and Magritte
understands our habits of visual perception.
He paints a picture of a pipe that "feels" solid,
but then playfully invites us to re-examineour
habits of mind.
In this painting,Magritte tells us that painting
is a visual trick. By writing "Ceci n' est pas une
pipe" ("This is not a pipe"),Magritte wants us to
C&ci n -eM fwu> wruz [U{i& . recognize that what appears to be a pipe is not
really a pipe: it is an illusion, nothing more than
paint on a flat surface.
76 FUNDAMENTALS
c
that have a lighter value are facing the light source; 1.68 Buckminster Fuller,
Value the darker ones are facing away. Geodes'c Dome (Art Dome..
1963-79. Reed College.
Value changes often occur gradually. Ifyou look
Portland. Oregon
Value refers to lightness and darkness. An artist's at the Art Dome,you will notice that the relative
use of value can produce a sense of solidity and darkvalues increase as the planes get further awav
influence our mood. For example, detective and face away from the light (see also 1.69).
movies of the 1940s were filmed in such dark These changes occur on any object. There are
tones that the}- hadtheir own style calledfilm subtle value changes even in a white object.
noir, French for "dark film." The serious mood of
these mysteries was enhancedby the filmmaker's
choice of darkvalues. Artists use dark and light ;1
-"/yjV
....
Light source
Trianqular
- planes make up
the surface of this geodesic
1.69 Values and planes
o; a geodes'c sphere.
vector graphic
values as tools for creating depth. \ sphere. Each of these planes
Artists learn to mimic the appearance of \ is illuminated differently
V depending on its location in
thingsby observing the effects of light as it relation to the light source
illuminates a surface. The Art Dome,formerly
used as a sculpture studio at Reed College in
Portland,Oregon, demonstrates the effect of light
on planes in varying locations (1.68). Mam-
—
l Dlsr-fi
riane
triangular flat planes make up this surface. Each

of these planes has a different value, the relative
degree of lightness or darkness of the plane Style: a characteristic wa> in
4
according to the amount of light shining on it. which an artist or group of
The light source (high and to the left of the artists uses visual language to
give a ÿ\"ork an identifiable form
dome) hits some of the triangular planes of the ofvisual expression
.Art Dome more directly than others. The planes Plane: aflat surface
IMPLIED DEPTH 77
c
A value range refers to a series of different
values. In the image of the geodesic sphere (see
p. 77) there is a value range of black,white, and
eight values of gray. Black andwhite are the
values at the extreme ends of this value r ange.
Chiaroscuro
Chiaroscuro (Italian for "light-dark") is a method
of applyingvalue to a two-dimensional piece
of artwork to create the illusion of a three-
dimensional solid form (1.50).
The illusion of solidity and depth in two
dimensions can be achieved by using an approach
devised by artists of the Italian Renaissance.
Using a sphere as their model, Renaissance artists
identifiedfive distinct areas of light andshadow.
A highlight marks the point where the object is
most directly lit. This is most often depicted as
bright white. From the highlight,moving toward
the shadow, progressively less light is cast on the
object untilthe point is reachedwhere the surface
faces away from the light. Here there is a more
sudden transition to darker values, or core
shadow. At the bottom of the sphere a lighter
value is producedby shadow mixed with light
r eflected fr o mt he surro unding envir onment .
This lighter value defines the bottom edge of the
sphere. In contrast, the sphere casts a shadow
1.50 Diagram o; chiaroscuro
Chiaroscuro is an effect
Light source
that creates an illusion of Highlight 1.51 Ch'a-oscuro g~aoh'c
solidity and depth by aopl'ed to Pierre-Paul
Light
using five defined values Prud'hon.Study for LaSource.
Core shadow C. 1 SOL Blackand white chalk
on blue oaoeÿ, 21J/-x15V.".
Reflected light
Sterling end F-aoc:ne Cla"-<
Highlight Cast shadow Art Institute, Williamstown,
Massachusetts
away from the direction of the light source. Near

the edge of the cast shadow, as light from the
shadow
surroundingenvironment increases, the shadow
Reiected becomes lighter.
In Studyfor La Source, the French artist Renaissance: a period of
Cast shadow Pierre-Paul Prud'hon (1758-1823) uses cultural and artistic change in
chiaroscuro inthe drawing of a female figure Europe from the fourteenth to
the seventeenth century
(1.51). Ifyou look carefully at the figure's Highlight: anareaoflightest
upper left leg (the leg on the viewer's right),you value in a work
78 FUNDAMENTALS
c
can see that the chiaroscuro isbeing usediust as it Caravaggio (1571-1610) uses strongly
Emphasis: the principle of
is in 1.50. There is an area of highlight on the knee contrasting values to convert a quiet gathering
drawing attention to particular
transitioning to the lighted thigh. Under the knee into a pivotal and powerful event ( i.52). The content in a work
and thigh there is a strong core shadow reflected intense difference between lights anddarks
light can be seen on the calf and the underside of places extra emphasis on Christ's hand as he
the thigh. The reflected lightis accentuated by the singles out Matthew,who points to himself
dark cast shadow behind the calf. Prud'hon's use inresponse. The light also frames Matthew
of black andwhite chalk on a gray paper allows and highlights the surprised looks of the others
him to accentuate the lightest anddarkest areas, in the roomas Matthew is called to become
the chiaroscuro. one of Christ's disciples.
Dramatic effects canbe achieved through the
1.52 Caravaggio, The Calling ofSt. Matthew, c. 1 5°9- 1600.
use of chiaroscuro, especially if it is exaggerated. Oil on canvas. 11 1 x 11"5". ContarelL Chapel. San Luig'
"
The CallingofSt Matthew by the Italian artist de: Frances:. Rorre. Italy
IMPLIED DEPTH 79
Hatching: the use of non-
Hatching and Cross-Hatching
overlapping parallel lines to
convey- darkness or lightness Artists also use a method called hatching to
Medium(plural media): the Overlapping lines, or express val ue ( 1.53)ÿHatchinÿconsistsofÿ
material on or fromwhich an cross-hatching, series of lines, close to and parallel to each other.
artist chooses to make a work of Increasing intensifies the darkness
art, for exampie canvas and oil of thevalue Media that demand a thin line, for example
frequency of hatch
paint, marble, engraving, video, lines implies darker engraving or pen-and-ink drawing, do not allow
or architecture
value v muchvariation in the width of the line. Here an
Cross-hatching: the use of
overlapping parallel lines to artist may choose hatching or cross-hatching
convey- darkness or lightness (a variant of hatching inwhich the lines overlap)
to suggest values that create a greater sense of
defined by lines or suggestedby form and depth.
c han ges in c olor or value The Italianartist Michelangelo! 1475-1564)
uses cross-hatching in his pen-and-ink drawing
Headofa Satyr (1.54). Cross-hatching gives
1.53 Creating value us'ng notching and cross-natch'og the face of the satyr solidity and depth. By-
building up layers of brown ink,Michelangelo
1.5U Michelangelo. Head of a Satyr, c. 1 520-30. Fen and
overcomes the restrictions created by the thin line
ok on paoe". 105/sx7 /=". Museedu Louvre. Paris, France
of the pen. For example, ifwe look carefully at the
cheekbone of the satyr it appears to be jutting out
toward us. This effect is createdbyhatching and
cross-hatching. Thebright white highlight uses
no lines; the surrounding hatch lines define the
transition from bright light to a darker value.
As we move our gaze downward and to the right
of the highlight we notice that a second layer
of overlappinghatching lines intersects the
diagonals bordering the highlight. Then, aswe
continue to scan downward and to the right we
see more layers of hatching lines crossing over
the previous. As the hatching lines cross over and
over, the value appea rs to get darker. Michelangelo
communicates three-dimensional depthby using
narrow andtwo-dimensionallines.
Space
Value is just one of a variety of strategies artists
use to communicate the idea of depth in a work of
art. The strategies are techniques whereby an artist
creates a sense of depth andthe illusion of space.
Size, Overlapping, and Position

In a work of art, the size of one shape compared
to another often suggests that thelarger object is
closer to us. Another way to create the illusion of
depth is to overlap shapes. If one shape appears to
80 FUNDAMENTALS
Gateway to Art: Hokusai,"The Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa"
Methods for ImplyingDepth
1.55 Katsushika Hokusai. The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai away. Hokusai then draws our attention back
The Great Wave off Shore at (1760-1849), one of the great masters of to the foreground with the enormous white-
Kanagawa". from Thirty-Six
drawing and printmaking, uses several devices capped wave shape that gives the piece its
Views of Mount Fuji, 1826-33
(printed later). Print, color to indicate depth in "The Great Wave off Shore title.The placing of Mount Fuji lower than the
woodcut. Library of Congress. at Kanagawa" (1.55). The artist makes one boat top of the waves deliberately confuses the
Washington. D.C. shape smallerthan the others, so by size composition of the picture space, but it also
comparison we see the boat that is smallest adds to our sense of the size of the wave that
as furthest. Hokusai also gives us other clues towers over it.At first glance the mountain
about depth. The shape of the wawe overlaps seems like just another wave, but once we
the two largest boat shapes (on the bottom). realize it is the far-off Mount Fuji we get a sense
In this way, the artisttells us that the water is of distance.We can then assume the boats are
closer to us than the boat sha pes. The relative far off shore, andthis contributes to our feeling
positions of the sha pes in the print also imply of unease regarding the fate of these mariners
depth. By placing the wave sha pe at the lowest in a churning, violent sea.
point on the page, the artist suggests that it is
closest to the viewer.As the shapes get higher
in the composition, they appear to be further
IMPLIED DEPTH 81
c
overlap another, the shape in front seems closer
than the shape that is partially covered. Position
in the pictureplane is also an effective device
for implying depth. A shape lower in the picture
plane appears to be closer.
Alternating Value and Texture

The illusion of depth in two dimensions is
ofteninfluenced bv the arrangement of value
and texture. .Artists interspersevalue andvisual
texture to create a sense of rhythm. Look at
Travelers amongMountains and Streams
(1.56), by Chinese painter Fan Kuan
(c. 990-1020). From the bottom up, we first
confront a large boulder, followed by a light
opening (a road with travelers), andthen some
trees and foliage clinging to a rocky landscape.
After this sectionthere is another light area,
after which the values gradually darken as our
view- climbs the face of a mountain. Finally,the
sky is lighter,although somewhat darkened,
completing the alternating rhythm from bottom
to top. Each area of light anddark occupies
different amounts of space, making the design
more interesting. We can also note the change-
in visual texture from bottom to top. The texture
appears to be extremely rough and detailed near
the bottom. From this point it progressively
becomes less precise. As Fan Kuan's landscape
rises it also appears to recede. These visual layers
create a sense of depth.
Brightness and Color

Brightness andcolor can bothbe used to suggest
depth in a work of art. Lighter areas seem to be
closer as dark areas appear to recede. This is
especially true of color. For example, we are
more likely to think that a green that is very-
pure and intenseis closer to us than a darker
green. American painter Thomas Hart Benton
(1889-1975) usedbrightness andcolor to create
a sense of distance in his painting The Wreck of
the Ole '97 (1.57) .In the green areas we see the
Picture plane: the surface of a

1.56 Fsn Ku an. Travelers among Mountainsand Streams. bright pure greens come forward as the darker,
Northern Sung Dynasty. 11th century. Hanging scroll, nk less intense greens fall away. The greens in the
painting or drawing
Rhythm: the regular or ordered
-
end colo's on silk, 31 x 60vV. NationalPalace Museum,
lower central portion of the work are more
Taipei. Taiwan
repetition of elements in the wotk intense than the greens on the far left. Because
82 FUNDAMENTALS
c
we perceive color that is more intense as being 1.57 Tnorres Hart Benton, TheV/reckofthe Ole '97, 1 943.
closer, this difference in color intensity helps us Egg tempe_a and oil on canvas. 2B/2X 46 V2". Hunter Intensity: the relative clarity
Museum of Art, Chattanooga. Tennessee of color in its purest rawform,
to feel we are at a safe distance from the terrible demonstrated through luminous
train wreck. or mutedvariati ons
1.58 The e;;ectso; atmospheric perspective
Atmospheric Perspective
Some artists use atmospheric perspective to
create the illusion of depth. Distant objects lack
contrast, detail, and sharpness offocus because
the air that surrounds us is not completely
transparent. The effect makes objects with strong
color take on a blue-gray middlevalue as the)- get
farther away: the atmosphere progressivelyveils
a scene as the distance increases. Contemporarv
filmmakers use this atmospheric effect to give
the illusion of great depth, just as traditional
artists have always done.
In 1.58 the Greek temple to the left appears
to be closer to the viewer than the other temples
because its colors arebrighter and its shape is
more sharply defined. The smallest temple lacks
detail and is tinged blue-gray, making it seem the
IMPLIED DEPTH 83
C
parallels to communicatedepth,while linear
perspective relies on a system where lines appear
toconverge at points in space. Both forms of
perspective tap into some of the ways we see the
world and think about space.
Isometric Perspective
Isometricperspective arranges parallel lines
diagonally in a work to give a sense of depth.
Theword isometric derives from the Greek
meaning "equal measure." The system has been
usedby artists in China for more than a thousand
years. It was particularly suitable for paintingon
scrolls,which can be examined only insections.
Since Chinese landscape painters were never
really interested in portraying space from a single
viewing point— the}- preferred to convey multiple
view-points simultaneously— isometric
perspective was their chosen technique to convey
the illusion of space in the structural lines of
architecture andother rectilinear objects.
A section from the painting TheQianlong
Emperors Southern Inspection Tour, Scroll Six:
Entering Suzhou and the Grand Canal by Xu Yang
shows this system in action ( 1.60). The
parallel diagonal lines that define the small
L-shaped building in the center of thework
suggest a three-dimensional object ( 1.61).
1.59 Asne1- Brown Durand, farthest away. American Asher Brown Durand Xu Yang, a Chinese artist working in the 1770s,
.
KindredSptriis 18ÿ9. Oilon (1796-1886) used comparable effects in his uses this method to give the architecture along
canvas. 64x36". Crystal
painting Kindred Spirits ( 1.59). The trees in the Grand Canal the illusion of depth. This
Bridges Museum o; American
Art, Bentonville. Arkansas the foreground are detailed andbright green, method of implying depth is not "realistic'"
but as the trees recede into the landscape behind according to the Western tradition, but the artist
the two figures the}- become a lighter gray and makes use of other spatial devices to help us
increasingly out of focus. Lines and shapes also understandhow-the space is structured. For
become less distinct as the illusion of distance example, the diminishing size of the trees as
increases. By using atmospheric perspective, the}- recedeinto the distance reinforces the
Durand conveys an impression of the vastness sense of depth.
of the American landscape. Isometricperspective is now- common in
contemporary computer graphics as well.
The computer game The Sims (1.62) is designed
Perspective to express depth with a perspective method
simila r to the one Xu Yang used in 1770. The
Isometricperspective: asystem
using diagonal parallel lines to
Artists, architects, and designers who wish to designers have createdthe architecture of the
communicate depth suggest the illusion of depth ona two-dimensional game using parallel diagonal lines to make"tiles."
L inea r persp ect ive: a system surface use perspective. The}- havethe choice of The tiles allow- uniform objects to remain the
using converging imaginary
sight lines to create the illusion several ways to do this, of which two are the most same size, yet as the}- move around the game field
of depth common. Isometricperspective uses diagonal the}- still imply depth. The game designers' choice
86 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.60 Xu Yang. The Qianlong
Emperor's Southern Inspector
Tour. Scroll Six: Eriering
Suzhou and the Grand Canal .
Cing Dynasty, 1 770 'detail],
Handscroll. nkand color
on silk. 2'3V;x65'dV2".
Metropolitan Museum o;
Art. New York
Lines are drawn

parallel and
x diagonal to create
ÿ
ÿ
depth in isometric
N
v
N perspective
1.61 (above) Graphic detailing

somet"'c perspective n
scroll mage
1.62 Screenshot from The

Sims, a computer s'mulation
game. 2000
IMPLIED DEPTH 85
of isometric perspective allows players to Mozi observedthat a pinhole of light projected
manipulate the architecturewithout distortion on a wall in a dark room would also project an
because the individual tiles remain the same size. image. Later, aroundthe year 1000, an Arabic
mathematiciannamedAlhazen theorized that,
Linear Perspective likethe pinhole projection discoveredby Mozi,
light funnels into the eye so that we can seethe
Linear perspective is a mathematical system that world. He also usedwhat we now know as a camera
uses lines to create the illusion of depth in a two- obscura (Latin for "dark room") to demonstrate
dimensionalartwork. (The "lines" can be actual the effects of projectedlight. This device,
lines,for example of buildings, or implied lines combined with the knowledge that light enters
of figures or shapes.) The linear perspective the eye, created a theoreticalbasis for thelater
systems usedbv artists arebased on observation development of linear perspective. Hie Renais sance
of space in the world we see around us: the two artist and architectLeon Battista Alberti (1404-
sides of a straight railway line or road appear to 72) made use of these theories and his own
converge as the)' recede into the distance, even observations to write his treatise On Painting.
though in reality-they are parallel. Alberti proposed to emulate the image
prqi ected through a camera obscura in order to
Origins and History create a sense of depth inworks of art. Other
The history of linear perspectivebegins in the Renaissance artists began to use the device to
fifth century 3CE when the Chinese philosopher explore the possibilities of naturalistic illusion
1.63 The e-ectcr

convergences: Edith Hayllar,
A Summer Shower, 1BS3.
Oil on panel. 21 x 173/s~.
Private collect'on
Convergence
lines
Actualline acontinuous,
uninterrupted line
Impliedline: aline not actually
drawn but suggestedby elements
in the work
86 FUNDAMENTALS
c
andthe re- creation of reality. The artist would on the left of the painting. This is the vanishing
Vanishing point: the point in a
stand in a darkened room with a small hole in point. These converging parallel lines are also
work of art at which imaginary
one wall. Sunlight would pass through the hole known as orthogonals; the artist uses them here sight lines appear to converge,
and proi ect a full-color upside- down image of the to create a composition that reflects the orderly suggesting depth
Orthogonals: in perspective
objects outside the room onto the opposite wall. lifeof upper- middle-class Victorian England.
systems, imaginary sightlines
The artist could then draw the projected image or There are a number of va nations of linear extending from forms to the
trace the image directly onto paper or canvas. perspective— one-point,two-point, and multi¬ vanishing point
One-pointperspective: a
The Italian FilippoBrunelleschi (1377-1446) point— depending on the effect the artist wants perspective system with a single
was the first artist to apply the tenets that had to achieve. These formal approaches to conveying vanishing point on the horizon
been explored by Alberti and others to create a sense of depth are important tools.
works of art using linear perspective. Later artists
would use the process to give realistic depth to One- Point Perspective
their works. The one -point perspective system has some
The British artist Edith Hayllar (1860-1948) limitations. Although the system makes it
exhibited many works at the Royal Academy possible to represent "real" space, certain rules
(a rare honor for a woman artist at the time) have to be followed. Since one-point perspective
between 1882 and 1897. The enhanced relies on a singlevanishing point, the scene must
photograph of her painting A Summer Shower be directly in front of the artist and receding.
shows thebasis for linear perspective (1.63). The effect is something like standing on an
The converging lines represent planes that are empty highway facing an underpass (1.64).
parallel to each other in reality. Notice how, if The sides of the road andthe inside of the
we were to draw lines from the right side of the underpass appear to follow converging paths to
image and continue them until the}- intersect, a single point on the horizon. But ifyou redirect
these parallel lines would appear to converge on your gaze to the right or left of the underpass,
one single point infront of the male tennis player the edges of the roadway and underpass are out
One-point linear perspective
r\ » »
#
//
* #*
_
30DHI 11 1111 H II II IIJ1--11 IJ-H-ffl
ushing point
Horizon.
Orthogonals /'
1.64 Applying one-point

perspective technique
IMPLIED DEPTH 87
C
Vanishing Horizon line

point
1.65 Use of one-point

perspective: Masaccio, Trinity,
C. 1425-6. Fresco, 211 OVT X
1 0'6Vs~. Santa Maria Novella.
Florence. Italy
of direct sight and it is not as easy to see the have amazedvisitors at the church of Santa Maria
recession of space. Novella in Florence,Italy.
One of the first artists to use one-point
perspectivewas the Italian Masaccio (1401-28). Two-Point Perspective
In his fresco of the Trinity, Masaccio places the The one- point perspective system worked for
horizon line, an imaginary linethat mimics the Masaccio because his composition relied on the
horizon, at the viewer's eye level (note the figure) viewer standing directly in frontof the vanishing
and centers the vanishing point in the middle of point. But if the vanishing point is not directly
that line (1.65).Thehorizonline representsour (or near directly) in front of a viewer, or ifthe
eye level and is the basis for the setting-out of a objects in the work are not all parallel, one- point
perspective drawing. The orthogonals create an perspective does not create a believable illusion
illusion that the background is an architectural of depth. Theltalian artistRaphael (1483-1520) fresco: »ttdmique«here
setting. The endresult is an effective illusion of

.... ..
dealt with this problem in his famous painting
the artist paints onto freshlv
appliedplaster. Fromthe Italian
depth on a two-dimensional surface that must The School of Athens 1 .66a and 1.66b] . fresco, fresh
88 FUNDAMENTALS
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Gateway to Art: Raphael, The School ofAthens
Perspective andthe Illusionof Depth
In The Schoolof Athens Raphael combines one- vanishing point that has been determined
point perspective and two-point perspective in following the rules of one-point perspective,
one composition (l.66a and 1.66b). The figure in or it will be distorted. Rapha el deals with
the foreground is leaning against an object set this situation by introducing two additional
1.66a Raphael, The School of
at an angle that is not perpendicularand vanishing points. Noticethat both these
Athens. 1510-11. Fresco,
16 8" x 25'. Stanza delta parallel to the rest of the architectural setting. new vanishing points fall on the horizon line,
Segnatura, Vatican City Consequently, it cannot depend on the central following the established rules of perspective
(vanishing points must fall on the horizon line).
i One vanishing point is positioned to the left of
the central vanishing point that a nchors the
architecture, and the rightvanishing point is
outside of the picture. The block in the center is
ia> m
the only object in the composition that uses
1 these two vanishing points, becausethe viewer

is not perpendicular or parallel to it. Since it is
turned at an angle, Raphael had to integrate
another level of perspective into the work. All
of the objects andarchitecturalspaces depicted
in this painting rely on one of these two
perspectivepoints.
1.66b (below) Applying two- point perspective: detail

from Raphael, The School of Athens
Left vanishing point Horizon line Rightvanishing point
Horizon line
To rightvanishing point
IMPLIED DEPTH 89
C
Vanishing point Vanishing point
Multi-Point Perspective
As artists discoveredthat linear perspective
afforded them many new possibilities for creating
illusions of space, they- began to expand on the
idea of multiple-point perspective systems. Any
object that exists in our cone of vision— the area
we can see without moving our head or eyes— 1.68 Three-point perspective,
can usually be depicted using vanishing points on bird' s-e/e view: M. C. Esche",
the horizon line ( 1.67). But ifwe are looking

Ascendinga nd Descen ding .
March 1 960. Woodcut. Ux
at an object from a position other than ground 1 1V-". The M. C. Escher
level then we shall need points away from the Company. Netherlands
horizon lineandother variations on perspective.
Objects and spaces that have right angles
make it easy to workout where vanishing points
shouldbe; we can use one- point perspective.
Unfortunately, many objects are made up of
multiple angles that need even more vanishing
points. As more vanishing points are
incorporated into a design, the artist can more
readily reflect the complexities of the realworld.
The most common multiple-point
perspective system is three-point perspective:
here a vanishing point is placed above or below
thehorizon line to accommodate a high or
low- angle of observation. Whether this third
vanishing point isabove orbelowthe horizon
depends onwhether theviewer has a worm's-eye
(lookingup) or bird's-eye (looking down) view.
1.67 Cone o; vision Vanishing point
Peripheral vision
Dutch graphic artist M. C. Escher (1898-1972)
Cone of vision uses a third vanishing point in Ascendingand
Descending; we can see three distinct vanishing
points (l.68). Two of the vanishing points are
Cone of vision is the area one can • i
placed on the horizon line,but one is well below
see when focusing on a single point in *"**'
space. The brim of a man's hat is outside of the cone
it. This gives us a bird's-eyeview of the building Three-point perspective: a
perspective system with two
of vision in an area o*' peripheral vision. He can only that allows us to see the sides of the structure vanishing points on the horizon
see things in this area if he moves his eyes. while looking down on it as if from above. and one not on the horizon
90 FUNDAMENTALS
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three- dimensional form into a foreshortened
two-dimensional composition.
A painting by the Italian artist Andrea
Mantegna (1431-1506), The Lamentation over
the Dead Christ, also illustrates foreshortening
(1.70). The figure of Christ isoriented so
that the wounded feet are placed in the extreme
foreground, with the rest of the body receding
away from the viewer back into space. Mantegna
only slightly enlarges the feet, and depicts the
1.69 Albrecht Durer, Foreshortening body in shortened sections. Like perspective in
Draftsman Drawings
.
Recurnben t Woman 1525. general, foreshortening hasthe effect of grabbing
Woodcut. G"2ohi5Che Foreshortening resultswhen the rules of our interest. In this work, we feel as if we are
Sammlung Albertina, Vienna.
Au stria perspective are applied to represent unusual standing at the foot of the slab where the)' have
points ofview. The German artist Albrecht Durer put down Christ's dead body.
(1471—1528), in his woodcut Draftsman Drawing
Foreshortening: a perspective a Recumbent Wo man, portrays an artist at work
technique that depicts a form at drawing a figure ( 1.69).At this oblique angle the Conclusion
averyoblique (often dramatic) usual proportions ofdifferent parts ofthebody
angle to the viewer in order to
show depth in space do not apply. The artist has a fixed lens or The depiction of space in a work of art is more
Woodcut: a print created from aperture in front ofhim to make sure he always than just an illusion,trick, or device. By means
views from the same point.As he looks through of a rich and creative variety of techniques, artists
the griddedwindow hecan see the coordinates, through the ages and across the world have given
1.70 Andrea Mantegna, in relation to the grid, of the different parts of us clues we can connect -with things we have seen
The Lamentation over:he Dead the model's body. He can then transfer those andthe wavs in which we have seen them.
Christ. C. 1680. Temoe-a coordinates onto the similar grid marked on the Artists anticipate the effects of light on an
on canva s. 26V. x 3 1"/a" .
F:nacoteca d' B"e_a. piece of paper in front of him. The gridded screen object by subtle variations in value. By noting
Milan, Italy in the illustration helps the artist to translate a how we see light and shadow the artist can use
chiaroscuro or hatching to remind us of solid
objects similar to those we have seen.
When an artist overlaps different shapes, or
contrasts their sizes in a particularwav,we begin
to imagine something that is not there. The artist,
from observation of the real world, mimics
variations in texture,brightness, color intensity,
and atmospheric perspective. These effects create
an illusion that increases our ability to perceive
space. The right method can help even the
simplest graphic convey depth.
Different systems ofperspective organize and
distribute lines and forms in two-dimensional
space, allowing artists to create a new and
convincing sense of depth.
Implieddepth hasbeen a powerful tool for
artists since the first created image. The ability
to make a two-dimensional surface look as
if it opens up into a new space expands our
imagination and enhances our experience of
theworld.
IMPLIED DEPTH 91
c
FUNDAMENTALS
1.4
Color
The first colors that made a strong impression in our brains. In natural sunlight, the color of
onmewere bright,juicy green,white, carmine an obi ect we see is,in fact, a reflected fraction
spectrum is divided into a red, black andyellow ochre. These memories of light. When we see someone wearing a blue
separate wavelength go back to the thirdyear of my life. Isaw these sweater, the blue we see is the portion of the
Primary colors: three basic
colors from which all others
colors on various objects which are no longer spectrum that is reflectedback to our eyes;
are derived as clear in my mind as the colors themselves. the rest of the light is absorbed by the sweater.
Secondary colors: colors mixed (Vasik Kandinsky, Russian painter) Because color is so essential to our experience
from two primary- colors
of seeing, it is deeply associatedwith the
Pigment: thecoloredmaterial
used in paints. Often made from Color is the most vivid element of art and design. psychological and expressive aspects of our lives.
finely ground minerals By itsvery essence, color attracts our attention That simple blue sweater may have many
Hue general classification
and excites our emotion. Just as personality and complex associations. We will explore and
of a color; the distinctive
characteristics of acoloras mood vary from one person to the next, our explain the complexities of color in this chapter.
seen in the visible spectrum, perceptions of color are personal and subjective.
such as green or red
Few other phenomena touch our innermost
of a plane or area feelings as deeply and directly. Light and Color
Tint: acolorlighter invalue Ancient Greek philosophers speculated that
than its purest state
color was not a state of matter but a state of mind. ÿlecolorÿlAhÿolomvheel are thebuilding
Today, physicists tell us that an object's color is blocks of most color combinations ( 1.72).
determinedby the wavelengths of light it reflects. The traditional primary colors— red, yellow,
The refraction of light through a prism shows —
blue cannot be mixed from any other two
that we can think of white light as composed colors. The secondary colors are colors, such as
of constituent colors of different wavelengths orange (a blend of red and yellow) and green
(i.7i).The colors we see are those portions (a blend of yellow and blue),which can be mixed
of the light spectrum that a surface fails to absorb, from two primary colors. In the color wheel the
and reflects instead. Physiologists,meanwhile, secon da rv colors are locatedbetween the primary
explain that this reflected light excites nerve cells colors because the}- naturally fall between them
1.71 White light can be
separated 'nto thevisible that linethe back of our eyes, and that their nerve in thevisible spectrum.
spectrum using a pri:ST signals are reprocessed and interpreted as color Colorsof light and colors of pigment behave
differently. You see this in action when you mix
all the colors of paint together and get a muddy
middle gray instead of white. There are two
Visible spectrum ways of working with color mixtures, known as
subtractive and additive.When subtractive
colors are mixed they make a darker andduller
color because more of thevisible spectrum is
92 FUNDAMENTALS
number of other hueswe can seewhen white
Color vf- eel light is divided into the spectrum, for example
fallow ÿreen blue-green or yellow-orang?.
Color is such an important aspect of a coffin
created by the African sculptor Kane Kwei
(1922-92) that it is sometimes known as Coffin
Orange (1.73). Kwei's coffin is painted with a
ÿrange brilliant middle-orange hue, the color of a half-
ripened cocoa pod. .Although cocoa pods are
orange, the brightness of color used for this coffin
is exaggerated. In Ghana, Kwei's native country,
funerals are celebratory, loud affairs where bright
V i cist color adds to the festive mood. Ghanaians believe
1.72 Traditional color wheel that having lots of happy people at a funeral gives
[red. yellow, olue primaries]
solace to the family of the deceased, reminding
them that they still have many friends. Kwei got
absorbed.When additive colors are mixed they started in his career when his dying uncle asked
make colors even lighter. Kwei to build him a boat-shaped coffin. It was
such a hit inthe community that others began to
ask for coffins made in interesting shapes. Coffin
Dimensions of Color in the Shape ofa Cocoa Pod was commissioned by
a cocoa farmer who wanted to tell everybody
All colors have three basic properties: hue,value, about his lifelong passion at hislast party on earth.
and saturation. By manipulating these three
propertiespainters can achieve an endless range Value
of visual effects.
Each huehas a value, meaning its relative
Hue lightness or darkness compared to another hue.
1.73 Kane Kwei, Coffin in For example, a pure yellow has a light value and
the Shape of a Cocoa Pod,
Hues are the basic colors of the spectrum, the a pureblue has a dark value. Similarly, different
C. 1 970. Polychrome wood.
2'l0"x8'6"x2'5". Fine Arts same as those in a rainbow: red, orange,yellow, colors of the same hue vary in terms of their
Museums o*San F-anc'sco green, blue, and violet. In addition, there are a value: there arelightreds anddark reds. Tints are
COLOR 93
1.74 Colcr-value 30% dark 50% dark 70% dark
ÿelat'onsnios
Grayscale
Yellow
Shade: a color darker in value

than its purest state
Neutral: colors (suchas blacks, colors that are lighter than theirbasic hue; shades to another. Many of American Mark Tansev's
whites, grays, and dull grav-
browns) made bymixing are colors that are darker. 1.74 shows relative (b. 1949) large paintings are monochromatic.
complementary- hues values of red,blue, and yellow. The purest values, In Picasso and Braqne, Tansev depicts two figures,
Monochromatic: having one or
compared with those visible in the spectrum, whom he refers to as "Orvi lieandWilbur," a
more values of one color
Cubism: a twentieth- century are indicatedbv the black outline. 1.74 also reference to aviators the Wright Brothers ( 1.75).
art movement that favored anew shows the grayscale values; these are described as He is also referring wryly to Pablo Picasso's
perspective emphasizing neutral, meaning there is an absence of color. (1881-1973) and Georges Braque's (1882-1963)
geometric forms
Collage: a work of art A work that uses only one hue is called habit of referring to each other as Orville and
as se mbled by gluing mater ials, monochromatic. An artist can give variety to Wilbur during the pioneering days of Cubism.
often paper, onto a surface. From such a work by using a range of values. Creating The two figures here have created a flying
the French coller,to glue
Palette: the range of colors used dramatic differences in the values of a color machinethat resembles an early Cubist
by an artist allows for orderedtransitions from one value collage. The monochromatic palette is
1.75 Ma- << Tan say. Rcasso

and Braque. 1??2. Oil on
canvas. 5'4"x 7"
94 FUNDAMENTALS
IC
reminiscent of the black-and-white photos of
the Wright Brothers' experiments -with flight, and
theblue tone refers to an early style of Picasso's Lowsaturation Low intensity
known as his Blue Period Tansey uses humor to
comment on historic discoveries in art and flight
Intensity
within a single monochromatic composition. [All these swatches are the same value)
Saturation
Tints Shades
When we think of the color yellow, we often [Lightvalues] ID ark values)
imagine something strong,bright,and intense.

Many shades of yellow exist, but we tend to
associate a color with its purest state, or its
highest level of saturation. A color at its most Highsaturation
intenseis said to have a high saturation. The color
mustard yellow, -which has a brownish tone, is 1.76 H'gh and low saturation in a red hue
said to have a lower level of saturation. Style: a characteristic way in
which an artist or group of
Saturation describes the purity of a hue as it is
derived from purewhite light. A red at the height Barnett Newman ( 1905-70) rely for their visual give a work an identifiable form
of saturation is closest to its pure state in the impact on the value and saturation of color ofvisual expression
Saturation: the degree of purity
spectrum (1.76). There are no tints or shades (1.77). The alternating colors of the narrow-
ofacolor
when a color is fully saturated A color that is vertical lines (which Newman calls "zips") Plane: a flat surface
almost gray has a low saturation. Therefore a muted break up a broadred plane. The white zip makes
color,whatever its value, is less saturated as it gets a gap, while the maroon zip seems to meld
further from the purity of itscolor in the spectrum. into the red field Subtle variations in the
A pastel tone and a dark tone would eachhave a saturation of the red tones create the sensation
low saturation of color, but a grayed middlevalue that parts of the painting are separately lit.
of redwould also have a low saturation of color; Newman wants viewers to standclose to the
1.77 Barnett Newman, Vir
saturation is not related to value. canvas, engulfed by color, meeting the artwork
HeroicusSublirris, 1950-51
Works such as Vir Heroiciis Sublimis (Latin for as one might another person. The square Oil on canvas. 7'1 KV'x
"heroic sublime man") by the .American painter area in the center of this painting suggests 1 7'8Vr. MO MA, NewYork
COLOR 95
c
1.78 Andre De-ain, The Newman's idealistic vision of the perfectibility

.
Turning Road. L'Estaque 1906. ofhumankind.
ColorSchemes
Oil on canvas, 4'3 "x 6'4 A".
Museum of Fine Arts,
The French painter Andre Derain ( 1880-
Hou ston, Texas 1954) was a great advocate of highly saturated The color wheel displays important color
color. In hiswork The Turning Road, L'Estaque, relationship It is a kindof color "map" that allows
his use ofstrongbright color makes the entire us to assess quickly the attributes of colors as they
scene glow with energy and vitality (1.78). relate to each other. Colors opposite each other
Derain was a member of the Fauves (French for on the color wheel are called complementary
"wild beasts") .The Fauves delighted inthe new colors. Complementary colors contrast strongly
and brighter colored pigments made available by •with each other. Colors adjacent to each other on
advances in industrial manufacturing.The}- used the color wheel are called analogous colors. These
colors intheir purest and strongest states as an colors do not contrast strongly with each other.
act of defiance against the Academy, a state-
sponsored school of art that set rigid rules for Complementary Color
Fauves: a group ofearly
twentieth-century Frenchartists acceptable standards for art and artists at the
whose paintings usedvivid turn of the century. Hie Fauves' fierce colors When complementary colors are mixed, they
colors. From the French fauve, produce gray; the}- tend to desaturate one another.
challenged the Academy and Western artistic
wildbeast
Complementarycolors: colors
conventions generally and earned the artists However,when two complementary colors are
opposite one another on the their nickname. Derain's painting is energized painted side bv side, these "opposite" colors create
colorwheel visual anomalies: the}- intensify one another, and
bydeeply saturatedcolor and color opposites,
Analogous colors: colors
adjacent to each other on the colors that intensify each other when seen each seems more saturated. This happensbecause
colorwheel close together. complementary colors have markedly different
96 FUNDAMENTALS
c
wavelengths, crea tingan illusion (in the Prima ry/s econdary Primary/secondary and Vibrating
analogous combinations tertiary complements boundanes
photoreceptors of the eye) of vibrating movement
where their edges meet ( 1.79).
When the eye tries to compensate for the
different wavelengths of two complementary
colors, we tend to see color more intensely than
•when we see the colors separately. So when red
is present, greens tend to appear more vibrantly
green. HenriMatisse was a Fauve (likeDerain)
and explored the bold contrasts of black and
1.79 Color combinations.color complements, end

vidrating boundaries
Gateway to Art: Matisse, Icarus

The Artist's Fascinationwith Color
Throughout the whole of his career, the French book Jazz. Subsequently, he used some of
artist Henri Matisse (1869-1954) explored the the images in Jazz as an inspiration for large
expressive potential of color. He often painted tapestries that he designed by arranging
in southern France, and the kind of bright light cutouts on the wall of his apartment. Matisse
he experienced there seems to emanate from found the process of designing with cutouts an
his paintings. As a Fauve he used colors so ideal way to study different color relationships.
bright that some viewers considered them InJazz, Icarus is accompanied by handwritten
violent. Much later, in the 1940s, Matisse began text, which reads: "At this moment we are so
to excel in creating artworks by using scissors free, shouldn't we make young people who have
to cut out pieces of brightly painted paper. In finished their studies take a grand trip by plane."
part this was a response to his ill-health—he Matisse uses the myth of youthful exuberance
could not hold a brush up to a canvas for hours to encourage young people to experiencethe
1.80 Henri Matisse. Icarus,
at a time. As he commented: world first hand— if not with wings, as the from Jazz, 1943-7. Page size
mythological young Icarus did, then by airplane. 16%x 12%". MOMA NewYork
Paper cutouts allow me to draw in color.
For me,that simplifies matters. Instead of
drawing an outline a nd then adding color— u/n, TKcrynwÿ
€< fas
*4
which means that line and color modify one
another— Ican draw directly with color...
the simplification means that the two means
of expression can be united.
(Matisse, 1951) /' /
Matisse was interested in using vibrant

colors to evoke an emotional response. To <PUÿyL ao*-*
make his cutouts, he had his assistants pre-
paint the paper in vivid colors. He found many
creative ways to use these cutouts. In the case
*
of Icarus ( 1.80), Matisse made a stencil
of the cutout to print the image in his artist's
COLOR 97
c
1.81 Frederic Edwin Chu-ch, Twilight in the Wilderness, color within a similar range, artists avoid jarring,
1 860. Oil on canvas. 60x 66". Cleveland Museum of contrasting combination of colors and moods.
Art. Ohio
In The BoatingParty by Man- Cassatt (1844— 1.82 Mary Cassatt.
The Scaling Party, 1893-6.
1926), her color palette creates a harmonious
C'l on canvas, 35"/; x 66'/=".
white against the intensity of primary colors effect (1 .82). This is the result of using analogous Nat'onal Gallery of Art.
(see Gateway Box Matisse, 1.80, p. 97). colors that are next to one another on the Washington. D.C.
American landscape painter FredericEdwin
Church ( 1826-1900) used complementary colors
for dramatic effect. In Twilight in the Wilderness,
the intense red-orange clouds complement
swathes of the blue- green eveningsky, giving
magnificence to a quiet landscape ( 1.81).
The powerful color of the sky and its reflection
in the water below reveal Church's awe and
respect for the American landscape.
Analogous Color
Analogous colors are similar inwavelength, so
the)- do not create optical illusions or visual
vibrations the way complementary colors do.
Painters use analogous color to create color
unity andharmonies to steer viewers toward
a particular attitude or emotion. By keeping the
98 FUNDAMENTALS
c
color wheel. In this painting, yellows, greens, (1.83). Deep crimsons, fleshy pinks,and 1.83 Hovva'd Hodgkin.
andblues predominate. These colors have countless dabs of scarlet fill this scene with heat. Interiorwith Figures, 1977-34.
Cil on wood. 54x60".
relatively similar wavelengths and do not intensify Redis dominant here and heightens our response
Private collect:on
eachother when pi aced inclose proximity. to an enigmatically erotic encounter.
Cassatt's color seems relaxed, reinforcing her
theme. Cassatt was one of the few female (and only
American) members of the Impressionists, a Our Perceptions of Color
group of artists who shared an interest inthe effects
of light andcolor on the natural world, which Our experiences of color are sometimes evocative
Impressionism: a late
they depicted in their paintings of everyday life. or physical. Some colors are associated with nineteenth- century painting
In Interior with Figures,by British artist emotional states: if we say we are feeling "blue," style conveying the impression
Howard Hodgkin (b. 1932), pinkish verticals on of the effects of light
we are describing a psychological state of mind.
Temperature: a description of
each side of the scene make a frame of analogous Blue is also associated with cold, and red with color basedon our associations
colors for the saturatedreds in the space between hot: an association known as color temperature. with warmth or coolness
COLOR 99
Color can also affect the way we see. Because
Ground: the surface or
of color saturation, our eyes cannot fully
background ontowhich an
artist paints or draws comprehend allthe colors we see, so our br ain '.VAV.V.V.V.V.V.V.V.V,
Pointillism: a late nineteenth- ;:v!vXvXvX;XvX:XvXvX;X'vI>vI

translates (or distorts) the incoming information. •X-X'X-I'KCC'X'X-X'X'X-X'X'X'I'X'X
century painting style using
This is the basis of an illusion known as optical ÿ•X'X'X'XOX'X'X'XvXvXvXvX"
short strokes or points of
differing cdors that optically color,when boundariesbetween complementan-
::*:::-:-:;x::-::x;:-:::-:::-:-x-:-x-r-:-:-:x-:-:-:-:-:
combine to form new colors seem to "vibrate" as our eyes struggle to
perceived colors
compensate for differences bet ween them.
yAv.v.%%%v.v»v.v»y»'.%v«VA%VtV*
v.v.v.v.v.vÿv.v.v.v/.v.v/.v/.v.;.
X#X#X#X*X*X#X*X*X#XvX*XvX*X*X*
ColorTemperature .\v.v.;.v.v.v.v.v.v.v,v,v.v,v,Xv;
We associate color with temperature because 1.85 (above) Two squares, one :Tled with red end blue
of our previous experiences. We may havebeen dots and the other with red and yellow dots to create
burnedby so mething r ed- hot, o r chilledby co ol optical color mixing e;;ect
blue water. Our perception of the temperature

of a color can be altered ifit is placed next to an
analogous color. For example, green, a color we
might associate with coolness, can bewarm ifwe
see it next to a cooler color likeblue. A yellow-
green wouldbe warmer than a blue-green. Color
temperature is relative to the other colors nearby.
Artists use such associations to communicate
physical and emotional states.
The colors chosen for theunderglaze-
paintedlamp from the Islamic shrine the Dome
of the Rock, in Jerusalem, areblue and green,
on a white ground for contrast ( 1.84). They
reflect the kind of color influence valued in the
meditative atmosphere of a holy place. The
choice of colors is cool and peaceful. Many
people associate green andblue with water,
1.84 Mosque lamp from plantlife, aclear sky. Our life experiences with
the Dome o;the Rocÿ'n blue and green things can easily be associated
Jerusalem, 1 54?. Izmk with passive environments. Thecolor greenhas
pottery, 1 5" high. British
Museum, London, England
positive associations in Islamic art and supports
the peacefulness of prayer.
1.86 Georges 5eurat, The Circus. 1 390-91. Oil on canvas.
6' /;" x 4'1 1 /=". Musee d'Orsay, Paris. F-ance
Optical Color
Sometimes our brainsreceive so much new style of painting, called pointillism because
information that they simplify it. Optical colors it relied on small dots (or points) of color. In
are colors our minds create based on the The Circus Seurat paints a scene of lively
information we can perceive. In 1.85 the entertainment, imbued with bright color and
square on the left contains so many red andblue texture through the use of smalldots ( 1.86, 1.87).
dots that our brain mixes them so that we see a Because these dots are so close together, the
purple color. In the square on the right, redand colors we see are different from the actual colors
yellowdots create an orange tone. of the dots. This optical mixing makes the colors
The French painter Georges Seurat (1859-91) more intensebecause the)- have retainedtheir
used the optical qualities of color to create a individual saturation, whereas if the)- were mixed
100 FUNDAMENTALS
1.87 Detail of Geo
Seurat, The Circus
on the palette the}- would appear more subdued. Seurat and Hodgkin. In this section we will look at
The Circus's jewel-like diffusionof light and how color is used in print and electronic displays.
vibration of color make it visually exciting.
Colorin Print
Color in Design Most printed color images— from posters, to
magazines, to this book— rely on four separate
Artists who design images for commercial colors to create the range of colors that we see.
printing or to display on videoscreens take a Commercial printers use three primary colors—
different approach to color than such painters as cyan (a kind of lightblue-green) , magenta (a light
COLOR 101
C
red-violet),andyellow*— plusblack, or key, the pictures are divided into tiny dots of color, optical
Medium''plural media): the
color wheel for printing is referred to as CMYK color mixing also plays a role in the control and
material on or fromwhich an
artist chooses to make a \\~ork of (1.88 ). An image isscanned and separated into perception of CMYK color, ina similar way to
art, for example canvas and oil the four colors. 1.89 shows a typical set of color Seurat's Pointillist paintings.
paint, marble, engraving, video,
or architecture
separations. The image is re-createdwhen the
separated colors are printed in sequence, Color in Electronic Displays
overlapping each other. The four colored inks are
printed on paper as dots in a regular pattern A computer- generated image produces color very
("screen"): the smaller the dot, the less of each differently. First,the digitaldisplay is illuminated
color is printed. In the darkest colors the dots are by three different colored light cells, called
nearlyjoined together. Ifyou look very closely phosphors, which project the primary colors of
(using a magnifying lens) at the pictures in this red, green, andblue (the color wheel is referred
book,you will be able to see the dots. Because the to as RGB) (1.90). Then, the electronic monitor
turns a combination of phosphors onor off to
1.88 Color wheel for produce the colors the designer wants. If the red
commercial p* nt'ng :nks CMY color wheel andblue phosphors are on, the color on the
Yellow Gresn display will be magenta, a secondary color. Ifall
three of the pr imaries are on, the combination
will result in white light ( 1.91). Complex
combinations of these color lighting cells will
result inmillions of color possibilities.
The brilliant illuminated color of a video
display is a seductive medium for computer
artists. The digital artist Charles Csuri (b. 1922)
1.89 Subtractive color has been creatingimagery on computers since
mixtures using CMY
1963. In Wondrous Spri ng, the RGB primaries
p-:ma"ies. CMYK color Magenta
seoa'ation. and image create a dazzling illuminated array of colors
with exaggerated color Primaries reminiscent of a modern-day stained-glass
print screen
window (1.92). A pioneer in the merging
of art with scientificinnovations in computer
1.90 Colorwheel for light us'ng red. g_een. and

blue orirnaries
RGB Color wheel
Yellcv.' Green
Magenta
Primaries
102 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.92 (above] Cha-les Csuri, V/ondrouS Soring, 1 °92. eat voraciously: red seems to bring out aggression
Compute- mage, u' x 5'5" in our behavior. We also make associations
—
between colors and language calling a coward
technology, Csuri has explored and helped —
"yellow," telling "white" lies that can make our
develop the digital realm as a viable art medium. meaning clearer and affect how we feel about
The organic flow andbrilliant color of Wondrous those colors.
Springremind us of growth and positive change. Advertisers can reachtheir audience better
Digitalworks have a glow andrichcolor that by knowing how people respond to color. The
1.91 Additive color mixtures

bring new dimensions of color to art and design, most visible color is lime ydlow because itlies
using RGB primages and they attract a growing number of artists. This near the middle of the visible spectrum. For
is a medium that will surely continue to prosper. this reasonsome advertisers use lime yellow in
designing product packaging, to attract the
attention of consumers.
Colorand the Brain Colors also havetraditional symbolic values.
Green has positive associations for Muslims;
Color affects how we think and feel. Studies by Confucius and Buddha wore yellow or gold; Jews
Faber Birren, a color psychologist, have shown and Christians associate the color blue with God.
that when people are constantly exposed to red Our cultural beliefs about color also affect the
light the)- become loud, grow argumentative, and way we think and feel.
COLOR 103
The Psychology of Color encourages restfulness, but it also suggests decay
and illness.
Color affects us physiologically because it alters The Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh
our psyche. In Western cultures we associate (1853-90) was enormously affected by color,
lovewith red and sadness with blue. Some andstudied its psychological effects. Van Gogh
ancient cultures, likethe Egyptians and Chinese, was plagued by periods of deep depression and
engaged in chromo therapy, or the use of colors was hospitalized on many occasions; through
for healing. his treatment he learned a great deal about
Artists understand that color affects the way psychology. The colors in his painting The Night
we think and react to the world. Some of these Cafe are carefully chosen to elicit emotional
reactions are culturally based:brides wear red in responses from viewers ( 1.93). In a letter to
Asia, but white in the West. But there do appear to hisbrother Theo,van Goghwrites about the
be some universal psychological associations.As work,"Ihavetried to express with redand green
1.93 Vincent van Gogh, The we have seen, red (whichwe can easily associate the terrible passions of human nature." The color
Night Cafe, 1 SBS. Oil on canvas. with blood) can arouse feelings of anxiety, intensifies the psychological implications of the
23 V: x 36 V.". Yale University
Art Gallery, New Haven, aggression, passion, eroticism, and anger. Green, scene, in a seedy nightspot inAries, France, as we
Connect'cut a color we associate with growing plant life, wander into this menacing place as an outsider.
104 FUNDAMENTALS
Expressive Aspects of Color
.Artists like van Goghwanted a viewer of a work
to "feel" an artwork, rather than merely to
understand it. Color in particular can express
a wide range of emotions.Artists and designers
know that the bright yellow of a happy-face
symbol attracts our attention and lifts our spirits.
They can use color to engage the viewer, whether
it is the use of blue around the image of a political
candidate to suggest traditional values, or green
as an identifier of environmental awareness.
The French painter Paul Gauguin (1848-1903)
usedyellow for its uplifting associations when
hepainted The Yellow Christ (1.94). Gauguin
painted this scene—a deliberately populist
portrayal of folk spirituality—-while in Brittany,
France. Init,three women in traditional Breton
dress appear to attend the crucifixion. Although
Gauguin is known to havebeen inspiredby a
woodcarving ina local chapel, his choice of color
is primarily symbolic. Through color he connects
the crucifixion of Christ to the seasons of Ear th
and the cycle of life. Here, yellows and browns
correspond to the colors of the surrounding
autumnal countryside, harvested fields, and
turning leaves. Gauguin's color palette relates the
background natural world to the body on the
cross, so that our gaze too is drawn in and upward.
By usingbright color, Gauguin creates a simple
anddirect emotional connection with the viewer. (red, yellow, and blue). It was developed to 1.94 Paul Gauguin. The Yellow
While depicting death, Gauguin chose colors that help artists paint. However,modern four-color Christ, 1S3?. Oil on canvas.
36ViX277;". Albright-Knox Art
yet express the optimism of rebirth. printingis based on the mixing offour inks: cyan,
Gallery. Buffalo. NewYork
magenta,yellow, andblack: CMYK color. In both
artists' color and CMYK color, hues and value-
Conclusion are mixed by adding pigments together. Modem
video, digital cameras, and liquid crystal diode
.Artists must understandcolor. The terms hue, (LCD) computer monitors operate inyet another
valueiancTsaturation are essential. Other color space mixing red, green, andblue light,
attributes of color, such as complementary and called RGB color. In RGB color, hues and values
analogous color, allow artists to control how are modulatedbycontrollingtiny projectors of
colors combine. Some colors seemwarm or red, green, andblue light. Interestingly, when all
cool to us: we refer to this as their temperature. the hues of RGB color are mixed, white light is
Sometimes, our physiological ability to perceive the result;whereas when all the pigments of
color can be challenged when there is too much artists' color or CMYK color are mixed, the
color information. Optical color is our mind's theoretical result is black.
response to this kind of sensory overload. Artistshaveusedcolon —
".Artists' color" is the name for the basic theory andhavebeen exploring the human response
about color based on the three primary colors to it— for thousands ofyears.
COLOR 105
c
FUNDAMENTALS
1.5
Time and Motion
Movingimages are part of our daily experience of the passage of time and to remind us of its
life in the twenty-first century. We see them onour influence onour lives.
TV and computer screens, on displays in stores, and
on the street. But ifwe couldtravelback in time The Passage of Time
little more than a century, our visual experience
would be quite different: all art images were still. Artists often seek to tell a story. When painters
Time and motion are closely linkedelements in the workshop of the fifteenth- century artist
in art. Most of the traditional art media are known as the Master of Osservanza illustrated
inherently motionlessand timeless. Paintings, The Meeting of St Anthony and St Paul, they
for example, are static, holding a moment so solved the problem of how to tell a story in a
that it can be experienced through the ages. But single paintingby merging a series of episodes
artists who work instatic media have found into one picture ( 1.95). The story begins in
imaginativeways to indicate the passage of time
andthe appearance of motion. .And film and
video have gradually overturnedthe conventions
of traditional art, as new technology andmedia
have evolved that allow artists to capture and
express time and motion.
Time
Since events necessarily take place over time,
any artwork that deals with events must show
how time goes by. Stories of gallant deeds and
heroic moments— andstories oflife's ordinary-
moments too—unfold over time in chronologies
of events. Writers use chapters, episodes, and
other tools to give us a sense of how events
Motion: the effect of changing unfold. Artists also find ways to communicate
placement in time
Medium' plural media': the
artist chooses to make a ÿrk of 1.95 Workshop of the Master of Ossen/anza 'Sano d
art, for example canvas and oil .
Pietro?), The Me e ting o f St. An thony and Sr. PauL
paint, marble, engraving, video. c. 1430-35. Temoe-a on panel 18/2 x 1 3V-". National
or architecture Gallery o; Art. Washington. D.C.
106 FUNDAMENTALS
c
the upper left-hand corner, where St. Anthony designed to express meaning from shadows cast 1.96 Nancy Holt. Solar Rota ry.
sets out across the desert to seek the hermit by the sun throughout the year (1.96). The work 1995. Aluminum, concrete,
and meteorite, aoorox. he'ght
St. Paul. In the upper right, St. .Anthony features an aluminum sculptural "shadow* caster"
20'. aoprox. diameter- 24".
encounters a mythical creature called a centaur: perched on eight poles high above the center University o: South Florida
half-man,half-horse, it was associated with the of a circular concrete plaza. The shadow* caster —
Greek god of wine, Bacchus. This symbol of a circular ringwith eight serpentine arms—is
earthly temptation does not deter St. Anthony. oriented so that shadows cast by its central ring
He continues on hislone journey through thick encircle notabledates set into the surrounding
forest untilhe finally meets andembraces concrete plaza. The different angles of the sun
St. Paul: their meeting is the culminating incident at different times of the year makeshadow's at
in the foreground. The entire painting signifies a different locations in the sculpture. For example,
pilgrimage on the long and winding road of time, on March 27 a circle shadow* surrounds a marker
rather than merely a single moment. This linear that recounts the day in 1513 when the Spanish
method is still used by artists, comic-bock explorer Juan Ponce de Leon first sighted Florida.
writers, and designers who want to tell a story or In the center,a concrete circular bench, into which a
express the passing of time. meteorite has been set, is encircled by the shadow
The American artist Nancy Holt (b. 1938) at noon on the summer solstice, the longest day of
examines cycles of time inher works. Many of the year (in the northern hemisphere), when the
Holt's sculptures intertwine the passage of time sun reaches its northernmost point. The
with the motion of the sun. Her Solar Rotary, meteorite symbolizes the connection between
at the University of South Florida, Tampa, is our world and the larger universe.
TIME AND MOTION 107
The Attributes of Time Bv the end of the nineteenth century, many
visual artists had created their own technique
Time-based arts, such as film, embody slx basic that made time part of the language of visual art.
attributes of time: duration, tempo, intensity,
scope, setting, and chronology. .All these attributes
exist in one of the first American movies, Fred Motion
Ott's Sneeze, madeby Thomas Edison and
W. K. Dickson in 1894 ( 1.97). The duration, The aim of every artist is to arrest motion,
or length, of this film is 5 seconds. The tempo, or which is life,by artificial means andhold it
speed, is 16 frames per second. The intensity, or fixed so that a hundred years later, when a
level of energy, is high because the activity is stranger looks at it,it moves again since it
sudden and strong. This film has a limited scope, is life.
or range of action, because it is confined to a (WilliamFaulkner,American novelist)
simple activity. The setting, or context, is Thomas

1.97 Thomas Edison and Edison's studio. The chronology, or order of Faulkner tells us that an artist can make evena
W. K. Dickson. FredOtt's
events, can be seen in the still frames as Fred Ott still image move and come to 1ife. Motion occurs
Sneeze. 1894. Still frames
from kinetoscope film. Library appears to be placing some snuff in his nose, when an object changes location or position.
o; Congress. Washington. D.C. recoiling, then jerking forward as he sneezes. Because this process occurs as time passes,
motion is directly linked to time. To
communicate motion without actually making
anything move, artists can choose to imply time
or, alternatively, create the illusion of it.
Implied Motion
When artists imply motion, the)- give us clues
that a static workof art portrays a scene in which
motion is occurring or has just occurred. In the
case of implied motion, we do not actually see
the motion happening, but visual clues tell us
that it is a key aspect of the work.
The seventeenth-century Italian sculptor
Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) emphasizes
implied motion in many of his marble sculptures.
Apolloand Daphne illustrates a story from
ancient Greek mythology in which the sun god
Apollo falls madly in love with the wood nymph
Daphne (1.98). Terrified, she runs from him
and begs her father, the river god Peneius, to
save her. As Apollo reaches Daphne, Peneius
%* £' transforms his daughter into a bay laurel tree.

To convey the action, Bernini uses diagonal
lines in the flowing draper)-, limbs, and hair.
Daphne's fingers sprout leaves as bark encases
her legs. At the pivotal moment in the story,
the scene is suddenly frozen in time. Thereafter,
since she could not behiswife, Daphne
becamehis tree, and Apollo made the laurel
wreath his crown.
108 FUNDAMENTALS
c
Futurism: an artistic and social
movement, originating in Italy in
1909, passionatelyin favor of
everything modern
Impliedline: a line not actually
drawnbut suggested byelements
in the work
1.98 Gianlorenzo Bernini.

Apollo andDaphne, 1 622-4.
Carra'a rrarble, 8' nign.
Galleria Borqhese. Ron-e. Italy
1.99 Giacorro Balla. The Italian Futurist Giacomo Balla

Dynamism of a Dogona ieash, (1871-1958) uses a different method of implying
1912. Oil on canvas, 3J?/sx
43 V.". Albright-Knox Art
motiorniHiisjÿaintinÿ
Gallery, 6ui;alo. NewYork Leash 11.99 ). Balla paints a series of repeating
marks to give the impression that we are seeing
motion as it happens, as ifwe are viewing several
separate moments at once. He paints the dog's
tail in eight or nine different positions to
communicate movement. Its feet are merely-
indicated by a series of strokes that give a sense
ofvery rapid motion. The leash, a white implied
line, is also repeated in four different positions.
The composition gives viewers a sense of
ongoing forward motion even though the paint
on the canvas is perfectly still.
The Illusion of Motion

In the works by Bernini and Balla, the artists
imply motion: we do not actually see it occurring,
but visual clues tell us that the works, although
static, portray motion.Artists can also
communicate the idea of motion by creating an
illusion of it. Artists create this illusion through
visual tricks that deceive our eyes into believing
there is motion as time passes, even though no
actual motion occurs.
The American artist Jenny Holzer (b. 1950)
uses the illusion of motion to enhance her
TIME AND MOTION 109
1.100 Jenny Holzer, Untitled
(Selections from, Truisms.
Infa mma iory Essays . The
Living Senes. The Survival
Series. Undera Rock.
Laments, and Child Texd. 1 989.
Extended helical t"'color LED.
electronic display signboard,
site-spec :ic d'rrens'ons.
Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, NewYork
text-based presentations. Her untitled 1989 ow-n movement. Riley understandsthat the
1.101 (belowl Bridget Riley,
installation (in the Guggenheim Museum, New- natural oscillation of the eye combined with
Cataract3. 1967. PVA on
York, which was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright) the passage of time makes us feel a sense canvas, T3*/i" x 7'33A~.
displays messages as text (l.100). Although the ofmotion. E_'t si Council Collect on
text does not actually move, it appears to spiral

up the ramped circular atrium of the museum
as the tiny light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are
illuminated and then switched off in an
automated sequence. Thus the impression is
created that the text is moving as time elapses.
The intermittent flashing of lights creates
a scrolling series ofletters and words, like the
flashing lights of the casinos on the Las Vegas
Strip. Holzer uses this illusion to invigorate her
messages and critiques of society.
Another illusion of motion that deceives
the eye forms the basis for Op art (short for
Optical art). During the 1960s, painters inthis
style experimentedwith discordant positive-
negative relationships. There is a noticeable
sense of movement w-hen we look at Cataract3
(1.101), bv British artist Bridget Rile}- (b. 1931).
Ifwe focus on a single point in the center of the
w-ork, it appears there is an overall vibrating
motion. This optical illusion grow-s out of the
natural physiological movement of the human
eye; we can see it because the artist uses sharp
contrast andhard- edged graphics set close
enough that the eye cannot compensate for its
110 FUNDAMENTALS
C
which a series of drawings was placed in a
slotted cylinder ( 1.1 02). A viewer who looked
through the slots as the cylinder was spun could
see an image appearing to move and repeat.
even though the drawings that made up the
series were, of course, static. Inventions like the
zoetrope were early forms of animation.
Cartoon animation grew out of these early
siroboscccic experiments, and today's computer
animation follows the same principle. Disney's
FindingNemo is compiled from individual
frames that were computer-generated using 3-D
modeling software ( 1.103). The animator can
make changes to the images and then produce
all the individual frames in a sequence that the
computer plays in rapid succession. This
succession of images is combined with other
scenes and eventually committedto film— or,
increasingly,digital media— for distribution to
movietheaters.
Stroboscope Motion "Movie" is an abbreviation of "moving
picture," and movies became the dominant
When we see two or more repeated images in mode of artistic expression in motion during
quick succession they- tend visually to fuse the twentieth century. Billy Wilder' s Double
together. Many early attempts to show moving Indemnity-was one of the first films that used
imageswere based on this effect, known as sharply contrasting modeling,angled shadows,
stroboscope motion. One was the zoetrope, in and lighting effects to give a sense ofemptiness.
1.103 Walt Disney

P:ctures. fra-re ;-o-n
Finding Nemo, 2003
Installation: an artwork created

by the assembling and
arran gement of obj ects in a
specific location
Op art: a style of art that
exploits the physiolog}* of
seeing in order to create illusory
optical effects
Style: a characteristic way in
give awork an identifiable form
of visual expression
Positive-negative: the
relationship between
contrasting opposites
TIME AND MOTION 111
the couple's deliberate movements. Wilder uses
this kind of strong lighting effect throughout the
film to enhance the drama of the plot.
Film relies on individual frames played in
quick succession. Similar advanced forms of
V stroboscopic motion havebeen developed to

stream digital video for the Web. Files with a
series of multiple images (and sound files) are
electronically transferred to a computer where
the>- are played inrapid succession, much like a
film movie. Internet users experience this when
the>- view Flash animations posted on YouTube.
Actual Motion
We perceive actual motion when something really
changes over time. We see it in performance art
and in kinetic art when objects physically move
1.106 Stillfrom Double The stark contrasts in lighting influenced an and change in real space and time. Performance
Indemnity. Billy Wilder. 1966 entire genre of movies called film noir (French art is theatrical; the artist's intentionis to create
for "dark film"). In the still shown in 1.106, not an art object, but an experience that can exist
the two main characters walk through a darkened only in one place and time in history. Kinetic art
railway station as the)- prepare to murder the plays out the passage of time through an art
woman's husband. Notice the crisp long shadows object, usually a sculpture, that moves.
behind them: the shadows create a sense of tension Performance art emerged as a specific form
and foreboding by getting us to focus on each of of visual art during the twentieth centun- when
1.105 Blue Man Group

pe'forrr the Venetian
at
Hotel. Las Vegas, Nevada,
Seotemoe- 17. 2005
Performance art: awork

im
involvingthe human body,
usually including the artist,
in front of an audience
Kineticart: a workthat
contains moving parts
Space: the distance between
identifiable points or planes
112 FUNDAMENTALS
[
suchartists as the German J oseph Beuys (192 1— Kinetic sculpture hasevolved during the 1.106 Alexander Calder.
86) began performing his works, which he called twentieth century and is a notable example of art Untitled, 1976. Alurr'nurr and
steel. 29TCfo"x75"1lV.
Actions. Following his traumatic experiences in that moves. The earliest kinetic artw-orkis
National Gallery o:Art.
the German Air Force inWorld War II,Beuys credited to French artist Marcel Duchamp ( 1887— Washington. D.C.
incorporated everyday objects— such as animals, 1968),wdio mounted a bicycle wheel on a barstool
fat, machinery, and sticks—into his Actions, so that the w-heel could be spun. Later, the
a series of self-performed situations in which American sculptor .Alexander Calder (1898-1976)
the artist would interact with these things in invented the mobile, taking the name from a Mime: a silent performance
work; actors use only body
a defined space and time. By putting common suggestion by Duchamp. The mobilerelies on movements and fecial expressions
items in new* situations Beuys conjured up
1
aiÿuÿenmÿowemtÿnovementÿ Calder s Kinetic sculpture: three-
different ways of thinking about our w orid so kinetic sculptures were so finely balancedthat dimensional art that moves,
impelled by air currents,
that we might question past practices. even the smallest breeze would set them in motors, or people
Performance artists need not focus on a social motion. His final sculpture is the huge Mobile: suspended moving
or political issue. For example, from the 1980s aluminum-and-steel mobile suspended in the sculptures, usually impelledby
natural air currents
the Blue Man Group performed in ways that National Gallery of .Art inWashington, D.C. Abstract: art imager}- that
integrated humor and music for passer sbv on (l.1 06). It resembks its predecessors in being departs from recognizable
thestreets of New York ( 1.105). The)- used made up of counterbalanced abstract elements images from the naturalwo rid
soundand mime,relying on bodily movements that move independently of each other. The defined in three dimensions
to communicate ideaswithout speech. result is a constantly changing visual form. (height,width, and depth)
TIME AND MOTION 113
c
Although photography is a still medium, the work

of a photogra pher is deeply concerned with
motion and time. Photographers move around
their subject, choosing the right focus for the
shot and putting the camera in the best position
to capture the image they seek. We can get
a sense of how a still photographer captures a
moment in time in the sequence of photographs
Dorothea Langetook of Florence Thompson
and her children (i.i07a-f). In the span of a few
minutes, Lange went from showing the family in
the environment in which they lived—a tent—to
an intimate portrayal of an individual.The first
frame Lange shot includes the barren landscape
of the farm and the lean-to in which the family
lived. Inthe second shot, Lange has moved her
camera closer to the tent, but the image does
not give us much information about the people.
In the third through the sixth shots, Lange zooms
in on the woman and the children around her.
Still photographers must make decisions
about the images they create. If we look at this
series,the process of selection becomes clear.
Lange chose specific moments to capture, and
from those moments she further selected the
one she felt most effectively communicatedwhat
she thought was most true (l.l07fl. Lange's
careful composition of her image of the family did
not endwith shooting her photographs. Further
changes were made to the negati\e in the dark
room. Lange's original shot included the mother's
hand holding onto the tent pole; Lange retouched 1.107a-e (top of page) Dorothea Lange, Destitute 1.107f (above) Dorothea
the negative to crop out the hand. Because this Pea Pickers in California. Mother ofSeven Children. Lange,Migrant Mother, 1936.
Age Thirty- two. Nipomo, California, 1936. Library of Congress,
photograph was meant to be an objective Washington, D.C.
Images a,c-e: Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
portrayal, the change was kept secret at the time, Image b: Oakland Museum of California
and has since been considered controversiaL
114 FUNDAMENTALS
C
Natural Processes and
the Passage of Time
Motion is not the only indicator of the passage of
time in art. Some artists use biology and organic
materials to create their artwork. Organicmaterials
grow and degrade with the passage of time, so work
by "bio artists1' is always changing. Adam Zaretsky
(b. 1968) has "grown" and performed works, such
as Workhorse Zoo, that include living tilings. Inthis
performance piece, heand Julia Reodica(b. 1970)
lived for a week inan 8 x 8 ft "clean" room with an
assortment of organisms: bacteria,yeast, plants,
worms, flies, frogs, fish, and mice ( 1.108). During
the week all the organismswere either growing or
deteriorating. The artists1 intention was to draw
attention to the pros and cons of animal research.
Natural processes also dominate thework of whom the water cycle illustratesthe passage of 1.108 Adam Zaretskyand
American sculptor Ron Lambert (b. 1975), for
, _.
time. For Sublimate (Cloud Cover) hecreated
a large transparent
r
. .
plastic environmental
r
.
Jul 5 Reodica. V/orkhorseZoo,
_2002.
,. . .
Performance
_ at the
1.109 Ron Lambert. Sublimate ICloud Cover}, 2004. Water, Salina Art Centre. Salina.
vinyl, huT'd'-' e~5. steel, alum'nurn, and acrylic.
which water endlessly evaporates andcondenses Kansas
d'n-ens'ons variable (1.109). Lambert draws attention to our
immediateenvironment as he shows how the
rhythms of nature become a measure of natural
time that we gauge by howlongwe have to wait
for the next rain.
Conclusion
Movement and change are the essence oflife
and time. The traditionalvisual arts, although
inherently static, have always been inventive and
creative in finding ways to try to reflect, distill,
and mimic the ceaseless flux of a world in motion.
By means of illusion ( Op ar t) or imitation
(performance, kinetic, or "bioart"), in the last
hundred years or so artists havebeen able to
incorporate the passage of time and movement
into their works using a variety of modern media.
With the technological advances of the twentieth
century, artists acquired new tools to capture time
and create works that represent time and motion.
Through film andvideo, we can appreciate the
motion oflife and have come to experience time
in new ways. Television, movies, the Internet,
and a multitude of other technologies use
movement as an important visual element.
TIME AND MOTION 115
FUNDAMENTALS
Unity,Variety, and Balance
Unity: the imposition of order

—
Unity creating order or wholeness, the opposite offset its weight. In art, the visual elements in one
and harmony on a design
of disorder —is central in the creation of a work halfof a work are offset by the elements on the
Elements: the basic vocabulary of art or design. Unity refers to the imposition of opposite side. By making sure that the elements
of art— line .form, shape, order and harmony on a design. It is the sense are distributed in an organizedway, artists
of visual harmony that separates thework of ar t create balance.
space, time and motion, and
value (lightness/darkness) from the relativechaos of the surrounding world.
Composition: the overall design Unity refers to the "oneness'" or organization of
Variety, the diversity of
similaritiesbetween elements that make up Unity
different ideas,media, and a work of art. Artists use the principle of unity
elements in a work to make choices that link visual elements to each Unity provides an artwork with its cohesiveness
Medium "plural media): the
other in a composition. and helps communicate its visual idea. Artists face
artist chooses to make a work of By comparison, variety is akindofyisual a communication challenge: to find a structure
art, for example canvas and oil diversity that brings many different ideas, media, within the chaos of nature and to select and
or architecture
andelements together in one composition. organize materials into a harmoniouscomposition
Grid: a network of horizontal Sometimes artists will use the discordance of An artist will identify specific elements in a scene
andvertical lines; in an artwork's variety to create uneasy relationships between and use them to create unity ( see Gateway Box:
composition, the lines are
implied
visual elements. Sometimes this lack of similarity Hokusai). Artists are concernedwith three kinds
Gestah: complete order and between elements can actively create a sense of of unit}-: compositional, conceptual, and gestalt.
indivisible unit}- of all aspects of unity when an artist imposes on the work a grid
an artwork's design
or othervisual structure. Compositional Unity
Principles: the "grammar''
applie d to the ele me nts of art— Balance refers to the distribution of elements,
c ontrast,balance ,unit}-,varie ty, whether unified or varied, within a work. The An artist creates compositional unity by
rhythm, emphasis, pattern,scale,
number and distribution of different elements organizing all the visual aspects of a work. This
influence the composition. Balance invisual art kind of harmony is not easy to achieve. Too much
is much likethebalance we experience in real similarity of shape, color,line, or any single
life. Ifwe earn- a large heavy bucket in one hand element or principle of art can be monotonous
it pulls us to one side and we orient our body to and make us lose interest. Too much variety can
lead to a lack of structure andthe absence of a
central idea. Experienced artists learn to restrict
I the range of elements: working within limitations
can be liberating. The three similar diagrams
in 1.110 illustrate the idea of compositional
unity. Although A is unified, it lacksthevisual
1.110 Three d'agrams of interest of B. While C is a unifiedwork, its visual
compositional unity variety feels incoherent and chaotic.
116 FUNDAMENTALS
A Masterpiece of Unity and Harmony
1.111 Katsushika Hokusai, In his print "The Great Wave off Shore at that dominates the scene. Hokusai has also
"The Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa," Japanese artist Katsushika carefully selected the solids and voids in his
Kanagawa," from Thirty-Six
Hokusai created a unified composition by composition to create opposing but balancing
(printed later). Print, color organizing repetitions of shapes, colors, areas of interest.As the solid sha pe of the
woodcut. Library of Congress textures, and patterns to create a visual great wave curves a round the deep trough
Washington, D.C. harmony even though the scene ischaotic below it (C), the two areas compete for
(l.i11).These repetitions visually link attention, neitherone possible without the
different parts of the picture. Even Mount Fuji other.
(A), in the middle of the bottom third of the The words unity and harmony suggest
work, almost blends into the ocean: because peaceful positive coexistence in a chaotic
whitecaps on the waves (Bl mimic the snow world. A skillful artist can depict unity and
atop Mount Fuji,the mountain's presence is harmony even in a work that portrays a
felt and reiterated throughout the scene that in reality would be chaotic and
composition. The sha pe a nd placement of threatening. Here, Hokusai has organized
the boats also creates a pattern among the a group of visual elements into a structure
waves. Because the great wave on the left that makes sense because it has been
is not repeated, it has a singular strength simplified and ordered.
UNITY, VARIETY, AND BALANCE 117
C
1.112 '.right] Interior des'gn,
MichaelInterior Desgn.
[.
Eethesda. Maryland
1.113 (fa- right) L'nea-

evaluation of elements in
i nteri o" des'gn by I. Michael
The interior designed by I.Michael Winegrad In the work of Russian artist Marie Marevna
(1.112) closely reflects the design in 1.113. The ( 1892- 1984), the unifying features are the
interior has a balance of curved and straight lines angular linesand flat areas of color or pattern
that complement eachother. The linear patterns (1.114). Marevna was one of the first female
of curvedlines repeat (red),as do the other members of the Cubist movement; here
directional lines. Shapes are distributed her Cubist style breaks apart a scene and
throughout the scene (green). The composition re-creates it from a variety ofdifferent angles.
appears harmonious without being boring. In this image she shows us the seltzer bottle
1.114 Marie Marevna (Marie

.
Vor obieff-Stebels ka] Na lure
morte a la bouteille. 1917.
C;l on canvas with plaster,
1?5Ax 24"
Cubism: a twentieth-century art

moveme nt that faro re d anew
perspective emphasizing
geometric forms
give awork an identifiable form
118 FUNDAMENTALS
c
from the sidewhile we look down at the tablet op He concentrates on two major areas, foreground 1.115 Piero dells F-ancesca,
from above. The entire work becomes unified, and background,where stand two different The Flagellation, c. 146?.
Cil and tempera on panel,
however, becausethe artist paints a variety of groups of figures. The organic human shapes
23x32". Galleria Nazionale
different viewing angles using flat areas of color inthe foreground are balanced against the delle Marche, Urbino. Italy
and pattern throughout, rather than relying on geometric lines of the background. The two
a more realistic representation. Even though we groups complement each other and create an
view the still life from many different angles, order that is reinforcedby the strong horizontal
the artist was able to unify the composition andvertical lines throughout the work. This
by using similar elements. The texture of the scene depicts Christ,before his crucifixion,
paint,the hard diagonal angularlines, and the being flogged by his captors. The figures in the
dominant gray-brown color allwork together foreground—whose identities are not known— Stilllife: a scene of inanimate
objects, suchas fruits, flowers,
to counteract the potentially excessive variety seem oblivious to what is going on behindthem.
or motionless animals
that could have come from the many points of Rather than communicating a feeling of tension Renaissance: a period of
view presented. andviolence, the composition is quiet and cultural and artistic change in
The great masters of the Renaissance Europe from the fourteenth
logical,emphasizing the mood of detachment
to the seventeenth century
understood the importance of unity in their and contemplation. Foreground: the part of a work
works. The)- also appreciated the value of putting Some artists create compositional unity depicted as nearest to the viewer
Background: the part of a work
limits on the number of different elements they while gatheringtogether bits and pieces of visual
depicted furthest from the
introduced into a design, as Piero della Francesca information. The African- American artist viewer's space, often behind the
(c. 1415-92) does in TheFlagellation (1.115). Romare Bearden ( 1911-88) captures the unity main subject matter
UNITY. VARIETY, AND BALANCE 119
1.116 RoT5"e Bearden, The
Dove. 1964. Cut-and-oasted
ÿ "'nted oaoe'5, gouache.
pencil, and colored oencil

on board, 13V;x 1 8V.
MOMA. NewYork
of New York in the b its that make up his ways. Sometimes the expression of these ideas
collage The Dove (1.116). In this work we see may not look organized,but an artist can still
snippets of faces and hands, city textures of communicate them effectively byselecting
brickwalls and fire escapes, and other associated images that conjure up a single notion. For
images assembled into a scene that, at first glance, example, an artist wishing to communicate the
seems frenetic and chaotic. We may feel this pace feeling of flight can use such symbols as feathers,
of life when wevisit a big city, but ifw-e look kites, or balloons. Each ofthesehas different
beyond our first impressions we often notice visual attributes, but the}- all have an idea in
the orderly grid of streets and the organization common. That common idea is emphasized
that underpins city life. Bearden reflects this when the}- are placed together in the same work.
order with an underlying grid of verticals and The artist links images that, although different—
horizontals in the street below-and in the vertical perhaps even drastically different— intheir
streetposts andbuildings inthe upper section appearance, have an idea, symbol, aspect, or
of the work. The hectic composition is subtly association in common. Sometimes, on the
coordinated by an implied triangular shape other hand, an artist may deliberately break or
that runs from the cat in the lower left and the contradictlinkages between ideas to freshen
woman's feet in the lower right to the dove up our tendency to find conventional— even
(hence the title) at the top center. These three boring—connectionsbetween them.
points create a sense of depthwhile stabilizing Artists bring their own intentions,
the lively image of a hectic street scene. experiences, and reactions to their work. These
ideas— conscious andunconscious— can also
Conceptual Unity contribute to the conceptual unity of a work
and are understood through the artist's style,
Collage: aworkofart assembled Conceptual unity refers to the cohesive attitude, and intent. In addition, the conceptual
bygluing materials, often paper,
onto a surface. Fromthe French expression of ideas within a work of art. Ideas links that artists makebetween symbols and
coller, to glue can come to us in haphazard and unpredictable ideas derive from the collective experiences of
120 FUNDAMENTALS
C
their culture: this too influencesboththe means and forth. Neither the bird nor the ball is free.
that artists use to create unit)- and the viewer's Placed together, all the different objects in the
interpretation of the work. box make an idea greater than any one of them
American Surrealist sculptor Joseph could create on its own. The artist has fused
Cornell (1903-72) created boxes that contain (and deliberately confused) his memories,
compositions of found objects. His works seem dreams, and visualizations; the resulting artwork
to suggest mysterious ideas andelusive feelings. is a rich and complex visual expression of
The disparate shapes, colors, andother Cornell's personality and methods.
characteristics of everyday things come together
to form distinctive images. Cornell's works are
Gestalt Unity
like a complex game wi th the viewer, a game
that reveals andconceals— iust as in a dream Gestalt, a German word for form or shape, refers
or psychoanalysis— the artist's personality. In to something (here a work of art) inwhich the
Untitled (The HotelEden),Cornell has collected whole seems greater than the sum of its par ts. The
objects from life andsealed them in a b ox composition andideas that go to make a work of
(1.117). Although the interior of the box is art— as well as our experience of it— combine to
a protectedplace, the birdis caged andunable create a gestalt. We get a sense of gestalt when we
to get out. A yellow ball sits trapped on two rails comprehend how compositional unity and
that limit its freedom of movement to rollback conceptual unity work together.
1.117 Joseph Cornell.

Untitled {The Hotel Edenj, i ?45.
Assemblage with mus e box,
15'/: x 1 5A x «V-". National
Gallery o; Canada. Ottawa

to the Surrealist movement in
the 1920s and later,whose art

\\"as inspiredby dreams and
the subconscious
Foundob ject: an object found
by an artist and presented,with
little or no alteration, as part of a
work or as a finished work of art
in itself
UNITY. VARIETY. AND BALANCE 121
C
(Nandi), is at Brahma's left. Lakshmi, Vishnu's
wife, attends her sleeping husband. Their unity
of maleand female creates a partnership that
results inthe birth of a new universe and many-
other universes into eternity. The dualities of
male/female,life/death, good/evil are illustrated
in the complex stories of the gods. Shiva, for
example, is both creator and destroyer,
destruction being necessary for creation—yet
another unifying duality.
As is often the case, a religious idea provides
profound conceptual unit}-. The image, the
religious idea that the image illustrates, andthe
fervent belief of the ar tist who createdthe work
interconnect through a symbolic representation
in carved stone. As we come to appreciate how
these aspects combine so completely inan
artwork, we experience a sense of gestalt, an
awakened understanding of the whole. This is
a goal in any artwork.
Variety
If "variety is the spice of life," it is also the spice
of the visual world. In art, variety is a collection
of ideas, elements, or materialsthat are fused
% together into one design. Inasmuchas unity is
about repetition and similarity,variety is about
1.118 Vishnu Dreamingthe We can discover the many faces of gestalt by uniqueness and diversity. .Artists use a multiplicity
Universe, c. «50-500:e. Relief
examining the ancient Hindu relief Vishnu of values, textures, colors, and so on to intensify
panel. Temple of Vishnu.
Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh. India
Dreaming the Universe (1.118). In this stone the impact of a work. It is unusual to see a good
carving, an abundance of human figures surrounds composition that has just one type of value,
a much larger reclining figure; this isVishnu shape, or color. Variety can invigorate a design.
dreaming. The repetition of the human shapes The example in 1.119 shows a composition of
that attendVishnu creates compositional unity: shapes set into a rectangle on a grid. Even though
these similar shapes link to eachother visually.
According to some texts written in the ancient 1.119 Variety of shapes and values set into a grid
Indianlanguage known as Sanskrit, the existence
of the universe, and its creation, are directly-
dependent on the god Vishnu, who is sheltered
by the great serpent Ananta and sleeps on the
Cosmic Sea. Through his sleep, the universe
is reborn over and over into eternity. Hindu
pantheism (the unity of many gods as one) is
elegantly illustrated in thiswork. Brahma is the
upper figure seated on a lotus that has sprouted
Value: the lightness or darkness from Vishnu's navel. Here he becomes the active
of a plane or area agent of creation. The god Shiva, riding a bull
122 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.120 Rooe-tRauscnenbe-g. the grid structure is predictable, the variety of behaviors and his violation of art-world
Monogram, 1955-9. Mixed shapes andvalues counteracts the rigid structure. conventions. The stuffed goat penetrates the
media with taxidermy goat.
-ubbe- tire, aid tern's ball
Many artists use this kind of var ietv to express an tire and stands atop a symbol of the established
42 x 63V. x 64Vf . Moderna energ\- that would belost if there were too much art world (painting) while defecating a dim-
Museet, Stockholm. Sweden unity.Variety is the artist's way of giving a work tennis ball on it. For the first time in modern
of art a jolt. art,too, Rauschenbergbreached the divide
The .American Robert Rauschenberg (1925— between painting and sculpture and took
2008) used variety to energize his ar twork and painting "off the wall." By using a variety of
challenge hisviewers. In thework Monogram, non-traditional art materialsand techniques,
Rauschenberg has usedall kinds ofdifferent the work becomes a transgression against
things to form his composition ( 1.1 20). The work traditional art and morals.
features a stuffed goat with a tire around its
middle standingona painting. By combining Using Variety to Unify
these objects, Rauschenbergcreatesan outlandish
symbol ofhimselfas a rebeland outcast. The goat, Although it might seem contradictory,variety
an ancient symbol of male lust and a Christian can be unifying. Even while using a variety of
symbol of souls cast out from salvation, becomes different shapes, colors,values, or other elements,
the totem of Rauschenberg's own provocative an artist can create visual harmony. This can be
c
1.121 Album quilt, probably seen in Baltimorealbum quilts, createdby theworkholds together as a unifiedwhole.
by N'ary Evans, Baltimore. Man-land artists in the nineteenth century The quilted surface is an arrangement of shapes
Maryland, 1S4B. Appliqued
(1.121). These carefully sewn quilts are named that form a unified composition.
cottons with ink work.
? X ?'. Private collection after the scrapbooks kept by Baltimore girls.
Rather than being constructed from scraps of
leftover material, as many quilts are, these fiber Balance
works were made from new pieces of fabric,
a reflection of the wealth of this port city. Like Just as real objects have physicalweight, parts
a scrapbook, these quilts use a variety of images of a work of art can have visual weight, or impact;
and fuse them together into a finished work. these need to bebalanced to achieve a sort of
Because a strong structure is imposed on the visual equilibrium. We can identify visualbalance
many different shapes through the use of a grid, in a form or composition, the same aswe can
124 FUNDAMENTALS
with weighted objects,by noting differences
between the two halves we are looking at.
If the amount of visual weight does not have a
reasonable counterweight on the opposite side,
the work may appear to be unsuccessful or
unfinished. Ifthere are reasonablevisual
counterweights thework seems complete, and
balance hasbeen achieved. Even placing a visual
weight in the center of a composition can impose
a strong balance on a design.
Finding visual weight and counterweight
is a challenge for the artist; balance in a work is
not always easy to define. But there are some
situations that often arise. For example, dark
and light,although opposites, can act as
counterbalances. Large shapes or forms can be
counteredby groups of smaller shapes or forms.
For many artists this process is intuitive;they
make decisions about thework based on what
looks right,rather than on a rigid set of rules. The t'ao t'ieh can be found on the bronze 1.122 Ritual conts ne-;-orr
ritual container in 1.122 by identifying a pair Gui- China- 5han9 Dynasty.
, , , ,, 1600-1100 BCE. Bronze.
Symmetrical Balance or rperfectly round eyes on either side of the ,, .
' '
central vertical ridge. On each side of this central
o'/lX 10% . University or Hong
Kon g Museum
If a work can be cut in half andeach side looks ridge are patterns that mirror each other. Some
exactly (or nearly exactly) the same, then it is of these signify horns, claws, fangs, ears, and even
symmetrically balanced. Near-perfect symmetry smaller images of animals. Ifyoulook carefully
exists in the human body. For example, each side you may see two rhinocerosheads jutting out
of our face has half a nose, halfa mouth, half at the top of the left and right handles. The
a chin, and so on. The same is true for most "monster'" of symmetry lurks amongst the many
animals and a number of geometric shapes, such parts of the image andwaits for us to discover its
as circles and squares. Because itisapartof our hiding place.
physical body, symmetry can seem very natural
andwe can make natural connections to it. Asymmetrical Balance
Artists of ancient China designed a creature
born of symmetry calledthe t'ao t'ieh. The image On an old-fashioned scale, the kindwith a long
of the creature in an artwork is not immediately arm centered on top of a vertical support, a
apparent,because its form is "hidden" amongst singleheavy object onone side can be balanced
many separate symmetrical shapes and forms. by several lighter objects on the other side as
It is as if a symmetrical collection of elements long as the weight on bothsides is the same.
coalesceto reveal a monster mask. The image Similarly, when artists organize a composition
of the f ao t'iehhasbeen used widely in Chinese the\- often use different visual "weights" on each
art since the Shang Dynasty ( 1766-1122 bce), side of the composition. This is asymmetrical
when it appeared on ceremonial bronze objects. balance, also called dynamic balance; it applies
The meaning of this motif is mysterious, but it when the elements on the left and right sides are
may symbolize communication with the gods. not the same, but the combination of elements
According to some accounts, the t'ao t'ieh counters each other.
mask represents a monster that, through its Chinese artists have used asymmetrical
own gluttony, is devouring itself: a warning balance to reflect on life and spirituality. Motf6 adKignorcolorrepeaIed
against overindulgence. The thirteenth-century Zen Buddhist monk asaunitinapattern
mmmsssm Radial Balance
Radial balance (or symmetry) is achieved
when all elements in a work are equidistant
from a central point and repeat in a symmetrical
way from side to side and top to bottom.
Radial symmetry can imply circular and
repeating elements. .Artists can employ this
kind ofbalance when it is necessary to depict
an element more than twice. It is sometimes
used in religious symbols and architecture
where repetition plays an important role in
the design.
Although the term "radial" symmetry
suggests a round shape, in fact any geometric
shape can beused to create radial symmetry.
Italianarchitect .Andrea Paliadio (1508-80)
decided to use the same elements on four sides
of the Villa Capra (also calledthe Villa Rotonda)
to achieve a perfect radial balance andallow- the
owner of this villa to take advantage of four views
(1.126). Palladio referred to this symmetry
in this way:
IMlmJ :
The place is nicely situated and one of
1.123 Muqi. Six Persimmons, Muqi expresses balanced asymmetry in his the loveliest and most charming that one
Southc'n Song Dynasty. work Six Persimmons ( 1.123). In this work, could hope to find; for it lies on the slopes
c. 1 250. Ink on oaoe-.
UV.x 15 ". Ryoko-in.
dark, light,andthe subtle differences in shape of a hill,which is very easy to reach.
Dailoxu-ji, Kyoto. ..aoan are not distributed evenly between the left and The loveliest hills are arranged around
right sides of the work. Muqicreates subtle it,which afford a view into an immense
variations in the placement of the persimmons theatre. ..;because one takes pleasure in
on eachside of the central axis. On the right the beautifulview on all four sides, loggias
are two large dark shapes with a heavy visual were built on all four facades.
weight, one ofwhich partially overlaps a light
shape. On the left there is one light shape and Palladio wants peoplewho live inthis building
two dark shapes, one of which is placed lower to be able to experience four views of the
inthe picture.Muqi brilliantly counteracts the surrounding countryside from a single vantage
visual "heaviness" of the r ight side by placing point.Ifwe were to open all four sets of doors
one shape lower on the left. The lower we couldlook in four separate directions as we
placement of the smallest persimmon in the turned on the villa's center point. Palladio's plan
picture addsvisual weight to the left side and repeats the loggias, or porch-like entrances, on
counters the visual weight of the largest fruit all four facades; the}- are all equidistant from
just above it. For Muqi,the use of brushand the center of the building.
Axis: an imaginary line showing ink was a form of meditation, through simple, The Tibetan sand painting in 1.125 is
the center of a shape, volume,
or composition thoughtful actions, in search of higher a diagram of the universe (also known as a
Facade: any side of a building, knowledge. .Although this work may look mandala) from a human perspective. The
usually the front or entrance simple, the thoughtful arrangement of the TibetanBuddhist monkswho created this work
Mandala: a sacred diagram of
the universe, often involving a shapes cannot be changed without undermining have placed a series of symbols equidistant
square and a circle the "perfect" asymmetry. from the center. In this mandala the colors vary
126 FUNDAMENTALS
1.126 And-es Palladio, Plan but the shapes pointing in four different
and pant elevation/ section of directions from the center are symmetrical.
the Villa Rotonda. Vicenza,
The creation of one of these sand paintings is
Italy, begun 1565/6. F-ot the
.
Quattro Libri Book II an act of meditation that takes many days, after
which the work is destroyed.
Conclusion
Vnifi '-afki'-i and 'calaiws are tamal griiKiglfi
that artists use to oreato visual imoaoti unity
gives a work a certain oneness or cohesion.
So powerful is the force of cohesive oneness
t O O V
that even a fragment of a work—for example,
a broken piece of a ceramic pot— may have
aesthetic unity. An artist mav unify a work
in one or more of three ways: through the
arrangement of its elements, such as shape, line,
and color; through its subject matter or the
ideas it describes; andby drawing us in so that
we become intensely aware of what the artist
1.125 [below] Amitayas
intends to communicate— a perception of
rrandala created by the
monks o; Dreoung Loseling wholeness sometimes known as gestalt.
Monastery, Tibet The other two fundamental principles that
affect the visual impact of a work are variety
andbalance. Variety is expressed in contrast
and difference, which create visual interest and
excitement; artists may use extreme variety
quite deliberately to give an artwork a sense of
chaos and lack of control. Variety can be created
by the use of different kinds of lines, shapes,
patterns, colors, or textures, or even by
intentionally distinguishing many separate
brushstrokes or chisel marks.
Balance is imposed on a work when the
artist achieves an appropriate combination
of unity and variety. We appreciate balance by
"weighing up" the organization of the visual
elements in our minds, as we consider and
examine an artwork; our comprehension
ofbalance is primarily intuitive,and our
intuitions are based on an instinctive ability
to discern symmetries and patterns in the
world around us. This innate awareness
of symmetry is reflected in the abundance of
symmetrical artworks,but artists also exploit
it when they create artworks that rely for
their effect on the disturbing feelings caused
by asymmetry.
UNITY, VARIETY. AND BALANCE 127
FUNDAMENTALS
1.7
Scale and Proportion
The nineteenth-century- French poet Charles

Baudelaire wrote that "All which is beautiful
Scale
andnoble is the result of reason andcalculation.'"
Baudelaire was speaking of cosmetics and The scale of a work of art communicates ideas.
makeup, and not referring specifically to works A smallwork ofart communicates something
of art, but his statement neatly summarizes the very different than a larger work. Small-scale
care with which artists determine scale and pieces force viewers to come in close to experience
proportion. Artists use these key principles of the artwork. A small-scalework implies intimacy,
design to controlhow they implement the basic like whispering in someone's ear or admiring
elements of art,just as grammar controls how a ring on their finger. Large-scale works can be
words work in a sentence. experienced by groups of viewers and usually
We perceive scale in relation to our own size. communicate big ideas directed at a large
Art objects created on a monumental scale audience. Artists and designers makeconscious
appear larger than they would be in normal life. choices about the scale of a work when they
This monumentally imposes itself onus. In consider the message they want to put across.
a work created on a human scale, its size Artists may also consider scale as they
corresponds to the size of things as they actually make more practical choices about a work.
exist. Work at this scale often surprises us. Considerations of cost, the time it will take to
Small-scale objects appear smaller than our usual execute the piece, and the demands that a specific
Scale: the size of an objector experience of them in the realworld. Often scale location may place on the work: all come into
artwork relative to another is used to indicate importance. Even so, scale does play in decisions about scale.
object or artwork, or to a system
ofmeasurement notalways indicate significance; sometimes the
Proportion: the relationship in smallest thing is the most significant. Scale and Meaning
size between a wo rk s individual
Proportion is a core principle in the unity
parts and the whole
Principles: the "grammar''
ofanvart object. Usually, an artist ensures that Usually a monumental scale indicates heroism or
applie d to the ele me nts of art— all the parts of an object are in proportion to other epic virtues. War monuments, for example,
contrast, balance,unit}*,varie ty, one another. Alternatively, an artist can create oftenfeature figures much larger than lifesize
rhythm, emphasis, pattern,scale,
proportion, and focal point a contr adiction by portraying objects or figures in order to convey the bravery of the warriors.
Elements: the basic vocabulary* out of proportion. For example, a cartoonist may- However, the Swedish-born artist Claes
portray a figure with disproportionately large Oldenburg (b. 1929) uses monumental scale to
noseor ears to exaggerate the prominent facial poke fun while expressing admiration for the
value (lightness'darkness) features distinctive to a famous personality. little things ofe very-day life. Oldenburgbelieves
Monumental: having massive Careful proportion is a sign of technical mastery- that the items of mass culture, no matter how*
or impressive scale
Unity: the imposition of order discordant proportions can express a wide range insignificant they might seem, express a truth
and harmony on a design of meanings. about modern life. So he restvles small, often
128 FUNDAMENTALS
1.126 Claea Oldenburg
end Coosÿe van B'uggen,
.
Mistos (Match Cover) 1992.
Steel, aluminum, and fibe--
_e'n;orced plastic,pa'nted
with polyuretnane enamel,
63' x33' x43'd". Collection La
Valld'Heo'on, Barcelona. Spain
overlooked objects on a monumental scale, of exotic birds ingreat detail onto human faces,
giving clothes-pins and ice-cream cones while the tiny size evokes thebird from which
a grandeur and significance the}- do not usually the plumage was copied ( 1.127). The small scale 1.127 Robert Lostutte-, The
have. In the process, Oldenburg transforms the ofLo stutter'swork—only one person at a time Hummingbirds. 193 1.
Watercoloron pape-,
essence of these everyday things as he magnifies cansee it properly—forces us to come closer; 1 % x 5:/V. Collection o; Anne
their sculptural form. Look at, for example, looking at it becomes an intimate experience. and Wa men We a o e- g
'
the enormous book of matches in 1.1 26, a

collaborationbetween Oldenburg andhis
wife, the Dutch-born sculptor Coosie van
Bruggenf 1942-2009).
The American Robert Lostutter(b. 1939) uses
small scale to enhance the character of hiswork.
Lostutter likes to create hisworks on the scale not
of a human but of a bird. He paints the plumage
SCALE AND PROPORTION 1 29
Relief: araisedformona largely
Hierarchical Scale
flat background. For example,
the design on a coin is "in relief Artists can use size to indicatethe relative
Gothic western European importance of figures or objects in a
architectural style of the twelfth
to sixteenth centuries,
composition: almost always,larger means more
character!zed by the use of important, and smaller means less important.
pointed arches and ornate Hierarchicalscale refers to the deliberate use of
decoration
relative size in a work in order to communicate
differences in importance. 1.128 shows the
use of hierarchical scale in a relief sculpturefrom
1.128 Hierarchicalscale: ancient Egypt. In the art of ancient Egypt, the
Relie; "om the northern wall king,or pharaoh,was usually the largest figure
o; the hypostyle hall at the
depicted because hehadthe highest status in
great temple of Am un. 19th
Dynasty, c. 1295-11 86 BC E. the social order. Here, the largest symbol (A)
Ka_nak, Egypt represents the pharaoh; the figure isvisually
1.129 Jan van Eyck, Madonna inaChurch. 1437-3.

C:l on wood panel, 12"; x 5 Vi~. Gemaldegalerie,
Staatliche Museen, Berlin. Germany
more dominant thanthe others. This scene

depicts the military campaign of Seti Iagainst
\ the Hittitesand Libyans.
The Flemish artist Jan van Eyck (c. 1395-1441)
uses hierarchical scale to communicate spiritual
importance. In his painting Madonna in a Church,
van Eyckenlarges the scale so that the enormous
mother andchild fill the massive space of a
Gothic church (1.129). In his effort to glorify
the spiritual importance of Mary and the Christ
child, van Eyck also separates them from normal
human existence. Their gigantic appearance,
relative to the interior, makes these figures appear
to be larger than normal human beings. Van Eyck
has scaledthem to symbolize their central
importance in the Christian religion.
130 FUNDAMENTALS
c
Distorted Scale Proportion 1.130 DorotheaTanning,

Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, 1 943.
Oil on canvas, 16V=x2a".
An artist may deliberately distort scale to create an
Tate, London
abnormal or supernatural effect. In the twentieth The relationships between the sizes of different
century, artists known as Surrealists created parts of a work make up its proportions.
works that use dreamlike images to subvert our By controlling these size relationships an artist
conscious experiences. The American Surrealist can enhance the expressive and descriptive
artist Dorothea Tanning (b. 1910), in EineKleine characteristics of the work.
Nachtmusik, paints a sunflower at a scale that Assize relationships change, proportions
contradicts its surroundings (l.130). The change. For example, 1.1 31 shows the profile Surrealist: an artist belonging
sunflower seems huge in relation to the interior of a Greek vase. Ifwe change thewidth (B) or the
architecture andthe two female figures standing on height (C) the overall proportions change. Each was inspiredby dreams and
the left. By contra dieting our ordinary experience of these vase profiles communicates a different the subconscious
of scale, Tanning invites us into a world unlike the
one we know. This is a world of childhooddreams UP 1.131 Examples of how
and nightmares where odd things happen, like

the strangely alive sunflower andthe unexplained
wind that lifts the hair of one figure. The title,
Height
0
Width
Q o n propo_t:on changes on
vertical and ho"'zontal axes
Eine KleineNachtmusik ("A Little Night Music"),

is borrowed from a lighthearted piece of music
by the eighteenth- cen tun- Austrian composer
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,but ironically
Tanning's scene exhibits a strange sense of dread.
SCALE AND PROPORTION 131
c
feeling simply because the ratio of height to
width is different. When thewidth is reduced the
vase seems elegant and light. Reducing the height
makesthe opposite true: the vase seems clumsier
and weightier than the original profile (A).
For a two-dimensionalwork the artist
chooses an area, or format, on which to make
a drawing, painting, print, or design. The 4 -'ingers = 1 palm
format's dimensions— its height andwidth—
dictate a great deal about whatkindof image
can be created. For example, a format that is only il lullfllhl mmm
2 inches tall and 10 inches across will require that
)
the artist create an image that is short and wide. 4 cubits = 1 man's height
6 palms = 1 cubit
Artists must plan aheadand choose the format (24 palms)
that best fits their intended image.
1.132 Ancient Egyptian system using the human hand as
a standa'd unit o: measurement Format: the shape of the area an
Human Proportion artist uses for making a two-
show* status and individuality. Pictured in dimensional arW\"ork
Qassicalperiod: a period in
As we saw when discussing 1.131,carefully 1.133 is a sculpture of the Oni oflfein cast
the historyof G re ek art,
chosen proportion can make an art object seem brass. The Oni, or Monarch, of the Ife dynasty c 430-323 ece
pleasing to the eye. .As it happens, the parts of a of the Yoruba people is shown standing in full Gist: a sculpture or artwork
made by pouring a liquid (for
vase are given namesbased on the human body: regalia (ceremonial clothingand adornments). example molten metal or
the lip,body, and foot. Just as the body of a vase The Oni is the most powerful and important plaster) into a mold
can have agreeable or disagreeable proportions, figure in this culture,vet his proportions here are Renaissance: a period of
the same is true of the humanbody. neither realistic nor idealized. The head— about Europe from the fourteenth to
In ancient Egypt the palm of the hand was a quarter ofthe entire figure— islarge; theYoruba the seventeenth century
a unit of measurement (1.132). Six palm widths believe that the head is the seat of a divine power
1.133 Nigerian Ife artist,
equaled a unit of measurement called a cubit. from whence a life source emanates to control Figure o; On', early 14th— 15th
The height of an average manwas estimated at personality and destiny. This figure, like Ifekings, century. 6 "ass with lead.
4 cubits or 24 palms: the proportion of the man's represents a direct descendant of Odudmva, the 18'/i' high. National Museum,
Ife. Nigeria
palm to the height of hisbody was therefore 24:1. heroic leader whose childrenbecamethe great
The ancient Greeks were especially interested leaders of the Yoruba. The facial features are
in proportion. Greek mathematicians investigated, idealized, suggesting that a personal heritage
in the visual arts and in other forms of art, such shapes one's destiny as a great leader. Many African
as music, the mathematical basis ofbeauty sculptures exaggerate the headand face as a way
and of ideal proportions. The Greek sculptor to communicate status, destiny, and a connection
Polykleitoswrote a treatise describinghow to to the spiritual. Both the Yoruba andthe Greeks
create a statue of a human being with ideal or were concernedwith creating a connection to
perfect proportions. Inthe first century 3CE the spiritual world, but African artists celebrated
the Roman writer Vitruvius wrote hisbook the importance of history (inheritance) and one's
On Architecture, inwhich he claimed to set out unique affiliation or office,while the Greeks
the rules that Greeks and Romans applied to the sought an impersonal, ideal model.
design of architecture. The models used by the Greeks for calculating
The Greeks sought an ideal ofbeauty in the human proportion were later adopted by artists
principle of proportion. Figures made during the of ancient Rome andthen by the artists of the
Gassical period of Greek sculpture share similar Renaissance. Raphael usedthem in The School
proportions. To the Greeks, these proportions ofAthens (see Gateway Box:Raphael) to ensure
embodiedthe perfection of the gods. Incontrast, that the figures in his composition had the ideal
fifteenth-century African sculptors preferredto human proportion used in the ancientw-orld.
132 FUNDAMENTALS
Scale and Proportion in a Renaissance Masterpiece
tiÿ* rs'
i%£Jm
1.134 Raphael, The School of The Italian painter Raphael's sensitivity to because Raphael has positioned them in the
Athens, 1510-11. Fresco, proportion reflects his pursuit of perfection, center of the work to draw our attention to
16'8" x25\ Stanza della
an ideal of Renaissance artists. Raphael them. In addition, Raphaelhas oriented the
Segnatura, Vatican City
indicated the importance of his masterpiece by perspective, used to give the architectural
creating it on a magnificent scale: it measures elements a sense of depth, so that our eyes
17x 25 ft (1.134). The figures inhabit a well- are drawn to the center of the work. This double
proportioned interiorthat makesthem seem emphasis on the center brings our attention
human despite the large size of the work. to the opposing gestures of two famous Greek
The figures in this work are particularly philosophers (Plato points to the heavens
important because Raphael is showing us while Aristotle holds the pa Im of his hand
a gathering of greatscholars from Classical down to the earth, a referencetotheirdiffering
antiquity. Raphaelcomposedthe individual philosophica Ipositions). Raphael's deft use
figures so that the parts of each figure are of proportion a nd emphasis ensures that he
harmonious in relation to each other and is able to communicate his admiration for the
portray an idealized form. We notice two of ideas of the great minds of antiquity and
theseideal human figures immediately the Renaissance.
SCALE AND PROPORTION 133
C
Golden Section: a unique ratio
of a line divided into two parts so / **
* If
/ \
5
that a + bis to a as a is to b. The \ 8
S
result is 1:1.61S L-L
3
2
I
/
/
/ 13
/
.618...
/
t
Golden Mean Fibonacci Sequence

1:1.6180337... 1.1.2.3.5.8. 13....
<D
1:1.6180337... Root 5 Rectangle
1.135 The Golden Sect' on
The Golden Section (some art historians say it is Zeus) is a famous

example (1.136). Poseidon, a Greek god, had
The Greeks' interest inthe use of mathematical to have perfect proportions. The Greek sculptor
formulas to determine perfect proportions has applied a conveniently simple ratio,using the
fascinated artists ever since. One of the best- head as a standard measurement. In 1.136 and
known formulas is whathas becomeknown since 1.137 you can see that the body is three heads
the Renaissance as the Golden Section (1.135), wide by seven heads high.
a proportional ratio of 1:1.618,which occurs
inmany natural objects. It turns out that Proportional Ratios
realhumanbodiesdo not have exactly these
proportions,but when the ratio 1:1.618 is applied Artists have learned other ways to apply
1.136 Poseidon (o -Zeus],
C. 660-650 5CE. Bronze. 6TOV2"
to making statues, it gives naturalistic results. proportional formulas to organize their
high. Nat'onal Aÿcheeological It is likely that Greek sculptors usedmuch compositions and ensure that their work is
Museum, Athens. G'eece simpler methods thanthe Golden Section to visually interesting. One such technique is known
calculatethe proportions of their sculptures, but as "Golden Rectangles," because it is based on
1.1 37 (below, right] Diag-am o;
proportional formulas used in the resulting proportions are often very close to nesting insideeachother a succession of
the statue the Golden Section. The sculpture of Poseidon rectanglesbased on the 1:1.618 proportions of
the Golden Section. The shorter side of the outer
rectanglebecomes the longer side of the smaller
rectangle inside it, and so on. The result is an
elegant spiral shape. In 1858 the English
photographer Henry Peach Robinson (1830—
1901), one of the great innovators of the
photographic arts, usedthis idea to compose
a photograph titled FadingAway (1.138a and
1.138b). Robinson was well known for hiswork
in fusing many different negatives to create a new-
image. This image shows his attention to the
coordinated ratios in artistic composition. Notice
how the right-hand drape divides the photograph
136 FUNDAMENTALS
1.138a [above left) and 1.138b labove right) Proportional
analysis: Henry Peach Rob n son .Fading Av&y, 1853.
Combination albumen p-int. George Eastman House.
Rochester, New York
into two Golden Rectangles and how the spiral

draws our eye to the dying young woman.
The Greeks applied their proportional
systems to architecture as well as to sculpture.
By applying the idealizedrules of proportion for
the human body to the design of the Parthenon,
a temple of the goddess Athena, the Greeks
created a harmonious design. As it happens,
the proportions correspond quite closely to
the Golden Section ( 1.139). The vertical and
horizontal measurements work together to
create prop o rtionalha rmony (1.140),
Conclusion 1.139 Iktmosand Kall-metes, Pa'-thenon, 6u7-4325:e. Athens. G-eece
cale— whether monumental,human,small, 1.160 The use o; the Golden Section in the design o* the Pa-thenon
hierarchical or distorted— carries meaning and
communicates a part of an artwork's message. Tri glyphs
It also sets the tone for proportion, the size Pediment
relationships between the various parts of a work.
When proportion conforms to scale, allthe parts
oftheworklookthewavweeÿ they
seem proper andharmonious. In other times
and places, the proportions of the representations
of human figures have reflected thevalues of
the societies that produced them. Scale and
proportion are basic to most works; size choices
influence allthe other elements and principles
hitheÿesian. Because scale and proportion have
such an impact on the whole artwork, they are
essences of the artwork's unity. Golden Mean Root 5 Rectangle
SCALE AND PROPORTION 1 35
c
FUNDAMENTALS
L8
Emphasis and Focal Point
Emphasis and focal point are principles of art The opposite of emphasis is subordination:
that draw attention to specific locationsin a subordination draws our attention away from
content in a work work. Emphasis is the principle by which an artist certain areas of a work. Artists choose carefully—
Focalpoint: thecenterof draws attention to particular content A focal in both two- and three-dimensionalworks—
interest or activity in a work
point is a specific place of visual emphasis in which areas to emphasize or subordinate.
viewers attention to the most a work of art or design. We can see how emphasis works in 1.161: a
important element Most works of art have at least one area of double-chamberedvessel with mouse, by an
Principles: the 'grammar"
applied to the elements of art—
emphasis and multiple focal points. Those few ancient Peruvian artist. The mouse on the top left
c ontrast,balance ,unity,varie ty, artworks that do nothave areas of emphasis or side of the work attracts our attentionbecause it
rhythm, emphasis, pattern,scale, focal points usually have little or no variation. is so detailed, both inits three-dimensional
An artist can emphasize focal points through the modeling and its painted pattern. (Its eyes are
Elements: the basic vocabulary
of art— line, form, shape, use of line, implied line,value, color— in fact, any a particularly strong focal point; in fact, eyes are
volume, mass, color, texture, of the elements of art can help focus our interest primal focal points that fascinate us from early
on specific areas. Likethe bull's-eve on a target, infancy-.) The spout of the vessel also stands out,
value ( lightness/darkne ss )
Subordination: the opposite focal points concentrate our attention. Even not only because of its colorbut also because of
of emphasis; it draws our though our field ofvision is fairly wide, at any its geometric simplicity,which contrasts with the
attention away from particular
areas of a work
given moment we can only focus our vision on organic modeling and painting of the mouse. We
Abstract: art imager, that a small area. The physiology of vision underlies find thirdand fourth areas of emphasis in the
departs from recognizable the principle of focal point.
Color field: a term used by
Emphasis and focal point usually accentuate 1.161 Double-chamOe'-ed
a group of twentieth-century concepts, them?s, or ideasthe artist wants to vessel with mouse. Recua>
abstract painters to describe express: they- signal what the artwork is about. Peru. 4th-3th century.
their work with large flat areas
of color and simple shapes
Ce'amic. 6" high.
Metropolitan Museum M
-
Color: the optical effect caused o;Art. New York
spectrum is divided into a Emphasisand
separate wavelength
Positive shape: a shape defined Subordination
by its surrounding empty space
Negative space: an empty space
When an artist emphasizes different elements in a
given shape by its surround,
for example the right-pointing work of art, he or she creates visual relationships
arrowbetweenthe Eandx and connections between them. The artist
in FedEx
Impliedtexture: a visual
activates our visual and conceptual linkages
illusion expressingtexture and connects up new thoughts for us; he or she
expands the scope of the work and highlights its
main ideas. This isthe essence of emphasis.
136 FUNDAMENTALS
c
with the optical effects of color. In his work
Tin Lizzie Green, Olitski frames our attention on
the color field in the center of the work with three
colored dots on the right,redhorizontalstrokes
on the top and bottom,and a tan- coloredstroke
on theleft (1.U2). These color shapes support the
real focus of this work, which is the blue-green
color in the center. Olitski surrounds this with
other colors so that we repeatedly alternate our
view from the edges to the center andback again.
The artist emphasizes the central area and
subordinates the edges through the use of
contrastbetween the positive shapes on the
edges andthe negative space of the center.
When a work does not have areas of emphasis,
that changes the way we respond. For example,
the painting Blue Interior by Mark Tobey( 1890—
1976) has an overall impliedtexture so uniform
that we are hard-pressed to find places where our
eye can rest (1.143). Tobev, who grew up in the
Pacific Northwest,was inspired by the landscape

near his native Seattle. Hewishes to provide us
with a sense of thePuget Sound area, with (as the
artist says) its "virginal winds, air currents, and
intermingled seasons/' He is especially interested
1.142 jules Olitski. Tin Lizzie decorations on the two chambers of the vessel.
Green, 1964. Aery tie and Although these areas have a great deal ofvariety,
oil/wax crayon on canvas.
10'10" x 6' 10". Museum
they connect because they share common shapes,
of Fine Arts. Boston. coloration, and texture that draw our attention
Massachusetts away from the undeoorated— subordinated—
areas of thevessel. The plavfiil variations of
emphasis createa sense ofhumor and imagination.
Because abstract works can never directly
evoke our memories of things or people, they
1.143
frequently rely on compositional principles, such
(right] Mark Tobey,
Btuein:erior, 1959. Tempe-a as emphasis. The American color field painter
on card. 4«x2S" Jules Olitski (1922-2007) was primarily concerned
EMPHASIS AND FOCAL POINT 137
in creating a meditative response to the landscape. Daedalus fashioned two sets of wings from
Because Tobev does not use areas of emphasis,we feathers andwax. As father and son flew away
or organization of awork
are free to roam visually in his painting, without from their prison, Icarus became overly
encumbrance. We can immerse ourselves in the exuberant. Although his father had-warn edhim
work, as if it were anocean. not to, Icarus,recklessly enjoying his new wings,
flew too high andclose to the sun. The wax in his
wings melted, and he fell to hisdeath in the sea
Focal Point below. In Bruegel's version of this story our
attention is drawn to the figure in the foreground,
In any composition, a focal point is that specific plowing his field, unaware of the tragedy. Several
part of an area of emphasis to which the artist other areas of emphasis— the tree on the left, the
draws our eye. He or she can do so by using line, sunset, the town in the distance, the fanciful
implied line,or contrast. These techniques focus ships—also capture our interest.We hardly notice
our gaze on that point in the work (see Gateway poor Icarus,whose legs are disappearing into the
Box: Gentileschi). sea iust in front of the large ship on the right.
Inthe painting Landscape with theFallofIcarus Because Bruegel has gone to such lengths to draw-
the artist diverts our attention so that we barely attention away from the plight ofhis subject, art
1.146 F'ieter Bruegelthe noticeIcarus plunging to hisdoom ( 1.144): a fine historians think heis illustrating the Flemish
ELde-. Landscape wth the Fall example of subordination. Flemish artist Pieter proverb,"No plough stands still because a man
of Icarus, c. 155 5-S. CI on Bruegel the Elder ( c. 1525-69) illustrates a story dies.'" Or, as we might say,"Life goes on." Either
canvas, mounted on wood.
from Greek mythology. Icarus andhis father way, it is a brilliant example of using emphasis
2? x Musees Royaux
des Beaux-Arts de Belgique. Daedalus had been imprisoned on the island to divert the viewer's attention away from a
Brussels. Belg:um of Crete by its ruler, Minos. In order to escape, particular point inthe work.
138 FUNDAMENTALS
c
Gateway to Art: Gentileschi, Judith DecapitatingHolofernes
Emphasis Used to Create Drama
1.145 Artemisia Gentileschi,

Judith Decapitating
Holofernes. c. 1620. Oil on
canvas, 6'63/8" x 5'3It". Uffizi
Gallery, Florence, Italy
Artists often take advantage of the strength of a emphasizes Judith's arms andthose of her
single focal point to force us to give our attention maidservant (visually connected to the sword
to the crux or pivot of the work. Although a itself) as they stretch toward the dark values of
composition can have several focal points, the their victim's head. The light values of the five
Italian Baroquepainter Artemisia Gentileschi bare arms create strong directional linesthat
uses just one in her Judith Decapitating lead to the focal point where blood spurts from
Holofernes (1.145). Through Gentileschi's the violent attack on Holofernes' neck. This
use of directional line a nd contrasting values double emphasis (contrast of values and
we are drawn irresistibly to the point where the directional line) freezes our stare upon the
climax of the story is unfolding. Bright light fatal blow, even as it obscures it in darkness.
Emphasis and Focal Muhammadbin Omar Sheikh, nicknamed Babur,
founded the Mughal Empire inIndia when he
repetition of elements in the work
Point in Action conquered most of Central Asia and northern
India. In 1.166, the gardener/ artist Babur is
Artists can use direction, dramatic contrasts, and pointing to a feature that channels water in four
placement relationships to organize the elements directions. The life-giving properties of water
in a work and draw our attention to areas of and the four cardinal directions were important
emphasis and focal points. symbols of life and eternity. Because the garden
wasbased on the perfect geometry of a square,
Line it couldbe expanded an infinite number of times
without disturbing the original plantings. Inthis
1.146 The Emperor Babur
Overs eeingh is Gardeners, Lineis an effective way to focus our attention image of the garden, -water is the focal point both
Ind'a, Mughal pe"'od. in an artwork. In Mughal India (the period concept ually andvisually.
C.1 5?0.Te-rpe-= and
from 1526 untilthe mid-nineteenth century), We tend to notice diagonal linesbecause
gouache on oaoe-. Jr/iX 5!/s".
Victoria and Aloert Museum. a garden was considered a work of art, one that the}- appear to be more visually active than
London, England symbolized the promise of paradise. Zahir ud-Din either horizontal or vertical lines. The strong
diagonal of the channeldraws our attention
to the water as it runs toward us. The central
cross-shaped confluence of the waters inthe
* middle of the garden becomesthe focal point

of the composition.
Contrast
Artists look to create effects of contrast by
positioningelementsnext to one another that
are very different, for example areas of different
value, color, or size. Value is an effective and
frequently used means of creating emphasis
and focal point. It also hasthe advantage that it
can beused in subtle ways. In The Funeral of
I StBonaventure, a painting by Spanish artist

Fr ancisco de Zurbaran (1598-1664) ,most of
* the lightest values are reserved for the clothing
*
adorning the deadbodv of St. Bonaventure
(1.147). The}- create a central focal point that
stands out incontrast to the surrounding dark
values. We are drawn to the whiteness (symbolic
of Bonaventure's chaste and spotless reputation)
before we look at the surrounding characters.
Enoughlight value is distributed to the other
figures to allow our eyes to be drawn away from
Bonaventure's body, making the composition
more interesting.
Placement
The placement of elements within a composition
controls rhythm and creates multiple focal points.
140 FUNDAMENTALS
C
Inthe print "Riverside Bamboo Market,
Kycbashi," the Japanese artist Ando Hiroshige
(1797-1858) hasorientedthree shapes; all of
them are visually independent of each other
(1.168). The positions of the moon, thebridge,
andthe figure in a boat form three separate focal
points. Each shape commands our attention and
draws more of our focus to the right side of the
work. Even thoughthebridge is the largest shape,
and so naturally catchesour attention, the light
value andhard geometry of the moon divert our
gaze, andthe moon becomes a secondary focal
point. We look at the figure under the bridge
because of its careful placement under the
moon, andbecause it has a definite outline that
contrasts strongly with the flat color of the
water. The varying distancesbetween the
placements of the three focal points also create
rhythm that adds visual interest. Hiroshige,
a master of woodcut printing,uses placement
to emphasize specific points in the work and
enliventhe composition.
Conclusion
1.167 (above) Francisco de
Emphasis and focal point give a work of art punch.
Zurba-an, The Funeral ofSt. They announce important content in an artwork
Bonaventure, 1629. C: Ion andcall attention to the concents the artist wishes
canvas. 8'2"x7'6 Musee du to communicate. Artists rely on emphasis and
Louvre. Paris, F-ance
focal point to give their work visual and
1.168 [le;tj Ando Hiroshige. conceptual impact.
"Riverside Bamboo Market, All the elements and principles of art can serve
Kyobashi," from One Hundred
to create emphasis. Both actual and implied lines
Famous Views ofEdo, 1857.
I5x103/s". James A. Michener shape our examination of a work of art by
Collect' on, Honolulu Academy directing the movement of our gaze. Contrasts
o; Arts. Hawa i
between different values, colors, or textures can
sometimes be so dramatic anddistinct that we
cannot helpbut feel drawn to that area of a work.
Our vision keeps coming back to these focal
points; they are places where our thoughts linger
Outline: the outermost line of
an object or figure, bywhich it is
for a while. During the process of artistic design,
defined or b oun de d artists are constantly adjusting the elements of
Woodcut: a print created from composition, calculatinghow they are going to
Actualand Impliedlines: influence the focus andduration of these pauses.
actual lines are solid lines. The placement of these "centers of attention"
Implied lines are impressions
generates rhythmic sequences while emphasizing
of lines created from a series of
points that orient our gaze along
the core significance of the artwork: its ideas,
a visual path feelinosÿandhnageÿ.
FUNDAMENTALS
L2
Pattern and Rhythm
Each day the sun rises and sets; we believe it will An artist can use repetition of a pattern to
Space: the distancebetween
identifiable points or planes
do so again tomorrow. Patterns and rhythms in impose order ona work. But simple repetition
Pattern: an arrangement of nature help us make sense of the world. They can become more complex and make a work
predictably re pe ate deleme nts express the order and predictability of our lives. even more interestingwhen the pattern changes.
Artists use pattern and rhythm to bring order to Sometimes artists use alternating patterns to
volume, mass, color, texture, space and to create a dynamic experience oftime. make a work more lively. The area covered by-
space, time and motion, and When events recur, this creates a pattern. pattern is called the field; changes in the field
value (lightness/darkness)
But other patterns are more regular, more can invigorate visual forms. The pattern in
Unity, the imposition of order
and harmony on a design predictable. In art, we can see patterns as the 1.169 shows a series of star shapes set on
Rhythm: the regular or ordered recurrence of an art element. In a work of art alternating black andwhite backgrounds
repetition of elements in the
the repetition of such patterns gives a sense on a rectangular field. The drastic difference in
work
Composition: the overall design of unity. value combined with the active shape causes
or organization of a work Rhythm arises through the repetition of a visualvibration.
pattern. It addscohesiveness in artistic A variety of different colors and patterns
de fi ned by lines or sugge ste d by composition because it linkselements together. enlivens work by the French painter Suzanne
changes in color or value Rhythm affects our vision as we study a work of Valadon (1865-1938). In The BlueRoom,
art. The rhythm of a series of linkedelements Valadon includes three contrasting patterns
of a plane or area
Color: the optical effect caused guides the movement of our eyes across and (1.150). In the bluebed covering, in the lower
when reflected%\hite light of the through a design. Theartist can also userhythm portion of the painting, Valadon hasused
to addvariety.
separate wavelength
Contrast: a drastic difference 1.169 Horizontal alte-nat'ng pattern
between such elements as color
or value (lightness/darkness)
Pattern
The use of repetition in a work of art usually
ÿ TT ÿ
results inthe creation of a pattern. These patterns ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ
are sometimes based on occurrences in nature, ÿ
such as the regular repetition offish scales or the
ÿyr ÿyr ÿyr ÿyr ÿyr
pattern createdby the cracks that open as mud
dries in the desert. Other patterns maybe derived ÿ
from the repeatedshapes of mass-produced
human-made objects, such as stacked tin cans or ÿ ÿ ÿ >#FTk
the warp and weft of woven cloth. Artists often
create unity in works of art byrepeatedly using ÿyr .,yr ÿyr
a similar shape, value, or color, for example.
162 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.150 Suzanne Valadon. The 3lu$ Room, 1923. Oil on 1.151 Huqqa base. India.
canvas, 35V2x45Vs". Musee Nationald'Art Moderne, Deccan, last qua'ter of 17th
Centre GeorgesPomoidou. Paris. P'ance century. Bidriware 'zinc alio;;
an organic pattern of leavesand stems. The

green-and-white striped pattern in the woman's
pajama bottoms dominates in direct contrast
to the bluebed covering. .Above the figure is a
mottled pattern that again contrasts with the
other two. The differences in these patterns
energize thework.
Motif
A design repeated as a unit in a pattern is called
a motif.Motifs can represent ideas, images, and
themes that can be brought together through
the use of pattern. An artist can create a strong
unified design by repeating a motif
A single motif can be interlaced with others to
create complex designs. Many Islamic works use
complex interlaced motifs, as two objects created
in seventeenth- century India demonstrate.
The huqqa base (a huqqa is a water pipe used for
smoking) in 1.151 may at first glance appear
PATTERN AND RHYTHM 1A3
c
Abstract: art imagerythat
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1.152 Pashrrina carpet with

-* V j
•o0 «ÿ» ÿ
jbl.
V
» « V.
*' *<>• - • v.#
s,° » -
millefleur pattern. no~the~n
India, Kashmir or Lahore.
second hair o; 17th century.
Asnmolean Museum. Oxford
to use little repetition. Nevertheless, aswe study The .American artist Chuck Close (b. 1940)
the overall design we discover that elements, uses motif to unify his paintings. Close uses a
such as the flowers andleaves of the plants, recur repeated pattern of organic concentric rings set
at intervals. Similarly, in the detail of a carpet into a diamond shape as the basic building blocks
(1.152), repeated flower -like motifs are arranged for his large compositions. These motifs,which
ina pattern in the center. Islamic artists appear as abstract patterns when viewed closely,
delighted in the detail of pattern, as these two visually solidify- into realistic portraits of the
works show. model. In his Self Portrait, there is a distinct
1" FUNDAMENTALS
c
Texture: the surface quality- of a
work, for example fine/coarse,
detailed/lacking in detail
1.153a Chuck Close. Self

Portrait. 1997. C'lon canvas.
8'6~x7'. MOMA. New York
1.153b Chuck Close. Self

Portrait, detail
1.153c Chuck Close.Self

Portrait, detail
difference between a close-up view of the painting each unit's tiny size. A grid that subdivides the
andthe overall effectwhen we stand back from entire imageorganizes the placement of eachcell.
this enormous canvas (i.!53a-i.i53c). The
motif unifies the work and allows Close the Randomness
freedom to control the color, texture, and value.
In this case, the motif that Close uses is the result Although nearly all artists have used pattern
of a technical process.When applied to the larger in their work, somehave consciously tried to
image, however, it almost disappears because of eliminate it. If pattern imposes order, then
PATTERN AND RHYTHM 145
the introduction of chance metaphorically FrenchDada sculptor andartist inZurich,
Automatic suppressing
symbolizes anti-order. .Artists who introduce worked on creating "chance" arrangements.
conscious control to access
subconscious sources of randomness to a work try to avoid predictable The shapes were derived from nature,but .Arp
c reativity an d truth repetition. Works made in this way purposely made a point not to cop)- directly. .Arp claimed
Da da: anarc hie anti - art and
anti-war movement, dating back
contradict widely used traditional methods. that the arrangement of the shapes happened
to WorldWar I,that reveled in Some artists consciously fight against order, by random placement, as he droppedshaped
absurdity and irrationality while others have relied on their subconscious wooden pieces onto the pictureplane and glued
Picture plane: the surface of
a painting or drawing
and a kind of automatic reaction to the them where they- landed ( 1.154) .
Foreground: the partofawork art materials.
de picted as nearest to the viewer Dada reveled in absurdity, irrationality, the
Middle ground: the part of a
wo rkben\*een the fo re gr oun d
flamboyantly bizarre,and the shocking. Nearly Rhythm
and background all the Dada artists hadmoved to neutral
Switzerlandby 1916 to avoidthe draft. They Rhythm is something you either have or
vehemently opposed the so -called"rationality" don't have, but yvhen you have it,you have it
of treaties and alliances that led to the horrific all over.
1.1 54 Hans Arp. TrouSSG dun
slaughter inthe trenches ofWorldWar I.They (ElvisPresley)
Da. 1920-21. Asse-rblage o: also detested art and art movements— Dada
driftwood na'Led onto wood was "anti- art'": "Use a Rembrandt as an ironing Rock and roll icon Elvis Presley- might as well
with painting Terrains. 15X board," said Marcel Duchamp. Dada design, havebeen speaking about visual art yvhen he
IOV2X Is/.". Musee National yvas talking about musical rhythm.Rhythm is
d'ArtModeme, Cent's Geo'ges writing, andtheater were also expressly
F'onrpidou. Paris, France "irrational." Hans .Arp (1886-1966), a German- something that visual art has "all over." Rhythm
gives structure to the experience of looking, iust
as it guides our eyes from one point to another
in a work of ar t. There is rhythm yvhen there are
at least tyvo points of reference inan artwork.
For example, the horizontaldistance from one-
side of a canvas to the other is one rhythm, and
the vertical distance from top to bottom another.
So, even the simplest works have an implicit
rhythm. But most works of art have shapes,
colors, values,lines, andother elements too;
the intervalsbetween themprovide points of
reference for more complex rhythms.
InFlemish painter Pieter Bruegel'syvorkyve
see not only large rhythmic progressions that
take our eye all around the canvas, but also
refined micro-rhythms inthe repetition of
suchdetails as the trees, houses,birds,andcolors
(1.155 ). All these repetitive elements create a
variety of rhythms "all over."
In Hunters in the Snow, the party of hunters
on the left side first drayvs our attention into the
work. Their dark shapes contrast with the light
value of the snow. The group is trudging over the
crest of a hill that leads to the right;our attention
follows them in the same direction, creating the
first part of a rhythmic progressioa Our gaze
now traverses from the left foreground to the
middle ground on the right,yvhere figures
146 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.155 Pieter Bruegel. appear to be skating on a large frozen pond Simple Repetitive Rhythm
Hunters in the Snow. 1 565. Thereafter, the color of the sky, which is reflected
Oil on panel. 46X633/.'.
Kun5th:5lor'acne5 Museum.
inthe skaters' pond,draws our attention deeper Artists create repetition by using the same shape,
Vienna. Austria into the spa ce, to the horizon. We then look a t color, size, value, line, or texture over and over
the background of the work, where the recession again. A repeating"pulse" of similar elements sets
of the ridgeline pulls the eye to the left and into up a visual rhythm that a viewer can anticipate.
the far background. As a result of following this Such regularity communicates reassurance.
rhythmic progression our eye hascircledround The design of buildings is often intended
and now returns to re-examine the original to reassure us about the stability and durability
focal point. We now naturally inspect details, of the structure. Stability was so important to
such as the group of figures at the far left making the ancient Romans that when the builders
a fire outside a building. As our eye repeats this finally removed the temporary support structures
Background: the part of a cycle, we also notice subsidiary rhythms, like for archways, the architectswho had designed
work depicted furthest from the the receding line of trees. Bruegel masterfully them were made to stand underneath. If the
viewer~ s spac e> often behindthe
main subject matter orchestrates thewinter activities of townspeople arch failed, the architect would becrushed.
Focalpoint: the center of insixteenth-century Flanders (a country that Like Roman architects, we want reassurance
interest or activity in a work is now Belgium,the Netherlands, and part of that our structures will endure. For this
viewer" s attention to the most northern France) in a pulsating composition that reason, architectural designs often incorporate
important element is both powerful and subtle at the same time. simple repetition.
c
The main hall of the Great Mosqueof 1.156 G'est Mosque of Cb'dooa. prayer hall o;Aod al-
Cordoba in Spain is full of seemingly endless Rahrran I. 78«-6. Cordoba. Soain
rows of identicalcolumns andarches made

1.157 Edward Weston, Artichoke Halved. 1930. Silver
from alternating redand white voussoirs gelatin print. f'-c x 9s/;". Collection Cente" ;or Creative
( stone wedges that make up the arch) ( 1.156) . Photog_aphy, University o;Arizona. Tucson
Each of these repeating elements— columns,
arches, andvoussoirs— creates its own simple
rhythm. The accumulation of these simple
repetitions also enhances the function of the
space andbecomes a part of the activity of
worship, like prayer beads, reciting the S hahada
(profession of faith), or the five-times- a-day
call to prayer. Our trust in the permanence of
architectureis combinedwith thetimelessness
of prayer in the repetitions of the Great Mosque
V
ofCordoba.
a
Progressive Rhythm
Repetition that regularly increases or decreases
infrequency creates a progressive rhythm as the
eye moves faster or slower across the surface of
the work. In the photograph Artichoke Halved,
by American Edward Weston ( 1886-1958), the
168 FUNDAMENTALS
outer layers (bracts) of the artichokebud are andvisual excitement. On the island of Belau
closer together nearer the center ( 1.157). in the western Pacific, a traditional men's long
Then, as they form the triangular center of the house, calledthe bai, serves as a place for
bud, a second progressiverhythmbegins and meeting andritual (1.158) .The imagery-
the small bractsbelow the triangle form a third above the entry- of thisbai begins, at the bottom,
rhythm. The highly focused close-up view and with the regular rhythms of horizontal lines of
strong photographic contrasts ofblack and fish, but the images abovebecome increasingly
white accentuate the sense of speeding up. irregular as the}- change to other kinds of shapes.
The edges of the roof display a regular series of
Alternating Rhythm symbolic icons that, together with the building's
horizontal beams, frame the composition
Artists can intertwine multiple rhythms until and give the building facade a dynamic feel.
the}- become quite complex. The additionand An alternatingrhythm can also communicate
alternation of rhythms can add unpredict ability chaos andmake viewers feel uncomfortable.
.
1.158 Ba -ra-lrra orig'oally
built C. 1700 and oe"'odically
restored. Ai rai village. A-ai
State, Republic o:Falau
Facade: anysideofabuilding,
usually rhe front or entrance
PATTERN AND RHYTHM 1A9
C
In Spanish painter Francisco Goya's Third of composition is so horizontal,the design
May, 1808,the alternatingrhythms help define emphasis directs our gaze sideways using a linear
content in a work our ideas about humanity and inhumanity direction and rhythm. By changing the width of
(see Gateway Box: Goya). the gaps between the animals, Bonheur suggests
their irregular movement as they plod forward,
Rhythmic Design Structure drawing the heavy plow. Each group also has
a different relative size and occupies a different
The idea of rhythmic structure helps us amount of space, creating a visual rhythm and
understand how artists divide visual space into energy that pulls our attention from left to right.
different kinds of sections to achieve different The careful composition and rhythmic
kinds of effects. In her painting of 1849 Plowing structure in such paintings give an air of
in the Nivernais: The Dressingof the Vines , the respectability and nobility to laborers of the field.
French artist Rosa Bonheur (1822-99) creates Bonheur may havebeen sympathetic toward
a horizontal structure that leads our eye thosewho worked outside of the stuffy- social
in sequence from one group of shapes to the order of the time, since her gender may havebeen
next ( 1.160a and 1.160b). Bonheur expertly a disadvantage in a traditionally male profession.
organizes the composition, emphasizing the Fler effort to bringrespectability to lardwork
cumulative effect of the rhythm of the groupings also reminds us of the slow phy-sical rhythms
as they move from left to r ight. Because the created by the brute strength of these beasts and

Visual Rhythm inthe Composition
Spanish painter Francisco Goya's Third of
May, 1808, shows an image of Napoleon's
troops executing Spanish citizens during the
French occupation of Madrid in 1808(1.159).
It can be divided up into two distinct rhythmic
groups. Each side of the work has almost the
same number of victims as executioners.
Goya does not allow the "good" victims to
overpower the "bad" occupiers in number,
but keeps a visual balance to steady the
work. Although the number of figures in each
group isthe same, they are distributed very
ir.V ft*
differently. The group of French soldiers on
—
the right stands in a pattern so regulated it is
almost mechanicaL Each of the soldiers adopts
the sa me stance, and the strong horizontal
— *
barrels of the guns repeat uniformly. On the

left side, the rhythms are much more irregular
and unpredictable. Thefiguresare not
organized so rigidly: some figures are lying on dead figure on the ground. The alternating 1.159 Francisco Goya.
The Third of May. 1808,
the ground, some are standing, and some are rhythm in this painting leads our eye from
1816. Oil on canvas. 8'63/8"
kneeling. The pose Iwitharms held high) of the figure in white through a group of figures x 11*3%". Museo Nacional
the standing figure in white is repeated in the downward to the victims on the ground. del Prado. Madrid
150 FUNDAMENTALS
c
1.160a Ross Bonheur,

Rowing in the Nivernais: The
Dressing of the Vines. 1 349. CH
on canvas, k&'r x 8'6%".
Musee d'Orsay, Paris, France
1.160b Rhythrric structural

diagram o; 1.160a
the irregularity of the plowman's steps as both of the finer tilings in life. But some artists try to
them work together to turn the weighty soil. contradict pattern by imposing randomness
and chance to free a work from -what they see
as suffocating orderliness.
Conclusion Good works of art, like Elvis as he gyrated on
stage, have rhythm "all over." That rhythm dictates
Artists frequently rely on rhythms and patterns how elements visually relate to one another. These
to ground their work. Just like a great theater relationships make up a work's composition.
production, a blockbuster movie, abrilliant Rhythm is a core part of any visual composition.
ballet, or a catchy tune, a well-composed work Simple repetitions can give a work a
of art with visually exciting patterns and rhythms welcoming predictability that makes us
can thrill an audience. Inworks of art, good comfortable. Progressive rhythmbuilds like a
com£Ositionarticulatesj>aÿ musical crescendo or diminishes like a fading
in a way that grabs our attention. echo, and can suggest growth or ebbing power.
Because thevisual rhythm of pattern is Alternating rhythm can create a dynamic sense
predictable, it often tends to unify a work of art. of energy and add visual interest,because we
Bv alternating the rhvthm, the artist can reinforce may not be able to predict what the rhvthm will
the visual emphases of a work and make its do next. Irregular rhythm can make a work seem
compositionvisually stronger. The repetition of unpredictable or make us feel uneasy. If the
motifs such as those found in certain pottery and elements of art are its life's blood, rhythm is like
carpets can addthe richness we associate wi th the beating of its heart.
C
FUNDAMENTALS
1.10
Content and Analysis
Artworks communicate visual ideas, iust as may convey a particular message to those who
or art—line, form, shape,
speaking and writing communicate verbal ideas. view it in the context inwhich it was made, but
volume, mass, color, texture, For the transfer of thought to take place through the same artwork may convey a different meaning
space, time and motion, and art, we must interpret the visual language of to someone living in another time and place.
value (1ightnesi'darkn ess)
the artist. Making a formal analysis— a visual Sometimes an artist intentionally creates an
Principles: the ''grammar"
applied to the elements of study—of a work of art is one way to understand artwork without a specific meaning, and expects
art
— c on trast, balance, unit}",
variety,rhythm, emphasis,
more clearly the language used by an artist in a the viewer to interpret it. Interpretation is
pattern, scale, proportion, and
particular artwork. Artists have many tools at
focal point their disposal, which we call the elements and
principles of art. The process of analyzing the
elements and principles used by the artist
is called formal analysis. The elements
includMmeÿha££,iform;jTTassÿolumei
coloÿ texture, space,ÿimÿandjnoUonÿ and
value. Artists combine the elements in
inventive ways to emphasize
certain design principles, such
as contrast, balance, unity,
variety-, rhythm, emphasis, pattern,
£ro£ortionÿscale, and focal point. A
work of art is therefore a product of the
dynamic interrelationships between the
various art elements and principles. These
same elements and principles are found in
all aspects of visual culture.
Content
The content, or meaning,
of a work of art varies
greatly between artworks.
Both artists and viewers
play roles in providing
this meaning. An artwork
152 FUNDAMENTALS
c
subjective, meaning that each individual can the sense of movement, and the details in the 1.162 Jose de Rivera.
understand art differently. emperors face were all made by the artist to .
Infinity 1967. Stainless s:eel
sculpture in front of National
Works of art maybe representational represent reality as closely as possible.
Museum of American History.
(depicting objects or people so that we can Non-objective works of art are deliberately Smithsonian Institution,
recognize them) or non-objective (depicting not recognizable as something we might see in Washington. D.C.
subject matter that is unrecognizable). It is the world around us. Jos£ de Riveras Infinityis
important to understandthe concepts of an example of a non-objective work (1.162) .
representational and non-objective art. They As it rotates one full cycle every six minutes, the
help us to analyze what the artist had in mind ribbon-like form continually changes. Made of
or wished to communicate to us when creating polished steel, the sculpture literally reflects
the work. aspects of the world around it, such as the
For example, the statue of the Roman emperor sunlight and the buildings. Non-objective art is
Marcus Aurelius in 1.161 shows him seated on also, by definition, subjective: we each determine
ahorse, gesturing in a very lifelike way. This is our otsm interpretations of what the artwork Representational: art that
a representational artwork, because anyone means or communicates— or whether it means depicts figures and objects so
that we recognize what is
looking at it would agree that the sculpture is of anything at all. represented
a man on a horse. The proportions of the figures, We need to ask ourselves when we study an Non-objective: art that does not
artwork to what extent the artist has used depict a recognizable subject
Abstraction: the degree to
1.161 (le*'t) Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. abstraction to communicate visually with us. which an image is altered from
c. '75 :e. 3rorze, " o" high. Musei Capitolini, Rone, taly "To abstract'' means to extract something or to an easily recognizable subject
CONTENT AND ANALYSIS 153
representational work with a considerable degree
of abstraction.
Modes of Analysis
There is no single right way to analyze a work of
art, and different methods can be combined to
develop a more complete interpretation. Let us
consider some important interpretive methods.
Iconographic analysis
interprets objects and figures in the artwork as
signs or symbols, often based on religious or
historical contexts that would have been
understood at the time when it was made.
Biographicalana lysis
considers whether the artist's personal
experiences and opinions may have affected the
making or meaning of the artwork in some way.
Feminist analysis
considers the role of women in an artwork as
its subjects, creators, patrons, and viewers; it
explores ways in which the work reflects the
experience of women.
Contextual analysis
1.1 63 Allan Houser, Reverie emphasize it. Abstraction in art refers to the ways looks at the making and viewing of the work in its
1981. Bronze. 25x23x 13". artists can emphasize, distort, simplify or arrange context (historical, religious, political, economic,
edition of 10. Allan Houser
the formal (visual) elements of an artwork. An social, and so on); it studies the context that the
Archives
artwork may be representational or non-objective, artwork itself represents.
or something in between; this can be described as
its degree of abstraction. Psychological analysis
Allan Houser s Reverieis representational investigates an artwork through interpretation of
because we can recognize two faces, one larger the mental state of the artist.
and one smaller (1 .163). We also interpret the
swoop of the form downward from the larger face Formal analysis [formalism or visual analysis]
to be aback, and that the smaller face probably analyzes the artwork's use of the elements and
represents a baby being held in its mother's arms. principles of art.
The mother's entire body (her back, arms, and
knees) is, however, abstracted to be one smooth Let us consider th ese six methods one by one:
form in which to cradle the baby. The baby's body
is just a bump on the lap of the mother, as if it is Iconographic Analysis
swaddled tightly. We can interpret the subject
and form of the sculpture because the detailed The enormous painting Marilyn, by American
F orni: an object that can be
defined inthree dimensions representation of the figures' faces enables us artist Audrey Flack (b. 1931), is representational:
(height, width, and depth) to see a mother holding her baby. Reverie is a all of the shapes appear as they might in the real
156 FUNDAMENTALS
world (1.164). Even so, the artwork has a of a drug overdose in 1962. A photograph shows
dreamlike quality as well: a paintbrush floats Monroe s public persona as a blonde beaut}*
in the air, objects rest on the table unnaturally, and is then reflected in the mirror on the left;
and the mirror on the left has a slightly inaccurate another mirror is in the compact below. Mirrors,
reflection. The artist has emphasized each object a reference to vanity, are often used to symbolize
individually,andiconographical analysis the transience of youth, beaut}*, and life. The
1.164 Audrey "Lack. Marilyn demonstrates how each of these objects is mirrored compact, makeup, and pearls refer to
Monroe. 1977. Oil over acrylic symbolic for her. Marilyn Monroe s mask to the world.
on canvas, 8x8'. Collection of
the University of Arizona This painting was made fifteen years after The calendar, clock, andhour glass are
Museum of Art. Tucson the American film actress Marilyn Monroe died symbols of the passing of time. As such they
C
too are reminders of mortality and the brevity the pleasures of her life are as fleeting as those
of life—as are the burning candle and the flower of the movie idol.
and fruit, all of which live only a short time.
An artwork that serves to remind us of death Biographical Analysis
is known as a vanitas. In 1.164 the floating objects
create an otherworldly quality, a dramatic At first glance, the minimalist sculpture
contrast to the objects that symbolize time. Using Hang-Up by Eva Hesse (1936-70) seems absurdly
iconographic analysis,we have interpreted this empty of content (1.165). The artwork
painting to be both an homage to Marilyn and a consists of a wood frame wrapped in painted
reflection on the mortality of us all. By including cloth, and a thin steel tube wrapped in painted
a childhood portrait of herself with her brother, cord, which dangles exaggeratedly out onto
the artist further wishes to remind herself that the floor. The frame is empty, an open hole,
1.165 Eva Hesse .Hang- Up.

'966. Acrylic, cloth, wood.
cord, and steel. 72 x 84x 78'
Art institute of Chicago
Vanitas: an artwork in which

the objects remindthe viewer of
the transienceoflife
156 FUNDAMENTALS
IC
a blank wall. The cord goes nowhere special, while Hesse's biography is interesting, and likely
looping out nonsensically from opposite corners, relates to much of her work, we do not have
as if to emphasize the absence of any purpose in enough evidence to say for sure that the sculpture
the work. had these meanings for Hesse. On the contrary,
A biographical analysis might go something her few comments on the artwork suggest a
like this: "Hesse faced many challenges in her life. more subtle meaning, perhaps one that would be
Shewasborn a Jew in Germany in 1936. While different for different viewers. She described this
her parents fled the Nazis, she was placed in an sculpture as "the most ridiculous structure that
orphanage in the Netherlands for two months. Iever made and that is why it is really good.
.After she was reunited with her parents, Hesse It has a kind of depth Idon't always achieve
and her family moved to New York City in 1939. and that is the kind of depth or soul or absurdity
Her parents divorced when she was ten, and or life or meaning or feeling or intellect that
shortly thereafter her mother committed suicide Iwant to get."
by jumping out of a window. Later Hesse was
married briefly to the sculptor Tom Doyle, from Feminist Analysis
whom she separated during the making of
Hang-Up. Dealing with the breakup might have Biographical analysis usually takes gender, race,
been part of the motivation for this artwork. andsocietal position into account. Feminist
Some viewers have also interpreted Hesse's analysis is a subset of biographical analysis
frame in Hang-Up as a window that leads to when it studies the work of women artists,
nothingness, and associate the imager}* with her but feminist analysis also considers both the
mother'sdeath. The phrase 'hang-up' might refer perspective toward gender ofviewers and the role
to putting up a picture frame, but it is also slang of women at the time the artwork was made.
for a problem one is unable to let go of." Grande Odalisque by the French artist 1.166 Jean-Augus*e-
Dominique ngres. Grande
Often using only one method of analysis J ean- Auguste-Dominique Ingres ( 1780-1867) Odalisque, *8 U. Oil on
runs the risk of limiting our understanding of was made in 1814 for a male French audience
canvas. 357: x63V7\
what an artwork is truly about. For example, (1.1 66). Feminist analysis might compare this Musee du -ouvre, 3aris. -ranee
C
artwork to others made at the time and find that Contextual Analysis
female nudes were often depicted as objects of
desire andbeaut)*. The woman is dressed as Art is shaped by the historical context in which
an odalisque (a woman in a harem), and so it is made. In 1934, German dictator Adolf Hitler
a feminist analysis might study the French view commissioned filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl
of women in Near Eastern society, who were (1902-2003) to film a four-day Nazi Part)* rally
considered fascinating for their exotic sensuality. in Nuremberg. Riefenstahl created a propaganda
Feminist analysis could seek an explanation for film, Triumph of the Will (1.167), designed
the interest in harem women in art during this to promote the Nazi ideology and create an
period, and might find that women in France impression that Hitler was wholeheartedly
were demanding equal rights, causing men to supported by the entire German nation.
pine for docile females. This film cannot be understoodwithout
A feminist might also study this subject's recognizing its historical context. Riefenstahl's
demure gaze, whereby she accepts her status as concluding scenes, of a speech by Hitler, are
an object of beaut)*. At the time when the picture filmed from below,visually emphasizing his
was painted, critics complained that the figure's importance. At several points in the film the
body parts were disproportionate: her back was crowd is seen to be cheeringwildly, but instead
too long, and her hips too wide. A feminist of the cheers we hear dramatic music by the
an alysis would point out that Ingresbelieved German composer Richard Wagner. In the scenes
that the back was a very sensual part of a woman's that film Hitler speaking we can see that the
body, and claimed he could not stop himself, crowd is noisily excited, but there is no sound
when painting, from adding what appear to be other than Hitler's voice— an effect that gives his
extra vertebrae. words greater authority. In the film still shown
1.1 67 Leni Riefenstahl. still

ÿrem Triumph of the V/iU, ' 93L
158 FUNDAMENTALS
/ I »jl V;3
lift m
«• J
2
1.168 Edward Hopper. here, three large banners carrying the Nazi Hopper based on a restaurant in New York's
Nighthawks. 942. Oil or
'
symbol are given emphasis, and are echoed in GreenwichVillage. Hopper himself was a model
canvas. 337s x 60".
Ar: Institute of Chicago
the three groups of followers shown underneath. for the man seated at the counter whose face can
The platform on which Hitler will speak is front be seen; he used his wife for the figure next to
and center. Triumph of the Will, while considered him. Even though the scene takes place in the
a pioneeringwork of modern filmmaking, is also middle of New York City, the streets are devoid
political propaganda; as such it must be viewed of people, act hit}*, even light. The people seated
as part of the Nazi Party's attempts to consolidate inside are still and quiet, and the decor is reduced
its power and to promote its ideology of German to essentials. The cafe is the only lit place; no
superior it}* over those it considered inferior, such light emanates from windows on the other
as Jews, homosexuals, the mentally ill, and other side of the street. The artist remarked later,
groups (including many modern artists) that the "Unconsciously, probably, Iwas painting the
Nazis defined as outside of their "Aryan" norm. loneliness of a large city."
Despite gatheringtogether in the all-night
PsychologicalAnalysis diner, these individuals appear to be alone in
their own thoughts; little interaction takes place
Psychological analysis considers the artist's state between them. A large glass window* separating
of mindwhen creating an artwork. Nighthawks, the viewer from the figures leaves the viewer
by the American artist Edward Hopper (1882- alone as well.
1967), reflects the solemn mood many felt in the
United States at the beginning of America's entry Formal Analysis
into Wo ridWar II(1.168). Hopper began this
painting immediately after the attack on Pearl Formal analysis considers the way in which the
Harbor, which hadleft many Americans shocked elements and principles of art are applied in an
drawin g attention to particular and distraught. The artist captured this feeling artwork. The famous painting LasMeninas (The
content in a work in his painting. The scene shows a cafe, which Maids of Honor) by Diego de Silvay Velazquez
1.169 Diego deSilvay
Velazquez. LasMeninas ,
c. '656. Oil oo canvas,
10"5"/t"x9"/-". Musec
National delÿrado.
Madrid. Spain

drawn but suggested by elements
inthe work
Vanishing point: the point in
a work of art at which imaginary
sight lines appear to converge,
suggesting depth
L inea r persp eet ive: a system
sight lines to create the illusion
of depth (1599- 1660; shows members of the court of as if the viewer is looking into a real room. All the
Depth: the degree of recession
in perspective Spanish King Philip IV gathering in a room in the figures in the painting have a realistic sense of
Volume: the space filled or Alcazar Palace (1.169). The painter depicts himself volume and are arranged to emphasize further
enclosed by a three-dimensional on the left, painting a large canvas. The Princess the illusion of looking into a real space. Notice
figure or object
Color: the optical effect caused Margarita is posed in the center, with her ladies- how they overlap one another, andthat those
when reflectedwhite light of the in-waiting ('dasmeninas") surrounding her. Court toward the back of the room are smaller than
spectrum is divided into a workers, including dwarfs, are present as well. those at the front. The painting is more than
separate wavelength
Neutraltones: colors (such as The implied lines suggested by the black 10 feet tall, which allows Velazquez to make the
blacks,whites, grays, anddull frames on the right wall and the ceiling fixtures figures life-size, further reinforcing the illusion
gray-browns) made bymixing converge on the chest of the man standing in the of three-dimensional space. Finally, most of the
c ompl erne ntaryhues
Palette: the range of colors used doorway. This is the vanishing point required in colors in the painting are neutral. The color
bvan artist linear perspective to create an illusion of depth, palette of brown, grey, beige, and black creates
160 FUNDAMENTALS
1.170 Detail of Diego de Silva the left to the right of the painting in a rhythmic
y Velazquez. Las Meninas
line: if you trace the heads of the figures in the
foreground with your finger you will sense the
visual rhythm.
Combined Analysis of
Las Meninas
A formal analysis tells us how the artist has
communicated using a visual language. The use
of other approaches, however, often enhances our
understanding of a work of art. While it is rare to
beable to use every method discussed in this
chapter on every artwork, we can often consider
one artwork in many ways. Using three more of
the modes of analysis discussed earlier,we can
arrive at a better and more rounded
understanding of the painting Las Meninas.
A contextual analysis gives us a better
the impression of a dark space the depth of which understanding of the time in which this work
is emphasized by the light coming in from a was made. The young girl is the Spanish princess
window on the right and the door at the back. Margarita Hapsburg; the couple in the mirror are
Velazquez highlights several areas he wants to her parents, King Philip IV and Marianna of
emphasize. The young princess is in the central Austria. The mysterious man in the doorway is
foreground, the part of the painting nearest to Nieto, the queen's chamberlain. Through the use
us, well lit, and shown attended by her maids. of the mirror and his portrayal of an essential
In the background, the mysterious male figure is aide to the queen, Velazquez has subtly indicated
emphasizedbecause hisblack form contrasts with the presence of the royal couple without violating
the light coming through the doorway. The painter etiquette by showing the king and queen in a
himself stands proudly at his work. And we notice portrait with lesser court members.
the mirror on the back wall because of its bl urn* A biographical analysis suggests why Velazquez
shiny surface: whom does it reflect? (1.170). placed himself in a painting that subtly shows the
Touches of redlead our eye around the painting presence of the king. One reason was that he was
to significant points of interest: from Margaritas the king's favorite painterandassistant.lt was
flowers, to the cross on Velazquez's chest, to the extremely bold of him to paint himself into
Foreground: the part of a work
depicted as nearest to the viewer red curtain in the mirror on the back wall. a scene with the royal family; by doing so, he
Background: the part or a The painting is balanced in various ways. wished to show his closeness with the king,
work depicted furthest from the All of the figures are placed in the bottom half of and to raise his own status.
viewer's space, often behindthe
main subject matter the canvas, balanced by the sparseness of the wall An iconographic analysis tells us that the cross
Balance: a principle of art in and ceiling that take up the top half. While the on Velazquez in LasMeninas is the cross of the
which elements are used to
figures at first appear to be arrangedchaotically, Order of Santiago. Velazquez had a lifelong
create a symmetrical or
asymmetrical sense of visual they are actually placed in several stable ambition to become a knight of the order, but the
weight in an artwork pyramidal arrangements. One triangle highlights order challenged his membership for decades.
Focalpoint: the center of three of the composition's focal points: the Their bylaws statedthat: (l) only those from
interest or activity in a work of
art, often drawing the viewer1s
mirror, Margarita, and the man in the doorway. families of nobility could ioin, (2) members
attention to the most important The frames on the back and side walls form a may have no Moorish (Muslim; ancestry, and
element
framework of rectangles that stabilize the space of (3) a craftsman could not become a member.
repetition of elements in the
the room. The figures are of different heights and The members saw painting as simply a manual
work arranged so that our eye is led from Velazquez on craft rather than a liberal (or highminded) art.
In truth, Velazquez did not meet any of these portrait of the artist, demonstrating the
criteria, but after hundreds of supportive king's clear support for the painter. Velazquez's
interviews, and with the support of both the king painting is an intentional effort to raise the
andthe pope, Velazquez was finally knighted in status of painters, and to raise his own status
1659, three years after he painted Las Meninas. in Spanish society.
Why, then, is the cross painted here when
Velazquez was not knighted until after this
painting was completed? Historians have found
evidence that the king ordered the cross painted
Imitationand
on after Velazquez's death, to honor the artist for IndividualStyle
having achievedhis lifelong goal.
Artists often study and copy the work of artists
What Is the Meaning of they admire, and may use such studies to create
Las Meninas? works in their own individual style. The Spanish
painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) didnot come
After considering the various methods of analysis to admire Velazquez until late in his own career,
discussed above, scholars have arrived at a when he began to set his skills against the great
hypothesis as to what Velazquez wan ted to say. artists of the past. At the age of seventy-six,
They suggest that the artist was defending the Picasso locked himself in a room with a poster
nobility of painting itself. In order to be accepted of Las Meninas and created forty-five paintings
as a knight, heneeded to prove that his skill was in response to Velazquez's masterpiece.
not mere craft, but an intellectual endeavor. In the first painting in the series, Picasso alters
Therefore \elazquez created a brilliant illusion the sizeofthe canvas (1.171 ).While mimicking
of space through his master}* of atmosphere Velazquez, he uses the elements and principles
and perspective. Even more boldly, he included differently. For example, although Picasso does
the king in a painting that also included a self- not use linear perspective, he does create a sense
1.171 Picasso. Las Meninas,

•'irstina series. ÿ 957. Oil on
canvas. 6'4Vi"x8'6V=". Musec
Picasso. Barcelona. Spain
Space: the distance between

identifiable pointsor planes
give a work an identifiable form
162 FUNDAMENTALS
German photographer Thomas Struth
(b. 1954) used photography to create his own
view7 of LasMeninas. In 1.172, heshows a group
admiring the painting at the Prado Museum
in Madrid, Spain. There are multiple ways to
interpret Struth s artwork. We might study his
use of lighting and composition. We might
consider which image is the "true" artwork, the
photograph of the visitors to the Prado or the
painting LasMeninas. We might take notice of the
boy sketching on the right, creating his own work
of art. Finally,we might pay more attention to
the multiple layers of looking and reflecting in
Struth's photograph. The photograph portrays
people looking at art—which is exactly what we
are doing when we look at the photograph.
In this way, ths artwork can be seen as a port rait
of art appreciation. In 2007, Struth exhibited this
photograph at the Prado, hanging it right next
to Las Meninas.
1.172 Thomas Struth, Museo of depth by making Nieto small in scale and
del Prado 7. 2005. Chromogenic placing his dark figure in the bright doorway.
print. 5"/s"x7'2".
Velazquez now appears to be stretched or floating Conclusion
up to the ceiling, leaving his paintbrushes and
palette below. IsPicasso removing the old master The tools of formal analysis are the starting point
to make room for himself? for understanding any work of art; this will help
Other figures are mere suggestions of the forms you realizehowit was made.When vou see a work
they had been in the original painting. Picasso of art, take a long look and use the elements and
has broken them down into abstract parts. principles of art as your guide. But the other
Margarita is outlined with no sense of volume, methods of analysis discussed in this chapter can
and the heads of the figures on the right are just help you to understand why an artwork was
black lines on white circles. The play of light on made, andwhat its message is.
the figures is similar to the original, but Picasso's You havebeen introduced to several
approach is more abstract: on the right, he lines approaches for doing this. Consider the artist's
up a row7 of windows that shine a bright white on life when the artwork was created. Delve into the
the figure there (which correlates to the child time and place in which he or she lived. What
dwarf in the original). Margarita, highlighted in symbols didthe artist use, andwhat was his or her
Velazquez's painting, is of a much lighter value state of mind? Recognize that some artworks are
than the other figures inPicasso's painting, meant to convey distinct messages, which were
emphasizing that she is the most important clear to their contemporary audiences. Many
person in the group. The majority of the rest artworks convey more subtle messages, filled
of the series, in fact, are studies of Margarita with layers of meaning. Some artworks are
specifically. This may relate to Picasso's own life. intentionally subjective, which means that artists
The first time he saw7 Las Meninas as a boy was expect us to infuse meaning into the work from
artworkrelative to another iust after hisyounger sister had died; she had our own experiences; subjective artworks are
obj ect or artwork, or to a system been about the same age as the young Margarita often mirrors of the person who looks at them.
of measurement here. Picasso has totally reinterpreted this artwork Using a variety of methods of analysis, you
Abstract: art imagery that
to make it his own; he has even replaced the large can endlessly explore both the minds of great
images from the naturalworld mastiff inVelazquez's painting with his own dog. artists and the furthest reaches of your own!
C
MEDIA
Art is a form of visual
communication: artists make
art because they want to
express something. Just as
writers consider carefully the
form that best expresses what
they want to say (a long novel,
a brief poem, a play or film
script, for example), artists
consider carefully the materials
and processes available to
communicate their visual ideas.
Infact, art can be made from
almost anything: one
contemporary artist uses
elephant dung in his paintings.
There are certain mediaand
processes that havebeen
commonly used by artists,
some of them for thousands of
years, but others that have
been developed more recently.
In this part you will learn how
most of the art that you will
encounter has beenmade.
(c
PART 2
The main media and processes of art are:
Drawing
Painting
Printmaking
Visual Communication Design
Photography
Film/Video and Digital Art
Alternative Media and Processes
Craft
Sculpture
Architecture
c
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.1
Drawing
He who pretends to be either painter or resolve design issues inpreparatory sketches, and
Shape: the two- dimensional
engraver without being a master of drawing to recordtheir visual observations. Of course,
defined bylines or suggestedby is an imposter. drawings can also be finished works of art.
c han ges in c olor or value (William Blake, English artist and poet) Drawing is the basis of allvisual
communication. Most artists and designers
defined in three dimensions
(height,width, and depth) As William Blake suggests, drawing-— defined continue to develop their drawing skills
Line: a mark, or implied mark, as the depiction of shapes and forms on throughout their lives.
between two endpoints
a surface, primarily by means of lines— is
Sketch: a rough preliminary
version of a work or part of a a fundamental artistic skill. Even beforewe learn
work to write, we learn to draw;we draw the shape Functions of Drawing
of a cat before we canwrite the word. Drawing
is spontaneous, a convenient way for us to Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) used drawing
"make our mark" on the world Like the to examine the world. His sketchbooks are full
instinctivecrayon marks children make as they of fresh ideasand images, illustratingboth his
explore and develop their fine motor skills, speculative thought andhis careful observations.
drawing provides a primal outlet for artistic Amongsthis explorations, Leonardo dissected
energy and ideas. human bodies andthen drewwhat he saw.
Artists draw for many reasons: to define He also studiedthe works of other writers and
their ideas, to plan for larger projects, to artists, andobserved the effects of light and
shadow on a form. He investigated the
mechanics of a bird's wing, and considered
whether humans might also beable to fly if the
same mechanics were re-created on a human
scale. His drawing of a flying machineillustrates
a concept that had never been considered in this
way before (2.1). Drawing provided Leonardo
with a way to express his ideas beyond what
couldbesaid inwords.
Some of Leonardo's most revolutionary
drawings depict the interior anatomy of the
human body (2.2). These drawings are especially
2.1 Leonardo da Vinci, Drawingfora winger a flying

machine, from the Codice Atlantico, fol. 853r F'en and ink.
Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy
166 MEDIAAND PROCESSES
2.2 Leonardo da Vine,
M rfrnA'l
Etud es o; the ;oetus in the wr-.fi
womb. C. 1 51 0-13. Pen and
ink and wash over red chalk
and traces o; black chalk.
12x8%". Royal Collection.
England
vf -W >ns-\
.or,', f
ÿ 'if
ÿ¥
nlnasi)
<i *ÿ»
tmrr
/-» tH*1"
ÿft- • 4
* lf'J V'
r< • ft
j/jMiif *l'"i *,-•
- ÿ mil lU ÿ*
J i/»v Aÿp r-<

s
-J •
•*»»*'
vrr"f i»wÿr
iaM«'i|)l J
rare because the Churchbannedall acts that ofhow the human soul resides in the body.
desecratedthe body, includingdissection. All artists draw for the same reasons as
Leonardo may have been allowed to record his Leonardo: as an end in itself, to think, and to
observations because he practiced his drawing prepare and plan otherworks. Drawing played an
Fresco: a techniquewhere the
methodically andwith great care. Some- essential role inRaphael's planning of his fresco
artist paints onto freshly applied
piaster. Fromthe Italian fresco, specula te that the Churchwas interested in The School ofAthens (see Gateway Box Raphael,
fresh Leonardo' s observations as possible evidence p. 168, 2.3a and 2.3b).
DRAWING 167
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Drawinginthe Design Process
2 -3a Raphael. Cartoon for The School ofAthens, c. 1509.

Charcoal and chalk. 9 4VT x26'4%". Biblioteca
Ambrosiana. Milan. Italy
When the Italian painter Raphael (1483-1520)

prepared to paint The School of Athens, he
drew the image in advance (2.3a), practicing
before he tackled the larger work (2.3b).
His prelimina ry drawings allowed Raphael
to refine his ideas and perfect the image in
smaller scale before investing in the more
expensive painting materials he used for
the final version.
The artist began the painting process by
creating a large drawing of the work, almost
the same size as the final painting, to use
asthe design for a wall mural.This design,
called the cartoon, was perforated with
small pinholes allalong where the lines
were drawn. It was then positioned on the
wall where Raphael intended to paint the
work, and powdered charcoaldust was forced
through the small holes in the cartoon's
surface, leaving behind an impression of the 2.3b Raphael. The School of Athens, 1510-11. Fresco,
16'8" x 25'. Stanza della Segnatura. Vatican City
original drawing. These marks would aid
Raphael in drawing the image onto the wall.
He applied a thin layerof plaster, repowdered
the charcoal dust through the cartoon if
necessary, and then began to paint The School
of Athens.
168 MEDIA AND PROCESSES
c
The Materials of
Drawing: Dry Media
When creating a drawing, an artist must first

choose whether to draw usingdry media or wet
media. Dry media offer the artist some unique
andversatile properties.
Pencil
Even-one knowswhat pencils are. We like them
because we can erase and correct errors. This
makes the pencil a valuable tool for artists as well.
Most artists' pencils differ from those used for
writing and are categorized by their relative
hardness or softness.
A deposit of solid graphite—which looks
and -writes like lead,but -without its weight—was
discovered inthe mid- 1500s and gave rise to the
manufacture of the basic pencil-we know- to day.
Pencilshave different degrees of hardness
(2.u). The softer the pencil, the darker the mark,
or grade, and the quicker the pencil loses its
point. TheB or black graphite pencils are softer
and darker than the Hseries. Number 2 (2B to
be precise) pencils are the writing tools used by
nearly every American elementary- school
student. The Hor hard graphite pencils create a
relatively light mark. This type of pencil is useful
w-hen an artist is doinglayout work and does not 2.5 Ilka Gedo, Self-portrait, 1 94a. Graphite on paper,
want pencil lines to show- in the final product. 1 British Museum. London. England Medium plural media): the
material on or from which an
Artists carefully choose the grade of the pencil
artist choosesto makeaworkof
lead the\- use. art, for example canvas and oil
The self-portrait by Hungarian artist Ilka artist's face, while the different sets of straight paint, marble, engraving, video,
Gedo (1921-85) shows how an artist can vary the horizontalandvertical linesrecede into the orarchitecture
Texture: the surface quality of
pressure of a pencil line to suggest texture and background. In further contrast, notice how a work, for example fine/coarse,
create emphasis in a drawing (2.5). Gedo has softlv the artist handles the graphite in the areas detailed.lacking in detail
usedthick dark lines to imply darkness and thin representing the skin compared with the hair or Emphasis: the principle of
light lines to suggest lightness. The dark value of clothing. Gedo was a survivor ofthe Holocaust; content in a work
the eye and wavy hair,where the pencil has been this drawing recordsher gaunt features shortly Value: the lightness or darkness
of a plane or area
pressed hard,concentrates our attention on the after her internment.
Background: the part ofa
work depicted as behind the
2.L Pencilhardness scale from ?Hto°B main figures
9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H F HB B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 9B
lllllllll DRAWING 169
Silver-point is a piece of silver wire set in
some type of a holder, usually wood, to makethe
wire easier to holdandcontrol. The artist hones
the end of the wire to a sharp point. Because of
the hardness of the silver, artists can create finely
detailed drawings. Historically,artists have
drawn with silver point on wood primed with
a thin coating of bone ash. This creates a white
ground for the light value of the silver. Because
silver tarnishes, the drawingbecomes darker
and the image more pronounced over time.
Working on colored paper creates distinctive
effects and was particularly popular in
Renaissance Italy (c. 1400-1600).
In Heads of the Virgin and Child,a silverpoint
drawingby Raphael,the artist uses hatching to
create a stronger darkvalue (2.7). Because
silverpoint hassuch a light value and is usually
drawn with very thin lines, much of the white
paper is exposed By closely overlapping many
parallellines across each other, Raphael covers
more of the paper, creating the illusion of a
darker value. Many artists use this technique to
darken values and create the effect of shading.
2.7 Raphael. Heads oflhe Virgin and Child, c. 1509-1 1.

Silverpoint on p:nkp"eoa"ed oape-, 5v;x6/=". British
2.6 BirgitMegerle. Untitled.
2003. Pencil and colored
ColOT PeDCil Museum, London, England
pencil on paoe", 16'/~ X 11ft".

MOMA.NewYork
Color pencil is manufactured muchlikethe
traditional graphite pencil, but the mixture that
makes up the lead has higher amounts of wax
and pigment. Color pencils are used iust like
graphite pencils, although their marks maybe
harder to erase or alter. In 2.6, the German artist
BirgitMegerle (b. 1975) applies the colored pencil
lightly,allowing the whiteness of the paper to
dominate. These pale tones of color give the
drawinga light overall appearance. Megerle's
highly regarded style communicates a sense
of stillness.
Silverpoint
Almost every metal -will leave a mark on a fibrous
surface. Artists during the Italian Renaissance
used lead, tin, copper, and silver to draw images.
The most common of these drawing metals
was silverpoint.
C
An artist can achieve a soft visual effect by rubbing
the newly charcoaled drawing surface with a bare
finger, some tissue paper, or a rolled-paper cone
called a tortillion, made expressly for this purpose.
Charcoal is so soft that the texture of the
paper surface—even the dr awingboard's texture
below- the paper— profoundly affects the image.
Charcoal works best on paper with a fairly rough
texture (known as tooth), which catches the
charcoalbetter in its fibers.
Charcoal portraits by German artist Kathe
Kollwitz (1867-1945) and French artist Leon
Augustin Lhermitte (1844-1925) show- how-
artists work with the characteristics of the
medium (2.8 and 2.9).
Inher self-portrait we feel a sense of energy
from the way Kollwitz applies the charcoal.
Although she rendersher own face and hand
2.8 Kathe Kollwitz. Self-
Charcoal realistically, inthe space between we see the
portrait in Profile :o Left, 1 933. nervous energy connecting the eye to the hand.
Charcoalon oaoe-. 18ÿX25".
Charcoal has long been an important material Kollwitz draws with a spontaneous burst of
National Gallery of Art,
Washington. D.C. in the history of drawing: samples from cave charcoalmarks along the arm, in expressive
drawings inFrance havebeen dated back to contrast to the more considered areas of the head
30,000 3CE. Unlike pencils and silverpoint, andhand.
charcoal smudges easily, creates linesthat can be InAn Elderly PeasantWoman Lhermitte
easily shaped and altered, usually has strong dark works with the characteristics of charcoal to
value, andis soft compared to metal-based
drawing materials. .Artists choose charcoal as 2.9 Leon August'o Lne-mitte.Afi Elderly Peasen: Woman,
a drawing material when the)- want to express c. 1878. Charcoal on wove paper. iSVtx 15%". National
strong dark tones, add interest to a surface, and Gallery of Art. Washington, D.C.
make something look solidrather than linear.
Pigment: the colorant in art Two type s of charcoal are common. Vine
materials. Often made from
finely ground minerals charcoal is made from thin vine branches and is
Color: the optical effect caused very soft and easily erased. Compressed charcoal,
when reflectedwhite light of to which a binding agent such as wax is someti mes
the spectrum is divided into
a separate wavelength
added, is much denser.
Style: a characteristic way in To make charcoal, finger-length pieces of
which an artist or group of wood (often driedwillow) are placed inside
give awork an identifiable form an airtight container (to prevent the loss of
of visual expression important binding chemicals) and heated in an
Renaissance: a period of oven untilall the wood has beenburned.
Europe from the fourteenth to To draw- with charcoal, an artist drags the stick
the seventeenth century across a fibrous surface, usually paper, leaving a
Ground: the surface or so ft- edged line. By using iust the end an artist can
background ontowhich an
artist paints or draws create thin strokes; by using the side he or she
Hatching: the use of non- can cover a lot of surface quickly. The amount of
overlapping parallel lines to pressurean artist exerts while dr awing controls
convey darkness or lightness
Expressive: capable of stirring thelightness or darkness of the stroke. Sandpaper
the emotions of theviewer can be used to sharpen the stick for more detail.
DRAWING 171
describe his subject carefully. Each line and bindersinclude oil,wax, gum arabic, and
Subject: the person, object, or
blemish on this woman's face has been carefully glues. The type of binder gives each material
space depicted in a work of art
Contrast: a drastic difference rendered. The charcoal's dark value accentuates a unique character. Chalks, pastels, and crayons
beween such elements as color the contrast between the highlights in the face can be prepared in any color. Chalk is powdered
or value (1ightne ss .''darkness)
andthe overall darkened tone of thework. It even calciumcarbonate mixed with a gum arabic
Highlight: an area of lightest
value in awork carefully preserves the light reflected inher eye. (a type of tree sap) binder. Pastel is pigment
Binder: a substance that makes Lhermitte has controlled charcoal's inherent combined with gum arabic, wax, or oil, while
pigments adhere to a surface
Cross-hatching: the use of
smudginess to offer an intimate view of the crayon is pigment combined with wax. Conte
overlapping parallel lines to effects of aging. crayon, a variation invented by Nicolas-Jacques
convey darkness or lightness Although there is precise detail in both Conte, who was a French painter and army
drawings, each artist allows the "personality" officer, is a heavilypigmented crayon sometimes
of the charcoal into the softened background manufacturedwith graphite.
throughsmudges and irregular soft marks. For their preparatory sketches, artists
of the Renaissance usedcolored chalks, in
Chalk, Pastel, and Crayon particular a redchalk known as sanguine.
The Italianartist Michelangelo Buonarroti
Sticks of chalk, pastel, and crayon are made by (1475-1564) usedthis redchalk for his Studies
combining pigment and binder. Traditional for the. Libyan Sifyl (2.10),which he made in
preparation for painting the Sistine Chapel
ceiling in Rome. Michelangelo uses hatching
and cross-hatching to build up the values
and give the figure depth. The artist's study
concentrates on the muscular definition of the
ÿ
back and on the face, shoulder, and hand, and
gives repeated attention to the detail of the big
toe. These details are essential to making this
twistingpose convincing, and Michelangelo
spent extra time deciding them.
The French artist Edgar Degas (1834-1917)
is noted for pastel studies that stand as finished
works of art. In The Tub, Degas lays down
intermittent strokes ofdifferent color pastel
(2.11). He takes advantage of the charcoal-liFe
softness of the material to blendthe colors
together, thus giving them a rich complexity
and creating a vari ety of contrasting textures.
In pastel as in painting,Degas was a master at
re-creating the effects oflight and color seen
in nature.
s In the Conte crayon drawing Trees on the Bank

of the Seine, the French artist Georges Seurat
(1859-91) uses hatching and cross-hatchingto
-r
2.10 Michelangelo, Studies for the LibyanSibyl, 1510-11.

Red chalk, 1 1%x8"/s". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
New York
c
2.11 Edga" Degas. The Tub. 1 836. Pastel. 2?/; x325/*".

Musee d'Orsay, Pa "is, P'ance
2.12 Georges Seurat, Trees on the Bank of the Seine 'study

tor LaGrande Jatte], 1384. Black Conte crayon on white
&I
la d qaoe-, 24ÿx18/2". Art Institute of Chicago
iTJfo - ™
lw
buildup value and create depth (2.12). He
designates the foreground by using darker
values; he allows the color of the paper to be
more dominant in areas he wants to recede \
into the distance. Because this drawingwas a
study for a subsequent work, Seurat also took Foreground: the part of a work
special care in organizing the composition. depicted as nearest to the viewer
For example, the darkest large tree on the left is or organi zatio n of a wo rk
the focal point of this drawing and leads our Focalpoint: the center of
eye to the right,where Seurat places a curved interest or activity in a work of
art, often drawing the viewer's
tree to direct our attention to the nearby river
in the background.
L attention to the most important
element
DRAWING 173
Conceptualart: a work in
Erasers and Fixatives The Materials of
which the ideas are often as
important as how it is made Erasers are not only used for correction but also Drawing: Wet Media
to create light marks in areas already drawn. In
this way the artist can embellish highlightsby- The wet media used in drawings are applied with
working from the dark to light. brushes or pens. Wet media dry or harden as the
Erasers canbe used to create works of art by liquid evaporates.
destroying the marks made by an artist. In 1953
theartist Robert Rauschenb erg createda new work Ink
of art by erasing a drawingbvWillemdeKooning
(2.13). Rauschenberg, a young unknown artist at Ink is a favorite of artists because of its
that time, approached the famous de Kooning permanence, precision, and strong dark color.
and asked if he could erase one of his drawings. There are many types of ink, each with its own
De Kooning agreed, understanding what the individual character.
younger artist had in mind.But, in order to make Carbon ink,made by mixing soot with
it more difficult, de Kooning gave Rauschenberg water and gum, hasbeen in use in China and
a drawing made with charcoal, oil paint,pencil, India since around 2500 bce. This type of ink
and crayon. It took Rauschenberg nearly a month tended to discolor over time andcouldbecome
to erase it,but he did so, leaving a drawing on smudged in moist or humid environments.
the back of the work intact. Some in the art A contemporary- version of carbon ink, called
world dubbed him"L'Enfant Terrible," which India (or Indian) ink, is a favorite of comic¬
means a young person who behaves badly, but book artists.
2.13 RoOert Rauscnenbe'g, Rauschenberg's idea was to create a performed Most European ink drawings from the
Erased de Kooning Drawing . work of conceptual art and display the result. Renaissance to the present day are made with
1953. T-aces o; nk and Because most dry media are prone id smudging, iron gall ink. Gall ink is prized for its near-
crayon on paoer, in gold lea;
contemporary ar tists often use fixative ina permanence and richblack color. It is
frame. 25V. x 2 1'A x V;" .
San Franc'sco Museum of spray can to holdthe dry media to the surface manufacturedfrom a mixture of tannin (from
Modern Art of the paper. oak galls— parasitic growths on oak trees),
iron sulfate, gum arabic, andwater. Gall ink is
not entirely lightfast, however, and tends to
lighten to brown after many years.
Other types of fluid media include bistre,
which is derived from wood soot and usually a
yellow-brown cdor, and sepia, a brown medium
that is derived from the secretions of cuttlefish.
Quill and Pen

Tradition ally a quill— the shaft of a bird's
feather, or a similarly hollow reed—is carved
to a point to apply the ink. A slit, running
parallel to the shaft, helps control its rate of flow.
The modern version is a pen with a metal nib.
The artist can control the flow of the ink by-
pressing harder or more softly. Apart from
choosing different widths of nib,the artist
can further increase or decrease the width of
the drawnline by holding the pen at different
angles. Often, pen-and-ink drawings employ
c
2.16 Vincent van Gogh. Sower ha tchinga nd cro ss-ha tching to crea te var iations brush effectively, much the same way students
with Se lungSun, 1833. Fen in value. in the West learn to use pens and pencils.
and brown ink, °V= x 12W.
Dutchartist Vincent van Gogh (1853-90) East Asian artists use the same brush for
Van Gogn Museum,
Amsterdam, Netherlands uses a reed pen and brown ink for his Sower with writing and drawing. These brushes are made
SettingSun (2.16). By changing the way he applies with a bamboo shaft and either ox, goat, horse,
his pen strokes and by controlling their width, or wolf hair. Traditionally, .Asian artists use a stick
he creates an undulating, restless design. Van of solid ink that they hold upright and grind on
Gogh's emphatic direction of line expresses the a special ink stone with a small amount ofwater.
characteristic energy of hiswork. As the ink reaches the desired consistency, it is
pushed into a shallow- reservoir at the rear of the
Brush Drawing stone. Artists wet the brush by dipping it into
this reservoir, and then adjust the shape and
Because ink is a liquid medium it can also be charge of the brush by stroking it on the flat of
applied with a brush. The ancient Chinese used the grinding stone. They can readily adjust the
brush and ink for both writing and drawing. dilution of the ink with water to create an infinite
Even today, children throughout east Asia who range of grays. This is called a wash, and it allows
are learning to write must learn to control a the artist to controlvalue and texture.
DRAWING 175
C
2.15 Wu Zhen, Lea: from an
alburn of bamboo drawings.
1350. Ink on paoe-, 16x21".
National Palace Museum.
Tape. Taiwan
In 2.15 the fourteen th-century Chinese artist reflecting the central principle of Taoism, a belief
Wu Zhen (sometimes spelled Wu Chen) (1280— in the importance of balanced opposites. Because
2.16 Claude Lorrain, The 1354) uses brush,ink, andwash to create a the artist uses only a few shapes, the arrangement
Tiber from Monte Mario masterpiece of simplicity. This finely planned of the bambooleavesbecomes like a series of
Looking South, 1640. Dark
design contains carefully controlledbrushstrokes letters in a word or sentence. Wu achieves the
brown wash on white oaoe-.
7V- x 1 0%" .B-:t' sn Mu seu m. as well as loose, freer ink applications, thereby changing dark and light values by adding water to
London, England bringingtogether two opposinginfluences and create a wash and lighten the ink. This work was
intended as a model for Wu's son to follow as he
learnedthe art ofbrushworkfrom his father.
In his image of the landscape iust north of
Rome, The Tiber from MonteMario Looking
South, the French artist Claude Lorrain's
(1604/5-82) thoughtful brushstrokes give
us a feeling of the great expanse of the Italian
countryside (2.16). Thewash thatLorrain uses
gives a sense of depthby making the values of the
foreground areas both the darkest and lightest of
the whole drawing.
Paper
Before the invention of paper, drawings were
made on papyrus (a plant material),cloth,wood,
C
andanimalhide (parchment and vellum). Paper
was invented in Giina bv Cai Lun,who
manufactured it from pounded or macerated
plant fibers, at aroundthe end of the first century
ce. The image in 2.17, even though it was made
more than 1,500 years later, shows how this was
done. The fibers are suspended inwater and then
scooped up into a flat moldwith a screen at the
bottom, so that the water can escape. The fibers
are now bonded enough to each other to keep
their shape when the}- are taken out. The sheet
is then pressed anddried.
Over the centuries improvementswere made
to the construction of the mold to speed up times
for papermakers to flip out molded sheets of
paper and reuse the mold. Handmade papers are
still manufactured this way in many countries,
Paper surface patterns reveal the texture cf the screen used in the
mostly from cotton fiber, although papers are also
manufacture of each sheet
made of hemp, abaca, flax, and other plant fibers.
In addition to their fiber content, papers are
classifiedby their surface texture andweight.
Depending on the construction of the mold,the either wove or laid. The laid texture derives from 2.18 Surface texture of wove
paper usually has a surface texture described as a screen (bottom of the mold) composed of many and la d oaper
parallel rods, like a bamboo mat,whereas the

wove texture derives from the use of a grid- like
2.17 Hishikawa Moronobu.Papermakingin Japan,
showing thevatman and the paper-drier, :-o-n tne mesh of metal wire or cloth (see 2.18).
V/akoku Shoshoku EdzukuShi, 1681. Woodblock print. Paper inbulk is normally measured by the
ream (a quantity of 500 sheets). The standard
measurement for defining the character of paper
is its weight per ream in the paper'sbasic sheet
size. (For cotton rag paper, the sheet size is usually
17 x 22 in.) For example, if500 sheets of 17 x 22 in.
paper weigh 20 lbs., the paper is referred to as
"20 lb." Heavier papers are stronger and usually
better to work with, but the}- are more expensive.
The Drawing Process

Life drawing is the practice of drawing from a live
model, as opposed to using photographs, plaster
casts, or other existing artworks as source
material. We associate this process with nude
models, butlife drawingcan also involve animals,
plants, andarchitecture. Life drawing is one of Cast: a sculpture or artwork
the core skills that art students learn. In addition made bypouring aliquid (for
to the extended study of live models, two types of
example molten metal or
plaster) into a mold
introductory drawing methods are popular in the Contour: the outline that
teaching of life drawing: gesture and contour. defines a form
DRAWING 177
C
Line and Shape
Contour lines provide linear clues about the
surface of an object. In his pen-and-ink line
drawing of a woman, Henri Matisse pays close
attention to the lines that define the woman's
face and clothing (2.19). The outer profile and
undulating surfaces of the figure are depicted
in a long continuous line.Matisse also uses
contours to give the suggestion of shape, rather
than choosing more traditional methods, such
as cross-hatching orshading. His interest in
economically defining a shape can be seen
not only in his contour drawings but also in
his "cutouts," such as Icarus (2.20). Matisse
enjoyedworking with pieces of solid painted
paper and cutting them to create the contours
of a shape. In effect, the edges of the paper
shapes formed the equivalent of contour lines
in his drawings. Matisse described his cutouts
as "drawing with scissors," implying that to him
there was no great difference between working
with contourlines and paper cutouts.
Matisseloved simplicity and procla imed
that hewanted his paintings to be like "a
comfortable chair." The process of contour
drawing has the kind of spontaneity that such
artists as Matisse use to give a work a fresh,
simple, and "comfortable" feeling. In Matisse's
paper cutout work Icarus,the pleasant organic
lines and colorful shapes are derived from his
ca reful observation of contour lines. Thus, the
UAT. simple clarity present in the contourlines of
Woman Seatedin an Armchair is used to create
cJi 5 •
a feeling of "comfort" that is also found in
the bold shapes of Matisse's paintings and
paper cutouts.
2.19 (top left) Henri Matisse, Themesand Variations,

series P, Woman Seated inan Armchair, pi. 2, 1942.
Pen and ink, 19%x 153/t". Musee des Beaux-Arts,
Lyons, France
2.20 (left) Henri Matisse, Icarus, from Jazz, 1943-7.

Page size 167/ax 12%".M0MA,NewYork
Gesture Drawing andvalues that give us a feeling of the energy
of the figure.
repetition of elements in
thework Gesture drawing aims to identify and react to
Three-dimensional: having the mainvisual and expressive characteristics
Contour Drawing
of a form. Since artists oftenconfront changing
an object or figure bywhich it is subjects and situations, capturing the energy Contour drawing aims to register the essential
defined or bounded of the moment is the essential goal of gesture qualities of three-dimensional form by
drawing. rendering the outline, or contour, of an object.
The energy of the human figure is evident An artist uses contour drawing to sharpen
in Muscular Dynamism (2.2l), by the Italian hand-eye coordination and gain an intimate
artist Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916). In this understanding of form, increasing his or her
drawing the movement of the body is implied sensitivity to essential detail. For example,
2.21 Umberto Boccioni.
by the undulating strokes of the chalk and contour drawing can help an artist copy the
MuscularDynamism, 1913.
Pastel and cnarcoal on oaoe-
charcoal. The rhythms of the composition shape of a leaf as faithfully as possible. The
3d x 23V. MOMA, New York lead our eye through a series of changing curves French artist HenriMatisse was an excellent
draftsmanwho used elegant contour line to
extract the essence of a shape (see Gateway Box:
Matisse). In hiswork Woman Seated in an
Armchair the essence of the portrait is captured
by the organic curves of the contour lines.
% Conclusion
Drawing, likewriting, is something we all do.
As an innate part of our humanity,we may have
the urge to draw in order to record, visualize,
and express ourselves. Artists are exactly the
same, but the)- also want to refine their skills,
to think, and to prepare and plan other works.
With regard to how drawing is done, artists
use a variety of dry media, including pencil,
silverpoint, and charcoal, and chalks, pastels,
and crayon. Each technique lends itself to
a different range of expressive effects. Artists
achieve the richblackness or softly subtle
washes in their wet media drawings by applying
a variety of inks with either quills, pens, or
brushes. The "tooth" or character of the paper
(or other material) is an important part of the
final result.
The drawing process can start from the life
drawing of a variety of subjects, from nude
models to plants; inthe teaching of drawing,
* gesture and contour drawing are two techniques
that aim to capture the essence of the subject.
Drawing has economy, immediacy, and
simplicity. It is the gateway through which nearly
everywork of art first enters the world.
DRAWING 179
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.2
Painting
When most of us think of art, painting is the leaving the pigment permanently attached. Just as
medium that most often comes to mind Perhaps there are many kinds of pigments, there are many
this is not surprising, since artists have painted binders, traditionally beeswax, egg yolk,vegetable
surfaces of many kinds for tens of thousands of oils and gums, and water; inmodern times,
years. In prehistoric times, artists painted on the art-supply manufacturers have developed such
walls of caves. The temples of ancient Greece and complex chemicalsubstances as polymers. Painters
Mexico were painted in bright colors that look, also use solvents for different reasons, for example
to our contemporary tastes, garish. Modern adding turpentine to oil paint to make it thinner.
muralists and graffiti artists also paint on walls. Artists use many kinds of tools to help them
Of course, artists also paint on a much smaller paint. .Althoughhistorically brushes have been the
and more intimate scale, on a stretched canvas most popular, some artists have used compressed
or a sheet of paper. The artistic possibilities paint air to spray paint on to their chosen surface; others
offers are almost limitless, andthe effects have spread it around with a palette knife as if they
achieved are often amazing. were buttering toast. Sometimes the)- have poured
There are many kinds of paints, suitable for it from buckets, or haveridden across the canvas
different purposes, but they all share the same on a bicycle the wheels ofwhich were covered in
components. Paint in its most basic form is it; others have dipped their fingers, hands, or
composed of pigment suspended in a liquid entire body in it so they can make their marks.
Medium 'plural media): the
material on or fromwhich an binder that dries after it hasbeen applied. Paint is an attractive andversatile material
artist chooses to make a work of Pigment gives paint its color. Traditionally, that hasbeen used to create artworks ever since
art, for example canvas and oil pigments havebeenextracted from minerals, prehistoric people first applied pigment to the
or architecture
soils, vegetable matter, and animal by-products. walls of their caves. This chapter Mil survey its
Color: the optical effect caused The color umber, for example, originated from most common forms, and the methods and tools
when reflectedwhite light of the brown clay soil of the Umbria region in Italy. used in the painting process. Itwill also introduce
the spectrum is divided into a
separate wavelength
Ultramarine— from the Latin idtramarinus, some notable painters and paintings.
Scale: the size of an object or beyond the sea—is the deep, luxuriousblue
artwork relative to another favored for the sky color in some Renaissance
object or artwork, or to a system
of measurement painting; itwas ground from lapis lazuli, a blue Encaustic
Pigment: the coloredmaterial stone found inAfghanistan. In recent times,
used in paints. Often made from pigments havebeen manufacturedby chemical Encaustic is an attractively semi-transparent
finely- ground minerals
Binder: a substance that makes processes. The bright cadmiumreds and yellows, paint mediumthat was used by the ancient
pigments adhere to a surface for instance, are by-products of zinc extraction. Greeks and Romans, andwhich continues to be
Renaissance: a period of Pigmentsby themselves do not stick to a chosen by some artists today. To use encaustic an
surface. They need a liquid binder, a substance artist must mix pigments with hot wax and then
the seventeenth century that allows the paint to be applied and then dries, apply the mixture quickly. He or she can use
180 MEDiAAND PROCESSES
Encaustic portraits from this era are referred to as
Support: the material on which
Fayum portraits after theFayum Oasis in Egypt painting is done
where manv of them were found. Naturalism (adjective
naturalistic): averyrealisticor
2.22 Palette Kn';e, a tool that can oe used by the oa'nte- lifelike style of making images
:o_ mixing and applying oa'nt
Tempera
brushes, palette knives (2.22), or rags, or can
simply pour it. A stiff-backed support isnecessary Ifyouhave ever scrubbed dried egg off a plate
because encaustic, when cool, is not very- flexible while washing dishes, you knowhow surprisingly
and may crack. The Greeks and Romans typically durable it can be. Painters who use egg tempera
painted encaustic on wood panel. have different ideas about what parts of the
Ancient Roman painters showed great ability egg work best for tempera painting,but artists
in controlling encaustic paint and produced during the Renaissance preferred the yolk.
beautiful results. The image of a boy in 2.23 was Despite its rich yellow color, egg yolk does not
madeby an anonymous artist during the second greatly affect the color of pigment; instead, it
century ce in Roman Egypt. This type of portrait gives a transparent soft glow. Tempera is best
would havebeen used as a funerary adornment mixed fresh for each painting session.
that was placed over the face of the mummified As in many Italian paintings of the fifteenth 2.26 The Virgin andCh ,d with
deceased or on the outside of the sarcophagus century, the paint of The Virgin and Child with Angels, Fe-rarese School.
C. 1470-S0. Te-rpe-a. oil. and
in the face position. The artist took great care to Angels :'2.24,by an unknown artist) consists of
gold on oanel. 23x 17 A" .
create a lifelike image and probably captured a pigment and egg yolk. It also incorporates oiland National Gallery o; Scotland.
fairly naturalistic image of the deceased boy. gold leaf a common combination at this time. Edinburgh
2.23 Port-a't o; a boy.c. 1 00-150c E. Encaust:c on wood,

153/;x7V2~. Metropolitan Museum o: Art. New York
PAINTING 181
c
2.25 Riza Abbasi, Two Lovers, corner— are paintedwith careful attention to
Safavid period, '\ 629-30. T emoe's texture and realistic appearance. Tempera is
and gilt paint on paoe". 7V; X
(i'J,". Metropolitan Museum
normally painted with short thin strokes and
of
Art, NewYork lends itselfto such careful detail.
Tempera is usually applied with a brush and
dries almost immediately. The earliest examples
of egg tempera havebeen found inEgyptian tombs.
From the fifth century ce onward, painter; of
icons (stylized images of Jesus and saints) in
modern-day Greece and Turkey perfected the use
of the medium and transmitted the technique to
early Renaissance painters in Europe andthe
Middle East. Islamic artists enjoyed the sensitive
detail that can be achieved with tempera, and some
used tempera with gold leaf to create rich images
for the ruling class. In Two Lovers by the Persian
miniaturist RizaAbbasi( 1565-1635) we seethe
rich gold-leaf finish combined with the high detail
of tempera (2.25). Riza, whoworked for Shah
Abbas the Great, hasused the transparency of the
medium to make the plant life look delicate and
wisp\-. The intertwinedlovers stand out proudly
from the softness of the plants in the background.
The image has been painted onto a wood panel, The appeal of tempera painting continues
but the artist has chosen to paint an illusionistic today. It hasbeen used to create some of the most
frame that makes us think we are looking at the recognizable works inAmerican art. Andrew
back of a damaged canvas. The tattered cloth and Wyeth ( 1917-2009), loved by Americans for his
—
tacked binding even the fly in the lower left-hand sense of realism and high detail, chose tempera to
2.26 Andrew Wyeth, Christina's

World, 1 ?4S. Tempera on
gessoed panel. 32A x677." .
MOMA, NewYork
Illusionism''adjective
illusionistic): the artistic skill
or trick of making something
look real
Stylized: art that represents
objects in an exaggerated way
to emphasize certain aspects of
the object
depicted as furthest from the
main subj ect matter
create works that provide a glimpse into American
life in the mid-twentieth century. The subject of
Christinas World (2.26) is a neighbor of Wyeth's
in Mainewho had sufferedfrom polio andcould
not walk. Wyeth has chosen to place her in a
setting that expresses (in Wyeth's words) her
"extraordinary conquest of life." The scene
appears placid and bright, reflecting Wyeth's great
admiration for her. The high degree of detail gives
a sense of mystery that stimulates our imagination.
Fresco
Fresco is a painting technique in which the artist V
paints onto freshly applied plaster. The earliest
examples of the fresco method come from Crete
in the Mediterranean (the palace a t Knossos and
other sites) anddate to c. 1600-1500 bce. Frescoes /
were also used later, to decorate the inside of
Egyptian tombs. The technique was used
extensively in the Roman world for the
decoration of interiors,and its use was revived
during the Italian Renaissance. The pigment is
not mixed into a binder, as it is inother painting
techniques. Instead, pigment mixedwith water
is applied to a lime-plaster surface. The plaster
absorbs the color andthe pigment binds to the procedurerepeated. These technicalchallenges 2.27 Michelangelo, The
lime as it sets. Once this chemical reaction is are offset by the brilliance of color for which Libyan Sibyl. 1511-12. Fresco.
Detail of the Sistine Chaoel
complete the color isvery durable, making fresco fresco is renowned.
Ceiling. Vatican C ty
a very permanent painting medium. Many of the Renaissance fresco paintings were
There are two methods of fresco painting: made to decorate the interiors of churches. The
hnonfresco (Italian for good fresco) and fresco Italianartist Michelangelo Buonarroti ( 1475-1564)
secco ( dry fresco) .When artists work with buon usedthebuon fresco method to decorate the
fresco they must prepare thewall surface by ceiling of the Sistine Chapel inRome.For this
renderingunder coats of rough plaster containing monumental undertaking, requiring fouryears
sand, gravel, cement, and lime.The artist adds a to complete, Michelangelo needed to craft a
further (but not final) layer of plaster andallows strategic approach in order to disguise the seams
it to dry for several days; he or she then transfers between separate days' work. For example, in one
onto it the design from a full-scale drawing section called the Libyan Sibyl he only plastered
(referred to as a cartoon) in preparation for the the area where the legin the foreground was to be
final painting. Next, the artist applies the last painted (2.27). This was probably a day's work, Subject: the person, object, or
finishing layer of plaster, re-transferring onto it andthe seam of the plaster couldbe camouflaged space depicted in a work of art
Fresco: atechnique in which
the required part of the cartoon. Onto this he because the surrounding edges (the purple
the artist paints onto freshly
or she will paintpigmentsuspended in -water. drapery in particular) change color and value. applied piaster. Fromthe Italian
Because there are only a few hours before the lime If an artist cannot finish painting a section fresco, fresh
plaster sets, only a portion ofthewall is freshly- Foreground: the part ofa work
within a day of plastering, or needs to retouch a
depicted as nearest to the viewer
plastered each day. If the artist makes a mistake, damaged fresco, he or she employs the dry fresco Value: the lightness or darkness
the plaster must be chiseled away and the method. Wet rags moisten the lime plaster that of a plane or area
PAINTING 183
|C
Perspectives on Art: Melchor Peredo
Fresco Painting Inspired by the Mexican Revolution
2.28 Diego Rivera,Sugar

Cane. 1931.Fresco on plaster,
U 10" x 7' 11 Philadelphia
Museum o' A-t
During the twentieth century; Mexican mural country inspireda mural at Southern Arkansas
artists painted the walls of public buildings with University in Magnolia.
works that expressed their aspirations for social
2.29 Melchor Peredo. justice andfreedom. The Mexican painter For more than thirty years Porfirio Diaz ruled
Remembrance Fresco. 1999. Melchor Peredo lb. c. 19291studied with the great Mexico as a dictator. This was a time of injustice
F-esco. each panel£x8'.
mural painters andhas painted murals and great divisions between the powerful rich
Ha-ton Tneater. 5outhern
Arkansas Unive'sity, throughout Europe andNorthAmerica. Here he and the poor masses. In 191 1, the Mexican
Magnolia explains howthe revolutionary traditions of his people rebelled and forced Di'azto resign. For
18A MEDIA AND PROCESSES
tenyears revolutionary groups led the fight for has already set to encourage absorbency, and the
socialjustice. wall is then painted. The once- dry lime surface
In the 1920sa group of artists decided to soaks up some of the pigment. Frescoes painted
champion the struggles of ordinary Mexicans and using the fresco secco method tend to be less
express the ideals of the Mexican Revolution by durable thanbuon fresco because the surface is
reviving the art of fresco painting. Diego Rivera, less absorbent.
Jose Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros,
Juan O'Gorman.and others covered the walls
of public buildingswith murals that were
painted as a gift that could be enjoyed by all the
on,
people of Mexico. The mural painters were Paintingwith oil is a relatively recent invention
political radicalswho were influenced by the compared to encaustic, tempera, and fresco.
ideas of socialist and communist leaders. The Artists usedoil paint during the Middle Ages, but
Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky was exiled have only done so regularly since the fifteenth
to Mexico and lived in the home of Diego Rivera. century, particularly in Flanders (modern-day
When I was a student at La Esmeralda art Belgium, Netherlands,andnorthern France).
school in Mexico, I went to the National Palace The oil used as a binder there was usually linseed
in downtown Mexico City where Diego Rivera oil, a by-product of the flax plant from which
was painting murals, to invite him to give a linen cloth is made. Giorgio Vasari, an Italian
lecture at our school. Rivera seemed disturbed Renaissance writer and artist, credits the fifteenth-
by my interruption and came down off the century Flemish painter Jan van Evck (c. 1395-
2.30 Jan van Eyik, TheMadoma
scaffold , looking at me with his protruding eyes. ]441) mlhthe inventl0n ofoil paint. In fact an
of Chancellor Rolin, 1430-34.
"Yes, I will go," he said, "because that is a Oilonwood. 26X24% Muaee E)'ck did not invent oil paint,butheis its most
revolut'o nary school." du Louvre.Paris. F-ance astonishingearly practitioner: see 2.30.
One of Rivera's works I admire is SugarCane
(2.28). It portrays the exploitation of workers
on the large sugarfarms in Morelos.southof
Mexico City. Rivera painted this work at the
Palace of Cortes (the Spanish conqueror of
Mexico) in Cuernavaca. He also made a portable
version in 1931 to be exhibited at the Museum
of Modern Art in New York City.
In 1999 I completed RemembranceFresco
at Southern Arkansas University (2.29). I began
by making a drawing. The design focuses on
important historical figures and local folklore,
based on ideas given to me by students and
members of the local community. This is a
portable fresco, like Rivera's, pa inted on a large
wooden container mounted on the wall, so next
I layered cement, sand, gravel, and lime plaster
on the wooden support, adding more lime with
each application. When I reached the second-
last layer, using a perch (a long stick), I drew
the images from my sketch onto the wall.
After applying a finalthin, slick layerof plaster
over the drawings I painted the final colors for
the mural. The work still hangs at the Harton
Theateronthe campus.
PAINTING 185
c
Because it is so flexible, oil paint readily
Luminosity: a bright, glowing
adheres to a cloth support (usually canvas or
quality
linen)—unlike encaustic, which is usually painted Expressive: capable of stirring
onto a stiffpanel. Painterslike oil paint because the emotions of the viewer
Impasto: paint applied in
its transparency allows the use of thin layers of
thick layers
color called glazes. In the hands of such artists Three-dimensional: having
as van Eyck,glazes attain a rich luminosity,as height, width, and depth
though lit from within. Because oil paint is slow which an artist or group of
drying, artists can blend it andmake changes days artists uses visual language to
after the initial paint hasbeen applied, thereby give awork an identifiable tbrm
achieving smooth effects and a high level of detail.
Baroque: European artistic and
Modernand contemporary artists have used architectural style of the late
oils to achieve quite different expressive effects. sixteenth to early eighteenth
centuries, characterizedbv
The San Francisco artist Joan Brown (1938-90)
extravagance and emotional
used oil in an impasto (thickly painted) fashion intensity
(2.31). Because oil paint is normally thick enough
to hold its shape when applied to a surface, the
paint can pile up, giving Brown's work a three-
dimensional presence.
2.31 joaiBrown, Girt in Chair, 1962. Cil on canvas. The Chinese-born artist Hung Liufb. 1948),
5x4'. LAC MA who grew up in Communist Chinabefore
emigrating to the United States, utilizesthe
different qualities of oil paint to achieve her own
unique style. Hung's images express her Chinese
roots. Her work Interregnumjuxtaposes images
and styles (2.32). The traditional Chinese style is
reflected inthe idyllic figures in the upper part of
2.32 Hung Liu, Interregnum .

2002. C'lon canvas. 8'x?'6".
Kemper Museum o;
Contemporary Art. Kansas
City, Missouri
c
Paintings as PersonalStatements
quality— Gentileschi depicts herself at the
moment she begins to paint, holding a brush
in one hand and her palette in the other. The
mask pendant around her neck signifies that
painting is an illusion only an inspired master
can produce. She shows painting as a physical,
energetic act; she is a bout to be inspired to
paint upon the blank canvas before her.Just 2.36 Artemisia Gentileschi,
as Judith Decapitating Holofernes portrays Self-portrait as the Allegory
of Painting (La PitturaJ,
strong female figures, Gentileschi's self-
1638-9. Oil on canvas,
portrait shows her succeeding in the male- 38x29". Royal Collection,
dominated world of the professional artist. London, England
2.33 Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Decapitating

Holofernes, c. 1620. Oil on canvas, 6' 6%" x 5'3?t".
Uffizi Gallery, Rorence, Italy
At a time when there were very few women

working as professional artists, Italian Baroque
artistArtemisia Gentileschi (1593— c. 1656)
earned a reputation as a talented and
accomplished painter. Women were not
allowed to followthe traditional avenues of
apprenticeship to completetheirtraining as
painters, but Gentileschi was the daughter of
an artist, and hertalent was recognized and
fostered by her father. Unlike her male
contemporaries, Gentileschi often depicted
strong female figures with emotion, intensity,
and power, as exemplified in Judith Decapitating
Holofernes (2.33); but she also painted many
portraits, some of which were in oil paint,
including the self-portrait shown here (2.36).
Artists have always made self-portraits to
showoff their skilland define themselves as
they wish others to see them. In Allegory of
Painting— "allegory" here meaning an image
of a person that represents an idea or abstract
PAINTING 187
the work, in contrast with theback-breakinglv culture and typically American subjects, such
hard reality of life under the Communist leader as Superman. This combination of styles
Mao Zedong in the lower part. Hung'swork shows reflects the mixing of cultures resulting from
the discontinuity between reality and the ideal. communication and contact between nations.
In Untitled (2.35) Shimomura refers to the
internment of Japanese-Americans during
Acrylic World War II. The painting explores the effects
ofconflict between two cultures.
Acrylic paints are composed of pigments
suspended in an acrylic polymer resin. They dry
quickly and can be cleaned up with relative ease. Watercolor and Gouache
Latex house paint is made of acrylic polymer.
These paints have only been in use since about Watercolor and gouache suspend pigment in
1950. L'nlike oil paints, which dissolve only in water with a sticky binder, usually gum arabic
turpentine or white spirit, acrylics can be cleaned (hone)- is used for French watercolor), which
up with water. When dry, however, they have helps the pigment adhere to the surface of the
similar characteristics to those of oil paint. paper when dry. Watercolor is transparent, but
Many professional artists, including the an additive (often chalk) in gouache makes the
contemporary Japanese-American artist Roger paint opaque. Usually watercolor and gouache
Shimomura (b. 1939),prefer acrylics as their are painted on paper because the fibers of the
primary painting medium. Shimomura uses them paper help to holdthe suspended pigments in
to create works that investigate the relationships place. The portability of w-atercol or (all the artist
between cultures. He merges traditional J apanese needs is brushes, small tubes or cakes of paint,
imager)-, such as a shogun warrior, with popular and paper) has made it vastly appealing.
2.35 Roqe- Sn'mo-nura.

Untitled, 1984 Acrylic on
canvas, 5' h" X 6' Kerroer
Museum of Contemporary
Art. Kansas City, Missouri
c
2.36 Albrecht Durer.4 Young
Hare, 1502. Wat ercolo-and
gouache on paoe". ?7sx3>s".
Graphische Sarr-nlung
Aloertina, Vienna. Aust" =
2.37 [right] Son'a Detaunay,

Prose of :he Trans-Siberian
Railwayand of UtileJeharne of
France. 1913. Watercolor and la
relief print pn paoer. support
77 XU"
Watercolor's ease of use poses one inherent

challenge. Watercolor is transparent, but there is
no white transparent pigment; any white area in
a watercolor is simply unpainted paper. If an
artist paints a white area by mistake, one solution
is to paint it over with opaque white gouache.
Thewatercolor s of the GermanAlbrecht
Diirer ( 1471-1528) are noted for their masterful
naturalism. Diirer's works, such as A YoungHare,
reflect direct observation of a natural subject
( 2.36). .Above all, the artist conveys a sense of the
creature's soft, striped fur through a combination
of water color with opaque white heightening.
French artist Sonia Delaunav ( 1885-1979) ,
the first woman to have her work shown at the
Louvre Museum in Paris, France, during her
lifetime, mastered the art of watercolor. Prose of
the Trans-Siberian Railway and of Little Jehanne
of France (2.37), an artist's book, was part of
a collaboration with thepoet Blaise Cendrars
(1887-1916). Ifall 150 copies of the first edition
were placed end to end, it was intended they
•wouldstretch the height of the Eiffel Tower. The Ink Painting
book was also meant to be folded like a roadmap,
and it recounts a tr ip from Russia to Paris. Although artists often use ink with a pen on paper,
Delaunay's work is a "simultaneous book'* in the}- also use it for painting. Different surfaces
which her watercolor illustration on the left is set require differences in ink. Ifvouare drawing on
Opaque: riot transparent next to the Cendrars poem on the right. She used a surface that is not fibrous enough,you need to
Artist's book: abookproduced the bright colors thatwatercolor affords to create modify the ink.Ink is commonly used on paper
by an artist, usually an expensive
limited edition, often using an illustration that progressively changes as the because the fibers hold the pigment,but a slicker
specialized printing processes reader advances down the page. surface needs an additionalbinder. Paintinginks
PAINTING 189
IC
are slightly different from drawing inksbecause sometimes incorporate it into their watercolor
Mask: in spray painting or
the)- have a binder, usually gum arabic, rather than paintings to give extra richness and darker values. silkscreen printing, a barrier the
simplybeing suspended inwater. Ink can be Japanese artist Suzuki Shonen (1849-1918) shape ofwhich blocks the paint
painted in muchthe same way as watercolor; artists makes good use of the expressive richblackness or ink fro m passi ng through
Stencil: a perforatedtempi ate
ofink inhis Firefliesat UjiRiver (2.38). The luscious
allowing ink or paint to pass
2.38 Suzuk: Shonen. Fireflies at Uj R <,-er, Meii period. darkness of the ink on silk scroll supports the through to print a design
1863-1912. Ink. color, and gold on silk: hanging scroll. retelling of a night scene from the eleventh-
13V.X50". Clark Family Collect'on
century Japanese novel The Tale of Genji, when a
young man tries to overhear the conversation of
two young women. The rushing waters of the Uii
obscure their words from the eager ears of the
would-be suitor. The artist emphasizes the power
of the rushing water with strongbrushstrokes
and pow-erful diagonals.
Spray Paint and Wall Art

Believe it or not,spray painting is one of the
oldest painting techniques. Researchershave
discovered that some images on the cave walls of
Lascaux,France, w-ere applied byblowing a saliva-
and- pigment solution through a small tube.
Although today's spray paint comes in a can, the
technique is essentially the same as it w-as 16,000
years ago. Because tfe spray spreads out in a fine
mist, the ancient spray-paint artist, like today's
spray painters, w-ould mask out areas to create 2.39 John f-'atos. a.k.a.
"Crash," Aeroplane 7. 1983.
hard edges. Ancient artists may even have done
Spray oa'nt on canvas,
this with the edge of their hand,covering the wall 5'1 iVx 87". Brooklyn
w-here the)- did not want the paint to fall. .
Museum New Y or k
£•
ÿ
190 MED1AAND PROCESSES
Rat ironically juxtaposes an image of
Michelangelo's famous statue Davidwith a
superimposed machine gun (2.40). Blekle Rat
is considered an artivist, an artist/activist whose
work is part of a larger movement, called culture
jamming, that draws attention to social or
political issues. This unauthorized renderingwas
spray painted on a building in support of Israel
and was not well received bv the European
public,who hold a wide array of opinions
regarding the relationship betweenIsraeli Jews
andthe Palestinians.
Conclusion
Inthe 18,000years between the spray painters of
the Lascaux caves andtheir graffiti counterparts
today, painters have continued to turn to the
spectacular effects of different kinds of paint. The
wax of encaustic, the egg of tempera, and the wet
2.60 Blek te Rat, Davidwith Nowadays, spray paint can be applied using a plaster offresco have all offered artists technically
.
the Machine Gun 2 006 . spray gun or spray can, a favorite of tag and gra ffiti demanding ways of combining pigment with
NewYork
artists. Graffiti artists prefer to use spray enamel, a binder to depict subjects in durable andvivid
a commercially produced paint,packaged in an color. Additionally, the invention of oil paint
aerosol can and generally used for applying an helped Renaissanceartists achieve astonishing
even coating on a slick surface. A propellant forces naturalism and luminosity of light effects. The
the paint out in a fine mist when the user pushes strength, flexibility, andversatility of oil paint
down on the valve button. Graffiti artists often have continued to make it a favorite medium for
cut into the spray nozzle with a knife to alter the artists right through to the present day. Its modern
spray stream, for example to spread a wider mist. variant, acrylic, is a water-based mediumand
Practitioners of sprav-painted graffiti art gives similar results, and artists can simply clean
are consideredvandals and criminals by local their brushes under the faucet. Watercolor,
governments when the}- paint places without the gouache, andinks are other kinds ofwater- based
permission of the property owners. Because of this, paint. Watercolor needs the minimum of
many keep their identity secret and sign their work equipment, and so has long been popular with
with an alias, called a tag. Even so, many graffiti professionals and amateurs alike, particularly for
artists havebecome known,even celebrated. direct observation of nature outside of the studio.
John Matos (b. 1961),whose tag is "Crash,"is By selecting a paint suitable for the chosen
considered a founder of the graffiti art movement. support, an artist can make images on areas as
He began spray painting New York City subway large as a wall or even an entire building,or at a
cars at the age of thirteen. Crash exhibited much smaller scale, such as on a canvas or sheet of
Aeroplane 1at the Brooklyn Museumin2006 ( 2.39 ). paper. Artists achieve many kinds of visual effects
The French graffiti artist known as Blek le Rat by changing the consistency of the paint with
(b. Xavier Prou, 1952) uses stencils as a quick solvents or by working creatively with a variety of
way of transferring his designs to surfaces. (Speed tools. Yet paint is actually a quite simple medium
of application is important to graffiti artists,who that for thousands of years has provided artists
often risk being arrested for defacing private with a versatile means for communicating their
property.) In Davidwith theMachine Gun, Blekle thoughts, dreams, feelings, ideas, and experiences.
PAINTING 191
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.3
Printmaking
Before the invention of printing artists who ways) intow-hat is usually a metal plate. Ink is
wanted to have multiple copies of their work applied andthen wiped off the surface, leaving
needed to copy it over by hand, one reproduction ink in the lines or marks made by the artist. The
at a time. Printingwith inks, first used in China to pressure of the printing press transfers the image
print patterns on fabrics in the third century ce, from the plate to the paper.
changed all that. Printing allowedthe same- In thekind ofplanographicprintingknow-n
designs to be more easily reproduced and as lithography, the image is drawn with an oily-
distributed to many people. In the world of art, crayon onto a special kind of limestone. The
however, printmaking is much more than away non-image area of the stone absorbs a littlebut
of copying an original. There are many different enough w-aterso that when the printmaker
techniques, andeach one gives a unique character applies oil- based ink to the whole stone, the ink
to every work it creates. Artists may well choose only remains on the image area. In the printing
a particular technique because the}- think it will press the image transfers to the paper. Silkscreen
suit the kind of effect the}- want to achieve. printing physically blocks out non- image areas
Although artists may not always do the so that ink only passes through the screen
productionwork themselves, ifthe}- create the where required.
master image, supervise the process, and sign the
artwork, it is considered an original print. This
differs from a commercial reproduction of an Context of Printmaking
artwork, where the artist may not be involved in
the process. The production of two or more identical Ancient civilizations inEgypt and Mesopotamia
images, signed and numberedby the artist, is reproduced imagesby rollingcylindrical incised
Edition: all the copies of a print called an edition. When an artist only produces one stones across clay or pressing them into wax.
made from a single printing
print, it is called a monoprint. The methodused These very earliest printswere used as a tamper-
Relief: aprint process where the
inked image is higher than the to create a pr int may dictate the number ofworks proof seal to show- ifthe contents of a sack
non -printing areas that can be produced. There are three main printing hadbeen opened or interferedwith. Chinese
Intaglio: any print process processes: relief, intaglio, and planography. craftspeople in.Ancient China used wooden
where the inked image is lower
than the surrace of the printing In relief printmaking,the artist cuts or carves stamps to print patterned designs into textiles.
plate; from the Italian for into a w-orkable surface, such as w-ood or linoleum, The earliest existing printed artworks on
"cut into" to create the image. The printmaker rolls ink onto paper (it self invented in China in the second or
Planography. a print process
lithography andsilk screen
— the raised surface that remains and presses a sheet first century bce) were created in China and date
printing—where the inked of paper or similar material onto the image to back to the eighth century ce. By the ninth
image areaand non-inked areas makew-hat is known as an impression. century, printed scrolls containingBuddhist
are at the same height
Impression: an individual print, Intaglio printing requires the artist or sutras (scriptures or prayers) were being made
or pull, from a printing press printmaker to cut or scrape (in many different across east .Asia. Over the ensuing centuries,
paper technology spread across the Islamic world, Traditionally, wood hasbeen used for relief
Woodblock: a relief print
until papermaking workshops were common prints because it is readily available, familiar to process where the image is
throughout Europe by thebeg inning of the work -with, andholds up under the pressure exerted carved into ablockof wood
fifteenth century, and paper was no longer an by the printing process; these prints are known Woodcut: a print created from
an incised piece ofwood
expensive, exotic commodity. as woodcuts. Today, for linocuts, printmakers
While the woodblock print remained the use linoleum, an inexpensive material which cuts
primary vehicle for the development of the print easily and can produce a clean, sharp image.
in Asia (especially Japan), in the West a number
of additional techniques developed over time. Woodblock
The German artist Albrecht Diirer ( 1471-1528)
Relief Printmaking combined images and the printed word (with text
printed on the reverse) when heillustratedthe
Reliefprints are made by carving away from a final book of the Bible,the Book of Revelation.
block of a suitably workable material, such as Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (2.42) is
2.42 Albrecht Dure- four
wood or linoleum, a certain amount of it,to the most famous image in this series of fifteen Horse men of theAoo calyose ,
create a raised image. The artist then applies ink illustrations andwas made from a specially c. 1497-8. Woodcut. 15h x 11 "
to the raised surface and transfers the image to

paper or similar materialbyapplying pressure in
a printing press (see 2.41). The areas of the block
that remain print the image because the carved
areas are recessedand are not inked.
2.41 (below) A brer overview o; the relief or' -iting

process:
1 An -rage is des'gned and s o-eoa-ed ;or t-ans;er to the

' '
block surface.
2 The i nrage 's now transferred to the block.
3 Tne sur;ace a-ea that will not oe printed is carved away.
4 Tne -en-a'n'ng o-ot -ud'-ig 5ur;=c® 's carefully nÿed.
5 The ra'sed inked a-ea is trans;e— ed to the sur;=ce to
be printed.
PRINTMAKING 193
Care must be taken to align each print color
perfectly (called registration) ;this is done by
can-ing perfectly matching notches along two
sides of eachblock to guide the placement of the
paper. Utamaro is regarded as one of the greatest
Japanese printmakers. He made images for the
\ Japanese middle and upper classes of figures,

theatres, and brothels, in a style known as ukiyo-e
printmaking.Ukiyo-e means "pictures of the
floating world," a reference to a young urban
culturalclass who separated themselves from
the agrarian life of traditional Japan byindulging
in a fashionable and decadent lifestyle. The
people of the "floatingworld" were the celebrities
of their time.
In his woodcut Prophet the German artist
2.43 Kitagawa Utarra'-o. prepared woodblock. In this process, unlike EmilNolde (1867-1956) uses the natural
Lovers nan Upstairs Room. cutting from a solid block ofwood, a print character of the wood to suggest the hardships
;rom Uta makura iPoem of the
Pillow}, 1788. Color woodblock
craftsman stacks and glues a series of thin, sliced and austerity of the life of his subject (2.44).
print, 10x 1U/i. British layers ofwood to create a more stable printing The crude carving of theblock has produced
Museum, London, Enqland block (similar to plywood) that will be less likely splintering, andthe printing has revealedthe
to splinter or crack. Diirer commissioned grain of thewood. The print's lackof refinement
professional block cutters to perform the reflects the raw hardness of the life of a prophet.
layering, and the)- also cut the highly detailed
lines of his original drawing into the block. 2.44 Emit Nolde, Prophet. 1912. Woodcut, printed in
black, compos ition 125/sx8i--". MOMA, NewYork
This technique resulted in thin lines anddetail
that could withstand the compression of repeated
printings. Because it required expert craftsmen,
the labor was very expensive. But the series of
works -was so popular it made Diirer -wealthy.
The Book ofRevelation is a symbolic piece of
writing that prophesies the Apocalypse, or end ft
of the world. The horsemen represent Death,
Plague, War, and Famine.
Many great masters of woodblock printing
were active in eighteenth- andnineteenth-
century Japan. Kitagawa Utamaro's (1753-1806)
print,entitled Lovers in an L'pstairs Room, uses
multiple colors and shows great graphic skill in
controlling the crisp character of the print and
the interplay of multiple blocks in different colors
Color: the optical effect caused (2.43). To create a color woodblock print an artist
must produce a separate reliefblock for every
separate wavelength color. Utamaro uses at least three colors to create
Style: a characteristic way in Lovers in an Upstairs Room: red ochre (a shade of
artists uses visual language to red-brown), black, and green. In color woodblock
give a work an identifiable form printing, eachblock must be accurately carved
and planned becauseeachindividual color is
space depicted in a work of art printed in sequence on the same sheet of paper.
C
Usingthe Woodblock PrintingMethod
Katsushika Hokusai'swoodblock print "The
Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa" uses
multiple colors and shows great graphic skilL
It is a fine exa mple of the printmaker's art.
Hokusai (1760-1849) was not solely responsible
for the production of this print: he relied on
skilled craftsmen. Hokusai made a drawing
of his subject, which a print craftsman then
transferred face down onto a block of cherry
wood. When the drawing was peeled away,
the image remained, and the craftsman then
carved the image into the wood. To create a
color woodblock print a printer must produce
a new relief block for each separate color.
(Incidentally, "The Great Wave" was one of ten
prints in the series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji
to use a new blue color, imported from Europe,
known as Prussian blue.) Nine blocks were correct position, the print would be discarded 2M Katsushika Hokusai.
used to print "The Great Wave." Each block because it did not match the others in the "The Great Wave off Shore at
Kanagawa". from Thirty-Six
had to be carefully carved, and the printmaker edition. The blocks of wood were used so
had to carry out the sequence of printing many times that the carving eventually (printed later). Print, color
skillfully because each newcolorwas printed deteriorated. Although it isunknown how woodcut. Library of Congress.
directly on top of the same sheet of paper. many prints were made, it is estimated there Washington. D.C.
If all nine blocks were not printed in exactly the were more than 5,000.
Intaglio Printmaking
Intaglio is derived from an Italianword that
means "cut into" a surface. Usually the artist
uses a sharp tool (a burin) to cut or gouge into
a plate made of metal (or sometimes acetate 2.46 A b" e: overview o: the en
or Plexiglas). Intaglio printing differs from relief

printmaking becauselittle of the base material
is removed. The ink on the raised surface is also
3 The plate is nked.
wiped away before printing, leaving ink in the 4 Tne surface of the plate iswiped. removing alUnk
scarred surface of the plate. The pressure of except in the grooves.
5 F'aoe" is placed on the plate and i t is pressed.
the printing press squeezes the plate against the
6 Tne oaoe~ lifts the 'nk out o: the grooves and the ink is
paper, transferring the ink. There are several in-prnted on the paper.
variations of intaglio printing, all of which 7 The final mage is complete. 'In most printmaking
give the resulting artwork a different visual metnods the final image is reversed mom the plate
or block.)
character (see 2.46).
PRINTMAKING 195
2.47 (above left) Albrecht Durer,Ao'am and Eve. 1 504.
Engraving
Engraving on oaoe-. Victoria and Albert Museum,
London, England
Albrecht Diirer printed from a woodblock for
his Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse but chose 2.48 [above, right] Max Beckmann.Adam andEve. 1917.
a different technique, engraving, for Adam and published 1913. Drypoint. 9ÿx 7". Private collection,
New York
Eve(2.47). The intaglio engraving method is
based on the careful scoring of a metal plate so
that clean gouges are created in the surface.
An engraving can achieve fine detail, making
the resulting print more likethe artist's original In engraving theburin is pushed across the
Engraving: aprintmaking
drawing. Diirer also had a business reason for surface,but in drypoint it is pulled, leaving a
technique where the artist
choosing to engrave hiswork. He had to pay- rough edge, or burr.When the plate is wiped gouges or scratches the
engravers to makehis printing plate, and the inkis caught under theburr. The result image intothe surface of the
is a less precise line that has more irregularities. printing plate
because the metal plate is much more durable
Dry-point: an intaglio
than the woodblock, hecouldmakeandsell Artists can use this irregularity to add new- printmaking process where the
many more copies. dimensions to a work. For example, in artist raises a burr when gouging
Beekmann's Adam and Eve the lines appear the printing plate
Expressionism (adjective:
to be more irregular than those in Diirer 's
Drypoint Expressionist): an artistic
version of the same subject. Beckmann, style, at its height in 1920s
Europe,which aimed to portray
For his Adam and Eve, Max Beckmann a German Expressionist artist, probably
the world in terms of vivid
(1884-1950) chose the drypoint intaglio chose drypoint because of its slightly uneven extremesofpersonal experience
method rather than engraving (2.48). quality of line. and feeling
c
aquatint (from its Italian name acqua tinta,
meaning dyed water). Despite the name, water
does not play a role in aquatint printmaking.
The image is created in a coating of powdered
rosin (a tree sap), or spray paint,on the surface
of die plate. When heated, the rosin melts onto
the surface of the plate, creating a mottled, acid-
resistant barrier into which the design is etched
Since the rosin leaves irregular areas of the plate
exposed, a soft organic texture (similar to
that createdwhen one uses brush and ink)
dominates the image. The artist can even use
a brush to push around the dry rosin (before
heating) to draw the original design, adding to
the water)' effect. Francisco Goya utilizes the
wash-like appearance of aquatint in his print
Giant (2.50). Goya probably used a rosin box,
a device that allows the artist to control the
distribution and amount of powder that falls
onto the plate, then he scraped away the heated
rosin inthe areas where he wanted the dark
values of the final printed image to appear.
The artist can progressively scrape more and
2.50 Franc'sco Goya. G;.an t, C. 1313. Burnished aquatint.

first state, sheet size 11V-X81/.". Metropolitan Museum of
2.69 Rembrandt. Acfem Etching Art. NewYork
and Eve. 1633. Etching.
Hood Museum of Art.
Dutch artist Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Riin
Dartmouth University.
Hanover, New Hampshire ( 1606-69) was a master of intaglio printmaking,
especially etching. Etching is a process inwhich a
metal plate is coveredwith an acid-resistant coating,
into which the artist scratches the design. The
plate is then immersed in a bath of acid The acid
"bites'" into the metalwhere the covering hasbeen
removed, making grooves that holdthe ink. Unlike
engraving and drvpoint, the artist does not score a
Etching: an intaglioprintmaking
process that usesac id to bite (or
hard metal plate but makes small incisions, which
etch) the engraved design into allows for greater control in incorporating subtle
the printing surface
changes of dark orlight linesthat affect value. In
of a plane or area his etching Adam and Eve Rembrandtbrings out
Aquatint: an intaglio details by marring the plate surface more in the
printmaking process that uses areas that will appear darker in the print (2.69).
melted rosin or spray paint to
create an acid-resistant ground
Kosin: a dry powdered resin

that meltswhen heated, used in
Aquatint
the aquatint process
Organic: having formsand shapes
Another process that requires the use of an
derived from livingorganisms acid bath to etch the surface of the plate is
PRINTMAKING 197
C
Prints as Art and as Creative Tools
The Spanish artist Francisco Goya (1746-1828) martyr in Third of May.
painted The Third of May, 1808 (2.51a) in 1814, six The vertical post to
years afterthe event it memorializes. During which the victim istied
the French occupation of Spain (1808-1814), in the print also draws
Goya also sketched scenes of the occupation the viewer toward the -c
by Napoleon's troops. These sketches were center of the work; this
published in 1863 as a series of prints called device was repeated 4ÿF
Disasters of War. The Third of May, 1808 is often withthechurch tower
considered to be the most dramatic of Goya 's in the painting. The »
flr-pk
studies of the Spanish War of Independence. In horizontal rifles on the . V
it,we can see aspects of the compositions of right side of the print >
the prints in Disasters of War. create a directionalline
Compositionally, there aresimilarities drawing attentiontoward the victim, a technique 2.51a Francisco Goya,
between the print and the later painting. In Goya repeats in Third of May. "And There Is No The Third of May, 1808, 1814.
Oil on canvas, 8" 4%" x
"And There Is No Remedy" (2.51b), the firing Remedy" is a good example of the way in which
11"3%". Museo Nacional
squad about to shoot its helpless targets is an artist re-works a visual idea over a period of del Prado, Madrid
arranged in a strikingly similar way to the firing time to develop ideas and refine the composition.
squad in The Third of May, 1808. The light area Goya's masterpiece evolved after years of trial
on the left is echoed in the small hill behind the and practice in his prints.
2.51b Francisco Goya,

"And There IsNo Remedy",
from Disasters of War, c. 1810
C
more to get darker values. The implied texture then smoothed inthe areas where the printmaker
of the aquatint print is soft and rich, giving wants the light tones. Ink is removed from the
version of a work or part of
a work a softness and subtlety to the contours of the smoothed areas when the plate is wiped; the
Composition: the overall design giant's bod\-. inked areas create dark tones and the smoothed
areas holdless ink to create light tones. Thrash
Directionalline: implied line
within acomposition, leading Mezzotint wanted to use this dark mood to reflect the drama
theviewer's eye from one and seriousness of the war effort at home.This
element to another
Because each intaglio methodleavesits own work was sponsored by the Works Projects
Implied texture: a visual
illusion expressing texture unique mark on the plate, many artists have Administration, a government program
Mezzotint: an intaglio opted to use more than one methodwhen originally created during the Great Depression
printmaking process based on
making a print. In his Defense Worker, the to employ American sat a time when jobs were
roughening the entire printing
plate to accept ink; the artist African- American artist Dox Thrash (1893— hard to find. Artists,writers,musicians, and
smoothes non-image areas 1965) uses mezzotint over etched guidelines others contributed to American culture and
(2.52). Mezzotints often produce dark, rich infrastructure by applying their skills, first in
values because the ink has mam- places to settle. support of rebuilding America and then, during
2.52 Dox Th rash .Defe rise
To make a mezzotint the entire surface is World War II,in support oft hewar effort.
Worker, c. 1941. roughened with a heavy spiked rocking tool, Thrash, like other artists of the time, uses the
Csroo'undurn mezzotint which is a metal object with a spiked, curved darkvalues afforded by the medium to express
over etched guidelines,
bottom. This can berockedback and forth the spirit and strength of the American worker.
?Vtx8". Print end Picture
Collection, F-ee Lib-aryor across the surface of the plate so that it is
Philadelohie completely covered in burrs.The burrs are
Planographic
Printmaking
Unlike relief (which cuts awavnon-printing
areas) and intaglio (which cuts away the
printing areas), planographic prints are made
from an entirely flat surface. The printmaker
treats parts of the surface so the ink adheres only
to selected areas. The planographic forms,
lithography andsilkscreen printing, use very
differenttechniques.
Lithography
Lithography (from the Greekfor stone writing)
is traditionally done on stone. Out of money and
looking for a cheaper method to print his newest
play, German author Alois Senefelder (1771—
1834) devised the lithographic printing process
in 1796. The complex presses used nowadaysby
commercial printers for producing newspapers,
magazines, andbrochures ("offset lithography")
use thin sheets of zinc or aluminum instead of
stone, but the basic principles are the same as
Senefelder' s original discover)-.
Contemporary artists' lithographic prints are
still made on the kind of stone used by Senefelder.
PRINTMAKING 199
2.53 A trV overview o; the
lithography process:
1 The artist designs the
image to be printed.
2 Us'ng a g'eese pencil. the
des'gn is drawn onto
the limestone, blocking
the pores.
3 The stone s treated with
ecid end other cnem'cals
that aÿe brushed onto its
surface. Then the sur:ace is
wiped clean with a solvent,
such as kerosene.
4 The stone s sponged so
that water can be absorbed Some artists like lithography because it allows greasy areas of the drawing, and rolled with oil-
into the pores of the stone.
5 Oil-based nk is repelled by them to draw a design in the same way the}- do based ink. In the ungreased regions the water
the water and sits only on a drawing. Successive stages in the process are repels ink,leaving only the image coveredwith ink.
areas whe_e the oilcrayon illustrated in 2.53. An artist first draws a design, At this point the artist carefully places paper over
image was drawn.
using a grease pencil or other oil-based drawing the stone and lightly presses down, usually by¬
6 F'aoe" 's la d on the su";ace
o; the stone and :t isdrawn material, directly onto a piece of specially passing it through a printing press.
through a press. selected,cleaned, and prepared limestone. Next, In 1834, the French artist Honore Daumier
7 The print is removed from the artist applies a number of materials to the (1808-79) used his skills combined with the
the stone.
stone, including a gum arabic and nitric acid lithographic process to tell the citizens of Paris
8 The completed mage
apoea's in reverse solution that makesthe image more durable. about an incident of police brutality. Daumier,
compared with the Then he or she wipes the surface clean using w-ho w-orked for the monthly magazine
original des'gn.
kerosene. Even though the image appears to have VAssociation Mensuelle,depicted the aftermath
been obliteratedbv the kerosene (this is a most of a horrible incident that took place at Rue
unnerving moment for novice printmakers!), the Transnonain on April 15, 1834 ( 2.54). That night,
stone is now- ready to be printed. The surface is policeresponded to a sniper attack. Thinking
sponged with water, which is repelled by the the attack had come from a residence at 12 Rue
2.54 Honore Daurr 'e-. Rue

Transnotein. April 15. 183d.
Lithograph, 11V? X 17%" .
Private collect:on
C
Transnonain, the authorities entered the house all make mirror images, so an artist making such
and ruthlessly killed everyone inside. Daumier,a a print needs to think in reverse.
greatcriticof the French government's treatment Silkscreen printingwas first developed inChina
of workers, drew the images of the massacred in during the Sung Dynasty (960-1279) and uses
gruesome detail. A father andchildlie in the a stencil process. It canbeused to create a large
center, flanked by the mother and an elderly number of prints. The silkscreen itself is nowadays
family member. a fine mesh usually made out of nylon. The image
area of the screen is open and allows ink to pass
Silkscreen Printing through, while the rest of the screen is masked off.
As the printmaker moves the squeegee (like a heavy
Silkscreen printing is one of the most versatile flat windshield wiper) over the screen, the mask
printing processes, capable of placing a heavy prevents ink from passing through inunwanted
coverage of ink on a wide variety of surfaces, from areas. The mask can be a kind of thick glue painted
printed circuit boards to packaging, from solar on with a brush, or it canbe a physical barrier, such
panels to T -shirts. Artists value, amongst its many as tape. Photographic silkscreen prints can be
other virtues, its potential for printingstrong colors. produced using a photosensitive masking material.
Unlikeall the other printing processes TheAmerican artist AndyWarhol (1928-87)
discussed in this chapter, only silkscreen printing utilized photographic silkscreen techniques over
produces "right-reading" reproductions of the aluminum paint to create a distinctive style, seen in
original artwork. Relief, intaglio, andlitho prints hiswork DoubleElvis (2.55). Warhol reproduces
2.55 Andy Warhol Double

Elvis, 1963. S'lkscreen nk
and silver paint on canvas.
17'W"x6'97;". Stiftung
SaT-nlung Marx. Hamou'ge"
Eahnho;-Museurr !ur
Gegenwart, Berlin. Germany
Stencil: aperforatedtemplate
allowing ink or paint to pass
through to print a design
Mask: in spray painting or
silkscreen printing, a barrier
whose shape blocks the paint or
ink from passing through
PRINTMAKING 201
C
a cowboy-like image of Elvis Presley from a unnumbered prints bear the letters AJ P. These
photo taken at the height of the singer's career. prints,calledartist's proofs, are usedby the
Warhol deliberately repeats the image of Elvis printmaker to check the quality of the process
to comment on the nature of mass-produced and are not intended to be part of the edition.
images in advertising. Public figures market Even though the)- could create more prints than
their image the same way food companies the)- do, most artists decide to print a set number
promote cans of soup. Silkscreen printing is of prints: a limitededition. The artist afterwards
particularly suited to printing large areas of flat, destroys the original plates so it is impossible to
heavy color, and by using this technique, Warhol make any more copies.
emphasizes the flatness andlack of depth in the
character playedby Elvis. The doubling "clones"
o f Elvis accent uate t he degener at iontha t occurs
when an original is copied.
Monotypes and
Monoprints
Editions Monotypes and monoprints are print techniques
where the artist means to produce a unique image.
Prints areproducedinlimitednumbers of identical A monotype image prints from a polished
impressions, callededitions. The printmaker has plate,perhaps glass or metal. The artist puts no
the ethical responsibility of making sure each permanent marks on it. He or she makes an
print is similar enough to the others so that each image on it in ink or another medium, then wipes
person who buys a print has a high-quality image. away the ink in places where the artist wants
When a print is deemed identical to others in the the paper to show through. The image is then
edition it is assigned a number in the production printed. Only one impression is possible.
sequence. For example, a print marked 2/25 is the Hedda Sterne (1910-20 11) was the sole
second print in an edition of twenty- five. Some woman in a group of abstract painters calledthe
2.56 Hedda Sterne. Untitled

(Machine Series;, 1949. Trace
monotype, design 12x16"/;".
Harvard Art Museums. Fogg
Art Museum. Cambridge.
Massachusetts
2.57 Kathy Strauss. Kepler Irascible*.Although abstract, Sterne's Untitled £rintinÿ£rocessesi While most printmaking
Underneath 7. 2007. Monotype monotype makes associations with architectural requires slow and careful preparation, multiple
over Ind'e-inked calculations,
Somerset velvet oaoe-. each
and mechanical images (2.56). Sterne probably images are usually the reward for the time
panel 30x23". Collection of employed a straightedge to maintain the invested. Prints can be published as unique
the artist regularity of line in the print. single artworks or in editions, allowing the
Monoprintscanbemade using arcyprint artist to reach a wide public.
process. The artist prepares the image for printing Printmakerschoose the printing process
as described previously- inthis chapter, but will thatbest fitsthekind of image thev wantto
ink or modify each impression in a unique way-. achieve. For relief prints they have to carve
This includes varying colors, changing the spread into aflat, comparatively soft surface (often
of the ink across the image area, and adding features wood or linoleum) to leave an image on the
by hand The individual modifications possible surface of the block. Comparatively quick to
are as infinite as for any handmade work of art. make, relief prints favor dark images with great
Artists choose to make monoprints, however, contrast, but the amount of detail can be limited.
because they may want to explore "themes and Intaglio processes, such as engraving,
variations," where some elements of the work dry-point, and etching, require artists to cut or
remain the same but others are different. If two gouge into a hard surface, such as metal, to make
prints are identical, they are not monoprints. crisp thin lines that lend themselves to great
Kathy Strauss's (b. 1956) monoprint Kepler detail. Removing metal to create dark areas is
Underneath 1painstakingly- depicts the Milky- hard work, however. Marring surfaces with acid
Way Galaxy- (2.57). The artist has first incised a or heavy- gouging tools in aquatint and mezzotint
series of calculus problems into the metal plate. can provide rich dark values and textures similar
As with any- other intaglio print,the plate was to those in watercolors.
then completely- covered with ink and wiped. Planographic printingby- lithography allows
Ink stayed inthe incised grooves. Strauss has artists to use their familiar drawing skills with
then painted the image of the Milky- Way inink an oily- crayon on a specially- prepared stone.
directly- onto the same plate; when the inking Using stencils to block out non- image areas,
was complete, she centered the paper over the silkscreen printing is particularly suited to laving
image and ran it through the press. Because down flat areas of heavy color.
Strauss painted the ink on by hand, she cannot Although printmaking can lend itself to
Abstract: an artwork the form re-create the result exactly- in a second print,so the publishing of editions, some artists choose
of which is simplified, distorted, it is not part of an edition. to create prints one at a time, just as if creating
or exaggerated in appearance. It
a drawing or a painting. Whatever method an
may represent a recognizable
form that hasbeen slightly artist chooses, andwhether he or she makes
altered, or it maybe a completely monotypes or monoprints, the way artists
non- re prese ntationalde pi cti on
work with the character of their chosen
Con tr ast : a drastic di ffe renee
between such elements as color To create prints, artists have to work with all printmaking process is integral to (all part of)
or value (lightness/darkness) the technical steps requiredby- the different the final artwork.
PRINTMAKING 203
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.4
Visual Communication Design
The essence of visual communication design is Iraqwere the first people ( c. 3400 3Ce) to employ-
the use of symbols to communicate information picture symbols ina consistent language system.
andideas. Traditional communication design The ancient Egyptians createdtheir own version
was known as graphic design: the design of of picture symbols, known as hieroglyphics,
books, magazines, posters, advertising, and as a written form of communication. In
other printed matter by arranging drawings, particular,the Egyptians wrote them on scrolls
photographs, and type. Advances inprinting made of a paper-like substance created from the
processes, television, the computer, and the pith of the papyrus plant (see, for example, 2.58).
growth of theWebhave expanded graphic design Later forms of picture writing became
to include many more design possibilities.
Abetter and more complete term for it now* is 2.58 Section of papyrus from Book of the Dead of Ani.
visual communication design. Furthermore, C. 1250 5CE. B_;t:sn Museum, London, England
while graphic design was the responsibility of

specialists, the typographical power of the
—
computer— both for print and the Web means
almost anyone can be a visual communication
designer, provided they understandthe mmm
principles ofvisual communication design.
This chapter will discuss the development
Sttlii
of the media, systems, and processes used in
visual communication design. While based on
simple ideas, visual communication design
enables us to express our ideas with increasing
clarity, style, and sophistication— valuable
qualities ina rapidly changing world.
Medium 'plural media): the

The Early History of
artist chooses to make a work of
Graphic Arts
art, for example canvas and oil
or architecture
Stencil: a perforated template
The graphic arts probably startedwhen a
prehistoric person spat pigment through a reed %
allowing inkor paint to pass to stencil a handprint on the wall of a cave.
through to print a design The ancient Mesopotamians inwhat is now
specimens ofwritingwere carved on large
Abstract: arc imagerythar
standing stone tablets, from which visitors
departs from recognizable images
couldtake copies by makingrubbings— a from the naturalwo rid
rudimentary printing technique (2.59). Calligraphy, the arc of emotive
or carefully de sc riptive hand
During the Middle Ages, European artists lettering or handwriting
combined calligraphy andillustration to craft Illuminatedmanuscript: a
illuminated manuscripts (for example 2.60). hand-lettered text with hand-
drawn pictures
Illuminatedmanuscripts were executed in
monasteries on prepared animal skins, called
tfTV
parchment. After being painted and letteredby
hand,they were bound as books. This kind of
design was very time consuming and produced
only one copy of the book. The invention of
printing technology simplified the design 2.60 Butch History Bible.
cop ed by Gherard '.Vessels
process and made it possible to print multiple
van Deventer in Utrecht, 1443.
copies. In other words, printing made graphic fol. 8r. National Library of the
design possible. Netherlands. The Hague
2.59 Rubb'ng o; stele inscription. Preface ofthe Lanting

Gathering, DingWu version (Inukai version], original by
WangXizhr, Eastern Jin Dynasty, dated 353. Album, -ikon
paoe", ?% x 8 h" . Tokyo National Museum, Japan
** rtklweewe "mcaiBEP*. .
(*>
W
I|bI <y«u
IfXy-l *•
increasingly abstract, lor instance Chinese written rfctftfeMf cl ,-5-
Our f ijw
•M- mSmHa. mHOi fci.Matr M
characters.While originally ( for example) the C. XfeuKr.*t»Oi at .|«
Be "iWWnuiJmf'W'molMMkftS
letter A was supposed to be derived from the shape fiituoidlftf M
ft. lid
khM( "*« ••i.i-rt "ifn* o) Mr
*
Miei d.Krn« Kfamot pwtMiccr
of a house, and B from a cow, the contemporary «»0ciwftuei iiftMcnterMfowMoi* vrr
-
JOii.f. t-rp<.VBly<i alrr in.ilt '-Amwupi
Western alphabet has now lost any of its earliest Xf *»»>< n-otwNnftnm- .NtfjrrO »*>.<
ro-M MM rtwt Ml lu a«f» WfC
connections with representations of things. |r< oioi [«* i— **fai fetn- •"«« if»-
wui f-nm r'ui.niMM
CotilVii cf utnurailMf
Wherever literacy takes hold, calligraphy eo (n.,«.x, haicMtyhrw. csmi.uii ittCn.
nV'irr-.f.Kn ,-f fatiCVrti*
usually develops as a form of art concerned to (mi .vincfto# cut*
N-a.ii/-n Ma# .v U.ine»n«.I'--
nur*"iSor'i pMmtn nMMfmtMutt*
express layers of meaning and feelings by means ÿtout* Stakitfmt "i i«m Mr
Utll tool (n.| to
.ui&Mf.
I|..<»\V'I.WI 01 »\C !*•*»*'
Vof.n.uVi. (oil ÿ iimi.
ofthe shape of written letterforms. For example, iMcqjrtmn t*«>t e>»r»KiKktU** C*«'
nurfMroMnwdOnr Otcmc wnutf
handwritten wedding invitations are created MmMitrrmi im»M
OI OlftY .1
Iok.h
t.d. U »1«»I JMnlB
using calligraphy because the flowing line

' ' «'•* '»Nn
lUtritW* •* «**ÿ«jri>cc ghrfceef fn»i
.Vr
.
<Hin>r. ivarf Mfenltfnil
0(hm a. f.w
and distinctive character of the lettering ml"*..
communicates the upcomingeven tin an elegant

and romantic way. In oral communication,
changes in tone,volume, and even hand
gesture andbody movement work together; in
calligraphy, the physical act of writing, the
thought expressed, andthevisual form of the
textbecome one. Chinese culture particularly
exalts calligraphy executed in black ink with
abrush. The Chinese calligrapherWangXizhi
defined the art of calligraphy in China during
the Jin Dynasty (265-420 ce).Although none
ofWang's originals still exists, other calligraphers
copied hiswork through the ages, perpetuating
his ideal of perfect form. In ancient China, fine
VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN 205
c
Graphic Design
Graphic design is the art of improving visual
communication design. As you read this text you
may havenoticedthe way the information is r,
*'
XX
organized. Headings,page numbers,illustrations,
and the definitions of terms in the margin have
allbeen carefully considered with you in mind.
The use of boldface type and columns of text
I. IT RR VP
helpsyou read and understand. In other visual
arts it maybe preferable to invite a viewer to
consider and contemplate. But in graphic
SS
design, the communicationis intended to
be instantaneous, clear, and direct.
Typography
The visual form of printed letters,words, and
text is called typography. Type, a word derived
from a Greek word meaning to strike, first came
into existence with Johannes Gutenberg's Diirer 's Roman alphabet is notably different 2.61 Albrecht Durer,
(c. 1398-1468) invention of the printingpress from Gutenberg's letterforms. A complete pages rÿorr Course it1the
Art o f Meesureme nt with
in Germany around 1450. Gutenberg also
created a technique for producing small cast-
alphabet ofletterforms and matching
punctuation is called a font. A font is a group
.
CompassandRuler 1538.
Victoria and Albe't Museum,
metalletter shapes, known asletterforms, that ofletterforms designed to have a unified London, England
couldbe set next to each other in a row, inked, appearance. Roman-style fonts were derived
and then printed in relief on paper using his directly from the letters chiseled into stone on
press. Gutenberg's letterforms have angled thick the buildings and monuments of ancient Rome.
and thin strokes that copy the pen calligraphy Those characters had a vertical or horizontal
used in illuminated manuscripts (called Black mark at the edges of some letters. These marks,
Letter). Scholars believe his intention was to called serifs,were integrated into many early
emulate handwritten texts; his first biblesused
the exact same letterforms as those used in
manuscripts, and the pages even included 2.62 Some ;ont styles:
illustrations drawn by hand.
The German master printmaker Albrecht
Diirer ( 1471- 1528) wrote systematically on the
1 Reolica of Black Letter style
subject of typography in order to teach others. used in Gutenoe'g's 1d54
In The Painter s Manual:A Manual of Bible
Measurement ofLines, Areas, and Solids by Means
Se* ;s
of Compass andRuler (1525), Diirer sought to
create a set of rules for the design of letter shapes
(2.61). His was the first text to standardize how
2 ~ mes New Roman with
some se" ;s circled Roman <§e|tf Fo&t
to create each letter using such geometric
elements as squares, circles, andlines. Through
these careful instructions a typographer could
create letterforms similar to those usedby the
ancient Romans.
3 Helvetica ;ont with no se";;;
'sans se" Sans Serif Font
c
typefaces. The differences between these
kinds offonts are shown in 2.62.
In books and newspapers, serif fonts are
traditionally used in the main text because they
are considered easier to read. Typographers
often use a sans serif font, or a font without
serifs, in headings. (Sans serif derives its name
from the French word sans, meaningwithout,
and perhaps from the Dutch word schreef,
meaning a stroke of a pen.) In the twenty- first
century, sans serif has becomethe standard font
style in electronic media, as tiny serifs may not
fully appear incomparatively low-resolution
electronic displays.
Typographers follow some simple rules to that is unique and easily identified The logo 2.66 Chevrolet logo,
make sure a written message is clear. When design of the Ford Motor Company hasbecome first used in 1913
using multiple fonts, the fonts mustbe different universally recognized (2.63). In 1903 an engineer
enough to avoid confusion between the typefaces. and Ford executive named FlaroldWills created
Thevisual weight, or thickness, of the letters the original logo, which read "Ford Motor
can beused for contrast and to emphasize a Company Detroi t, Mich." from the letteringstyle
section of the text simply by changing type to used on his business cards. His original design
bold. The choice of larger or smaller font sizes was later simplified into a plainer wr iting style
also adds another level of contrast and emphasis. that was common at the time. This particular
Finally, even more emphasis and contrast can be font, known as Spencerian script, was derived
gainedthrough the choice of color. Typographers from the style ofhandwriting that-was practiced
use these options carefully to "keep it simple" inAmerica in the nineteenth century.
and to create a message that is clear, concise, Sometimes a designer communicates an idea
and easily understood. using a pictorial symbol instead of type. The
Chevrolet logo was first used in 1913 andhas
Logos been an identifying mark for the company ever
since. Originally,thename "Chevrolet" was written
Businesses andother organizations use logos as across the simple stylized cross (called the "bowti e").
communication tools. A logo is often simply a Over time, the symbol becameassociated in people's
carefully designed piece of type, called a logotype, mindswith the name, which was then removed
from the design. It now communicates the company
2.63 Fo_d MotorCorrpany logo, c. 1 906 namewithout using one letter of the alphabet ( 2.66).
Boldface: a darker and heavier

typeface than its normal instance
Typography: the art of
designing, arranging, and
choosing type
Contrast: adrastic difference
or value (lightness/darkn ess)
content in a work
when reflected white light of the
spectrum isdivided into a
s eparatewavelength
c
Illustration Edward Burne- Jones ( 1833-98) believed society-
should reject rampant industrialization and
Illustrations are images created to inform as restore hand craftsmanship. Their illustrated
well as to embellishthe printed page. Good book of the works of the medieval poet Geoffrey-
illustration is critical in such fields as medicine Chaucer was handcrafted so that each page
and science, where it may communicate containedillustrations, illuminated characters,
essential information more effectively than and patterns (2.65). The illustrations allow
text or a photograph. rea der s to experience a ndunderst andthe wo rks
The nineteenth-century English artists of Chaucer more richly. The}- support and
and designers William Morris (1834-96) and enhance the written words.
2.65 William Morr's and

Edward Burne-Jones, page
;
ro m Wo rl<s o fGe offrey
Chaucer, Kelmscott Press,
1396. British Museum,
London, England
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GiQiloug viryftC, c r jtu fleuree Heur. Iÿcrc moo' of yon. hiCafui hevenequeue.
Illuminatedcharacters: highly
decorated letters, usuallvfound
at the beginning of a page or
paragraph
c
demeanor of this figure send a message of
strength about the American spirit in times
of adversity.
Digital illustration has become a popular
way for designers to incorporate illustrations
into a printed design. Digitaldrawings are
produced through the use of computer
applications that use mathematical formulas
dependent on the relative placement ofpoints.
Inthese math-based applications, the computer
generates an image, called a vector graphic, from
a series of lines plotted from the relationship
between individual points. Sinee point sandlines
are thebasic units of this system, it bears a
resemblance to drawing processes. Most of the
line art in this book was created using this type
of digital illustration application.
The Malaysian designer Kok Cheow Yeoh
(b. 1967) creates drawings digitally. His images,
such as Kiddo, can easily be distributedvia many
different mass- media channels (2.67). He controls
color so that hiswork is relatively inexpensive to
print and uses less disk space on a computer.
2.67 Kok Cheow Yeo h.Kiddo, C. 1994. Computer-

generated vector drawing
2.66 Norman Rockwell, The American illustrator Norman Rockwell

Rosie the Riveter, 1943. Oil (1894-1978) drew covers for the Saturday
on canvas, 52x40 . Crystal
EveningPost magazine for forty-seven years,
Br'dges Museum o; American
Art, Bentonville.Arkansas from the end of Wo ridWar Iuntil the 1960s.
His good-humored images of national
stereotypes captured how-"middleAmerica"
viewed itself. One of Rockwell's most effective
and memorable images is a character he created
to support the war effort on the home front
duringWorld War II.Rosie the Riveter,
a female construction worker, symbolizes the
contributionAmerican women were making,
working injobs traditionally heldby men ( 2.66).
Rockwell's Rosie sits defiantly and confidently
as she looks down from herlunchtime perch.
The facial expression,body language, and
Yeoh creates his unique graphics by hand,
scans them, and re-creates them in digital
form, but makes sure to keep the handmade
appearance.
Layout Design
Layout design is the art of organizing type, logos,
and illustrations in traditional print media.
Good layout design is essential if information
is to be easily understood. One of the main
considerations in layout design is spacing.
Designers are very aware of white space—
the voids that liebetween text areas and
images—and are careful in its organization
anddistribution in their layouts.
Ifyou examine the way this page is designed, 2.69 Hill. Holiday. Connors. Cosmopulos advertising
you will noticethe relationships between agency. Boston, Massachusetts, Tyco—,A Vital Part of
Your World. 2005
columns of text, images, and other features,
such as page numbers. The designer responsible
for this page hasmade sure each feature has
2.68 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, La Gouluestthe Moulin enough white space around it to be easily-
Rouge, 1391. L:thograoh in black. yellow, red. and blue on identified and understood,but is close enough
three sheets o* tan wove paper, 6 2V:" x 3'9:/=". Art to related elements, such as the pictures, so that
Institute o: Cn'cago
the text and images complement each other.
The French artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
WOUllNROlmmi E
OULIN ROUGE
ioulik
Concert
TOUS Los SOIRS
(1864-1901) created posters for his favorite
Parisian nightspot, the Moulin Rouge. In
La Goulue at theMoulin Rouge, Toulouse-Lautrec
uses a free, roundedwriting style that is as casual
la Gouluc as the spectators in the nightclub scene, as they
watch La Goulue ( the nickname, meaning
"The Gl utton," of the dancer Louise Weber)
dance the can-can (2.68). Here, the text is
calligraphy rendered by hand directly (in mirror-
writing) on the lithographic stone from which it
is printed. Toulouse-Lautrec's great skill as an
illustrator and typographer is apparent in the
excellent hand-rendered text and images.
Effectively controlling type and layout can
have amazing results. In the Ty-co "Vital"
advertising campaign, the designer carefully
controls the color and size of the fonts so that
the list of Tyco products andsen-ices reveals
the face of a young child ( 2.69). The designer
effectively communicates the suggestion that
Tyco' s products and sen-ices are vital to her
andothers' survival.
Wh ite spa ce: :ntypogr aphy, the Web Design Conclusion
empty space around type or
othe r feature s in a layout
Void: an area in an aro\"ork that In the past twenty year s,visual communication Visual communication design hasbeen a par t of
seems empty
Expressive: capable of stirring
design hasbeen dramatically influenced by the society since picture symbols were first invented.
the emotions of the viewer Internet. The use of text and image in mass Leavingbehind their original purpose as pictures,
communication has evolved from the letterforms became increasingly abstract and easier
motionless design of print publications to the to use for general written communication.
interactive designs used on the World Wide Calligraphy is the sophisticated art of expressive
Web. TheWeb allows designers more freedom to handwriting and influenced the first Black Letter
add interactivity so that text and image can machine-made typeforms. With the advent of the
change as the reader progresses through the printing press, the new art of typography focused
information presented. on refining the attributes of movable type, leading
In a website design created at the 2008 to new Roman- inspired letterforms.Serif and
Carolina Photojournalism Workshop, the (later) sans serif fonts provided more varieties of
communicaied message is enhancedbv the type. Typographers further enhancedthe
integration of text, image, and interactivity ( 2.70). communicative possibilities of their medium by
The artist, Seth Moser-Katz (b. 1984), has placed devel oping the use of bold,italics, varying sizes,
a largephotographicbackground image, and color.
illustrating the important issue of beach erosion, Logos and logotypes identify millions of
into the page design. The centrallocation of the organizationsquickly,powerfully, andmemorably.
gray text box combined with the open space Illustrations are ideas presented as pictures that
around it draws attention to the written message. complement andbroaden the communicative
Moser-Katz hasalso cleverly created a series of power of the written text. Just like the illuminated
2.70 Carolina rectangular images as hyperlinks at the bottom drawings in medieval handwritten texts, images
Photojournalism Workshop. of the design. When a user moves a cursor over are still used to clarify and embellish modern
Setn Moser-Katz jdes'gn. and one, new text appears in the gray text box. printed materials. The advent of computers has
Emily Merwyn jprogramm'ng.'.
Photo E:leen Mignoni. School When clicked, a new page opens that plays a influenced typography andmade vector graphic
o; Journalism and Mass recorded message and presents a series of photos illustration an important part of visual
Communication at the related to an important issue for thosewho communication design.
University of North Carolina live in the region. By employinggoodvisual Visual communication designers organize type,
at Chapel Hill. 2003.
http ://www .carolinaphotojour communication design Moser-Katz makes the text, logos, andillustrations in their layouts. They
n a Ism .o rg/ cpjw/ 2 00 8/
'
message more direct,clear, and engaging. work to budgets, using the technical constraints of
the medium to make beautiful and communicative
designs. Their books,advertisements, posters,
GAPE FEAR
ro DOWN H ERE
HON* AKM CKOTI
andother printed matter are stronger and more
coherentwhen they consider thewhite space
connectingyet separating each par t of their layouts.
Everyday on our computer screenswe can see the
results of their skills on die WorldWide Web.
The work of visual communication defers
is for even-one. It must therefore appeal to andbe
UNmKONI lw«lil"« WIIC1 COMfOr.T V-4* rniVAO
understoodby the widest public possible, not just
an elite few. In many ways visual communication
design is the most democratic of all the arts because
it is shared by so many and touches our lives
everyday.After all, every image and word in print
or on screen was put thereby a designer— and you
are looking at an example now.
c
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.5
Photography
captured, or by combining the photographwith

Recording the Image other images.
The word photography derives from two Greek

words, photos, meaning "li ght," and graphein,
meaning "to draw": together, they mean "drawing
The History of
with light." Before the digital era, a photograph Photography
was an image recorded onto a light-sensitive
material, usually film, thatdarkenedwhen it was Thebasic principles of photography were
exposed to light. The lights and darks ona film known long before modern photographic
negative are the opposite of what we see in life: processes were invented. A simple kind of camera
the tones are reversed. This negative can be called the camera obscura (Latin for dark room)
reversed again, with chemicals or by re-exposuie hadbeen used by artists for several centuries
to light,to make an infinite number of positive as an aid to drawing. However, it was not until
prints,called photographs. In addition, ever the nineteenth century that inventors discovered
since the 1970s,digital camerascan record a number of ways to make permanent camera
images inthe form of pixels which can then images that couldbe reproduced: inother
be stored as files on a computer. words, photography.
The mechanics of the camera are similar The first cameras were indeed room sized,
to those of the human eye. Just as light enters and the projections the)- createdwere used as
the eye through the pupil,light enters the guides for making drawings. A sixteenth-century
camerathrough asmall opening, the aperture. illustration of a camera obscura shows the
Negative: a reversed image, in In both eye and camera the lens changes shape, basic principles of all cameras today (2.71).
which light areas are dark, and flattening to bring far-away things into focus When a small hole, or aperture, is placed in
dark areas are light (opposite
of a positive) and thickening to make close-up objects clear. an exterior wall of a darkened room, light rays
Positive: an image inwhich When photography was invented in the project the outside scene onto the opposite
light areas are light and dark nineteenth century, its reliance on mechanical wall inside the room. A person couldstand
areas are dark (opposite of
a negative)
andchemical processes led many to refuse to inside a camera obscura and trace over the
Subject: the person, object, or consider it an art form. Photograph)* seemed image projected onto the wall. Inside the
space depicted in a work of art to be a simple recording of the realworld by camera the image, no matter what size it was,
a machine, not the result of an artist's creative continued to appear in color, but upside
spectrum is divided into a imagination. In fact a photographer can express down andback to front, unless it was reversed
separate ÿ"avelength ideas inmanyways, for example by deciding using mirrors. Smaller, portable models
Fixing: the chemical process
used to ensure aphotographic the way the subject is photographed, by becamewidely available in Europe in the
image becomes permanent manipulating the image after it hasbeen eighteenth century.
obscura image in 1999. He turned an entire hotel
ÿ5'<>& cu/tauimn gj4.imo O'rifb room into a camera obscura to project an upside-
1 14*4-- ÿ>to x#
JL euany
Janitor:/ down image of the dome of the Pantheon,
a building in Paris,France (2.72). The image
projected in Morell's hotel room-was only
temporary untilhe took a picture of it, showing
that the principles of the camera obscura are the
same as those relating to the photographic camera .
Previously images in the camera obscura
were limitedbecause the)- were not permanent
andcouldbe recorded only when traced over
by hand. Photography could not exist untilthe
2.71 Rainer Gemma-Frisius. The images projected in a camera obscura image couldbe fixed (as photographers say).
first published illustration are not permanent, but we can see what a
o; a camera ooscura, 1 544.
camera obscura image looks likebecause the
Gernshe'm Collect:on. 2.72 AbelardoMorell, Camera Obscura Image of the
London contemporary Cuban-,American photographer Pantheon in the Hoteldes Grands Horrtmes.1???. Gelatin
Abelardo Morell (b. 1948) recorded a camera silver print, 20x24''
PHOTOGRAPHY 213
c
to sunlight andrecord an image on its surface.
Mercury vapors revealedthe image before it
of a plane or area
was chemically fixed, or made permanent -with
table salt (later with Herschel's sodium
1 thiosulfateorhypo).
While the daguerreotype process createdvery
detailed images captured through a camera, these
positive images could not be readily reproduced
(see 2.79 on p. 218).
At about this time, the Englishman William
Henry Fox Talbot (1800-77) captured on
a light-sensitive surface a negative image of
a window at his home (2.74). These images,
known as calotypes, resembledAtkins'sbotanical
specimens. Talbot eventually discovered how to
reverse the negative to make numerous positive
prints. In other words, the places that appeared
light inthe negative, such as the window frames,
would be dark in the pr int,while the dark areas,
2.73 Anna Atkins. HalydrysSii:quOSa, 1843— A. Plate 1° such as the sky, would change to light The
Tonr Volume 1 o; Photographsof BritishAlgae . Cyanotype. resulting print contained shades of gray that
5x4". British Lb'ary, London. England matchedthe values of the original scene. This
negative/ positive process isthe basis of film
In 1839, English scientist JohnHerschel (1792— photography (see Box: Diagram of Film
1871) discovered a chemical compound that Pho to gr ap hvDarkr oo m). 2.74 William Henry Fox
could do this. Using another of Herschel's These early processes were central to Talbot. The Oriel Window.
processes, Englishbotanist and photographer photography untilthe invention of digital South Gallery. LacockAbbey.
1835 or 1 839. Photogenic
AnnaAtkins ( 1799-1871) made cyanotype cameras, first available around 1985, that record
drawing negative. 31/-x41/t".
images in 1843-4.She placed pieces of algae on images not on film but in the form of pixels Metropolitan Museum o: Art.
paper that hadbeen treated with a special light- (tiny square dots arranged in a grid). Images NewYork
sensitive solutionand exposed the sensitized
paper to direct sunlight ( 2.73). The areas of the
paper exposed to the light turned the paper dark,
but in the places where the plant's stems and
leaves created a shadow, die paper remained
white. Although .Atkins madethis image without
a camera, the same principles are at work when a
film camera is used, and her images look exactly
like film negatives.
A few decades before Herschel's pioneering
work, two Frenchmen—the painter and stage
designer Louis-Jacques- Mande Daguerre (1787—
1851) and a chemist, Joseph Nicephore Niepce
(1765-1833)—-worked together to invent
a method of producing and fixing an image,
which came to beknown as the daguerreotype.
A polished metal plate, made light- sensitive by
silver iodide,was placed inside the camera. The
camera's shutter was opened to expose the plate
C
Diagram of Film Photography Darkroom
Developer
2.75 D:agrsm or ;ilrn

photog'spny ds'kroom
Once a photographer captures an image on film sensitive paper. At this point the photographer
in a camera, he orshe must developthe film chooses what size to make the image, but it is
to produce a negative, and can then make not yet visible on the paper. The paperthen goes
photographic prints. Adarkroom preventsany through a series of chemical solutions: first, the
further light from reaching the light-sensitive developer reveals the image; next, the action of
materials and wiping out the image previously the develo per is sto pped in the stop bath; then
captured in the camera. Shining a light from an fix, or fixer— a compound that also stops and
enlarger through the negative reverses the stabilizes the photographic image— makes it
tones and projects a positive image onto light- permanent. Finals, the print iswashed and dried.
recorded as pixels can be stored as digital files, the personality, the activity, the living perception
and either printed on paper or projected ona of a good and great human soul." Photographers
screen or computer monitor. Some photographers create images in the same genres as painters,
present these images as they were originally however, making portraits,landscapes, and
taken,but many make alterations to them on still lifes; although some photographs are factual
a computer. records, others clearly explore ideassimilar to
the more traditional ones favored by Ruskin. Genre: categories of artistic
subj ect matter, often with
Photographic Genres Portraiture
stronglyinfluential histories
and traditions
Portrait: image of a person
As photography became widely used in the From the earliest days of photography, or animal, usually focusing on
the face
nineteenth century, the English art criticjohn portraiture hasbeen one of its most popular
Stilllife: a scene of inanimate
Ruskin argued in the 1850s that" a photograph uses. Before photography was invented, the only objects, such as fruits, flowers,
is not aworkof art"because only art "expresses way to get a portrait was to have an artist paint or motionless animals
PHOTOGRAPHY 215
C
Gateway to Art: Lange, MigrantMother
How the Photograph Was Shot
In 1936 Dorothea Lange (1895-1965) was remembershe asked me no questions.

working as a photographer forthe federal Farm Imade five exposures, working closer and
Security Administration when she took a closer from the same direction. Idid not ask
photograph that would become a symbol of the her name or her history. She told me her age,
hardships of the Great Depression. Lange later that she was thirty-two. She said that they
described how she came to take six photographs had been living on frozen vegetables from
of Rorence Thompson, one of which is known as the surrounding fields, and birds that the
Migrant Mother.The most famous of the six c hiIcfren killed. She had just sold the tires
photos has been the subject of debate ever since. from her car to buy food. There she sat in
Lange wrote about the experience in the that lean-to tent with her children huddled
following passage: around her, and seemed to know that my
Isawand approached the hungry and pictures might help her, and so she helped
2.77 Dorothea Lange,
desperate mother, as if drawn by a magnet. me. There was a sort of equality a bout it.
Migrant Mother. 1936.
Library of Congress, Ido not remember how Iexpla ined my The pea crop at Nipomo had frozen and
Washington, D.C. presence or my camera to her but Ido there was no work for anybody. But Idid
not approach the tents and shelters of
other stranded pea-pickers. It was not
necessary; Iknew I had recorded the
essence of my assignment.
Shooting documentary photographs invohes
many ethicalissues, and Lange's photograph
has been the subject of much discussion of the
ethics of photography. For example, did Lange
consider Thompson's feelings when she hadthe
photograph published? Should the photograph
have been published without identifying the
mother and herchildren? In addition, the
newspapers never mentioned that Thompson
wasa Native Americanwho becamea migrant
when she was displaced from her triballand at
a young age. However, Lange was doing the job
the federal government had hired her to do, and
her photo made a difference to the lives of many
poor and hungry people: after the picture was
published, food was rushed to the migrant ca mp.
Because photographs can be reproduced
and manipulated, such an image as Migrant
Mother also raises the ethical question of how
the image should be used later. Lange's
photograph continues to be a symbol of people
struggling against poverty and deprivation.
It has been published many times since in
books and newspapers, and has twice featured
on U.S. postage stamps.
pictures of the landand its natural features.
Style: a characteristic w»- in
American Ansel Adams (1902-84) is known
for his landscape photographs of the American artists uses visual language to
West In Sand Dunes, Sunrise—Death Valley give a work an identifiable form
ofvisual expression
National Monument, California,Adams arranges
Foreground: the partofawork
black,white, and gray tones to achieve a balanced depicted as nearest to the viewer
effect ( 2.78). For Adams, a balanced photograph
contains a range of tones that help us see the
subject the way the artist wants us to, with
everything in the picture clearly in focus.
He was also deeply invokedwith the Sierra
Club,which -was dedicated to preserving
America's wilderness. Such landscape
photographs as these can raise awareness of
nature's grandeur.
2.78 (below! Ansel Adams, Sand Dunes. Sunr.se— Death

.
Val ley Na tionaIMo numen t. Catifornia c. 1 ? iB
2.76 (above) Nadar.Ssra/i Bernhart#. 1 B65. Alourre-i

p_nt, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, F-ance
one— an expensive and time-consuming process.

Photography changed all that. Eventually, camera
technology allowed people to take their own
pictures and to select and capture their own
memories. Many photographic portraits follow
the conventions for portraiture established in
painting,while others take advantage of the
camera's immediacy and its documentary
potential to make new styles of portraits.
French photographer Nadar (1820-1910)
made portraits of many well-known artists,
writers, and politicians. His photograph of the
actress Sarah Bernhardt illustrates his distinctive
style (2.76) . Rather than showing the actress
posedwith elaborate props, which was the norm
for portraits at the time, Nadar placed her in the
foreground, surrounded only by luxurious fabric
and leaning ona plain column. By focusing
his attention on the sitter, his imagehighlights
the actress's elegance and an introspective aspect
of her personality.
.andscape
While portrait photographers capture images

of individuals,landscape photographers take
PHOTOGRAPHY 217
2.79 Louis- Jacques-Mande
Dague--e, The Artist's Studio ,
1837. Whole-plate
daguerreotype. Collection o*
the Soc'ete Francaise de
Fhotog_aoh'e
2. 80 E dwa -d We st on . Peace r
No. 30. 1 930. Gelatin silver
print. 9-,;x7V;". Collection
Cente- for Creative
Photography. University of
Arizona
Still Life
One of the earliest surviving photographs is of
a collection of objects in the photographer's
studio. Daguerre,who was a painter as well as a
photographer, usedthe genre of stilllifein much
the same way that he didwhen he painted A still
life,or artistic arrangement of objects, allowed
him to study the formal relationships of light,
shadow, andtexture. At this time many artists
worked with live models in their studios, but in
TheArtist's Studio Daguerre used plaster casts
instead, becausehis exposure times were then
generally more than eight minutes,much too
long to photograph a living person ( 2.79).
In the early twentieth century, photographers
took a slightly different approach to still lifes. By-
focusing so closely on an object that itbecame
almost abstract, such photographers as the
American Edward Weston (1886-1958) were able
to create a new visual experience. Weston believed
in photographing a subject as he found it,
creating sharply focused prints on glossy paper,
and framing images with white mats (cardboard
surrounds inwhich a window for the image was
cut) and simple frames. Weston's Pepper No. 30
concentrates the viewer's attention on the form
and texture of the vegetable, so it begins to look
like something other than itself, taking on qualities
similar to those of a human form; at the same
time it dearly represents what it is, a pepper (2.80).
Photojournalism
Photojournalism is the use of photography to tell
a news story. Some of the earliest examples of
photojournalism date back to the Civil War, when
photographic equipment was portable enough to
be used in the field. Although we now readily accept
that photographs can distort, exaggerate, and even
lie—because they can be manipulated, altered,
cropped in particular ways, and only ever give a
partial view— the medium was once believed to
be inherently truthful. This credibility even today,
iscrucial for news reportage.
.American Lewis'Wickes Hine (1874-1940)
used photography to expose the ini ustice of child their often grueling and dangerous working 2.81 Lewis Wickes Hine.
labor in the early 1900s ( 2.81). He went into conditions. His efforts eventually led to the Ten Year Old Spanner. Y/hitnei
Cotton Mill, 190S. Photograohic
factories and mines under the guise of a establishment oflaws preventing children from
or" -it. Library o; Congress,
salesman, repairman, or safety investigator, and working at such young ages. Washington, D.C.
then took photographs as well as detailed notes American Steve McCurry (b. 1950) tookhis
about the ages of the childrenhe found there. photograph called Afghan Girl in a refugee camp
When he later published his findings, the public in 1984 after the Soviet invasion of .Afghanistan
was shocked by his photos of these children and (2.82a). At twelve years old, this young girl had
2.82a Steve Mc Curry.

Afghan Girt at NasarBagh
Refugee Camp. Peshawar.
Pakistan, 1984
2.82b Steve McCurry,

SharbatGula. Peshavar.
Pakistan, 2002
Texture: the surface quality of a

work, for example fine/coarse,
detaile Slacking in detail
Cast: a sculpture or artwork
made bypouring a liquid
(for example molten metal or
plaster) into a mold
Abstract: art image ry that
images from the naturalwo rid
(height,width, and depth)
PHOTOGRAPHY 219
Perspectives on Art: Steve McCurry
How a Photographer Captures a Moment
Steve McCurry is a photographer who launched I was in an ancient taxi traveling through the
his career by enteringAfghanistan disguised in deserton the India-Pakistan border. It was
native clothing shortly before the Russian in June, and as hot as the region ever gets.
invasion in 1978. A photographer needs to be The drought in this part of Rajasthan had
constantly alert for an opportunity to take a lasted for thirteen years. I wanted to capture
2.86 Steve McCurry. Dus:
great image. Here he describes how he took something of the mood of anticipation before
Storrr,. '//omen Take Shelter
fromStrong Dust-Laden a photograph of a group of Indian girts in a dust the monsoon rains.
Winds. Raiasthan. Indie. 1 983 storm in 1983. As we drove down the road, we saw a
dust storm grow— a typical event before the
monsoon rain arrives. For miles it built into
a huge wall of dust, moving across the
landscape like a tsunami, eventually
enveloping us in thick fog. As it arrived, the
temperature dropped suddenly and the noise
became deafening. Where we stopped, the
women and children who worked on the road-
something they are driven to do when the
crops fail— were barely able to stand in the
driving winds. They clustered together to
shield themselves from the sand and dust.
I triedto make pictures;theydidn'teven
notice me. Inthe strange dark-orange light
and howling wind, battered by sand and dust,
they sang and prayed. Life and death seemed
to hang in precarious balance. I tookthis
picture with a wide-angle lens so that Icould
capture the whole scene at this angle.
The monsoon is the earth's most awesome
climate event, and is deeply embedded in
the Indian psyche. Some believe that to
understand the Indian people one must
first understand the effect the monsoon has
on the Indian soul.
Covering the monsoon meant total
immersion. For months there is no rain, then
there is too much. Half the world's people
survive at the whim of the monsoon winds.
Photographing inthis environment isas
difficult as it gets. You continually have to wipe
away dust or rain from the lens, which takes
about half the time. The monsoon rains are
accompanied by winds that continually try to
wrestle away the umbrella that is tightly
wedged between head and shoulders.
c
2.83 H "oko Masiuke. Here is

New York: A Democracy of
Photographs, exhibition at the
New York Historical Society,
September 2007
already lost both parents, fled from her home or people who just happened to be carrying a
with her grandmother, brother, and sisters, and camera that day. The exhibition traveled all over
walked over snow-covered mountains to the world and -was later donated to the New York
Pakistan. For McCurrv,pictures of individuals HistoricalSociety.
tell the story ofconflict. This girl was just one of
the people McCurry encountered on his trip,but
her eyes made her unforgettable. In 2002, using The Art of Photography
the original photograph, McCurry again found
Sharbat Gula, then in Afghanistan, and confirmed Photojournalists oftenfocus on documenting a
her identity fcy iris-paiternidentification. When real event, while art can beconsidered to express
they met for the second time, custom dictated she an artist's creative interpretation of a subject.
could not smile or even look at a man who was As we have seen, photography has not always
not her husband. Both times their encounter was been regarded as one of the fine arts, such as
through the lens of the camera ( 2.82b ). painting, sculpture, and drawing. Soon after it
Today, photojournalism communicates events was invented there were heateddebates about
almost immediately on television anddie Internet, whether photography workedbest for recording
but those same images can also be used to record reality or as a way to makeworks of art. But a
events for posterity. Still images freeze a moment walk throughtoday's galleries inany major city
intime. Photographs made during the attack on will show* that photography is a favored medium
the World Trade Center on September 11,2001, of many contemporary artists. It was not until as
were published all over the world right after the recently as the 1980s, however, that photographs
event. In the days following 9/11, a group of were collected in major tine art museums.
photographersorganized an exhibition called
HereIs New York: A Democrac}' of Ph otographs on Making "Artistic" Photographs
the streets of SoHo in New "York City ( 2.83). The
collection of photos gave voice to almost 800 Swedish photographer Oscar Gustav Rejlander
people who had experienced the attack first hand, (1813-1875) worked in a labor-intensive,
whether the)- were professional photographers time- consumingway, just liketraditional artists.
PHOTOGRAPHY 221
c
2.85 Oscar Gustav Rejlander, By emulating the appearance and process of While Reijlander usedmanual methods to
The Two Ways of Life. 1 357. painting, Rejlander hoped his photographs would create his images, German photographer Loretta
Albumen silver print. 16x 31".
earn the respect that at that time was reserved for Lux (b. 1969) uses digital technology to assemble
Royal F'hotog"=on:c Society,
Bath, England painting. His Two Ways ofLife was madewith the elements inher compositions. She takes
thirty separate negatives, which were cut out like pictures of her friends' childrenandthen subtly
puzzle pieces (2.85). He exposed the negatives manipulates the colors and proportions, making
one at a time, covering the rest of the print every the subjects look as if the}- just stepped out of a
timehe exposed another negative. The resulting fairy-tale. Sometimes she also paints backgrounds,
image, which tookhim six weeks to make, looks which she then photographs andretouches
like one seamless scene. digitally to contribute to the otherworldly effect.
She works on each photograph for anywhere from
several months to a year. The Waiting G irl shows
a little girl and a cat on a vintage so fa (2.86).
The girl's severely knotted hair, her uniform-like
dress with its prim collar, and the emptiness of
thebackground give the impression she spends
hertimein a confined environment; likely with
people much older than herself. This picture, like
the one Rejlander created, shows a scene that did
not exist before the artist made it. Lux's subtle use
of digital technology, though, allowed her to alter
certain attributes, such as scale and proportion,
to create the effect she wanted.
2.86 _orett= Lux. The V/aiting Girl, 2006. Ilfochrome print.

1175X15/J
C
Recording Detail and Stopping the journal Camera Work (first published in
1902) and in his New York galleries. The Steerage,
Time
taken on a trip to Europe, shows the decks of a
At a time when other photographerswere trying passenger ship in the cheapest accommodations,
to imitate traditional painting, theAmerican separate from the first-class passengers, including
Alfred Stieglitz ( 1864-1946) was among the Stieglitz himself (2.87). Stieglitz was struck by
first to emphasize what he considered to be the composition ot shapes and rhythms in
the particular strengths of the photographic the photograph,including the straw hat on
medium: its clarity and realism. In addition to the upper deck near the center, the crossed
making artistic photographs, Stieglitz actively suspenders on themanbelow, the funnel leaning
promoted photography as a fine art medium in left, the stairway on the right, and the shapes
2.87 Alfred Stieglitz. The

Steerage, 1907. Chloride
print. t?h x 3=/3~. Alfred
Stieglitz Collection. A-t
Institute of Chicago
Proportion: the relationship in

si ze be n\~e en a wo rk's individual
parts and the whole
viewer' s space, often behind the
main subject matter
an artwork relative to another
obj ect or aro\*ork, or to a system
of measurement
area the boundaries ofwhich are
de fine dby lines or suggested by
changes in color orvalue
Rhythm: the regular orordered
repetition of elements in
the work
PHOTOGRAPHY 223
2.88 Garry Winogrand.
Central Park Zoo. New York
City, 1967. Gelatin silver print,
11 xld"
of round machinery, draping chains, andthe artwork, like a drawing or a painting, that is not
triangular mast. This kind of composition generalh- reproduced. By contrast,a photomontage
seemed thoroughly modernand reminiscent of is made to be reproduced. In photomontage,
the abstract paintings of that era. the artist combines and overlaps smaller
Incontrast to Stieglitz' s concernwith sharp photographic images (using prints or negatives)
focus and formal composition, American Garry and then rephotographs or scans the result.
Winogrand (1928-1984) was more interested German artist Hannah Hoch (1889-1978)
inphotographic candor and telling the truth. was one of the first to make photomontages. She
Winogrand used a small camera hecould easily usedthem as a way to protest social conditions,
cam- aroundwith him. He generally did not pose especially during and after World War I. In Cut
his subjects or set up shots beforehand. Many of with theKitchen Knife through the Last Weimar
his photographs seem spontaneous, as in Central Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch of Germany, Hoch's
Park Zoo, New York: hewalked around the city's Dada combination of text and images is at once
streets and captured what he found there (2.88). complex and nonsensical (2.89). The disorderof
Winogrand's approach, known as the snapshot the image effectively reflects the chaos of life at
aesthetic, seems casual and non-professional, but he that time.
intended his photographs to be serious and artistic. The American photographer Stephen Marc
Collage: a work of art (b. 1954) manipulates and juxtaposes images so
assembled bygluing materials,
PhotocoUage and Photomontage the\- take on new meaning. In Untitled—Passage
often paper, onto a surface. From
the French coiler> to glue on the Underground Railroad he interweaves
Photomontage: a single A collage is a composition created by gluing pictures from various sources to create layers
photographic image that together fragments of separate materials to form that are visually interesting ( 2.90). They also
combines (digitally or using
multiple film exposures) several an image. Collage is the name for both the communicate complex ideasabout how the past
separate images technique andthe resulting artwork. Collage can informs the present. Highlighting the dark and
Dada: anardiicanti-artand include photo-based images and pre-print ed powerfulhistory of the Cedar Grow Plantation
to WoridWar I,that reveled in
materials. Sometimes collages combine inVicksburg, Mississippi, Marc photographed
absurditv and irrationality- photographs and text. A collage is a unique the slave quarters there; he also includes an
22U MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.89 Hannah Hoch, Co* wth
the Kitchen Knife :hrough the
Las: Weimar Beer-Belly
Cultural Epoch of Germany,
1919-20. Photomontage,
44 /= x 35V:". Nationalgalerie,
Staatllche Museen. Berlin,
Germany
extract from a slave-owner's letter defending offraternal commitment. The artist sees these
hisdecision not to emancipate his slaves. The markings as a contemporary crossover ofAfrican
rhythms of the iron fence, antique hoe, and scarification andbody marking, and the branding
cotton plants are punctuatedby the young man of livestock and slaves. The historical backdrop
who stands, prominently displaying his Phi Beta for this contemporary African American makes
Sigma fraternity brands, a voluntary celebration the image more intriguing.
2.90 Steonen Marc. Untitled-

Passage on the Underground
Railroad, 2002. Digital
photomontage, archival
p'gmeot inkjet pr:nt. 9x 26".
Arizona State University,
Phoenix
PHOTOGRAPHY 225
Black and White versus Color o f childhood experience and family intera ctio ns 2.91 (above left] Roger
that might have passed by without note are Fenton, Valley of the Shadow of
Death, 1B55. Ge-nsneim
.Although color processes were invented around captured in honest and refreshingways. The Collection, Ha-ryRansorr
the end of the nineteenth century, they were not images also revealhow children sometimes Hurran'ties Research Cente-,
usedwidely in photography untilmuchlater. predict later adult behaviors in their innocent University o: Texas at Austin
Some artists hand-tintedtheir photographs mannerisms and actions. Mann collaborated
2.92 (above! Sally Mann. ~he
or used complicated methods to make color with her children to make the photographs: NewMothers. 1989. Gelatin
photographsbefore color film became sometimes she came upwith ths ideas, sometimes silver print, 8x10"
commercially viable inthe 1930s. Even after that, the}- did. The New Mothers shows the artist's
some prefer red to use black andwhitebecause daughters at play,believably taking on the guise 2.93 Sandy Skoglund.
it makeselements of the composition clearer. ofwomen mucholder than themselves ( 2.92). Radioactive Cats © 1980.
Cibachrome o-p'grrented
Today, so many of the images we see are in col or The color photograph RadioactiveCats Inkjet color photog_aph,
that black- and- whit e photo gr aphs so met imes by .American Sandy Skoglund (b. 1946) is a 25% x 35"
give the impression ofbeing old-fashioned.
British artist Roger Fenton (1819-69) was
hired by a publisher to photograph the Crimean
War (1853-6). Because his mission was to help
count er act unfavor able public percep tio ns ab o ut
the British government's involvement in the war,
noneofhis photographs shows casualties or dead
bodies. Valley of the Shadow of Death was titled
after a passage from Psalm 23 in the Bible
referring to the comfort God offers tor the
miseries and suffering of life ( 2.91). Inblack and
white, the cannonballs littering the battlefield
seem eerie, and even look like human skulls.
Fenton captures the emptiness and desolation
of the aftermath of combat in a poetic and
thought-provoking scene.
The series Immediate Family by .American
photographer Sally Mann (b. 1951) uses black
andwhite to help transform ordinary moments
into nostalgic and provocative statements. Parts
c
2.96 Edward Burtyn sky.

Manufacturing# 17. Deda
Chicken Processing Plant,
Dehui City. Jilin Province,
China. 2005
carefully organized narrative tableau, or not a simple right or wrong. It needs a whole new
arrangement (2.93). Skoglund makesall the way of thinking."
objects inher photographs,ananges them herself,
thenhires actors to posewith them, and records
the resulting scene. Sometimes she also exhibits Conclusion
the tableau. In Radioactive Cats the outlandish
color contributes to a surreal combination of With the invention of the artificial eve of the
factual and fictional elements that make us camera and the chemistry of film, artists had
question whether seeing really should be believing. a new way to recordthe world Like other artists,
Canadian Edward Burtynsky (b. 1955) prints photographers decidewhat to includeand
his powerful color photographs on a large scale, •what to leave out, how to compose the image,
about 3x4 ft., so that small details create an andhow to balance the elements within a scene.
impression of the vast scale of urban landscapes Photographers may choose to make portraits,
andthe relativesmallness of humankind His landscapes, or still lifes. Perhaps they may decide
series called Manufacturingfocuses on factories to tell news stories; if so, what choice of image
in China where raw and recycled materials are tellsÿthetrutj£? Some photographers— even
brought to be turned into commercial products using digital images— choose to work using
and shipped all over theworld Manufacturing time- consuming craft skills, similar to the
PI7 shows a vista ofworkers in a chicken- tradition of painting. Others prefer the feel of
processing plant (2.96). Thevivid pinks of the spontaneity anddirectness that comes from an
Narrative: an artwork that tells
a story uniforms,the white pants andboots, and the apparently casual working method, even if
Tableau: a stationary scene bright-blue aprons punctuate the industrial hundreds of photoswere needed to choose just
arran ged for artisti c impact
grimness of the warehouse. Without passing one. No matter what kind of image results, the
Surreal: reminiscent of the
Surrealist movement in the judgment, Burtynsky's arrestingimages medium of photography is unique because it
1920s andlater, whose art was call attention to things not usually in our contains a direct connection to both a particular
inspired by dreams and the consciousness. Burtynsky has saidhe wants moment in time (a reality existing in the external
subconscious
viewers to come to their own conclusions about world captured by the camera) and the creative
the emotions of the viewer civilization's impact on the planet because "it's and expressive choices in the mind of the artist.
PHOTOGRAPHY 227
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.6
Film/'Video and Digital Art
Of all the media chosen by artists, the moving on a DVD disk or computer hard drive. They
image is one of the youngest. For most of its are shown on a computer monitor, or on a screen
history to date, the dominant process for making using a digital p rojector. Often, moving images are
movies hasbeen film: flexible, celluloid, and recorded on film and transferred to a digital format
light-sensitive. A movie camera captures for the purposes of editing and presentation.
movement bv taking many separate frames per
second, allexgosecHnÿseÿueÿ
strip of film. .After being developed and edited,
the moving film passes in front of a br ight light in
Moving Images before
a projector that shines the image onto a screen. Film
Today, because of the high costs of the
medium, making a moviewith film requires How is the illusion of movement created? The
serious, usually commerdal, investment. Film principlewas understoodlongbefore the invention
is expensive because it requires many materials, of still or moving film images. An antique child's
highly specialized equipment, andincludes toy called a zoetrope (2.95 ) contains a rotating
development costs. By contrast, because digital cylinder with a sequence of images on the inside.
technology does not require such development By lookingthrough the outer ring of the cylinder,
expenses, once the initial investment in the which has slots cut into it,and spinning th<
equipment and software has been made, zoetrope, the viewer gets the impression of a
the overhead for making films digitally is single image in continuous motion. The illusion
comparatively low. Itwas not long ago, though, of movement created in this way is the basis of
that home movies, artworks, independent films, modern film andvideo technique.
and major motion pictures were all made and A theory known as persistence of vision
presented on film. explains that this illusion results from the
Analog videos,by contrast, are generally made presentation to the eye of separate images at
with small, hand-held cameras. Recordings, regular intervals so that the}- appear to be a
usually on tape, can be shown on the camera's continuous sequence. Because visual sensations
Medium(plural media): the
material on or fromwhich an screen or a television. Like films, videos can be persist even after the seen object is no longer
artist chooses to make a work of edited by splicing (joining) together separate there, the mind connects them together. This
art, for example canvas and oil recordings for a variety of effects. The analog concept is illustrated in a rudimentary way by a
or architecture
nature offilms andvideos requires them to be flip book with separate still images in a sequence
IMAX: a format for film viewed from beginning to end, although sections that,when flipped,becomevi suallv connected
presentation that records at such can be skipped by fast forwarding, or replayed and appear to move. Images captured inthe
high resolution that it allows
presentation offilms at far larger by rewinding. Digitalvideo cameras, whidi were camera use the same concept. The faster the
sizes than the conventional one developed more recently, record images as files succession of images, the smoother the
impression of movement. In the earliest film
] li*ilii* projectors there was a visible "blink1' between

frames. A modern movie will show images at
Series of changing images twenty-four frames per second; IMAX high-
definitionfilms showfortv-eight.
As strange as it may seem, in order to make
moving pictures it was first necessary to freeze
movement in the form of still images. After
many failed attempts, the English photographer
itiin, EadweardMuvbridge (1830-1904) arranged

a line of twelve cameras to take a sequence of
twelve pictures ofa running horse. The cameras,
connected to cables stretched across the
racetrack,were tripped as the horse passed.
Muybridge was paid about 542,000 to resolve
a wager that a galloping horsehasall four of its
legs off the ground at once. The camera proved
what the naked eve could not see: the horse
does (see the third frame of 2.96). Before then,
people thought the legs of the horse were
2.96 Eadweard Muybridge, Tie horse ir, Motion,

June 1 B. 1873. Albumen print. Library of Cong-esa.
2.95 D'=g"=x o; a zoetrope Washington, D.C.
Coi.i.iM, •Sit. kf MUV8RI03E MORSE'S G. St S.«F.
JhE J-loRSE IN yWoTtON.

muvhhidog, Animu™
Ih« •< il- uu ...fV ..I.M.I* I. ....

•SAj.LIf; OAHDNBB." owned by I.BLAND STANFORD; rt44*n by O, DOSS M.
4,III ||a (•ÿ"ÿf UK*
runner I—«'
—
*1.40 k»U over tht. PoJo Alto truck. lOlti Jac«, 1870.
FILM /VIDEO AND DIGITAL ART 229
extended, like those of a rocking horse,when they
were off the ground. When prints of Muybridge's
photographs were published in Scientific Am erican
magazine, the}- were accompaniedby instructions
to cut them out and place them in a zoetrope.
Silentand
Black-and-White Film
The very earliest films were short clips usually
documentingsingle instances of everyday
occurrences— feeding the baby, doing a dance,
leaving the factor}- gate at closing time, watching
the arrival of a passenger locomotive. The earliest
motion pictures were black and white and silent: pace. Birth ofa Nation uses symbolism, gesture, 2.97 Georges Melies. scene
the}- had no soundtrack. The}- were shown in and inter titles (onscreen text), rather than spoken ;-orr A Trip to the Moon [Le
Voyage dans la Lune], 1902.
nickelodeons,small storefront movie theaters dialogue, to move the story along. The film is now- 14 rr nutes, Sta- Film
popular inthe earlyyears of the twentieth controversial for its reinforcement of racistviews
century. Nickelodeons provided musical and stereotypes of the Old South; in fact, the Ku
accompaniments with live piano and drums, and Klux Klan used it for recruitment. Despite this
some provided lecturers to explain the action as unpleasant history, Birth of a Nation is important
the moving pictures, or movies, played. As movies for the epic scale of its production, its stylistic
grew into a business, the}- were shown in huge, andtechnical innovations, and its use of the film
ornate movie palaces that might also feature medium as a propaganda tool.
a pipe organ.
By 1896, movies were being shown all over
Europe and the United States. Georges Melies
(1861-1938), a French magician and filmmaker,
began showing films as part of his theatrical
magic show. His silent science fiction and fantasy
films were known for their trick effects and
humor. InA Trip to the Moon (1902), M£lies's
most famous film, a group of astronomers flies to
the moon in a spaceship launched from a cannon
(2.97). Their vessel crashes into the man-in- the-
moon's right eye, and then the astronomers
encounter wondrous sights and moon
inhabitants called Selenites. Melieswas one of the
first to use multiple settings, repeated scenes, and
cuts to establish a sense of time moving forward.
The .American filmmaker D.W. Griffith's
(1875-1948) silent film Birth of a Nation (1915)
was Hollywood's first blockbuster and one of
the first films to tell an epic story (2.98). The
film introduced a number of new techniques,
includingoriginal editing styles to make 2.98 D. W. Griffith. Birth of a
transitions between scenes andvan- the sense of Nation, 1915. publicity poster
c
real-life newspaper tycoon William Randolph
Hearst. To tell Kane's story,Welles used what were
artists uses visual language to then highly innovative techniques, including
give awork an identifiable form fabricated newspaper headlinesand newsreels
that give the impression of following a factual
Propaganda: art that promotes
an ideology or a cause story. Other parts of the plot are told using
Color: the optical effect caused flashbacks. Citizen Kane also features techniques
that were revolutionary for the time, such as
separate wave length dramatic lighting, innovative editing, natural
sound, elaborate sets, moving camera shots,
deep focus, and low camera angles. The movie
questions thevalues of the American Dream
andwas controversial for its criticism of Hearst,
a powerful public figure.
2.99 Orson Welles, scene

;-o-n Citizen Kane. 1941 . Sound and Color
11 2 rr'nutes. RKC Pictures
From the late 1920s, movie studios promoted
Another American filmmaker, Orson Welles color as a novelty to attract audiences. One of
(1915-85), wrote, directed, and starred in Citizen the first popular films to make use of color
Kane (1941), a film that was a box-officefailure combinedboth the new andold approaches.
but hailed by critics as brilliant (2.99). It is now In The Wizard ofOz (1939), Dorothy Gale is
widely considered one of the most important transported by a cyclone from Kansas to the
films of all time. Welles's film tells the story of Technicolor Land of Oz (' 2.100). The story's two
Charles Foster Kane, a character modeled on the separate locales are distinguishedby the use or
2.100 Victor Flem:ng. scene

from The ,Vizard of Oz. 1939.
101 minutes, Metro-Goldwyn-
N'ayer (MGM)
absence of color. The film opens with the difficult transition to sound. Synchronizing
Background: the pare of a work
Dorothy in the black-and-whiteworld of her sound with the actors' lip movements and
viewer's space, often behindthe home on a Kansas farm. Later, the brilliant dubbing was one of the great technical
main subj ect matter colors of the Land of Oz transport us into a challenges of early sound movies, as songs could
fantasy world clearly far removed from Kansas. not be performed oncamera by the actors, but
Color features prominently throughout the had to be recorded separately. Singin'in the Rain
film: Dorothy wears ruby slippers as she travels finds much humor in this situation. In the
with her companions— her dogToto, the movie's most famous scene, actor Gene Kelly
Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the Don— along jubilantly performs the title song inthe rainy
the yellow-brick road to the Emerald City to streets. All musicals tell their story in a
find thewizard. combination of dialog, songs, anddance.
Before 1927, any sound in cinemas was Frequently, as in this scene, dialog stops
performed live by musicians in the theater completely, and song and dance move the story
2.101 Stanley Donan building. After that, integrated soundmade it along (2.101).
and Gene Kelly, still ÿronr possible to build dialogue, background noise,
'
.
Singin in the Rain 1952, andmusic into the film itself. Singin'in the Rain,
1 03 -r'nutes. produced by
made in 1952, lookedback to the silent era by
Loew's ! ncorporated,
d'stributed by M6M telling the story of a silent-film company making
Animation and Special
Effects
Animation creates the illusion of movement
in films by taking a still image of an object or
drawing, changing it slightly for each new frame,
and then projecting allthe images in sequence.
The many thousands of images in modern
animations, such as those from Pixar Studios,
are generated and manipulated on computers.
Special effects can be createdby using models,
props, or makeup during filming, or by the use
of digital technology
Some of the earliest film animations were
made using puppets or dolls. Instop-action
animation, the figures are photographed in a
pose, moved very slightly, andthen photographed
again; the process is repeated until the desired
sequence of movements has been acted out.
Russiananimator WladyslawStarewicz ( 1882—
1965) created a stop-action animation movie
about infidelity,with a twist: the characters in
The Cameraman's Revenge (1912) are bugs
(2.102). Mr. Beetle has gone to the city on
business. He meets a dancer at the Gay Dragonfly,
a burlesque parlor. A grasshopper cameraman at
the burlesque also has designs on Miss Dragonfly.
Heis so jealous that he films Mr. Beetle andthe
dancer. When Mr. Beetle returns home, he finds
his wife in the arms of an "artist" cricket. Mr.
Beetle, after beating up the lover, forgivingly
takes hiswife to the movies,where his own
C
written anddirectedbv Hayao Miyazaki
(b. 1941), tells the story of a ten-vear-old girl
named Chihiro who is unhappy about moving to
a new town with her family. After her parents are
transformed into pigs, she is introduced to a
world filled with spirits from Japan's mythology
(2.103). She must go on a quest to conquer her
fears in order to find the strength to bring
her family back together.
Miyazakipersonally createddetailed
storyboards,or series of drawings,to beused as
the basis for the animations, which were then
completedby a team of artists. Backgrounds
were drawn on transparent sheets that couldbe
used for an entire scene, but a separate drawing
had to be made for each stage in the movement
of any moving object. At least twelve drawings,
2.102 Wladyslaw Starewicz, indiscretions are projected onto the big screen. andsometimes thirty, were required for every
Mes t rttne matograficheskogo This film is surprising for the physical second of SpiritedAway. Thus a film of this
Operators [The Cameramar's
Revenge], 1912, produced by
expressiveness of the bugs as well as for the wit length (125minutes) requires a minimum
Khanzhonkov Company. that gives the plot a slapstick quality. Like many of 90,000 drawings, and perhaps as many
Moscow, Russ'a animated films, The Cameraman's Revenge was as 200,000.
made more for adults than children. American film director George Lucas's
The most common technique for making (b. 1944) Star Wars (1977) set a new standard
2.103 Hayao Miyazaki with
animated films is called eel animation,which for blockbuster films byearning $194 million at
Kirk Wise (English version],
still from SpiritedAv&y, 2001 uses a sequence of drawings called eels. The the box office and bringing science fiction into
125 m'nutes. Studio Ghibli Oscar -winningfilm Spirited Away (2001), the mainstream. It offered a timeless tale of
goodversus evil in a fantasy setting peopled
with bizarre creatures. The Star Wars series of
films isknown for its elaborate and imaginative
special effects. The fantastical anddramatic
scenes, cosmic battles, and otherworldly
environments combine footage shot on location
in Tunisia, Guatemala, and DeathValley,
California,with imagery created in the studio
using super- realist paintings, detailed models,
and computer-generated and digitally timed
effects (2.104).
The Frenchdirector Jean-Pierre Jeunet
(b. 1953) adds animation and special effects
to live-action film to tell the story of Amelie
(2001), a shy twenty- three-year-old waitress
(2.105). Amelie's heartbeats outofher chest at
one point; in another scene, when her crush Nino
•walks away, she melts into a puddle on the floor.
Inanimate objects, such as the Impressionist
artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir's painting Luncheon
of the Boating Party,take on so much significance
that the}- almost function as additional
characters. Jeunet creates an environment in
which fantasy, reality, and rich color are mixed
together to revealthe magical qualities of
ordinary life.
2.105 [below] Jean-Pierre ÿeunet. st;ll fromAmelie

(The Fabulous Destiny of Amelie Poulain), 2001,
1 22 rr inutea. Claud e Ossard Product'ons
2.106 (abovei George Lucas.

still frorr Star Wars Episode
IV-A New Hope. 1977, 121
rr'nutes. Lucss;'lrr
c
2.106 Robert We ne, still

from The Cabinet of Dr. CaLigari
1919. SO minutes. Steiner
The Cabinet ofDr. Caligari is famous for its

Film Genres plot development, its character types, the strange,
shifting mood of the film, andthe way its scenic
Overtime, certain genres, or categories, of film design expresses this psychology. The costumes,
have developed their own conventions, plot lines, makeup, gestures, and music combine to create
andstockcharacters. As we have seen, musicals a dark and mysterious atmosphere. The film's
interweave singing and dancing into the narrative Expressionist sets were designed by German
flow; science-fiction films explore fantasy ina artists and include crookedwalls, angular
context of space and time beyond the everyday. buildings, and iarring plant forms that mimic
Romantic comedies and Westerns have evolved to the narrator's tortured mind.
explore changingviews of relationships and U.S. Documentaries seek to inform us about actual
history. Some other familiar film genres include subjects, events, or people. Some documentaries
horror and documentary films. present the story directly, filming events as they
One of the earliest horror films, The Cabinet occur through people's own voices and actions.
Genre: category of artistic Other documentaries edit past,present, and future
subject matter,often with a
ofDr. Caligari (1920), creates a creepy,
strongly influential histore nightmarish world. Directedby Robert Wiene events together to tell a story. Some documentaries
and tradition ( 1873-1938),the film tells the storvof a usevoiceover commentary to narrate or interpret
Expressionism: an artistic psychiatrist, Dr. Caligari, and his servant Cesar e, the action or events. Most documentary films
style, at its height in 1920s
Europe,which aimed to who can foretell the future. -Another character, combine such approaches, shaping factual
portray the world in terms Francis, suspects Caligari andCesareof a series information to express a point of view.
of vivid extremes of personal of murders, including that of his friend In one An Inconvenient Truth (2006), directedby-
experience and feeling
scene Cesare abducts Francis's fiancee, Jane. Davis Guggenheim (b. 1963),presents startling
defined in three dimensions (He is shown carrying her onto the bridge in facts about globalwarming. The film interweaves
(height, width, and depth) 2.1 06.) The film ends with a twist when Francis former Vice President Al Gore's public lectures
Documentary: non-fiction
films based on actual people, turns out to be a patient of Dr. Caligari, andthe on climate change with narratives about his life,
settings, and events entire film is apparently one of his delusions. family, and political career (2.1 07).
of the Afternoon ( 1943) and co- directed it with
her husband, cinematographer Alexander
Hurricane Hammid. The film follows a woman's experience
August 29. 2t
of an afternoon, shuffled together with her
dreams after she has driftedoff to sleep in a chair
(2.108 ). Two sequences are repeated: in one, a
cloakedwoman with a mirror over her face
walks down the road;in the other, the woman
(played by Deren) enters a house andwalks up
the stairs. These sequences appear to be replaying
themselves in thewoman's mindrather than
representing actual events. Several obi ects are
shown again and agai n: a flower, a key, a
telephone, a large knife, a record player,billowy
curtains, rumpled sheets. Elements change each
2.107 Davis Guggenheim, With graphs, charts, and photographs, Gore time the sequences are shown. For instance,
still from An Inconvenient describes the impact of pollution and carbon one moment the flower is placed on the pillow,
Truth. 2006. 95 minutes.
emissions onour planet. Inone of the most the next the knife appears in the same position.
Lawrence Ee-ide*- Productions
startling examples of global climate change, Towardihe end of the film a man replaces the
photographs show the recession of glaciers and female figures, one moment entering the house
the melting of the ice shelves ofAntarctica. and the next walking on the road.
Animated maps of Florida, San Francisco, Beijing, Time is circular in this film, andthe overall
Bangladesh, and Manhattan show the projected effect mimics a dream inwhich events that make
effects on shorelines if the sea level rises twenty sense to the dreamer seem illogical to others.
feet, as it will if the ice masses of major sections Each object seems to have an unnamed symbolic
ofAntarctica continue to melt. significance, and it is impossible to separate
actual occurrences from memories or fiction.
Ultimately, the film reflects a state of mind, and
Film as Art can bebest understood as visual poetry.
American Sadie Benning (b. 1973) began
Experimental Films making videos at the age of fifteen. Likeall of

her work, Flat is Beautiful challenges societal
Experimental films analyze and extend the perceptionswhile using innovative techniques
medium of film by usingnew technology or
subject matter, and by exploring new aesthetic 2.108 Maya De-en. still :-o-n Meshes of the Afternoon,
ideas. The}- tend to be visually compelling and 1943. 16rrm black-and-white silent ;:lm, 13 minutes
poetic, notable for their unusual content and
idiosyncrasy. They are often the production of
a single person or small group, and experimental
filmmakers use inexpensive equipment and low-
budget formats to create desired effects. They
frequently do not have integrated sound, or use
it inunnatural ways. Experimental filmmakers
tendto adopt innovative approaches, including
dream sequences and fantastic imager}- created
bymanipulating the filmstrip. Such films are
also often autobiographical.
American dancer, choreographer, and
filmmaker Maya Deren (1917-61) wrote Meshes
c
2.109 Sadie Benning, still from Rat Is Beautiful, 1998.

Pixelvislon video with sound. 56 m 'nutes
(2.109). Benning used a toy camera, theFisher

Price PixelVision camera, alongwith Super- 8 film
andanimated collages to make Flat Is Beautiful.
The sections shot with PixelVision are grainy, combinedboth recognizable anddistorted 2.110 NaT june Paik and
black-and-white images, emphasizingthe hand¬ pictures that were recorded and could be replayed John _i. God;i"ey, still from
Global Groove, 1973. s'ngle-
madeand personal quality of the video. Based later. Paik's Global Groove (1973), a thirty-minute
channel videotape. color with
on Benning's own experiences growing up as a video recording, comments on the increasing role sound. Courtesy Electronic
lesbian, this story focuses on the isolation and of media and technology in daily life. Arts Inte-rr x(EAI;. NewYork
persecution of an adolescent namedTaylor.Taylor Global Groove replicates the variety of topics
is undergoing a difficult transition into adulthood available on television at the time the video was
as she tries to come to terms with issues of identity made, from Pepsi commercials to news footage
and sexuality in a world of rigidly defined gender to game shows to President Richard Nixon's face.
distinctions. The video's title refers both to the All these scenes are interspersed like glimpses of
hand-drawn paper masks the characters wear and changing channels. Most of the clips integrate
to an appreciation of the flat- chested figure. music and visuals, consisting of either performers
or dancers. For example, Charlotte Moormanis
Video shown playing several experimental cellos designed

by Paik.The close-up of her face (2.110) is
Typically,video artworks are made to be presented surroundedby visual noise, static translated into
in art galleries or at art events. They maybe changingdesigns that correspond to the rhythms
shown on television monitors or projected onto of the musicshe is playing. Global Groove draws
walls. Sometimes artists incorporate video on contemporary culture, and foreshadows music
displays (alongwith other media) ina darkened video by integratingvisual and musical inputs.
area inways that transform the space and create
a total environment of sight and sound. Because Interactive Digital Media
high-quality video equipment is relatively
inexpensive, artistic experimentation with video Recent developments in digitaltechnology
is widespread. have allowed artists to involve viewers as active
Korean-American artist Nam June Paik participants in the artworkbv, for example, Aesthetic: related to beauty, art,
(1932-2006) was a pioneer of video art. In 1969 determining the appearance of the work or arid taste
choosing different paths to follow. Collage: aworkofart
Paikworked with Shuya Abe, an engineer from
assembled by gluing materials,
Tokyo, to modulate video signals with a device Fantastic Prayers ( 1999) is the creation of often paper, onto a surface. From
called the Paik-Abe Synthesizer. The results three artists: Constance Dejong (writer,b. 1950) , the French coUer.; to glue
c
Perspectives on Art: Bill Viola
How DidVideo Become Art?
Bill Viola,one of the world's leading video artists, By the early 1970s, political and social activists,
has been working in video since the 1970s. Here documentary filmmakers, and artistsof all
he explains why many contemporary artists disciplines were using video and showing their
prefer video as an art form. work together in art museums, film festivals,
community centers, universities, and on
I first touched a video camera in 1970 as a first- television.
year artstudent. In those politically charged Video as art exists somewhere between the
times, making art took on a renewed urgency, permanence of painting and the temporary
and the new electronic communication existence of music. Technically, the video system
technologies played a central role in re-imagining of cameraand recorder mimicsthe human eye
not only what a work of art could be but also how and memory. The so-called video "image" is
it could reach beyond the art world to engage actually a shimmering energy patternof moving
life and society directly and transform the world. electrons vibrating in time. To exist, the fabric
of the image needs to be in a constant state of
motion. The electronic image is not fixed to any
material base, and as digital data it is infinitely
reproducble. Itcan be copied, stored, and
transferred onto newformatsin a continuous
chain of eternal life. As an electronic signal it
can travel at the speed of light around the Earth
and beyond, and it can appearin multiple places
at the same time. As an international technical
standard, the image exists in the same form as
the dominant mass media, allowing artists the
2.113a (above) BillViola, potentialto addressthe global culture. Since
Going Forth by Day 2002. the production and distribution of images is
Installation view, video/sound
nowaccomplished by the same technological
'nstallat;on, five-part
projected image cycle system, today's artists have the freedom to
work within existing institutions or become
TheRaf:.
2.113b Bill Viola. their own producers and distributors.
May 2006. Video/sound
Technology isthe imprint of the human mind
installation, color higtn -
definition video project'on onto the material substance of the natural world.
on wall n da'Kened space. Like the Renaissance, today's technological
revolution is fueled by a combination of art,
science, and technology, and the universal
human needto share ourindividualideasand
experiences in ever-new ways. The medium of
video, where images are born and die every
instant, has brought a new humanism to
contemporary art. The digital image has become
the common language of our time, and through
2.113c Bill Viola (on the right:
it living artists are once again emerging from
in production for The Raft.
Downey Studios, Downey, the margins of the culture to speak directly to
California. 2006 the people in the language of their experience.
Tony Oursler (visual artist, b. 1957), and Stephen
Vitiello (musician'composer,b. 1964). This
project,which started as a performance, is
especially well suited for the virtual environment
of the Web ( 2.111). In it, fragments of text,
images, andsounds constantly shift and change
rather than being restrictedby fixed boundaries.
Fantastic Prayers combines eight environments
that visitors explorelike archaeologists to
uncover fragmentary narratives, memories,
objects, and places: PlaceWhere Lost Things Go,
Ludlow Street, Graveyard, Hair,Natatorium,
Empathy Wheel, Walls that Speak, and Jacket.
Actions vary for each environment, including
locating items, embarking on journeys, and
discovering embeddedvideo andaudio works.
Some environments are like detective mysteries,
while others can be played like games. For configured into image files in the form of patterns 2.112 exonemo, The Road
example, Empathy Wheel incorporates fourteen that allowed Internet viewers to print out and fold Movie. 2005. Mobile
installation system (MobLab
videos that give visitors the opportunity to digital origami replicas ofthebusand its exterior
on the road n Japan. October
manipulate actress Tracy Leipold's emotions. Like views to make their own road movie ( 2.112). 18-November 6. 2005] and
the rest of the environments, Empathy Wheel is online artwork
driven by the user's choices and experience rather

than having a beginning, middle, andend.
The RoadMoviewas an interactive Web
project consisting of a bus calledMobLab ("Mob" Filmandvideo evolved from the sequencing of still
for mobile and for crowd; "Lab" for laboratory) in images to replicate the appearance of life moving
which German and Japanese artists traveled across in front of our eyes. Such elements as sound,color,
Japan in the fall of 2005. Their trip was tracked by animation, and special effects have added to the
Global Positioning System (GPS); five cameras believability and appeal of movies made for both
mounted on the bus recordedthe journey and entertainment andartistic purposes. Film also
uploaded to the Web every five minutes. The five hasthe power to re-create dreamlike effects and
camera shots (front, back, right, left, and top) were to make a big impression on us through its
glamour and immediacy. As it has developed into
2.111 Constance de Jong. Tony Oursler. Stephen Vitiello. a major industry,popular cinema usually produces
Fantastic Prayers. 2000. Screensnot from CD-RON'. andmarkets films belonging to different genres
Courtesy Dia Art Foundation
that promote desired—if at times predictable—
kinds of characters and storylines. Documentaries
step outside of the imaginary world to tell us
about reality, generally from the filmmaker's
point of view. In theworld of art movie- making
andvideo, artists have extended the medium in
ways that are often visually compelling and
poetic. Artists have also used the low cost of
accessible digital and Internet technologies to
create new kinds of reflections of our world.
Moving images are all around us. Knowing
aboutthe history and technology of film, video, 0rigami: theJapanesealTof
and digital movies enriches our experience of them. paperfolding
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.7
Alternative Media and Processes
Artworks made using alternative media and seep. 244) existed only in a potential state when
processes break down the traditional boundaries the artist first made it. The piece requires the
between art and life. The}- draw our attention viewer' s participation to be realized. In Vito
to actions or ideas rather than to a physical —
Acconci's Following Piece (2.115 see p. 242),
product. The creative process produces events, there was no audience at the time, but the artist
ideas, and experiences that are artworks in and took pictures of each 'following' that he made.
of themselves. Many artworks that are interactive When artists design an entire exhibition space
or involve theviewer inunusual and significant as an artwork, usually in a gallery or museum, it is
ways fall into this category. called an installation. Installations might consist
Performance art has some similarities to of props and sets to transform the space into a
theater because it is performed infront of a live room in a house or a place of business; they
audience. Performance art includes varying might incorporate electronic displays or video
amounts of music, dance, poetry, video, and projections; ortheymight involve artworks
multimedia technology. Unliketraditional arranged in relation to one another in a sequence
theater, however, there is rarely an identifiable or series. Often installations are designed to fit
story and the performance takes place in the dimensions or environment of a par ticular
consciously artistic venues. The actions of the location: these installations are called"site-
artist, or individualschosen by the artist, become specific.'" The artist plans the space, considers
the focus. These actions, which occur in a gallery, how peoplewill move through it, and arranges
on a stage, or in a public place, may last from a the elements to create a certain effect. Whether
few minutes to a few days and are rarely repeated. the}- are designed for an interior or exterior space,
In conceptual art, the idea behind an artwork installations immerseviewers inthe artwork.
Medium(plural media): the is more important than any visible subject or
material on or fromwhich an material product. Artists generally plan the piece
artist chooses to make a \\*ork of
andmakeall of the major decisions beforehand;
the execution of the piece itself is secondary.
Context of Alternative
orarchitecture
Performance art: a work
Conceptual art often produces no permanent Media
involvingthe human body, artwork andvery littlethat can be promoted
usually including the artist, in andsold: sometimes a set of instructions, a During the twentieth century, a way of making
front of an audience documentary photograph, or nothing at all art emerged that focused on modes of creation,
Conceptualart: a work in
which the ideas are often as remains as evidence that the piece existed. such as actions, texts, and environments. These
important as how it is made For example, if an artist printed a set of approaches differed from the traditional Western
Installation: an artwork instructions for the viewer, the actual, tangible practices of "fine art," narrowly defined as
c reated by the ass embli ng an d
arrangement of objects in a
result of the piece wouldbe the actions that paintings on canvas and sculptures on pedestals.
specific location person performed. Yoko Ono's Wish Tree (2.119 - .American artist Jackson Pollock's (1912-56)
C
action paintings of the 1950sbrought the canvas
off the easel and onto the floor to become a
surface aroundwhich the artist moved as he
splashed,dripped, andflunghis paint. His
unusual and excitingpainting techniques
galvanized public interest in "difficult" modern
art. Pollock rocketed to popular fame following
an article of August 8, 1949 in Life Magazine that
even asked, "Is hethe greatest living painter in
the United States?" Not long after Pollock's early
death in a car crash, though, there was a sense
that artists hadexhaustedall they could say
with paint on canvas. Artists began to turn to
performance, conceptualism, and installations
to explore radical new ideas about art.
Because this chapter focuses on the ideas
expressed in the making of artworks rather than The work of German artist Joseph Beuys 2.114 j oseoh Beuys. Coyote.
the finished objects themselves, we shall also look ( 192 1-86) explores his own German heritage :Like America andAmerica
Likes Me. May 1974. Livi ng
at the documentation about them— instructions andwider issues of social identity.Beuys's early-
sculpture at the Rene Block
used to plan an activity, notes taken bv the artist life under the Nazis,especially his compulsory Gallery, NewYork
related to a piece, or photographs or video made membership of the Hitler Youth and volunteer
during a performance. The works themselves service as a fighter pilot in the German Air Force,
tend to last for a relatively short period of time. strongly influenced hisartwork. After his plane
crash in World War II, Beuys's artworks often
recalled the nomads that rescued him and
Performance Art prevented him from freezing to deathby
wrapping him in fat and felt. The materials used
During the 1960s and 1970s artists all over the to save his life became symbolic elements in many
world began exploring theatrical actions or of his sculptures and performances. A large piece
performances as a new form of creative activity of felt was one of the major props inhis piece
they termed performance art. American composer Coyote, I LikeAmerica andAmerica Likes Me
John Cage (1912-92) incorporated into his music (2.114). The piece is mysterious. Because Beuys
chanceoperations,experimental techniques, and did not speak or interact with anyone during
even silence. Heavily influenced by Zen Buddhism, the five-day performance, a sense of myth
Cage wanted to iolthis audiences into paying surrounds the events that actually took place.
attention to thelife all aroundthem. Hewas one Uponarrival inAmerica, Beuyswas transported
of the first artists to conduct happenings, or from the airport to the gallery in an ambulance.
impromptu art actions. Theater PieceNo. 1 Hewas wrapped in felt, covered in hospital
(1952) was an unrecordedcollaboration in blankets, and carried on a gurney so he could not
poetry, music, dance, and paintings by the faculty see his surroundings or touch American soil.
andstudents at Black Mountain College in North During the performance hewas confined inthe
Carolina. The performers mingled with the gallery- with a coyote, a trickster or mischievous
members of the audience, and the piece relied for figure in native .American mythology, and
its outcome on improvisation and chance rather symbolic of the spirit world. Beuys's action Action painting: application of
paint to canvas by dripping,
than a script or musical score. Its lasting influence (as hecalled his performances) was intended splashing, or smearing that
comes from its emphasis on performance rather to activate a process of spiritual healing and emphasizes the artist's gestures
thandocumentation. Happenings expanded the reconciliation, to make amends for the Happening: impromptu art
actions, initiated and planned by
scope of art to includethe lived moment— desecrations causedby the coming of Europeans an artist, the outcome ofwhich is
actions as they happen, hereand now. to the New World. not knownin advance
ALTERNATIVE MEDIA AND PROCESSES 241
C
When hewas finished with his performance, Some performances put the body through .
2.115 Vito Acconc Following
the artist was wrapped up andwhisked away by extremes of endurance, as Serbian artist Marina .
Piece 1969. Street Works IV.
23-day activity
ambulance in the same manner as he had come. Abramovfo (b. 1946) has done in a number
Beuys saw his actions as a way to make art ofworks dating back to the 1970s. In one piece
more connected to society, incorporating she lay in a ring of fire untilshe fainted from
commitments to activism and political reform. asphyxiation (and had to be rescuedby
Earlyin his career, American artistVito onlookers). In another, one of her longest pieces
Acconci (b. 1940) was known for art actions
and performances. Theseworks consisted of 2.116 Marina Abram ovic. The House with the Ocean View.
situations he setup for himself, andrecords 2002. Fer;orrrance at Bean Kelly Gallery. New York
of how he completed them. Hisstated intentions
for Following Piece (2.115) were: "Choosing
a person at random, in the street, a new location,
each day. Following him wherever he goes,
however long or far he travels. (The activitr¬
ends whenhe enters a private place— his home,
office, etc.).'" Acconci performed this activity
for twenty- three days; the longest following
lasted nine hours. An exhibition of Following
Piece includesdocuments of the events, such
as the artist's handwritten note cards, and
photographs of Acconci walking behind the
personbeing followed Following Piece examines
both the relationship between the artist and the
viewer andthe way an artist's actions create
interactions with another person. In this sense
Acconci's work is a conceptual performance:
it is about ideasand a set of actions as much
as about the production of a work of art. It is
interesting to note how- our view of such works
can change through time. In 1969,when the
piecewas first developed, it was regarded as a
newidea, but nowadays, we might look on the
artist's actions infollowing and photographing
someone without their knowledge as disturbing
or even menacing.
(it took almost three months),she andher
partner Ulay started at opposite ends of the Great
Wall of China and met in the middle after -walking Your
over 1,242 miles. In 2002 Abramovi'c performed
The House with the Ocean View at a gallery in
New York City. For twelve days she did not eat,
speak, read, or write while she was isolatedand
on public view. The rungs of the ladders leading
to the raised sitting room,bedroom, and
bathroomwere made of largebutcher knives,
reinforcing the idea of confinement ( 2.116). For
the duration of the piece Abramovi'c performed
some of her everyday activities— sleeping,
drinking, going to the bathroom,dreaming,
looking, and thinking— inways that were highly
conscious and deliberate. Because she did not
allow herself to talk, the artist spent her time
interactingwith the members of her audience
visually,looking at them,being looked at, and
relating to them without speaking. As an art
performance carried out in public, The House
with the Ocean View calls attention to the
simplicity and meaningfulness of everyday life.
Conceptual Art to the core concept but also allowing us to make 2.117 E.2"0="3 Kruger,
the words meaningful for ourselves. American Untitled [Your Gaze Hits the
Side of My Face;, 1981-3.
Conceptual art is a form of art that emphasizes artist Barbara Kruger (b. 1945) uses her training Photograoh. 55x41"
ideas and radically downplays the importance and experience as a graphic designer to combine
of the work of art as craft object. Ithas found images and words to give them new-
flourished from the 1960s onwards. In some meanings. Fler pieces address the powerful
ways conceptual art is similar to Dada absurdist institutions of society and stereo types that are
events in Zurich in 1916,where artists often seen in graphic design and museum
performed nonsense poetry as a release from display. As in Untitled (Your Gaze Hits the Side
and savage commentary on the events of ofMyFace) ( 198 1-3),there is often a feminist
World War I. Dadaist Marcel Duchamp (1887— overtone to her work, taking the institutions to
1968) also made artworks that challenged taskfor their treatment of women ( 2.117).
traditional notions of art. One of his works, Because the text is written in the first person,
Fountain,was rejected for an artexhibition in the sculpture in the picture seems to be speaking,
New York in 1917 because it was simply a factory- addressing theviewer directly. In this piece,
madewhite porcelain urinal, signed "R. Mutt." beauty is shown to be just a coating or surface,
Duchamp was very influential for many artists andthe viewer realizesthat when we gaze at
later in the twentieth century, and opened up beauty we becomevoyeurs.
possibilities of making art with everyday things Like Kruger, .American artist Bruce Nauman Dada: anarducanti-srt and
and materials, imager)- from popular culture, (b. 1941) uses words as the basis for some of his to Wodd War I, that reveled in
or even simply ideas. artworks, though he employs the text directly, absurdity and irrationality
Found image: an image found
Many examples of conceptual art consist without an accompanyingimage. Nauman
by an artist and presented with
of words ona page or background. Thesewords shapes neon, an unconventional artistic medium little or no alteration as a work
cut to the chase, not only directing our attention more commonly used for commercial signs, into of art
2.118 Bruce Naun-en, The Yoko Ono (b. 1933), a Japanese-born
TrueArtist Helps the V/orld American artist and musician,began making
byRevealingMystic Truths
(Window or Wall Sign/. 1967. conceptual artworks inthe early 1960s. Her first
Neon tubing with clea- glass pieces were poetic instructions to be performed
tub:ng susoension ;ÿ3Te, or iust imagined. Sometimes they were typescripts
59x55x2". Fh:ladelphia
framed and put on the wall. Other times, Ono
Museum o; Art
painted right on the museumor gallery wall
(again highlighting the transient nature of some
of these pieces,becausewhen the exhibition
ended, those instructionswould disappear).
She thenstarted to ask viewers to complete
her pieces by, for example, burning or walking on
the paintings. Eventually she made"Instruction
Paintings,'" consisting of typed instructions, rather
than finished works of art. The instructions are
open- endedand serve as a beginning point
rather than a final product. They rely heavily on
a message, for example: "The true artist helps the the interaction and participation of theviewer.
world by revealing mystic truths" (2.118). He The instruct ions fo r Wish Treefo r Wash ingto n
made this piece while -working ina studio in D.C. (2007) state: "Make a wish, Write it down
San Francisco that had formerly been a grocery- ona piece of paper, Foldit and tie it aroundthe
store. Inspiredby a beer sign he found, the w-ork branch of a Wish Tree, Ask your friends to do
addresses metaphysical concerns about the role the same, Keepwishing Untilthebranches are
of the artist in a way that does not initially look covered with your wishes." Inspired by the
like art. The flashy appearance of the spiral of Japanese practice of tying prayers to a tree,
handwritten textdraw-s us inand confronts us Ono has made Wish Trees like the one in 2.119
w-ith a statement that is both serious and funny. all over the world.
2.119 Yoko Cno. V/ish Tree for

Liverpool. 2008. BluecoatArts
Centre. Lve'pool, England
2AA MEDIA AND PROCESSES
|C
Perspectives on Art: Mel Chin
Operation Paydirt/Fundred Dollar Bill Project
Mel Chin lb. 1951), an American conceptual artist,
challenges the traditional role of the artist and
the expectedoutcomes of artworks. Here Chin
describes how a collective work of art (2A 20 and
2.121J made by children andadults across the
United States land interestedpeople from other
countries) can beused to raise awareness and
support for an important environmental initiative.
Following Hurricane Katrina, Iwas invited to

contribute to rebuilding the social, cultural,
and physical infrastructure of New Orleans.
Researching the impact of the storm and the
pre-existing conditions in the city, Ifound
New Orleansto be the second most lead (Pb)-
contaminated city in the United States, and
that the elevated levels had existed in the soil population most threatened has a means to 2.120 Mel Chin, Operation
before the storm. The conta mination exists in respond. These unique artworks will be Paydirt/Fundred Dollar Bill
Project. Dev on Chariot, a
thousands of properties and contributesto the delivered to the steps of Congress where an
resident of the 7th wa"d n
high percentage of the inner-city childhood even exchange of this "creative capital" will be New Orleans, shows sorre o;
population that suffers from lead poisoning. requested to obtain funding for implementation tne thousands of ""undreds on
d'splay at 5a:enou se
Scientific studies have linked lead poisoning to of Operation Paydirt.
elevated rates of violent criminal activity and The Paydirt/Fundred project seeks to
poor academic performance in schools. The facilitate the complete transformation of New
presence of polluted soil and the absence of Orleans into a city with lead-safe soil, through
capital to respond to the situation motivated the delivery of a scientific solution to the
the creation of this dual-layered project. problem of lead contamination, while calling
2.121 Mel Chin. Operation
Paydirt/Fundred is a method to respond to this foractionthrougha nationwide drawing
Paydirt/Fundred Dollar Bill
condition— through art— and to transform- project designed to engage all. The approach Project. Examples of the
through science— an environmentthat extends across the disciplines of art, science, fundreds drawn by students n
New Orleans. Lou'siana jtoo
compromises human health. and education, and is sensitive to aspects
left and " gnt]; Marfa, Texas
Operation Paydirt offers a pragmatic, of community development and urban ibpttomle;t] ; and Collownee,
scientifically proven method to neutralize infrastructure. Tennessee jbottom r'ght]
hazardous lead that contaminates soil and
compromises the health of children. This plan, vainmi:
focused on solution, hasthe potential for
creating a modelforall cities and counteracting
an environmental factor that undermines the
health of society.
Supporting Operation Paydirt is the Fundred
Dollar Bill Project, a collective artwork, created
by children and adults across the country, of
three million original interpretations of the
U.S. $100 bill. Through Fundred, a childhood
Ic
2.122 Claes Oldenburg.
Installation and The Store, nstallation view.
Environments 107 East 2nd Street,
New York. Decern ber 1 .
.
1 961-January 31 1962.
The Store by the Swedish-bornAmerican sculptor Photo Rooe-t McElroy
Claes Oldenburg (b. 1929) helpedbreakdown
barriersbetween art and life (2.122). Oldenburg
createdandsoldhand-made paintedplaster
replicas of food and ordinary objects in a rented
storefront at 107 E. Second Street, New York City.
The goods in Oldenburg's Store were painted with
gestural paint marks that made it clear they were
art objects. The Store created an active space
where people couldhave experiences and interact.
It combined the familiarity of a conventional
grocen- store with the mystique of an art gallery
while creating a fun and inviting environment.
American (with African, native .American,
and European ancestry) FredWilson (b. 1954) 2.123 (oelow) Fred Wilson.
Portra its of Cigar S tore
draws on his background as an art educator to Owners, from Mining the
rearrange objects inmuseum collections. He Museum, 'nstallation April d,
takes on the role of the curator— the person 1992-February 28. 1993
2A6 MEDIA AND PROCESSES
C
racism, although eight out of ten Baltimore
residents are African American.
The installations of American artist Kara
Walker (b. 1969) also address overlooked history-:
the pre- Civil War South. Walker adopts the
nineteenth- century- technique of silhouette
cutouts, in which an artist makes a likeness of
the sitter by tracing the shadow cast from a
strong light source. The silhouettes in Walker's
installations provide a glimpse of the subject in
an indirect way, a trace of history- that seems to
haveexisted She has recently incorporated
overhead projectors in her installations to cast
additional shadows on the walls, including those
ofviewers in the room. As the viewer's shadow-
appears on the wall, he or she is included and
even implicated in the events unfolding there.
2.124 Kara Walker. responsible for overseeing, preserving, and The combined projections andsilhouettes can
Insurrection! /Our Tools were exhibitingobjects in a particular collection, be seen in Insurrection!(Our Took Were
Rudimentary. Ye: V/e Pressed
On}, 2000. Projection, cut
and converts the role into an art action. Wilson's Rudimentary, Yet WePressed On) ,which presents
paoe-. and adhesive on wall. work at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the a story- that combines fact and fiction ( 2.124).
4' 8Vi" X 2?' 1:/s". Solomon American Museum of Natural History, and the Walker explains that this scene is intended to
R. Gugqenhe:m Museum,
American Crafts Museum gave him insight show"a slave revolt in the antebellum South
New York
into the ways in which museum displays create where the house slaves got after their master wi th
certain experiences that have specific effects on their instruments, their utensils of everyday life."
audiences. In his own art, Wilson looks critically Each grouping of figures highlights the bodies
at the assumptions behind the ways museum of the individuals, the stories the)- represent,
exhibitions work. andthe scenarios of which they become a part.
In Mining the Museum, Wilson selected and
presented objects only from the collection of the
Man-land Historical Society (2.123). He arranged Conclusion
them inunusual ways andincluded objects rarely
seen because the)- were usually in storage. He also The art in this chapter emphasizes the lived
providedprovocativewall labels, andinstalled moment, or actions as the)- are happening,by
audio loops to accompany certain pieces. One focusing on the processes involved. Artworks made-
section of the installation displayed five "cigar store usingalternative mediaand alternative processes
Indians" with their backs to the viewer. (Since the draw our attention away from art that tells a
nineteenth century, "cigar store Indians" havebeen story, or that seems to be a picture of something,
used as sidewalk displays for tobacco shops in and toward the acts of making, thinking, and
America.) The title, "Ebrtraits of Cigar Store ex£enencino. Performance art enlivens moments
Owners," isironic because native.Americanswould that were once frozen inpaintings and sculptures,
never haveowned cigar stores at that time; it is also conceptual art concentrates on ideas, and
Curator: apersonwho critical of the degradation of the dignity of native installations arrange an environment for the
organizes the collection and Americans that is involved in turning them into viewer to engage with. These types of artwork
exhibition of objects/ artworks in
a museum or gallery advertising signs. Throughout Mining the Museum celebrate the perceptions and understanding of
Silhouette: a portrait or figure the museum'sunconsciousracial biases are exposed those who respond to them as much as the skills
represented in outline and As a result of this installation the Man-land of the artists who made them. The)- inspire us to
solidlycoloredin
Subject: the person, object, or Historical Society realized it had never staged an expand our understanding of art and see it all
space depicted in a work of art exhibitionabout slavery or institutionalized around us in the life we are living.
c
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.8
The Tradition of Craft
Life is so short, the crafts so long to learn. 1045 3Ce), the maker of a fine embroidered
(GeoffreyChaucer, English poet) wool tunic inParacas, South America (600-
175 bce), and the ceramist who made lamps
In Geoffrey Chaucer's (c. 1340-1400) time, the for the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (sixteenth
makers of the fine objects we can see today in century) probably did not consider themselves
the world's great art museums learned their trade any less skillful or "artistic" than painters or
inassociations called guilds. Fourteenth-century sculptors.
aspiring craftsmen trained with masters, a In this chapter we will examine both craft
process that lasted many years, as Chaucer's objects and works of art made with the same
comment suggests. In medieval Europe, painting materials. Ifwe try to define precisely the
(for example) was not considered to be of higher difference between art and craft we will discover
status than the work of either turning ceramics it is difficult, perhaps impossible. .As you read
into fine vessels or weaving exquisite tapestries. this chapter, ask yourselfwhether you think the
Things gradually changed after 1400 during the objects discussed can beconsidered art or craft.
Renaissance, and by the eighteenth century, At the same time, think about whether the
certain media, notably painting and sculpture, makers of the objects, and the people they made
came to be considered as art,while ceramics, them for, could tell the difference either. In the
weaving, and embroider)- were termed crafts. hands of skillful designers, great craft objects
Other materials, such as metals, were used to possess artistry equal to great works of art.
make fine sculpture (which was "art") as well
as practical and household objects ("craft").
Crafts came to mean items made to be used Ceramics
rather than simply looked at. This view was
generally accepted, even though utilitarian Our word ceramic comes from the Greek
objects require technical skill to produce, and word keramos, meaning potter)-, which was
craftspeople devote years to mastering their craft. probably derived from a word in Sanskrit
Renaissance: a period of Indeed,some craft objects,because of their (a language of ancient India) meaning to burn.
Europe fromthe fourteenth to ingenuity and refinement, stand out as artworks The accepted interpretation of the word, burnt
the seventeenth century that transcend mere utility. earth, aptly describes the ceramic process. The
Medium 'plural media): the The distinctionbetween art and era ft was manufactureof a ceramic object requires the
artist chooses to make a work unique to Western culture, and it has now- shaping of clay, a naturalmaterial dug from the
of art, for example canvas and broken down in the twentieth and twenty-first earth,which isthenbaked at high temperatures
oil paint, marble, engraving, centuries, as this chapter will show. As for the tomake it hard.
video, or architecture
Ceramist: a person who makes rest of the world, the maker of a bronze vessel We know- that the basic techniques used to
ceramics in China during the Shang Dynasty (1300— make ceramics date backthousands of years
C
Perspectives on Art: Hyo-In Kirn
Art or Craft: What's the Difference?
a person, or clothes to cover someone's

body. The work shown here is from a series
by the young Korean-Americanartist
Hyo-In Kim. It is a hanbok, a traditional
Korean dress worn with shoes and a hairpin
by wo men of the upper and royal classes.
Its gold-colored decoration indicates its
prestige; such expensive materials were
costly and well beyond the means of
commoners, who mostly wore plain white
garments.
However, the title, To Be Modern #2,
suggests the artist has something more in
mind thansimply a fondness fortraditional
Korean clothes. Kim is faithfulto the original
dress design; she wants it to be correct to
tradition. But she also wants it to indicate
something important about tradition. That
is why she has subtlytransformed it by making
it out of silver-coloredwire mesh (instead of
m \ i-fi! cloth) and by molding the decorative details

out of porcelain, which she has then painted
gold. And in keeping with the idea of
2.125 Hyo-In Kim. To Be When we look at a fine painting we will almost transformation, instead of displaying it on a
.
Modem #2 2004. Metal certainly describe it as being art. But is a fine manikin like a dress in a store window, like
screen, wire, porcelain.
example of clothing, for example, art or craft? something to be bought and sold, she decided
acrylic paint, and ;ound
oojects, slightly over life-size If craft is something that has a useful function, to suspend it with its sleeves outstretched so
then presumably a dress is craft. Here,however, that its transparency and weightlessness
Professor HowardRisatti, an art historian at would be emphasized.
Virginia Commonwealth University, examines a Kim intends us to see through the
work based on a traditional Korean dress that material so that the dress, like the hairpin,
transforms a practical piece of clothing to appearsto float like a ghostly, disembodied
comment on our modern globalized world 12.125). figure— something almost there and yet not
Heasks: What makes something a work of art quite. Thisapparitional effect, enhanced by
rather than a work of craft? the glittering gold of the decoration, is then
undercut when, upon close-up inspection of
Only by understanding something essential the dress, the decoration turns out to be tiny
about a work of art can we begin to appreciate versions of fashionable Western clothing:
its richness and complexity as an aesthetic jeans, skirts, shoes, purses. What Kim wants
object. So to begin, we must ask, "What is us to see and appreciate, both literally and
essential to a work of craft?" To my thinking, figuratively, is that those traditional cultural
it isthat craft is an object constructed around values that give structure and form to people's
the idea of function, say the way a container lives, including our own, are fading away and
functions to hold water, or a chair to support disappearing as globalization spreads.
THE TRADITION OF CRAFT 2A9
2.126 Ce'amics stud'o because archaeologists investigating the earliest- earthenware and is fired at a higher temperature.
equipment 'le;t to r'gnt. : knowncivilizations have found potsherds, small Stoneware is a goodclay for the creation of items
1 Clay mixer, do/ clay, and
wet clay storage Oi ns.
pieces of ancient ceramics. for everyday use, like mugs and bowls. Porcelain,
2 Elect-' c ce'am'c wheels ;or The first step in making a ceramic object is to a durable, high-temperature ceramic commonly
pottery production. choose a clay, often a mixture ceramists have used for fine dinnenvare, is made of a mixture of
3 Kilns :o_ ;ir'ng the ce_amic
den-eloped that fits their own working methods. three clays: feldspar, kaolin, and silica. Porcelain
objects.
U Bins and containers of Then, in a process called wedging, the clay is is strongbut sometimes hard to manipulate. Fine
chemicals used in ce'amic kneaded to work out pockets of air (which can white china, bathroom fixtures, and dental
glazes. destroy a piece of ceramic ware when it is heated) crowns are made of porcelain.
and make the day easier to work. Next, the
ceramist uses one of a number of hand methods Coil Method
to shape the clay into the form of the finished
object. For example, tte artist can build up an The art of using coils to create a clay object has
object using slabs or coils of clay, or by modeling been a common hand-building method since
a lump of clay into the desired shape. Another ancient times. A coil is createdby rolling the clay
method is to shape the clay as it turns on a rapidly on a flat surface so that it extends into a long
turning potter's wheel, a process known as rope- like shape. When making a round vessel,
throwing. the artist wraps the coil around upon itself and
Once it hasbeen shaped, the clay is left to dry. then fuses the sections together bysmoothing.
At this point it is very fragile. The dry clay is fired Seated Figure, a work from the Zapotec
in an oven called a kiln at a high temperature culture of Mexico,was made using the coil
(between 2,000 and 3,000°F). The object is now method (2. 127). This figure was made to beburied
very hard. It must be left to cool to avoid cracking.
To add the finishing touches to a ceramic 2.127 Seated Figure, Oaxaca,
object, artists apply a glaze, a liquid (known as a Mexico. Zapotec style.
slip) made with a material that will give the object 300 bce-700 CE. Ceramic.
12% x 7 x I'k'. Cleveland
a glass-like finish andthat adds color, texture,
Museum of Art, Ohio
and protection to the object's surface. (A glaze
can also make an object morewatertight.) The
artist usually applies the slip with a brush. The
obj ect is again placed in the kiln and fired to melt
andharden the glaze, which fuses with the clay.
Color: the optical effect caused Ceramists choose from a variety of clays, each
when reflectedwhite light of the with unique characteristics. Clay used to make
spectrum is divided into a earthenware has good plasticity, or pliability, but
separate wavelength
Texture: the surface quality of a it can be somewhat brittle after fir ing. Earthenware
work, for exampie fine/ coarse, is often red in color andhardens at a lower
detailed/lacking in detail
temperature thanother clays. Stoneware clays
Plastic: referring to materials
that are soft and can be are less plastic than earthenware clays. Stoneware
manipulated (as its name implies) is muchharder than
C
Sculpture in Stone and Clay
form: the figurine is an example of both additive
and subtractive sculpture. The stone carver,
on the other hand, was working with an
extremely hard material and was only able to
carve away from the existing block of basalt
to create the overall shape of the head and the
details of the facia Ifeatures: the head is a
subtractive sculpture. The ceramic sculpture
is also hollow,while the stone head is solid.
Finally, a noticeable similarity between the two
figures isthe helmet-like headgear they both
wear. It is believed that this kind of helmet was
important for protection during the ritual
ballgame played throughout Mesoamerica.
The Baby Figure could be a representation of
an actual baby ora supernatural figure related
to the fertility a nd prosperity of the Olmec.
2.128b Colossal Head. Olmec. 1500-1300 bce Basalt.

Museo deAntropologia. Veracruz. Mexico
The Olmec were experienced potters

as wellas being skilled stone carvers. Along
with carving colossal stone works, they made
2.128a Baby Figure, between sculptural figurines in clay. One well-known
12th and 9th centuries BCE. ceramic sculpture is called Baby Figure 12.128a).
Ceramic, cinnabar, red ocher, One of the most striking differences from
133/s" high. Metropolitan
Museum of Art. NewYork the colossalheads is the scale of this figure.
At just over a foot tall, it is closerto the size an
actual baby would be. By contrast, a person's
head is about the size of one of the eyes on a
colossal head. The Baby Figure shows the
whole body instead of focusing only on the
head. The rolls of flesh and the gesture of
putting the hand to the mouth seem very
intimate and personal, with a careful attention
to detail.Another major difference between
the colossalheads and this figurine is the
materialsused to make them. The fine, white
clay, called kaolin,was moldedwhile it was
still wet. The ceramist was able to take
a dva ntage of the softness of the clay to add
and takeaway materiaIto create the desired
THE TRADITION OF CRAFT 251
in the tomb of a Zapotec ruler and may portray
Organic: having forms and
a god or possibly a companion for the deceased.
shapes derived from living
organisms On its headdress andchest the artist has carved
Throwing: the process of two calendar dates in Zapotec writing. Most of
making a ceramic obi ect on a
potter'swheel
the potten- made by native American cultures
F orm: an object that can be was carefully crafted by hand.The coil method
defined in three dimensions was preferred for constructing rounded objects
because the organic line of the coil couldbe
height, width, and depth controlled in a way that would complement the
piece's essence or spirit.
Throwing
The use of a potter's wheel probablybegan when
an artist, inorder to makethe process of coiling
more efficient, placed his or her clay object on a
round mat andturned it while addi ng coils of day
to a piece of potter)-. A potter's wheel consists of a
round disk that revolves while the ceramist shapes 2.130 Karen Ka-nes. Rower Container, 1997.
the object. No one is sure exactly when such Glazed stoneware, wood-fired, 97. x 9 V: x 9 /i".
Collection o: Abel Weinrib
wheels were invented,but by 3000 scEtheChinese
were using them to produce ceramic objects.
The process of making potter)- on a wheel is (2.129) was producedon a potter'swheel during
known as throwing. The potter centers a mound the MingDynasty almost 600 years ago. Chinese
of clay on the turning wheel and then shapes a ceramists of the Ming Dynasty were known for
pot by poking a hole in the middle of the mound, their use of multiple glaze layers. Their wares
and then pushing and pulling the wall of were so fine that the users of MingDynasty
the pot up and out with both hands as it porcelain includedthe emperor of China himself.
turns. To finish the surface of the pot, the In this piece the artist used, first, a blue glaze
potter can employ sponges and scrapers as and then a clear glaze over that to complete the
it spins, or simply let the natural grooves of work. The clear glaze gave the flask a luxurious
the fingertips remain. Finally,a piece of glossy finish.
wire is used to cut the finished piece from Karen Karnes's work Flower Conta iner (2.130 )
the wheel. exemplifies the expert craft of the potter with its
The ceramic artists ofChina used a simple symmetry in individual parts conjoined
greater variety of high-quality into an organic asymmetrical form. Early inher
glazes than any ceramic career, Karnes, an American artist, identifiedwith
tradition in the world. rural potten* traditions. Flower Container captures
The porcelain flask the careful attention and symmetry that a revalued
by traditional handcraft ers and fuses it with the
expressive sensibilities of contemporary art.
Slab Method
When artists use slab construction to make a
2.129 Porcelain flask ceramic object the)- first roll out a flat sheet of day.
with decoration in blue
The)- then cut this clay into the shapes the)- need
unde_glaze. M ng Dynasty,
1425-35. Palace Museum. to makethe object. To make a three-dimensional
Beijing. China object, the ceramist takes care to join the corners.
(historically used to help the melted silica to
Expressionism: an artistic
flow) is the basis for most glass production.
style at its height in 1920s
Like ceramics, slow cooling of heated obi ects is Europe,whk h ai me d to portray
critical to avoid serious cracking. the world in terms of vivid
extremes ofpersonal experience
Glass was probably first used in ancient and feeling
Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) and Egypt Plane: a flat surface, often
around3500 bce. The ancient Egyptians valued impliedby the composition
it as highly as gold. Glassblowing, the process of
forming a glass vessel by forcing air into molten viewer's space, often behind the
glass, usuallyby blowingthrough a tube, was in main subject matter
use by the first century 3CE in Syria and was later

adopted and perfected by the Romans.
The Portland Vase, named after one of its
owners, Margaret Bentinck,Duchess of Portland,
is a stunninglybeautiful vessel, created in the Roman
Empire during die fust century ce (2.132). Recent
research has shown that it was made by the dip-
overlay method: an elongated bubble ofblue glass
was partially dipped into a crucible of white glass,
before the two were blown together. After coolirg,
the white layer was cutaway to form the design.
The cuttingwas probably performed by a skilled
gem-cutter. The blue glass forms the background
to die figures picked out inwhite. Hie amazing
degree of detail attests to the artist's skill, as we
can see from the four figures and a tree- like plant.
2.131 Peter Voulkos. GaiiasRock. 1960. Stoneware with

al'p and glaze. Six 37 x 26% . University of California at
2.132 Portland Vase. Roman
Los Angeles. Franklin D. Murphy Sculpture Ga_den
C. 1-25 CE. British Museum.
London. England
This style of working lends itself to making boxes

andother forms that have large flat sides.
In Gallas Rock, by American sculptor Peter
Voulkos (1924-2002), we see slab construction
(and wheel throwing) used in an organic and
Expressionistic way (2.131). The slabs are
evident in the flat planes that dominate this
eight-foot- tall sculptural object. Voulkos is
known for using clay's naturalness— its tendency
to take on organic forms— and plasticity.
Glass
As with ceramics, the manufacture of glass
objects relies on heat, andmaterials dug from
the earth. The process of applying intense heat
to melt silica (usually sand) together with lead
c
Gothic western European
architectural style of the twelfth
characterized by the use of

pointed arches and ornate
decoration
Stained glass: coloredglass
used for windows or decorative
applications
Contrast: a drastic difference
or value (lightness/darkness)
Aesthetic related to beauty, art,
and taste
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r-i .\
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2.133 Rose window and

lancets. no_th transeot.
13th century. Cnart-es
Cathedral. France
The designers of the Gothic cathedrals of colored light. Thewindows of the cathedral in
medieval France adopted a type of colored glass, the northern French town ofChartres are
known as stained glass, which hadbeen used magnificent examples of stained glass ( 2.133).
previously on a smaller scale innorthern Europe. The large (43 feet in diameter) circular windows
But the Frenchdid somethingextraordinary with are accented bv the contrast with smaller, tall
stained glassby using it to make enormous thinwindows with pointed tops. Thebrilliant
decorative windows that bathed the cathedral in blue color in these windows stands apart as one
2.134 Dale Chihuly, Fiori
diComo. 1998. Handblown
glass and steel. 2763A"x
11"9Vi- x 4'83/t". Bellagio
Hotel. Las Vegas. Nevada
of the most extraordinary achievements of the development and, like most traditional crafts,
early thirteenth century. The)- are so valued that an important medium for utilitarian purposes.
to prevent them from beingdamagedduring Metal can be heated to a liquid state and
World War IIthe)- were removed and placed in poured into molds. It can also be heated and then
2.135 Death rrasK ;-ot
storage until after the war hadended. hammered into shape, or it can beworked Sna;t Grave V. Grave Circle
The contemporary American glass artist Dale (usually, again, by hammering) when it is cold. A. Mycenae. Also Known ss
Chihuly (b. 1941) makes comparable use of the Most metals are strongbut malleable and can be Mask of Agamemnon. Gold.
12" high. G-eece. c. 1 550-
kind of aesthetic experience that glass canbring bent or stretched to fit the needs of the artist.
1500 5CE. National
to an interior. To enhance the reception area at Gold is particularly well suited for decorative Archaeological Museum.
the Bellagio Hotel in Las Vegas, Chihuly has metalwork because it is comparatively soft Athens. G_eece
created a dazzling chandelier made of 2,000 (for a metal) and easy to shape.
individually blown glass flowers (2.134). The The gold mask in 2.135 was
strong color, reminiscent of stained glass, enlivens created by laying a thin piece of
and invigorates the interior andbecomes an metal over an object carved to
inviting andmemorable symbol of the hotel. resemble a human face.
The effect is mesmerizing. The artist then carefully
hammeredthe surface
of the thin metal until
Metalwork the shape and texture
of the design was
As with ceramics, the use of metal in the creation imprinted in the metal.
of objects goes back to ancient times. Metal has The artist has deftly given
been so important in human history that some us the impression of a
archaeological periods, such as the Bronze Age human face byplacing
(more than 5,000 years ago) and IronAge (more objects, like cowrie shells for
than 3,000 years ago), are named for the metal the eyes, under the surface of the
most commonly used at that time. The working metaland forcing the gold sheet
of metal hasbeen a measure of human into its final shape. This process would
c
Fiber
Fibers are threads made from animal or vegetable
materials (such as fur, wool, silk, cotton, flax, or
linen) or, more recently, synthetic materials
(for example nylon or polyester) .Fiber art is most
often associated with the creation of textiles.
The fibers can be spun into yarn, string, or thread,
then woven or knitted into lengths of textiles. In
the case of embroider}-, the thread, string, or yarn
is applied using stitching techniques. Relatively
stiff fibers, such as grass and r ushes, can be woven
together to makebaskets andsimilar obi ects.
Processing plant fibers beginswith separating the
fiber from the plant, then preparing it for use by
2.136 Benvenuto Cellini,SaltCellar of Francis i. 1540-3. spinning the fiber into a long thread. Inthe case
Gold, enamel, eoony. ivory, 1 1V.X 8V2X 1 0%". of cotton, once the cotton bolls are collected,
Kunsthistoi-isches Museum, Vienna. Austria
the fibers are separated and washed; then the
individual fibers are spun, or tw-isted, into thread.
2.137 TillekeSchwarz. Court?
havebeen repeated with different textures and Wool is sheared from sheep in the spring, w-ashed
Your Blessings. 2003. Hand-
objects to create the ears, eyebrows, beard, and so and separated, then spun into yarn. Silk fibers are embroidery on linen, 26/sx
on. This type of mask was used as a burial mask very fine and are the product of silkworms that 25V." . Collect:on o; the artist
to cover the face of the departed.
An artist with good technical skills can
control metals to make almost any object he
or she can imagine. The Italian goldsmith i f.l.f- 0U«
Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71) created the A flAirt
Salt Cellar of Francis Ias an extremely elaborate * sSrVFimtJfwn

object to go on the dining table ofthekingof
France (2.136). To make this salt cellar Cellini
first sculpted-wax models of Neptune (the
Roman god of the salty sea) andMother Earth
(whence table salt was extracted) in harmony
and at rest. Cellini then covered the wax model
with a strong material, perhaps sandand lime,
to make a mold.The moldwas then heated so
that the wax meltedand left the center of the
mold empty. Once the metal had reached the
required 2,000°F, Cellini poured the molten
gold into the mold.When it was cool, the artist
could remove the moldandthen carefully finish
off the piece to its splendid conclusion. The
salt was held in the small bowi shape next to
Neptune, and the pepper inside a small
triumphal arch next to the symbolic image
of Earth.This magnificent example of
Renaissance metalwork took more than two
years to make.
c
spin cocoons. Once the cocoons are complete, there are images from the cover of a disposable
the}- are harvested. The}- are softened inwarm coffee cup, a receipt from a fried-chicken
water to loosen the gum that binds the fibers restaurant, and a cartoon of the character
together. The silk can then easily be removed Butthead.The artist is expressing her fascination
and spun into an exquisite fabric. with how andwhat people communicate. For
The Dutch artist TillekeSchwarz (b. 1946) example, the writing at the top right is quoted
uses threadinher embroideredworks the way from the Museum of Contemporary Art in
another artist might use a pencil. In the work Sydney, Australia, and reads: "Do not jump
Count Your Blessings, she stitches mostly images when leaving the vessel. Members of aboriginal
of memories from trips to the Unites States and communities are respectfully advisedthat a
Australia (2.137). The artist explains that her number of people depicted in photographs in this
work aims to be humorous and is "a mixture of room have now passed away." Schwarz includes
contemporary influences, graffiti, icons, texts and this phrase becauseshe feels it emphasizes iust
traditional images from samplers." In this work how sensitive these subjects are inAustralia.
Faith Ringgold, Tar Beach, 1988

There once was a little girl named Cassie who
lived in an apartment in New York. On warm
summereveningsshe and her family would lay
out blankets and have picnics under the stars
on their tar beach. The roof was a wonderful
place to lie back and look at the city and its
lights and dream about wonderful things like
flying through the sky. She could dream that her
father, who had helped to build the building
where she lived, could join the union even
though being half-Blackand half-Indian made
it impossible. She could dream that her mother
owned an ice-cream factory and was able to eat
ice cream every night for dessert.
In this artwork, the African-American artist
Faith Ringgold (b. 1930) tells a story of a child
called Cassie (2.138). Ringgold relates the
African-American experience, her personal
history, and her family life by presenting her
own childhood memories in a work that
combines painting on canvas with the quilting
skills of her family and ancestors. Ringgold
began to paint on fabrics in the 1970s. As she
did, the works evolved into a collaborative effort
with her mother, who was a dressmaker and
fashion designer. Ringgold would create the slave who made quilts for plantation owners in 2.138 Faith RinggoldTar Beach,
painted part of the work, and her mother would the South. Ringgold's works thus possess many 1 988. Acrylic on canvas,
borderedwith printed, oa'nted,
stitch the edges and sew patches of cloth and layers of meaning that relate to this history
quilted, and pieced cloth, 6'2:/=" X
quilted areas together to form a border. Her and these craft skills. Togetherthese layers 5'3'T. Solomon R. Guggenne m
great-great-great-grandmotherhad been a communicate the richness of human experience. Museum, NewYork
C
cedar bark. Tlingit use symbols to identify their
tribe or family. In many cases these designs are
abstract depictions of animals. The central figure
here looks like a bear or raccoon. Note the large
eyes on either side of the central image that imply
the presence of evenbigger creatures. Blankets
like this were worn on ceremonial occasions. They
were very expensive, andthe prized possessions
of anyone wealthy enough to own one.
Wood
Wood, an organic plant -based material,
deteriorates over time, so we have few ancient
examples of art objects made from wood But we
know thatwood hasbeen utilized for objects and
architecture throughout history. Wood has an
innate beauty that can be brought out by cutting
2.139 Tiingit Chiikat dancing The Tlingit people,who live on the western
blanket. 19th century coast 0{ Canada and Alaska, combineboth 2.1A0 Detail of Studiolo from the Ducal Palace in Guboio,
Italy, Giuliano da Maiano, a:te_ a des'gn by F-ancesco d
animal and plant material in their fiber art. The
Giorg:o Martini. c. 1680. Walnut, beech, rosewood, oak.
blanket shown in 2.139 has been woven entirely and fruit woods in walnut base. 1 5*1 1"X 16'11"X 127V1".
by hand (without a loom) from goat wool and Metropolian Museum of Art. New York
C
that fills the whole surface. A separate base and
top were then fitted to the whole.
Conclusion
Functional crafts are still practiced and
remembered as a part of American history and
culture, and sometimes as part of a region's
identity. The pioneers, migratingwestward,
faced the challenges of survival and made their
own utilitarian objects. The}- fashioned objects
not only out of need, however. The}- added their
own aesthetic touches to make the hardships
the}- faced seem a little morebearable.
The makers of functional items refined and
improved them until the}- became objects of
art. By experimentingwith and refining such
raw materials as stone, clay, metal,wood, sand,
and fibers, workers with craft skills developed
2.141 Captain Ricna-d and carving. Sanding and polishing a piece of objects that both fulfilled needs andwere
Ca'oenter [Du klwayella], wood gives its surface a mesmerizing beauty. interesting to look at. Makingthingsby hand,
Bent-corner chest. C. I860.
Around 1480, the Italian artist Francesco di the artist responded to the unique character of
Yellow cedar, red cede-, and
pa nt, 2 1V. x 35V- x 20 Vf . Giorgio Martini (1439-1501) used a decorative each medium in the same intimate space.
Seattle Art Museum wood technique called intarsia in his design for The artist of hand-made objects understands
a studiolo (a private room, often a library or the attributes ofvarious materials and chooses
study) in Gubbio, Italy. Intarsia is a kind of wood those that fit the function he or she needs it to
mosaic using woods of different colors. Guiliano fulfill. Ceramic artists use the plasticity of the
da Maiano,who executedthe work, took very clay and their knowledge of technique to model
thin, shaped pieces of wood and organized them a lump of wet earth into a solid vase, jug, or pot.
to create a masterpiece of illusionistic depth Weavers twist fibers derived from plants and
and value ! 2.140). To the casual viewer, because animals to create thread, which can then be
the artists employed such skill, it is not clear embroidered or woven into textiles. Tree bark
where reality ends andthe illusion begins. can be made into fibers, andwood can be crafted
Federico da Montefeltro,the duke ofUrbino.who into almost limitless shapes for almost anv
commissioned Martini to create this work, wanted function. In the hands of a skillful artist, these
the symbols in this magnificent design to reflect objects may have a practical function; or they
hisachievements as a ruler,military commander, may have no immediately useful purpose at all,
Abstract: an artwork the form
of which is simplified, distorted, collector ofbooks, and patron of the arts. but be prized principally for their great beauty.
or exaggerated in appearance. It A nativeAmerican artist oftheFIeiltsuk tribe Notÿlcmftsarÿcÿiÿderedaÿ Some craft
worked -with wood to make the bent-corner chest objects are mass-produced from an artist's or
form that hasbeen slightly
altered, or it may be a completely shown in 2.141. To create this vessel, a plank of designer's original design, or emphasize utility
non-re pre se ntationalde pi cti on cedar was smoothed, notches known as kerfs were rather than aesthetic form. But many craft
Intarsia: the art of setting pieces cut at three corners, and then the wood was made w-orks have been recognized for their excellence
of wood into a surface to create
a pattern flexible by exposing it to steam createdby fire- and attention to design and originality. The
Illusionism: the artistic skill bakedrocksandwater. The plank -was thenbent American Craft Museum in New York is an
or trick of making something
at the kerfs and joined at the juncture of the last excellent place to see craft that goes beyond
look real
Value: the lightness or darkness corner. After that, the chest was carved and utility andextends traditionalmaterials into
of a plane or area painted with an elaborate, symmetrical design the realm of fine art.
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.9
Sculpture
A great sculpture can rolldown a hillwithout being immersed in an environment created by the
breaking. sculptor, includingsights, sounds, textures, and
(Michelangelo Buonarroti, other sense experiences.
Italian sculptor, painter, andarchitect)
Michelangelo is generally regarded as one of Approaches to Three

the finest sculptors in the Western tradition—
some would say the greatest. When the Dimensions in Sculpture
Renaissance Italian artist made the humorous
remark above, he probably had in mind most Sculptors planning new sculptures have two basic
of his own sculptures: statues chiseled out of options for displaying them. The first approach
durable marble. This might bethe first response invites us to examine them on all sides; sculpture
of most of us when asked to define what we mean made to be enjoyed in this way isknown as
by sculpture, althoughwe might broaden our freestanding, or sculpture inthe round. Many-
definition to includeother materials, such as freestanding sculptures are made so that we can
metal, ceramics, andwood. But, as we will see in move around them, but sculptures in the round
this chapter, sculpture can be made from many can also be displayed in a way- that prevents a
materials: for example, glass, wax, ice, plastic, and viewer seeing every- side of them. Sculptures can
fiber. In fact, the materials of modern sculpture be made, for example, to be placed in a niche or
can include, for example, neon lights and even standing against a wall. In such cases, the location
Renaissance: a period of animals. Sculptors' methods today still include of the statue determines the vantage points from
Europe fromthe fourteenth to chiseling (as Michelangelo did), caning, w-hich it canbe viewed, andthe sculptor will design
the seventeenth century molding,assembling, and constructing,but his or her w-ork with theviewer's position in mind.
inventive sculptors are finding new ways to create The second fundamental approach to the
from all sides their art, and new materials to make it with. three-dimensional nature of sculpture is relief,
Three-dimensional: having It is probably because artists are so inventive a type of sculpture specifically designed for
height, width, and depth that it is difficult to define sculpture exactly. viewing from one side. The image in a relief
Relief: araisedformona largely
flat background. For example, Look up the -word in a dictionary and then either protrudes from or is sunk into a surface.
the design on a coin is "in relief" check-whether the definitionfits all the works in It can hav-e very little depth ( bas-relief) or a great
Bas-relief: a sculpture carved this chapter; it probably will not. But we can agree deal (high relief).
with very- little depth
High relief: a carved panel on a few things that are true of all sculptures.
where the figures project with They exist in three dimensions and occupy Freestanding Sculpture
a great deal of depth from the
physical space in our world And they invite us
background
Plane: aflat surface, often to interact with them: by 1ooking at them,by- Some freestanding sculpture is not intended to
implied by the composition walking round them, or by entering them and be experienced from every point of view. The
c
Egyptian sculpture (1971-1926 3Ce) of the Lady which they were carved, with the arms and legs
Sennuwy, wife of the very powerful governor drawn in close to the body.
of an Egyptian province, was designed to be Giambologna (1529-1608), aFlemish artist
seen from the front (2.162). (Many Egyptian working in Florence, Italy,designed the Rape ofa
sculptures were made to be displayedwith Sabine as a kind of spiral that draws the viewer
their backs to a wall or a pillar.) In this work we around to view its many changing planes (2.163a
can get a sense of the original block of granite and 2.163b). With each step the viewer can
from which the work was chiseled. Egyptian discover unexpected details as the surfaces spiral
figure sculptures often sit, as this one does, upward. This is a powerful and beautiful work, but
very straight and upright on the stone from Bologna had more in mindwhenhe created it
2.162 (above) Sculpture of the

LadySennuwy, 1 971 — 1 9 26 b c e .
G-an ite. 67 X 45JA X 1 5Vz".
Museum of F'ne Arts. Boston.
Harvard Universiby-Boston
Museum of Fine Arts
E>:oed't:on
2.163a 2.163b G'an-oologna.

RapeofaSabina. 1583.
Marble. 13'6 high. Loggia de
Lanzi, Piazza delta 5'gnoria.
Florence. Italy
SCULPTURE 261
than iust a dramatic design. His statue was a piece
of political propaganda. It re-creates an ancient
story about the foundation of Rome around
753 3CE. Most of the early founders of Rome were
male. For the city to grow, the Romans needed
wives. The)- solvedthis problemby inviting their •f
neighbors the Sabines to a festival, during which
the Romans seized the Sabine women and forced
them to marry. This story symbolized the ability
• .•— -y
l.-'WB rt! • -iJF,/*
of a small community to becomethe most powerful

city in Italy,as Rome -was by Giambologna's time.
This message was useful to Francesco de' Medici,
who ruled Florence andwho paid Giambologna
for the sculpture, and placed it inthe city' s main Congress's invitation to become king. Durant 2.144 DyingLioness.
squar e. Flor ence had fo ught warswith other cities was unusual in being a successful sculptor in limestone relief worn the
North Palace o; Ashuroan! pal.
in Italy, and Rome was one of its main rivals. This nineteenth-century England at a time when it was Nineveh. Assyrian pe'iod,
dramatic sculpture announced to the Florentines not easy for women tobreak into such a profession. c. 650 5CE. British Museum,
and their enemies that, like Rome, Florence had Durant was in demand for her portraits, which London. England
risen to become a powerful city to be feared. included a bust of Harriet Beecher Stowe, the
author of the anti-slaver)- novel Uncle Tom s Ca bin.
Durant became a favorite sculptor to the British
Bas-Relief and High Relief
royal family. Her memorial to King Leopold Iwas
Inbas-relief (the Frenchword has means low), originally installed inhis niece QueenVictoria's
the sculptor's marks are shallow. An example of chapel at Windsor Castle in 1867but -was moved
Background: the partofawork
this kind of sculpted surface was found in the to Christ Church, Esher, in 1879.
NorthPalace of the Assyrian kingAshurbanipal viewer" s space, often behind the
in the ancient city of Nineveh in Mesopotamia main subi ect matte r
Bust: a statue of a person
(modern- day Iraq).Assyrian kings ruled over 2.145 Susan Durant. Memorial :o King Leopold of the depicting only his or her head
a large territory andhad powerful armies. They Belgians, 1367. in Ch-:5t Church. Esne-. England and shoulders
decoratedthe interior walls of their palaces with
images depicting their strength and power. The
artist who carved away the stone to create Dying
Lioness intended to reflect the great strength and
bravery of King Ashurbanipal as he hunted and
killedthe most fearsome beast known to the
Assyrians (2.144).
The Memorial to King Leopold of the Belgians
•was created to commemorate the death of
Belgium's first king (it declared independence
from the Netherlands in 1830) in 1865 ( 2.145).
A
The British sculptor Susan Durant (1827-73)
chose to incise the surface more deeply for the
figures closer to the viewer; this means that they
are in high relief. Thus these figures— the lion
\W
andthe reclining image of Leopold— protrude
from the surface more than the angels in the
background, which havebeen carved in low
relief. The illusion of depthemphasizes Leopold's
braven- in acceptingtheBelgian National
Methods of Sculpture Carving Casting: asculpture or artwork
made bypouring aliquid (for
example molten metal or
Sculptural methods are either sub tractive or The most ancient works of art that still exist were plaster) into a mold
additive. In the sub tractive processes, a sculptor made using subtractive methods of sculpture. defined in three dimensions
uses a tool to carve, drill, chisel, chip, whittle, or Most of these were made of stone or ivory (height,width, and depth)
saw away unwanted material. In the additive (because wood eventually decays, we have few-
processes of modeling, casting, or constructing, ancient wooden sculptures) andwere worked by
sculptors addmaterial to make the final artwork. chipping, carving, sanding, and polishing.

How Olmec Sculptors Made the Colossal Heads
The Olmec artist who sculpted this Colossal finish by polishing the surface to eliminate
Head (2.146a, 2.146b) probably worked the way the marks made by the cutting tools.The
most subtractive sculptors do even today. After achievement of the Olmec sculptors was
choosing a stone that best resemblesthe final especially impressive since the Olmec had no
shape, the artist works around it, knocking off metaltools; archaeologists believethis
large chunks of material untilthe final form head was made using stone
has been established. Then the artist begins to hammersand wooden
bore into the surface, refining and establishing drills.Whatever
the main details of the work. In the case of method was used,
the Colossal Head, that would probably have the artist produced
involved cutting deep into the stone to make a memorable
the eyes,while making sure to leave enough work that has
material to make the nose and mouth.Then the lasted more than
artist would carefully hone the details and 2,000 years.
2.146a, 2.166b Colossal Head #10. Olmec. Basalt. San

Lorenzo.Veracruz Mexico
SCULPTURE 263
c
Michelangelo
'
One artist in history stands out because of his ceiling (2.148— Creation of the Sun andthe Moon), 2.147 (above left)
unique mastery of the materials and methods which many see as his grandest work, Michelangelo, Prisoner,
known a s t h e A wa ke ning
of sculpture. Michelangelo (b. Michelangelo Michelangelo dreamed of finishing the ceiling
Sieve, 1519-20. Marble.
Buonarroti, 1475-1564) used an unconventional quickly so that he could get back to work on S'9V;" high. Accaderria,
technique to "release" the figure, as he saw several large sculptures intended for the tomb Florence. Italy
it, from the stone. Rather than remove stone of Pope Julius II. He wrote poems describing his
2.148 (above) Michelangelo.
progressively from allsides, as mostsculptors agony to finish, forexample: Creation ofthe Sun andthe
do, Michelangelo beganonone side of the stone Moon, 1 50B-1 0. detail irorr
and sculpted through to the otherside. He felt And Iam bending like a Syrian bow... the S:5tine Chapel ceiling.
Vatican City
that he was freeing the figure from the stone John, come to the rescue.
in which it had been trapped. His unfinished Of my deadpainting now, and of my honor
sculpture, Awakening Slave, gives an insight into Iam not in a good place. And Iam no painter...
the artist's technique (2.147).
Michelangelo excelled inarchitectureand While working on the painting of the ceiling,
painting as well as sculpture. Yet he saw these Michelangelo continually made many sketches
artsthrough the eyes of a sculptor; he believed of thefiguresintendedforthe nude male
sculpture itself was the finest, the most sculptures (which Michelangelo called ignudi,
challenging, and the most beautifulof allthe from the Italianword meaning nude) that he
visual arts. While painting the Sistine Chapel planned would cover the tomb. Unfortunately,
the tomb was never completed in the way that
Michelangelo intended, but some sculptures
version of a work or part of
carved for the project survive (2.169— Moses— a work
isone example). Mass: avolume that has, or gives
the illusion of having,weight,
The muscularfigures painted on the Sistine
density, andbulk
Chapel ceiling have led many viewers to believe
they are looking at sculptures. The figures have
the appearance of mass, particularly the nudes,
c
2.150 Figure of the war god
which really seem to be men perched on
Ku-ka'ili-moku, Hawaii.
architectural platforms. The ceiling is smooth, 18th or1 9th centu ry. Wood,
however; the illusion of these three-dimensional 8' 1 1 high. 5ritish Museum.
forms wascreated throughthe use of shading. London, England
Michelangelo painted darker shades in the 2.169 Michelangelo,

Tomb of Julius II, detailof
areas that would have been carved more deeply
Moses. 1513-16. Marble.
if the figures had been sculptures. Thus, even T'BVj" nigh. San Pietro :n
when he painted, he thought like a sculptor. Vincoli, Rome. Italy
The nearly nine-foot- tall figure of the Hawaiian

war god Ku-ka'ili-mokuwas carved (the
sub tractive method) from larger pieces of wood
(2.150). The sculpture represents a god whose
name translates from Hawaiian as "Ku, the
land-grabber." Originally created tor die
powerful King Kamehameha I,the image of
the god exhibits an open mouth (a disrespectful
gesture) and was probably intended to gain
divine favor. Another god, Lono (god of
prosperity), is also symbolizedby pigs' heads in
Ku's hair. The combination of the two gods may-
have represented Kamehameha's invasions and
conquests of adjacent kingdoms.
Modeling
Modeling in clay and wax (for example) is an
additive process; the artist builds up theworkby
adding material. Clay and wax are pliable enough
for sculptors to model them with their hands;
sculptors also use specialized tools to manipulate
them. Because such materials as clay often cannot
support their own weight, sometimes an artist
will employ a skeletal structure, called an
SCULPTURE 265
C
armature, to which the clay willbe added; the
armature will then later beremoved (or burned
away) -when the work is dry. Permanent
sculptures created from clay will most often be
dried, then fired in a kiln until the chemical
structure of the clay changes. Because this process
produces a very dry and hard material, many-
works from antiquity made from clay still exist.
Large sculptures, such as the Etruscan
sarcophagus (a kind of coffin) in 2.151, are built
from multiple pieces fired individually. Four
separate terracotta (bakedclay) pieces makeup
this sarcophagus, which contains the ashes of the
deceased. The sculptor paidparticular attention
to the gestures and expressions of the couple,
shown relaxedand enjoying themselves at an
Etruscanbanquet, although the expressions are
stylized and not a likeness of the deceased.
The plastic character of clay allowedthe artist
to make images that are expressive and capture (compared to stone) anddurable. Theso-called 2.151 Sa'copnaqusfro-n
the mood of the event. RiaceWarrior A is a fine example of the casting Cerveteri.c. 520 BCE. Fainted
terracotta. 3'?Vf X6'7".
The way the sculptor interpreted the figures skills ofancient Greek artists (2.152). It isone of
Museo Nazionale d' Villa
tells us two interesting things about their culture. two sculptures discovered in 1972 by scuba divers Giulia, RoTe. Italy
Women actively participated in social situations; off die coast of Riace, Italy. This sculpture reflects
this woman isshown gesturing, and even reclines 2.152 Riace Warrior A.
great attention to detailand was made at a time
«50 BCE. Bronze. 6'6" high.
C.
in front of her husband. And, since this sculpture when the Greeks emphasized the perfection of the National Museum. Regg'o
is part of a tomb, it suggests that celebrations took human body. It mayhavebeen castto celebrate the Calabria. Italy
place upon the death cf loved ones, although the victorv- of the Athenians over the invading Persians.
figures'joyful expressions may simply indicate RiaceWarrior A was created using the lost-
the deceased in an eternal state of happiness. wax method of casting. (Each numbered stage
refers to 2.153.) The artist beginsby building an
armature (1) andthen adds clay to it to create
Casting
the form (2) .A thick layer of wax is added to the
Casting, another additive process, involves adding armature, and any detail the sculptor wi shes to
a liquid or pliable material to a mold. It is done in see in the final work is carved into the wax ( 3).
order to set a form in a more durable material, for Clay, sand, and ground-up pieces of old molds
example, bronze rather than wax, or to make it are used to cover the surface of the wax form,
possible to create multiple copies of a work. The first preserving all the detail. This hard coating,which
step incasting is to make a model of the final needs to be strong enough to bear the heat and
sculpture. This is used to make a mold.A casting weight of the metal until it cools,will bethe
liquid (often molten metal,but other materials mold (4) .Small holes are drilled in the bottom
such as clay, plaster, acrylic polymers, or glass are of the mold,which is then placed in a kiln. In the
also used) is poured into the mold.When it hardens, oven, the wax melts out through the holes in the
the result is a detailed replica of the original model. bottom of the mold,leaving a hollow space inside
The ancient Greeks cast bronze to produce the mold (5). After the mold has cooled, very hot
many of their sculptures. Bronze is an alloy, or moltenmetal— in this case, bronze— is poured
mixture,of copper and tin. It melts at a relatively into it (6). When the metal has cooled, the
low temperature (1,600°F) and is comparatively- mold is removed (usually by breaking it with a
easy to cast. Once formed and cooled it is light hammer) to reveal the work—which is still not
2.153 5even steps n the
lost-wax casting orocess
WVAAAAAÿ
finished (7). The artist cuts off any extra metal, Earthworks
thensands and polishes. Over time, exposure
to the elements can add surface color, called a Prehistoric artists of the Americas made
patina,to bronze sculpture. Such a patina can monumental sculptures that usedthe surface
enhance the beauty of thework. Nowadays it of the Earth itself as material: this was additive
is commonly applied more artificially, by using sculpture on a very large scale. The most
chemical preparations. prominent of these is the Great Serpent Mound
Lost-wax casting is called a substitution near Locust Grove, Ohio. As can be readily seen
process becausethe moltenmetaltakes the place from the air, it resembles a snake with its mouth
of the wax. Other materials, such as foam or open, ingesting an egg ( 2.1 54). The identity
wood, are occasionally used as substitution of the people who created it is still debated. The
materials instead ofwax because the}- can be head of the serpent and the egg are aligned to the
burnt out of the mold. position of the setting sun on the summer solstice
2.154 Great Serpent Mound,

c. 300sce-100:e. 1330x3",
Locust Grove, Adams County.
Ohio
Armature: a framework
or skeleton used to support
a sculpture
objects in an exaggeratedway
the object
Plastic: referring to materials
that are soft and can be
manipulated
the emotions of the viewer
Patina: surface color or texture
on a metal caused by aging
Monumental: having massive
or impressive scale
SCULPTURE 267
c
2.155 Rodert Smithson, (the longest day of the year), suggesting that do not earn money from their artworks but
Spiral Jeity. 1969-70. Black the Great Serpent Mound was used in making create them as a service to the community. Many
rock, salt crystals, and earth,
160' diarreten, cc Ilength
solar observations. The original artists heaped contemporary artists believethat earthworks
1500x 15'. Great Salt Lake. piles of earth to "sculpt'" this workonto the should represent a harmony between nature
Utah Ohio landscape. and humanity.
In the 1960s artists again became interested in
earthworks. Thebest-knownmodern earthwork Construction
is Robert Smithson's (1938-73) Spiral Jetty in the
Great Salt Lake in Utah ( 2.155). Smithson chose When engineers make a piece of machinery,
a spiral, a shape naturally found in shells, crystals, the)- use a variety of methods to create and put
and even galaxies. The coiled artwork was made together its components. Soms of the parts will
bydumping 6,550 tons of rock and dirt, off dump be made by sawing, grinding, milling, and using
trucks, gradually paving a spiralling roadbed out other ways of removing material; others will be
into the salt lake. The artwork is not static in the modeled,molded, and cast. All the components
way it interactswith nature. Overtheyears the will thenbe assembled. Some artists construct
lakehas repeatedly submerged and then revealed sculptures in a similar way.
the sculpture. The artwork is constantly evolving The idea of constructing sculptures is
as it drownsandthen rises with a new encrustation relatively new. Methods for doing so have
of salt crystals. proliferated with the growth of standardized,
Because of their enormous size, earthwork engineered materials, such as sheet metals and
projects needthe collaboration of many artists plastics. In thelate nineteenth century sculptors
Constructivism: an art
movement in the Soviet Union
andworkers. Such works as the Great Serpent began to look beyond traditional carved or cast
in the 1920s, primarily Mound required a community effort. Today, forms to the process of constructing. The artists
concerned to make art of use to earthwork proi ects are obliged to have permits of the Constructivist movement inthe Soviet
the working class
Space: the distance between and community approval, and to involve large LTnion created an entire art movement based on
identifiable points or planes groups of workers and heavy equipment. Artists sculptural construction techniques associated
c
2.156 NauT Gabo. studied physics, mathematics, and engineering
Constructed Head No. 2. in college. His Constructed HeadNo. 2 (2.156)
1916. Cor-ten steel. 69x
52V. X48V-". Tate, London, investigates the sense of space and form implied
England by flat planes, in contrast to the solid mass of
conventional sculpture. Here Gabo is more
interested inshowing its interior construction
thanthe exterior surface. He haswelded the
intersecting planes of metal together more as
if he were a mechanic or engineer.
Contemporary artists have adopted
modern-day industrial techniques and
unconventional materials to create their
sculptures. The)- have challenged traditional
notions of what sculptures can be. Today's
sculptors canuse anything to communicate
their message. British artist Damien Hirst
(b. 1965) made hiswork The Physical
Impossibilityof Death in the Mindof Someone
Livingouioiquite unconventionalmaterials
(2.157). This constructedwork ismade with a
large tank full of formaldehyde in which the
artist has suspended a dead shark. Of course,
2.157 Damien Hirst, not every part of this work was constructed;
The Physical impossibility of more with a factory than with an ar t studio. Hirst did not construct the shark, he had it
Death in the Mind of Someone Constructivists considered art to be a scientific caught by fi shermen.T he ent ire work r esembles
Living. 1991. Glass, steel.
silicon, formaldehyde
investigation of the socialneeds of the time. a dissection specimen from a biology class.
solution, and sha'k. One of the group's members, Naum Gabo Hirst is known for creating his sculptures from
7TV xl7?Vx5'10Vs" (b. Naum Neemia Pevsner, 1890-1977),had unusual objects that contrast life anddeath.
SCULPTURE 269
Artifact: an object made by a
Readymades
person
Foundobject: an object found Inthe early twentieth century a fewartists began to
by an artist and presented,with create works using as raw materials artifacts that
work or as a finished work of art
already existed Sometimes, the}- simply decided
in itself that found objects were works of art. Pablo
Appropriation: the deliberate Picasso (1881-1973) once took the handlebars
incorporation in an artwork of
material originally created by
andthe seat of a bicycle and combinedthem to
other artists makehis Bull'sHead (2.158). Although Picasso
Readymade: an everyday obi ect did not make the individual parts, he arranged
presented as awrk of art
Kinetic sculpture: three-
them in such a way that they resemble a bull's
dimensional art that moves, head, yet they are also readily recognizable as
impelled by air currents, motors, parts of a bicycle. The artist's intent was both a
or people
serious and a humorous attempt to redefine art.
Depth the degree of recession in
perspective Historically, artworks have been appreciated
Two-dimensional: having for the effort andskill that went into making them.
height andwidth
Artworks havebeen valued for their originality or 2.159 Marcel Duchamp, Fountain. 1917. Replica 'Original
because the}- were made bv the hands of a famous lost]. Porcelain urinal, 12x 1 5x 13". F'h'ladelphia
artist. In the twentieth century, artists rebelled Museum o: Art. Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection
against such notions about the purpose and
meaning of art,while seeking new ways of Duchamp subverts cur expectations by changing
creatingtheir works. the context and reorienting our perception of the
Appropriation involves an artist taking over object, leading to an experience that is entirely
a pre- existingimage or obi ect and altering its new. For Duchamp,any object,by virtue of being
appearance ina way that changes its original chosen and presented by an artist, can become a
meaning or purpose. Some consider Fountain, by work of art. The act of discover}- (of conceiving
French artist Marcel Duchamp (1887-1976), to the artwork) is the most important part of the
2.158 Pablo Picasso. Bull's be revolutionary (2.159). By appropriating a artist's process; it is his original interpretation
hiead, 1942. Assam o lage o;
readymade object— a urinal— and turning it on of the appropriated object that makes it art.
bicycle seatand nandleoa's.
13Vi x 17Vex 7V2". Musee its sidewhile proclaiming it art, Duchamp has Ichose it!" Duchamp exclaimed, creating endless
F "3550, Paris. F_ance enabled us to see it (and art) in a new -way. possibilities for artists to redefine art as ideas,
and help us see things differently.
Light and Kinetic

Sculpture
Technological advances in our society havecreated
more opportunities for creativity. Scul£torswho
work with movement and light express their ideas
in ways that would not have been possible just a
century or two before. These moving and lighted
sculptural works, like those of the Constructivists,
rely on mechanical engineering as well as the
creative input of the artist.
Sculpture that moves is called kinetic
sculpture. One of the first artists to merge
movement, lighting, and performance into a single
workwasthe Hungarian Laszlo Moholv-Nagy Eliasson (b. 1967), the illusion of depth is created
(1895-1946). Moholy-Nagy was interested in by the projection oflight onto thewalls
theworkof the Constructivists andwanted to of the gallery (2.161). The work challenges our
incorporate technology into his art. The sculpture perceptions of two-dimensional andthree-
Light Prop for an Electric Stage, initially created as dimensional art by using the space of the gallery
a stage lighting device, eventually became the andthe illusion created on its flat walls.
main character in a film, also by Moholv-Nagy. The American artist George Rickey (1907-
Theworkhas a motor that moves a series of 2002) designed works that were carefully balanced
perforated discs so that they cross in front of the so that the\- could pivot in a variety of directions
lighting unit (2.160). This creates a constantly- and provide an infinite number of constantly-
li changing sculptural object, and the changes in

lighting influence the surroundingenvironment
Moholv-Nagy's investigations into the use of
changing views. His BreakingColumn is moved
by the slightest current of air; it also has a motor,
and moves even %\hen there is no wind ( 2.162).
light influenced artists who were interested in
effects produced bv controlling the lighting of an
interior space. Through the use oflight an artist
can change how a viewer perceives a three-
dimensional space. Carefully organizedlight
projection can create the illusion that a surface
exists in three dimensions even if it only has two.
In Remagine, by Danish-Icelandic artist Olafur
2.160 (above left] Laszlo

Mphply-Nagy. Light Prop for
an Electric Stage. 1929-30.
Exhibitipn reol'ca,
constructed 2006, through the
courtesy o; Hattula N'oholy-
Nagy Metal, plast'cs. glass.
pa it. and vvpod, with electr o
motor, 59V2 x 275/a x 27;/s".
Harvard Art Museums.
Busch -Re 'singer Museum.
Cambridge. Massachusetts
2.161 (left; Olafur Eliasson,

Remagine, 2002. SpotLghts.
tripods, or wall mounts.
control unit, dimensions
variable. Installation at
Kunstmuseum Wol:sourg,
Ge'many, 2004
2.162 (right) George Rickey.

BreakingColumn. 1936
(completed oythe artist's
estate. 2009). Sta nless
steel. 9'1lVx5V.
Contemporary Museum,
Honolulu, Hawa
SCULPTURE 271
c
Perspectives on Art: Antony Gormley
Asian Field
Antony Gormley (2.162a, b. 19501is a British To make a work I have to stand very still and
sculptor whose work is concerned with the human concentrate. One of the most direct ways to
form. He developed the vast installation, Asian re-establish direct first-hand experience is to
Field (1991-2003), as an art project beginning in close your eyes and be in whateverthat space
1983 12.163b/. Traveling to communities around is that you find yourself in. I've called this
the world, Gormley handed out fist-sized balls of experience lots of things: the space of the body,
clay andinstructedparticipants to form them into the space behind appearance, the darkness of
an image of their own bodies, working as quickly the body, the space of embodied consciousness.
as possible. Then participants were told to place My work is at its best when inserted into the
the figure in front of them, at arm 's length, and stream of everyday life— whetherthat's in
give it eyes. Gormley explains his approach to the rooms, standing on walls or ceilings, oron the
human form and to Asian Field in particular. street. They may look at first hand like statues,
but in fact they are simply lived moments made
The figures in my work are not portraits, they are into matter. They identify a space that was
corpographs: a three-dimensional equivalent of occupied at a particular time by a particular body,
a photograph but which is left as a negative, as a and by implication can be occupied by anyone.
2.163a Antony Gormley void. They don't do anything, they don't represent I am working in the most direct way I can to
anything, they are simply still objects in a moving build a bridge between art and life. What the
world. And their meaning, if they have one, only effect of my works is on their environment and on
comes when they act as a response to the lived the internal condition of others I have no control
time that surrounds them. over. I think of my works as objects that act on the
space in which they are placed,
allowing it to become a space
for imagination and reflection.
The Fieldworks were made
differently from much of my
work, in collaboration with
large numbersof people.
In each rendition of the
installation there are
thousa nds of clay figures,
each modeled by an individual
hand. The figures have empty
voidsforeyes. This is because
sight is itself a form of
blindness. It wraps us in a
world of names and forms that
are immediatelytranslated
into symbols, signs, emblems.
2.163b Antony Gorrnley.

Asian Field. 2003. 210.000 nand-sized
clay elements, installation view.
warehouse of former Shangna
No. 10 Steelworks. China
|C
Communist state. The Soviet Union was the first
nation to launch a human in space, a proud
moment for Soviet society. The artist parodies the
aspirations of an individual in such a society:
The person who livedhere flew into space

fromhisroom, first havingblown up the
ceiling and the attic above it. He always, as far
as he remembered, felt that hewas not quite
an inhabitant of this earth, and constantly felt
the desire to leave it. ..
Conclusion
Sculpture is art that occupies and defines three-
dimensional space. Sculpture can beeither
freestanding or carved in relief (either bas-relief
or high relief). Although sculptors have many
choices of materials and processes to create their
work, all sculptural processes and methods can
be classified as either additive or subtractive.
We know about sculptural works created
30,000 years ago because the)- were made of
materialsdurable enough to have survived for us
to study and admire today. Often sculptors have
chosen to carve subtractively instone because
they wished to make their gods, saints, and kings
seem immortal. Bronze was a more adaptable
2.164 llya and Err ilia
Kabakov, The Man Who Flew
Installations material, andthe additive casting technique made
into Spac e from. His Aca rtmen t . it possible for artists to model soft wax. The
1985-S. Wood, boa-d Modern artists have explored many -ways of comparative ease of making the sculptures helped
construction, ;urniture.
expanding the range of sculpture as a medium. the ancient Greeks celebrate ideas of perfection of
round printed ephemera,
and Household objects. Installation sculpture involves the construction the human form. Earthworks are additive works on
d'mens'ons variable of a space or the assembly of objects to create an an enormous scale, involvingwhole communities,
environment; we are encouraged to experience and explore humanity's relationshipwrith nature.
the work physicallyusing all our senses, perhaps Inthelasthundred years, sculpture has
enterin g thework itself. changed to reflect our new and complex modern
The Man Who Flew into Space from His world. Artists can make sculpture from perishable
Apartment (2.164) was constructedby the Russian products, such as food, from industrial materials,
emigre llya Kabakov (b. 1933). Kabakov has such as iron, concrete, or steel, or—if it is created
Medium(plural media1: the re-created a room— which can beviewedbut not with light— from no material at all. Some
material on or from which an entered— ina small apartment inthe former Soviet sculptures— readymades— have simply been
artist chooses to make a work of Union. The room is plastered with Communist chosen, while some installations immerse us in a
paint, marble, engraving, video, propaganda posters. The room's inhabitant is no new sensory environment. In the creative hands
or architecture longer there becausehe has launched himself of the artist, sculpture is a living,changing medium
through the ceiling, bits of which lie scattered on that has always expressed the richness of the world
bythe assembling and
arrangement of objects in a
the floor. Kabakov's work juxtaposes the private andthe people init. The tangible physical presence
specific location life of the comrade with the presence of the of a sculpture affects us by its very existence.
SCULPTURE 273
c
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
2.10
Architecture
Architecture communicates important ideas; it has and landscape architect actively communicate
a special place in our lives. Architecture— design with the building contractors to ensure that the
that surrounds and influences us— represents the final construction will accord with the design
safety of home, the strength of government, the team's intentions.
energy of commercial enterprise, and the power
of human innovation. It connects us to our
history in a very real way: a historic building
shows us how people lived in the past, while a
The Context of
new building adapts design ideas from previous Architecture
eras to a modern context. Architecture suggests
feelings of permanence and place. It is no wonder Although buildings can be some of the largest
we all have an opinion about a new building, and most complicated man-made objects, they
because a building inevitably affects allwho see usuallybegin from the simplicity of a drawing.
or enter it, whether or not they are aware of this. Fumihiko Makicreated a simple drawing as he
AmhitecturaÿEacÿÿhÿfsulÿÿhoughtfid began working on a design for the New World
design by an artist, or by a team of artists working Trade Center in New York City (2.1 65). The
to a common idea. The architect is the master
planner who creates a building's overall design. 2.165 -umihiko Maki, Sketch c: -our World Trade
Thoughtful design reflects a building's function Center. 2006
and its intendedrole in the community. For
example, an architect designing a college building
will consider its users—the instructors and
students—and will design classroom spaces that
are well lit and flexible. Sometimes an interior
designer is responsible for making the space
inside appropriate for the building's intended use.
In the case of a college classroom, an interior
designer will choose colors and furnishings and
plan the organization of the space in a way that
reflects the needs of students and teachers. A
landscape architect may be employed to organize
the outdoor spaces around the building. This
designer will plan the landscaping, parking, and
entry and exit routes to be consistent with the rest
of the structure. The architect, interior designer,
C
of storms, while one in a desert must be made of
materials that can help keep the building cool.
Artists must consider the availability and cost
of building materialswhen they plan their projects.
The unique character of these materials—for
example their flexibility, strength, texture, and
appearance—also affects the architect's choices.
The engineering of the building, or its structural
integrity, dictates some of the design decisions.
Wood-frame buildings may require waterproof
external cladding to protect the timber from damp
and rot. Tall office buildings may need to have a
strong steel frame (or an alternative) to bear the
combined weight of all of the structure.
The final appearance of the structure will
2.166 Taos Pueblo. New drawing shows how his buildingwill fit in with reflect—in some way— the community. In
Mexico, pre-' 500 other buildingsby continuing a spiral design. Taos Pueblo, New Mexico, for instance, many
Before drawing a picture, an architect collects buildings are made of adobe brick (2.166). Their
information about the planned location of the character derives from the available materials,
building and its place in the community, selects such as the abundance of sand and claw, perhaps
the appropriate building techniques, anddecides the communit}' has traditional standards, such
which materials are needed to construct it. as the building methods and styles of the native
The location, or site, influences the design. Pueblos and Spanish settlers. The architecture of
Is the building going to sit on a plain or a New York City looks very different, but is based
mountainside, in a city or a rural community, on similar principles. Generations of people have
on a waterfront or in a desert? Each of these sites admired the coherent composition of the forms
presents different challenges the design must try to of the skyscrapers, like a Cubist painting, as if the
answer. For example, a building facing the sea might community had somehow combined together as
need to be strong an dresilient to resist the effects a single artist to make something beautiful (2.167).
SoHo lofts.
2.167
NewYork City
Texture: the surface quality or a

work, for examplefine/coarse,
detail ed'lacking in detail
defined inthree dimensions
(height, width, and depth)
Cubism: a twentieth-century art
movement that favored a new
perspective emphasizing
geometric forms
ARCHITECTURE 275
The Engineering and
Science of Architecture
The engineering and science of architecture tries
to understand and control the forces pushing or
pulling the structure of the building. These forces,
called stresses, are constantly at work.When
stresses pull they create tension, which lengthens
and stretches the materials of the building.
When stresses push they create compression,
which can squash andshorten the same materials.
Architectural engineers work to create balances
between tension and compression so that the
amount of push equals pull. Each kind of building
material resists the stress of compression or tension
differently.Architects measure the strength of the
material so that they can anticipate and control
the balance of forces at work. If balanced correctly,
a building can stand for many thousands of years;
if not, it may collapse.
Traditional Construction
in Natural Materials
Ancient cultures derivedtheir building materials
from the earth. Stone, wood, and clay are
plentiful and easily available, but they must be
modified for use in architecture. When shaped
and used with great care and skill, these raw sky, emphasizing their role as gateways to the 2.168 Temple in the Great
materials can result in architecture that gods (2.1 68). Maya pyramids primarily served Plaza. Maya, v. 300-900 c e.
Tikal. Guatemala
transcends time. as platforms for temples. Temple Ihas a three-
room structure at its peak where Maya priests
Basic Load-Bearing conducted religious rites.
Construction
Post-and-Lintel Construction
Probably the most direct way to build something
is simply to make a pile, for example the The monumental quality of ancient pyramids
pyramids in Giza, Egypt (see Gateway Box: The stands as a testament to the ingenuity and will of
Great Pyramid of Khufu;. The ancient Egyptians' humankind. But these impressive structures did
ability to move and place such large stones, with not provide the spacious interiors we have come
the few tools available at the time, has always been to expect in everyday architecture. In order to
a cause of wonder. create an interior space, an architect must create
But such massive load-bearing works have a span, or a distance between two supports in a Monumental: having massive
occurred throughout history. Protruding out of or impressive scale
structure. One of the oldest and most effective
Span: the distance bridged
the Guatemalan rain forest at Tikal are hundreds ways of doing this is a system called post-and- between two supports such as
of Maya pyramids that rise sharply toward the lintel construction. columns or walls
C
Gateway to Art: The Great Pyramid of Khufu
Mathand Engineering
Some of the world's most imposing and dramatic
Capstone
architecture was made by the apparently
simple process of piling one stone or brick on
top of another. The pyramids at Giza, Egypt,
with the exception of some tunnels and tomb
chambers, are basically a carefully organized
stack of stones. The weight of the capstone 2.169a Basic load-bearing
(2.169a) bearsdown on the stone beneath it, architecture: pyramid
which, in turn, bearsdown on the stone beneath
it, and so on, holding allthe stones securely Even though current estimates are
in place. Construction on this scale required considerably lower (from 10,000 to 36,000
sophisticated engineering and mathematical workers), a substantial crewwas toiling for
skills to ensure that such an enormous as manyas23 years to build Khufu's pyramid,
structure formed a perfectly symmetrical the oldest of the three Great Pyramids (2.169b).
shape that would stand for thousands of years. Ancient graffiti found in the village where the
The pyramid of Khufu contains about workers lived indicatesthat at least some of
2,300,000 blocks of stone that have been these workers took pride in their work and
calculated to weigh on average 2.5 tons, the Pharaoh they worked for, calling their
although some weigh as much as 50 to 80 tons. teams "Friends of Khufu" or "Drunkards of
2.169b Great Pyramids at
Its construction was a massive achievement. Menkaure."These teams of workers created
Giza. left to right: Menkaure.
The ancient Greek historian Herodotus claimed one of the world's most impressive examples of Khafre. and Khufu.
that it took 100,000 people to build a pyramid. load-bearing construction. c. 2560 bce, Giza. Egypt
ARCHITECTURE 277
Lintel
-<ÿ Span
P p
0 0
s s
t t
2.1 703cs:-ard-lirteL
construction
2.171 Temple of Amun-Re.

Middle -Kingdom. M17-
'379 3CE. Karnak, Egypt
In basic post -and- lint elconstruction (2.170) spans side by side to create a spacious interior
the lintel rests on top of two posts. Ancient (2.171 ). This particular architectural space is
2.1 72 Kallikrates, Temple o*'
Athena Nike. LTi-L2L bce. Egyptian architects built the Temple of Amun-Re known as a hypostyle hall, a room created by
Acropolis, Athens. Greece at Karnak by placing a series of post-and-lintel using a series of columns, or a colonnade, to
support a flat ceiling. The hall was used by
Egyptian priests for rituals to worship the god
Amun-Re, while ordinary people stood outside
in an open courtyard. Amun-Re: s temple, still one
of the largest religious structures in the world, is
just one of many at Karnak.
The architects of ancient Greece must have
been aware of the majestic architecture of the
Nile valley. They adapted the systems invented by
the Egyptians andbecame some of the world's
greatest practitioners of post-and-lintel
construction. The Temple of Athena Nike (2.172 :
is attributed to the Greek architect Kallikrates
(working c. 450 bce). It employs an elegant, thin
variant of the Ionic column (so-called from its
origin in Ionia, east of the Greek mainland;.
By using columns thinner than those of the
Egyptians, the architect made the huge statue of
the goddess Athena inside the temple seem much
larger. The building was dedicated to the worship
of Athena, the patron of the city of Athens where
this temple was located.
Arches, Vaults, and Domes Post-and-lintelconstruction:
a horizontalbeam (thelintel)
The great limitation of early post-and-lintel supported by a post at either end
architecture in stone is that the lintels could not Hypostyle hall: alargeroom
with a roof supported by a forest
span large spaces. Stone, while enormously strong
Weight is of columns
in compression, is fairly weak in tension. Since channeled to the Corbeled: with a series of
stone cannot stretch, it risks making a weak point posts, allowing corbels— architectural feature
for larger spans made of stone, brick,wood,
in the middle of a span that easily snaps under
etc.—each projecting beyond
too much pressure. Architectswho want to create the one below
large interior spaces in stone have to be aware of Aqueduct: a structure designed
to carry water, often over long
the weight of the building constantly pressing
distances
down. The ancient Babylonians in Mesopotamia
2.173 Arch cors'.ruc'.ion
(modern-day Iraq) and the Mycenaeans of early
Greece both devisedthe corbeled arch as a built to move freshwater from mountain springs
solution to this problem. The stepping inwards of thirty miles away to the populated territories
successive layers of stonework over the doorway recently conquered by Rome (2.174). The lower
allows for the compression created by the weight level is abridge across the river. The goal of the
of the building to be directed outward rather aqueduct was to create a consistent downhill
than downward, reducing the pressure on the path for the water: one inch down for even*
structure and allowing the architect to design thirty-three inches along. The Romans made this
and span larger spaces. impressive structure without any mortar holding
mTÿRomanÿeÿecteÿhÿmundeÿamh the stones together, so perfectly were they cut to
(2.173), which was amore efficient way of fit. After conquering an area the Romans often
distributing compressive stress over the whole built aqueducts and roads. These structures
of the structure. Its efficiency helped them span benefited the local community, projected Roman
wider spaces. The upper level of the Pont du imperial power, and enabledthe army to move 2.174 Pontdu Gard. first
Gard, in southern France, is a Roman aqueduct, quickly across its new territory. century ce. NTnes. France
A ÿ
v
>v&S
J
ARCHITECTURE 279
Conques needed to create a space that could
accommodate large numbers of visitors. Their
solution was to use the barrel vault, but they had
to deal with an important limitation of vault
construction. Because the weight of the vault
thrusts outward, the walls supporting it must be
massive so as not to collapse. Vaulted aisles
counteract this outward pressure on the walls
and support both sides of the centralnave. Even
2.175 BarrelvauLt though Romanesque churches are large enough
for plenty of pilgrims and worshipers, the thick
Roman architects used three important walls have only small windows, creating dark and
architectural structures: the arch, vault, and gloomy interior spaces.
dome. A vault is a ceiling based on the structural The somber interiors of Romanesque churches
principles of the arch. The most common type did not satisfy one particular visionary church
of vault, the barrel vault, consists of a long leader. -Abbot Suger (1081-1151) had the Abbey
semicircular arch (2.175). It is much like a Churchof Saint-Denis, near Paris, France, rebuilt
long hallway with a rounded ceiling. to provide a much grander place for worship. The
The Church of Sainte-Foy at Conques in Abbey Church of Saint-Denis was the national
France was a stop along the Christian pilgrimage church of France; it housed the remains of the
route to Santiago de Compostela in Spain (2.176). county's patron saint, Saint Denis, and many
The builders of the Romanesque church at French kings. Suger decidedthat the existing
church was too small and lacked the grandeur it
2.176 (right) Sainte-Foy.
deserved. Two ideas were central to Suger's new
nave. .J050- 1 120.
Corqi.es. France church: the worshiper should be bathed in divine
light, and should feel lifted up toward heaven.
Adding larger win do ws to the structure could
provide more light, but that would weaken the
Vault: an archlike structure walls and increase the chance of a collapse. The
supporting a ceiling or root
walls of Saint-Denis had to be supported by
Romanesque: an early medieval
European style of architecture external structures. Suger's planincorporated an
based on Roman-stde rounded architectural structure called ajlÿnÿnittress
arches and heavy construction
(see 2.178a and 2.178b) designed to transfer the
Aisles: in abasilica or other
church, the spaces between the weight of the ceiling outward beyond the walls.
columns of the nave and the This ideaworked well. Because the walls no
sidewalls
Nave: the central space of a
cathedral or basilica
A longer needed to bear the weight of the building,
the windows could be much larger to allow light
Flyingbuttress: anarchbuilt into the interior. Suger was still not satisfied,
on the exterior oi a buildingthat
however, because the light was not yet "divine."
transfers seme of the weight of
the vault ' Suger had seen small colored glass windows
Stained glass: colored glass in German churches anddecided that the
used for windows or decorative
methods used to makethese smaller windows
applications
Pointedarches: arches with two couldbe applied on a larger scale. By dividing up
curved sides that meet to form a the window- spaces into components of a larger
point at the apex
design, Suger's glaziers were able to make
drawing attention to particular enormous stained-glass windows (2.177).
content in a work The light would pass through images based on
Ribvault: an archlike structure
Biblical narratives and be projected onto the
supporting a ceiling or roof,with
a we b of protruding stonework worshiper. This was Suger's divine light.
c
What about Suger s other requirement,
that the worshiper feel lifted up toward heaven?
The roundedarch of Romanesque churches
tendedto appear squat, and Suger wanted an arch
that would raise the worshiper s gaze upward.
He achievedthis by adding a point to the arch.
Pointedarches are structural features that help
conduct the downward thrust of the vault
outwards, but they also have a strong upward
visual emphasis. These pointed arches could be
arranged so that two vaults would intersect to
form rib vaults, which couldbe repeated in rows
to open up long areas. Often associated with
pointed arches, rib vaults appear in some earlier

structures, but they were used throughout in
Saint-Denis. Suger, because of his role in the
creation of this remarkable building, was pivotal
in establishing the architectural style that came
to be known as Gothic.
2.177 (above) Stained glass. Abbe/ Church of Saint-Denis, -ranee

N
Ambulatory
Transept
Radiating chapels
Crossing
Pointed arches
2.178a [above] Gothic

ar chi tectur a Ifea tures
2.178b [right] Gothic

architectural construction
ARCHITECTURE 281
C
Suger had said he wanted his church to be
Dome: an evenly curvedvault
more impressive than the Church of Hagia
Axis: an imaginaryline showing
the center or a shape, volume, or Sophia (Holy Wisdom; in Constantinople
composition (modern Istanbul,Turkey). The Hagia Sophia is
Clerestorywindows: a row of
a magnificent structure that had already been
windows high up in a church to
admit light into the nave standing for more than 500 years by Suger s time.
Pendentive: a curving Its most impressive feature is its enormous dome
triangular surface that links a
dome to a squarespace below
roof (2.179). Structurally, a dome is like an arch
rotated 360 degrees on its vertical axis. Shaped
like an umbrella or a ball cut in half, it is a very
strong structure. Domes can span large areas,
because as in other arch structures, the weight of
2.179 Hagia Sophia. the dome is dispersed outward toward the walls.
532-5 ce. stanbul, Turkey Most dome constructions require the support of 2.180 [above] 3er-den:ives
thick walls or some other system for distributing

the weight. The dome of Hagia Sophia is so
large and high that, for nearly 1,000 years, it was
the largest interior space of any cathedral in
the world.
The inside of the Hagia Sophia is illuminated
by a series of clerestory windows in the lower
portion of the dome and in the walls iust below it.
The dome rests on four arches. Pendentives
(2.180 ) elegantly transfer the load of the circular
dome to the four massive pillars of the square
building beneath it. It is no wonder that
Suger admiredandrevered the architecture of
this building.
Wooden Architecture
Architecture made from wood, a natural building
material, combines strength and beaut}".
The wooden post-and-beam construction
technique (2.181) has been used to build some
of the world's finest architecture. Two of the
oldest wooden buildings in the world are in the
grounds of the Buddhist Horyu-ji (Horyu Temple)
in Kara, Japan (2.182). The construction of the
Horyu-ji complex was the idea of the Japanese
emperor Yomei, who hoped to gain spiritual favor
so he could recover from illness, but he died
before work started. In 607 Empress Suiko and
Crown Prince Shotoku fulfilled the emperor's
dyingwish and built the first temple in the
complex. Since then it has withstood the ravages
of time and is an example of the durability of
well-constructed wooden buildings.
c
2.181 (left)Post-and-beam
architecture
2.1 82 (right! Horyu-ji (Horyu

Temple). Kon.dc and pagoda.
u. 7th century. Nara. Japan
These buildings use a complex post-and-

beam design that is both beautiful and
structurally sound. Cross-beams and counter-
beams create a series of layers supporting the
elaborate curved roof. The main building of the
complex, the Kondo, is almost 61 feet long by

50 feet wide. This same structural design also
enabled the architects to construct buildings that
were very tall: the Goiu-no-To (Five-story
Pagoda) is 122 feet tall. The pagoda's height was
designed to impress rather than serve any
practical purpose, since it is not possible to
enter the top four floors.
An entirely different type of wooden
construction was invented in the United
States in 1832. Balloon framing (2.183)
involves the fabrication of lightweight
wooden frames to support the structure,
instead of utilizingheavy timbers.
It was introducedwhen the advent of
lrrrrrr
2.183 Stick-style house using

balloon Yarning. Brockville.
On:ario. Canada
ARCHITECTURE 283
c
power savingcould efficiently and economically compression. Buildings could be built taller
produce smaller cross-section lumber from saw and in different configurations. Architects
logs. Originally balloon framing was a derisive could find exciting new ways to distribute the
term used by builders who stayed with traditional stress forces in their buildings. New types of
building methods and felt the new method was too building emerged, and new materials made
fragile to support a building. Today, however, most buildings look radically different.
houses in America are built using this method.
Cast-Iron Architecture
The Emergence of Cast iron hasbeen available to humankind since
ancient times. Ironis a more flexible material
Modern Materials and than stone. Molten iron can be cast in a mold
Modern Architecture to almost any shape, but it was not untilthe
eighteenth century that it could be smelted in
In the nineteenth century, iron, steel, and large enough quantities to play a significant role
concrete becameboth less costly and more widely in building. An important example of the use of
available, and so came into common architectural cast iron during the Industrial Revolution was
2.184 .csepb Paxton.
Crystal Dalace. '85'. London. use. New possibilities emerged as architects began the Crystal Palace, designedby Sir Joseph Paxton
9th-cen:ury engraving to examine new ways to control tension and (1803-65) for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in
'
4
M9
-i
%t
K
Jul*
11:iM
MM
mmm
\lA\
II
r~ r—
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London (2.184). This event was intended to
promote trade, and to showcase Great Britain's
goods, sendees, and technical innovation— for
which the building was a very good advertisement.
The walls and roof were of glass supported by the
skeletal cast-iron structure. The buildingwas more
than a third of a mile long; it was completed inonly
eight months by 2,000 men; and it used 4,500
tons of cast iron and 990,000 square feet of glass.
The Crystal Palace inspired other architects
to work with iron, including French engineer
Gustave Eiffel. It was eventually dismantled and
reassembledin south London, where it became
an exhibition center and concert hall. It was
destroyed by fire in 1936.
Steel-Frame Construction
The use of cast iron for construction opened up
new possibilities for architects. Cast iron was
stronger than wood and more flexible than stone.
It could be shaped into any form and was cheap,
since iron ore was plentiful. Steel, a material
made from iron and a small quantity of carbon,
was stronger than pure iron and had even
greater potential.
One architect who notedthe advantages of
steel was Louis Sullivan (1856-1924), called the
"father of Modernism," who became a pioneer in which to base their design. The Wainwright 2.185 Louis Sullivan,
the creation of the modern skyscraper. Sullivan, Building reflects the elements of a column (base, Wainwright Building. 1890-9 1 ,
St. _0uis. Missouri
who attendedMassachusetts Institute of shaft, capital; in the organization of the exterior.
Technology at the age of sixteen and took his first Representing the capital, at the top of the
architect iob at seventeen, participated in the building, is a cornice, or protruding ledge, that
rebuilding of Chicago after the Great Fire of 1871. is highly ornamented with designs derived from
Chicago provided fertile ground for creative Gothic cathedrals. The middle andtallest area
young architects, and Sullivan pushed the use of shows strong vertical emphasis, with its Modernist: a radically new
steel frame to new heights. projecting rectangular-section shafts and high, twentieth-century architectural
movement thatembraced
Although he was based in Chicago, one of narrow windows. The lower section (base) shows
modern industrial materials and
his masterpieces is in St. Louis, Missouri. The little ornamentation and reflects ideas of the a machineaesthetic
Wainwright Building, a ten-story office building, time about the frivolous nature of ornament. Column: freestanding pillar,
is one of the world's oldest skyscrapers (2.185). Later architectswould avoid ornament altogether usually circular in section
Base: the projecting series of
In this building Sullivan obeys his famous phrase and rely on the aesthetic characteristics of the blocks between the shaft of a
"form follows function"by providing versatile structure to provide excitement and interest in column and its plinth
interior space. Because the steel frame supports their design. Shaft: the main vertical part of
a column
the building, andbecause it is mostly located at its Because steel frames carry the load of the Capital: the architectural
outer edges, the space of the interior can easily be building, many Modernist architects realized reature that crownsa column
Cornice: molding roundthe top

reconfigured to meet the specific needs of the user. there was no need to use a facing material, such
of a building
The skyscraper was a completely new idea, as stone or brick; the entire side of the building Aesthetic: related to beauty, art,
and architects like Sullivan had no precedents on couldbe sheathed in glass. The simplicity of this and taste
ARCHITECTURE 285
c
Contrasting Ideas in Modern Architecture:
Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye and Frank LloydWright's Fallingwater
Fallingwater, a re based on radically different

ideas about architecture.
The Villa Savoye in Poissy, France, was built
in 1930 as a weekend residence for a family
that lived in Paris during the week. It is one
of Le Corbusier's finest expressions of his
architectural philosophy (2.188). Le Corbusier
was a Swiss-French architect (also a designer
and painter) who saw architecture as a "machine
for living": the architecture of a building
should be designed around the lifestyle of
the occupants. Le Corbusier's architectural
designs were part of the International Style
that was promoted as a universal aesthetic
2.188 Corbusier Villa
_e Architecture is one of the most visible form that could be built in any geographical
Savoye. 93' ÿoissy. -ranee expressions of the Modernist movement. or cultural environment relatively inexpensively.
A building's appearance can be a visual This style emphasized industrial and (in theory)
expressionofanidea the architect wantsto
communicate. Two buildings constructed 2.189-rank LloydWright. Fallingwater. *939. Bear Run.
about the same time, the Villa Savoye and Pennsylvania
cheap materials, such as steel, glass, and
concrete. It also favored a strongly geometric
visual organization of spaces and elements
of the building, including the shapes of the
windows, roofline, and walls. With its
preferences for unadorned, open interiors,
the International Style claimed its rational
approachto designcould land should) be used
universally, for rich and pooralike.
Five years later, the American architect
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) was
commissioned to build Fallingwater in Bear
Run, Pennsylvania, as aweekend getaway for
the Kaufmann family |2.189). The profile of
the house features vertical and horizontal
elements much like those of the Villa Savoye,
but Wright did notthinkthat a house should be
a machine. He believed the design of a house idea captured the imagination of such architects 2.186 Mies van der Rohe.
should respond organically to its location. as Germany's Miesvan der Rohe (1886-1969) NeueNationalgalerie. '968.
Berlin. Germany
Rather than position the house so that the (2.186 ), who proclaimed '"less is more," and the
Kaufmanns could view the waterfall from Swiss Le Corbusier (1887-1965), who called
inside, Wright placed the house right on top a building a '"machine for living." (See Box:
of it. He made the house so integral to the Contrasting Ideas in ModernArchitecture.)
Organic: having foims and
environment that the bottom step of one of the A building could now reflect its surroundings
stairways hovered just above the creek. Wright while also giving people inside it a spectacular organisms
believed so stronglyin theorganic relationship view of the landscape.
between site and building that he had many of The Chinese-bomarchitect I.M.Pei (b. 1917)
the materials collected from the surrounding combines beautiful design with a clear expression
countryside. The stone was quarried nearby of structural integrity in the Bank of China Tower
2.187 .VI. Pei. Bank
and the wood for the supports between the in HongKong (2.187 ). With its sharp triangular of China (center). 1990,
windows ca me from the surrounding forest. and diamond-shaped elements, which define or Hong Kong
The design mimicked the layers in the rocks
around the site, and the reinforced concrete
was colored to fit in as well. Sometimes
underlying rock juts into the living space of the
house so that the occupants may take pleasure
in stepping over or around the stone.
Le Corbusier's design was inexpensive
compared with Wright's, particularly since
Wright's building materials needed to be
specially collected from the surrounding
countryside. Each design creates a beautiful
modern space. In Wright's work, architecture
becomes part of the natural surroundings,
whereas Le Corbusier wants nature to be
viewed from a comfortable vantage point.
Wright's Fallingwater and Le Corbusier's
Villa Savoye share similarities, but the two
architects strove to express very different ideas.
ARCHITECTURE 287
articulate its vertical form, the building is a buildings made from blocks or bricks. Like steel
Articulate: to make smaller
shapes or spaces thin a larger
striking addition to the crowded HongKong and cast iron, reinforced concrete did not come
composition skvline. There is a traditional Chinese belief
J
into widespread use in architecture untilthe
Expressive: capable of stirring system known as feng shui that studies the design nineteenth century. Concrete is a mixture of
the emotions or the viewer
and positioning of buildings in order to maximize cement and ground stone. It is reinforced
their inhabitants' health and good fortune. through the use of either a fibrous material (such
Accoiding to these beliefs, the pointed shapes and as fiberglass; or steel rods called rebars. The
mirrors of Pei s building deflect negative energy, inclusion of fibrous or metal reinforcing helps
thus bringing prosperity to those inside—a highly the concrete resist cracking. In architecture,
appropriate design solution for the Bank of China. steel rebar is shaped to the architect's design
specifications; builders make a large wooden
Reinforced Concrete mold, andthen pour the concrete into the "form.'
When the Danish architect Jorn L'tzon
The character of architecture comes from its use of (1918-2008) designed the Sydney Opera House,
building materials, the sourcing or manufacture overlooking the harbor of Sydney, Australia, he
of which determines much of modern buildings' broke away from Modernist rectangular designs
visual form. Steel and glass are produced in (2.190 ). The structure is a testament to the
rectangular shapes that are a vital part of the visual expressive character of reinforced concrete. The
aesthetic prizing the integration of form and rooflines resemble billowing sails, a reference to
function. But what aesthetic form would a material the building's harbor location. The "sails" were
have if its raw manufactured state was liquid? created over precast ribs and then set into place,
2.1 90 jgro Utzon, Sydney
Opera House. 1973. Sydney. Architects began to use reinforced concrete as allowing the architect more freedom in the
Australia a way of avoiding the hard right-angled edges of creation of the design and (in theory) reducing
c
the cost. In fact, owing to a succession of technical
problems with this innovative building, the
project cost fourteen times its intended budget.
As controversy surrounding the project escalated,
Utzon resigned nine years before its completion.
Contrasting Ideas in
Modern Architecture
Beginning in the 1980s, a new approach to
architecture, known as Postmodernism, combined
the hard rectangles of Modernism with unusual
materials and features of styles from the past.
Postmodernism took hold as architects sought new
ways to reflect a complex and changing world.
The Humana Building in downtown Louisville,
Kentucky, designed by American Michael Graves implies columns that rise up to support a cornice 2.192 Santiago Calatrava.
(b. 1934), is an intriguing mix of historical styles and triangular glass structure similar to the Quadracci Pavilion,
Milwaukee A rt Museum.
and references (2.191). For example, the facade triangular pediment of a Greek temple. The upper
Wisconsin. 2001
onto the street has a stylized Greekportico.The portion of the building (set back from the street)
negative space of large windows and openings suddenly changes from simple right angles to a
series of curved surfaces that undulate like the
2.191 Michael Graves. architecture of the Baroque period. Graves also
Humana 3uilding. '985. Postmodernism: a late-
artfully varies the facing material, changing its color
Louisville. Kentucky twentieth-century style of
and texture at different intervals, seeking to avoid architecture playfully adopting
the austere simplicity and purity of Modernism. reatures of earlier styles
In Postmodernist architecture, form no Facade: any side of a building,

longer follows function with the same dedication Stylized: art that represents
as it did during the Modernist period. In fact, objects in an exaggerated way
sometimes the building seems like a huge toy, a
the object
playful exploration of what we expect a building Portico: a roof supported
to be. The Quadracci Pavilion at the Milwaukee by columns at the entrance
Art Museum was designedby Spanish architect
to a building
Negat ive spa ce: an empty spac e
Santiago Calatrava (b. 1951) to express the given shapeby its surround, for
character of the site (2.192). Built on the shores example the right-pointing
arrow between the Eandx in
of Lake Michigan, the pavilion reminds us of
FedEx
ships passingby; a cable-suspended bridge over Pediment: the triangular space,
a beautiful expanse of water also connects the situated above the row of
columns, atthe end of a building
museum to downtown Milwaukee.The building
in the Gassical style
becomes a kinetic sculpture when a large Baroque: European artistic and
moveable sunscreen atop the structure slowly rises architeaural style of the late
sixteenth to early eighteenth
andlowers throughout the day, like the flapping
centuries, c haracter iz ed by
wings of the many species of birds that flock near extravagance and emotional
the lake. The inside is reminiscent of the curved intensity
interior of a sailing ship. The Quadracci Pavilion Kinetic sculpture: three-
dimensional art that moves,
provides an exciting exhibition space for the impelled by air currents, motors,
display of contemporary art. or people
ARCHITECTURE 289
Perspectives on Art: Zaha Hadid
A Building for Exciting Events
artificial park. The urban carpet also connects to 2.193a (left) Zaha Hadid.
zigzag ramps that take visitors to the galleries. Contemporary Arts Center.
Seen from the street, the building appears
Cincinnati. Ohio. Study
model by the architects.
to be made up of stacked horizontal blocks of experimenting with
glass, metal, and concrete, suspended above different structural ideas
the glass at ground level.We wanted to give
the building a weightless quality, as if it were
a sculpture, not just a building. The public and
administrative spaces are glass, so that those
outside are invited to look into the building, and
those inside to look out at the cityscape. In this
2.193b Zaha Hadid.
way the center's building is connected to the ContemporaryArts Center,
Zaha Hadid lb. 19501was born in Iraq and trained city it serves. 2003. Cincinnati. Ohio
as an architect in London. She has designed notable
buildings in Europeandthe United States. Here
she describes how an architect thinks about a new
building for art exhibitions,performances,and
installations in downtown Cincinnati, Ohio.
The new home forthe Contemporary Arts

Center is located on a small space in downtown
Cincinnati (2.193a and 2.193b). Our challenge was
to design for a prominent location an exciting
new building that would provide spaces for
many different activities: temporary exhibitions,
site-specific installations and performances,
an education facility, offices, art-preparation
areas, a museum store, a cafe, and public areas.
We designed the gallery spaces as a three-
dimensional "jigsaw puzzle" of interlocking solids
and voids suspended above the lobby. The unique
geometry, scale, and varying heights of the
gallery spaces offer organizational flexibility to
accommodate and respond to the size and media
of the contemporary art that will be displayed.
We wanted to draw visitors into the building
from the surrounding areas by creating a dynamic
public space. Pedestrians enter the building and
move around it through an "urban carpet" of
polished undulating surfaces that curves slowly
upward. As it rises and turns, the urban carpet
leads visitors up a suspended mezzanine ramp
throughthe fulllengthofthe lobby, which
functions during the day asan open, daylit
Conclusion
From the earliest use of raw materials to
contemporary methods of sustainable design,
architecture both reflects and influences the way we
live. It surrounds us as no other art form does.
Across millennia, architecture has expressed how
we make and think about our human world.
Communities andtheir architects have always
adapted available materials to create buildings for
shelter, worship, andall our other human needs.
In the use of the natural strength, lightness, and
It beauty of wood to support a roof over our heads,

we can see an evolution in structures from the
plain (such as post and lintel) to the sophisticated
2.194 Architectural
illustration of an urban block
The Future of (such as post and beam). Some of the earliest
*'or a Szechuan Chinese
village (Longjuj. Center for
Architecture surviving stone buildings are also the simplest
Maximum Potential Building
load-bearing structures. (The pyramids of Egypt
Systems. 2005 Architecture faces both challenges and opportunities also happen to be, even by today's standards,
as the twenty-first century unfolds. Concerns enormous and astonishingly well engineered)
over limited resources, energy conserration, and Architects throughout history havevalued the
sustainability have become important issues. dignity and high compressive strength of stone.
American husband- and-wife team Gail Vittori They have found ways to overcome its weight
(b. 1934) and Pliny Fisk III (b. 1944) have been and weakness in tension so that they can use it
considering the problems of sustainability and to span ever-more exhilarating spaces. From
use of architecture for decades. corbelled to Roman arches, from barrel vaults
Since 1991Vittori andFisk havebeen co- to domes to Gothic firing buttresses, changes in
directors of the non-profit Center for Maximum the structural use of stone are a testament to
Potential Building Systems (founded by Fisk in human creativity.
1975),which works to make new buildings more In more recent times, changingtechnology
environmentally friendlv. The center's design of a and refined building materials have radically
model village in Longju, China, is part of a larger changed architects' repertory of design solutions.
vision that includes helping farmers to develop Industrial production of cast iron, steel, glass,
sustainable methods of farming ( 2.194). The and reinforced concrete havemade possible
design involves not iust the buildings but also buildings, such as skyscrapers, that were never
the working methods and entire lifestyle of the dreamed of by the ancient Greeks. Architects
community. Fisk has created greener ways to raise have responded to the challenges with a new
crops and livestock so that each village can be more architectural language, Modernism, and its
efficient and environmentally friendly. Vittori increasing numbers of associated styles.
is on the board of directors of the U.S. Green The future of architecture is closely tied to
Building Council, which promotes the LEED the availability and thoughtful use of natural
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), resources. Archi tects today consider howto
a program and rating system that encourages recycle and reuse materials in making structures
building with renewable materials and that fit the unique requirements both of their
appropriate technology. Because each building's location and of the peoplewho use them.
location and unique needs can dictate energy use, Whatever happens during the twenty-first
the LEED provides guidance on the methods and century, architectural design will become an
materials that would best fit the structure. increasingly important part of our lives.
ARCHITECTURE 291
HISTO
Art is not just the skillful
application of design concepts
andmaterials to produce an
impressive work. Inevitably,
an artwork is influencedby
the time and place in which it
was created. This influence is
known as the context in which
the art was made. The history
of art is another important
aspect of the many ways in
which we can understand a
work. In this part, as well as
learning about context, you
will discover how history has
/
influenced art andhow art, in

its turn, reflects history.
PART 3
In this part you will study:
The Prehistoric and Ancient Mediterranean

Art of the Middle Ages
Art of India, China, and Japan
Art of the Americas
Art of Africa and the Pacific Islands
Art of Renaissance and Baroque Europe
(1400-1750)
Art of Europe and America (1700-1900)
Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries,
The Age of Global Art
c
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.1
Human prehistory is the long period during gathering wild plants and hunting, and some
which humansandtheir ancestors developed found time to produce what we admire today as
societies for which no written recordhasbeen prehistoric art. Prehistoric art hasbeen discovered
found. We know about the achievements of these in this region from as early as c. 30,000 3CE.
early people from the material traces they left As humans formed larger communities,
behind. In Europe,this takes usback thousands the Mediterranean region—the ancient Near
3.1 Map of prehistoric
Europe and the ancient of years— even 2.5 million years, ifwe include East, northern Africa, andsouthern Europe—
Mediterranean tools. These ancient peoples survived by flourished as an area oftrade. Here, a succession
Cosqter Cavj
Rome
Pompeii
Dyctadic s
stands
Crete
Babylon
•
Giza
Kamak
294 HISTORY AND CONTEXT
of civilizations arose that continue to shape the
ways we live, even in the twenty- first century. It
was here that humans first invented agriculture,
started to live in urban settlements, and
eventually planned cities; it was herethat people
inventedwriting, and producedworks of art we
still regard as great wonders of the world. The
achievements of these people remain evident in
our own lives. We write with an alphabet refined
by the ancient Romans of Italy. Farmers who
raisewheat crops today can do so because other
farmers domesticatedwheat and barley nearly
10,000 years ago.
These achievements,which we generally
describe as the beginning of civilization,were
matched independently elsewhere, for example
in Asia and the Americas. The developments in
the Mediterranean,however, are also part of the
history of the Americas because of the arrival
of Europeans more than 500 years ago. This was discovered in 1985 by a diver, Henri Cosquer, 3.2 Black horse.
chapter first tells the story of the sculptures, 120 feet underwater off the coast ofMarseilles 27.000-19.000=:=. Painting
on top of finge- tracings.
cave paintings, and monoliths madeby in southern France. To reach it, one must swim
Cosquer Cave. F-ance
prehistoric Europeans. Then we will look at the underwater through a long narrow passage
emergence of early civilizations in the ancient arriving at a large chamberwhere paintings
Near East and the rise of a great civilization in have survived above the water. In prehistoric
Egypt. Lastly we will study the powerful time, however, the entrance was about 250 feet
societies of ancient Greece and Rome andthe above sea level andabout seven miles from the
beautiful sculptures, paintings, andbuildings coast. The enormous cave complex is more
they produced. than 300 feet long. Its images were made in two
phases. The first, from about 28,000 years ago,
includes many scratched tracings of fingers, some
children's handprints, and at least 65 images in
Prehistoric Art in Europe which the outline of a hand was painted. The
and the Mediterranean second phase, about 10,000 years later, features
more than 170 images of animals (charcoal
As long as 30,000 years ago, prehistoric people paintings and engravings), including horses,ibex,
painted the interiors of caves; and sculptures bison,deer, and seals.
still survive from 5,000 years before that. Prehistoric humans often painted over earlier
Not surprisingly, such art is preoccupiedwith images already on the wall. In 3.2, a horse was
the basics of life:procreation and sources of painted over tracings (visible in the lower right)
food. Prehistoricartworks are particularly of several human fingers that were made 10,000
important records of the lives of our earlyyears before. The area aroundthe horse also
ancestors,becausemittenrecords of these shows significant scraping. Such scrapings,
cultures do not exist. Often what we know found throughout the cave, suggest that large
about their lives is based upon archaeological amounts of calciumcarbonate powder were
finds, and our modern interpretations of taken from the walls. Scientists believethis
these discoveries. powder was probably used for medicinal
Monolith: a monument or
The earliest paintings in the world are found purposes, for even today we might use calcium sculpture made from a single
on cave %vails. The entrance to the Cosquer Cave carbonate to treat osteoporosis. piece of stone
THE PREHISTORIC AND ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN 295
c
; -?n
3.3 Landscape with volcano e'uotion. deta:l o; water-color and-apart from their broad hips- only minimal
copy o; a wall oa'nt'ng fron- Level VII, Catalnoyuk, Turkey, anatomicaldetail. The figures usually have a long
c. 6150BCE. Wall painting: Ankara Museum of Anatolian
headand protruding nose; they are generic
Civilizations. Turkey. Watercolor copy: Private collect'on
renderings of females rather than individual
Some of the earliest works of art from the portraits. Originally, these figures were painted in
Mediterranean region come from Catalhoyiik,
Turkey-. Here, fragments of wall paintings remain
from a largebuilding complex that stood
black,red, andblue to show some facial details,
body ornamentation, and probably jewelry.
Because of the sculptor 's emphasis on parts of the
w
j&r
between c. 7000 and 5700 sce. Inhabitants of
the Catalhoyiik settlements lived in mud-brick
body related to reproduction, such as the breasts
and a slight swelling in the belly,mam- scholars
i
homes, which they entered from the rooftops; believe these objects are fertility figures. It is
there was no organized street system. The thought that, since the)- are smaller than one's
deceased were buriedbeneaththe floors, and hand, the)- may havebeen carriedaround as a
sometimes homes were demolished to create a kind of talisman, or charm against badluck.
higher base from which to build new ones. Little is known about the Cycladic culture because
3.4 Reclining ;e"nale :'gure
More than twelve layers of building havebeen it did not have a written language,but these or the Late Spedos variety,
discovered at the site. expressive, almost geometric figures are some Cyclades. 2500-2400 bce.
While many paintings from Catalhoyiik depict of the most intriguing in the history of art. Island rra'ble. 23%" high
humansandanimals (often in hunting scenes) , Just over 100 miles south of the Cvclades and
one intriguingwall painting re-creates the design dating from a little later in time, there is ample
of the town, with rectangular houses closely archaeological evidence of a sophisticated and
aligned side by side (3.3). In the background is complex civilization,theMinoan, on the island
the double-peaked volcano, Hasan Da, which of Crete from about 2700 to 1400 bce. Minoan
inreality is eight miles away. The volcano appears cities, with their powerful fleet and location at the
to be erupting; lava falls indroplets down the hub of the eastern Mediterranean, grew wealthy
mountain, and smoke fills the sky. as centers of trade. Some of our written evidence
The most common type of prehistoric of Minoan culture comes from the Greeks.
artworks found throughout the world are female According to their legend, King Minos was the
figures that suggest the celebration of fertility. stepfather of the Minotaur, a half-man, half-bull,
On the Cycla die Islands, now part of modern-day man-eating creature trappedin a labyrinth. The
Greece, a number of human figures, carved out of powerful Minos required the Athenians to send
white marble, havebeen found, many of them at seven young men and seven young women each Fresco: a technique whe re the
grave sites ( 3.4). Cycladic sculptures of females far year to satisfy the Minotaur's appetite. artist paints onto freshlyapplied
outnumber those of males. Curiously,however, TheMinoans built large palaces in the center plaster. Fromthe Italian fresco>
fresh
the female Cycladic figures look similar to their of their cities, the largestbeing King Minos' s Subject: the person .object, or
male counterparts, with barely noticeablebreasts Palace of Knossos (3.5). This complex—up to five space depicted in a work of art
c
stories high—-was a maze of some 1,300 rooms, Minoancivilization suffered a variety of 3.5 Ruins of Palace of
corridors, and courtyards. These spaces were used upheavals,both naturaland man-made, from Knossos. Crete, Greece.
C. 17 00- 1400 BCE. From 1900.
for governmental and ceremonial functions, as around 1500 bce, when, as some believe, a parts o: the palace were
accommodation for the king's family and their volcaniceruptionon the nearby island of Thera reconstructed, as seen here.
sen-ants, large storerooms, and even as a theater. created a huge tidal wave that destroyed the
The palace complex was so full of twists and turns Minoans' cities and fleets. Some decades later, 3.6 5ull-leapers. from
Palace o; Knossos. Crete.
that it is easy to see how the Greeks developed a Mycenaean invaders from mainland Greece
Greece, c. U50-13 75 BCE
myth about the labyrinth. overran Crete, taking over such palace sites Archaeolop'cal Museum.
The importance of bulls in Minoanculture as Knossos. He'aklion. Crete. G'eece
can be seen from their inclusion in the Minotaur
myth and in much of Minoan art. Several
sculptures and frescoes with scenes of bulls
were found throughout the Palace of Knossos,
including thelively Bull-leapers(2.6). In this
scene, three young acrobats are jumping a
spiritedbull. The boy flips over thebeast as a
young woman on the left—lighter skinned to
identify her gender— prepares to take the next
leap. The girl on the right has apparently just
landed. The creature is depictedwith great energy,
yettheCretans seem able to match it.Bull-leaping,
boxing, and acrobatic scenes were all common
subjects in Minoan art, evidence of an athletic
.Y.'.V.Y.'.V: , i'lViViViYiWiVi „ 1 1
1
' 1 1 : ' . .'tWiYsV'Y.ViVi1,V»Yn. t gV.
people; these activities may havebeen for
eniovment, or for more ritualistic ceremonies.
C
enemy. In the middle register, the box shows
Mesopotamia: The
soldiers (from left to right) marching,shaming
Cradle of Civilization their enemies by stripping them of their clothing,
and forcing them to continue walking. In the
Mesopotamia,from the Greekfor "the land center of the top register is the ruler. His larger
between the rivers" (a reference to the Tigris and size indicateshis importance, a convention
Euphrates rivers), includesthe regions of modern known as hierarchical scale. His status is
Iraq and portions of Syria, Turkey, and Iran. reinforced by the fact that all the surrounding
Ancient Mesopotamia is often called the "Cradle people are facing him. He has stepped out of
of Civilization," for it was here that urban centers his chariot while prisoners are brought before
first developed as early as 4000 bce. Here too, in him. On the peace side,animals, fish, and other
the richland of the Fertile Crescent, complex foods are brought to a banquet where seated
irrigation systems enabled people to produce figures drink while a musician playing a lyre
plentiful crops. Mesopotamia was frequently entertains them. The standard is a fine example of
conquered by rulers desiring the wealth of its narrative art and a source of evidence about what
farmland. Among the many cultures that battled food the Sumerians ate, their clothing and
for control of the regionwere the Sumerians, weapons, their musical instruments, andtheir
Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. success in war.
The treasures found at the Royal Cemetery
at Ur reveal the great wealth of the Sumerian elite.
Sumerians 3.7 Standard of Ur, Early
Buried with the bodies were goldjewelry and Dynastic Hl.c. 2600-2403 5CE:
The Sumerian civilization was the first great daggers inlaid with lapis lazuli.Whether the War (below) and Peace
(bottom). Wood inlaid with
power in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians buried were royalty or religious leadersis
shell, lap's lazuli, and ~ed
developed the earliest known form of writing, unknown,but the chariots, weapons, andmusical limestone. 7V; x I8V2". B-:tish
called cuneiform, which later evolved into a instruments buried with them are evidence of Museum, London, England
system of wedge- shaped symbols drawn with a
reed "pen" insoft clay. They seem to have
inventedthe wheel, which was probably first used
to help potters make circular pots. The people
of Mesopotamia worshiped many gods and
goddesses (a practice known as polytheism) in
temples or shrines located on huge ziggurats—
stepped pyramid structures made of baked clay —
which they constructed in the center of their
communities.
The artists of Sumer excelled in die art of
inlayingivory andshell in wood, as seen in the
Standard ofUr found in the Royal Cemetery of
Ur (3.7). When it was first discovered, scholars
thought it must havebeen carried on the end of a
pole, like a standard, but there is no real evidence
for this. The wooden box is only eight inches high
and decorated with inlaid pieces of shell, lapis
lazuli (a blue semi-precious stone), andred
limestone. One side of the box shows war scenes,
while the other shows life during times of peace.
Each side is divided into three sections, known
as registers. The bottom register of the war side
shows chariots running over thebodies of the
c
their importance. Sen-ants and soldiers were also which Ihad fashioned out of white limestone
buried with their leaders, possibly to protect and and alabaster, Ihad set up in its gates. Imade it
sen-e them in the afterlife. [the palace] fittingly imposing/'
These figures were meant to show the
Akkadians fearsome power of the Assyrian ruler andthe
authority given to him by the gods ( 3.9). .Almost
The next Mesopotamian empire was founded by twice as tall as a human, this lamassu combines
the Akkadian king Sargon, who ruled between the head of a man with the body and strength of a
c. 2334 and 2279 3CE. He conquered the lion and the wings and all- seeing eyes of an eagle.
Sumerian city states. Before King Sargon, most The horned cap signifies divinity, representing
rulers of Mesopotamia were believed to be the gods' support and protection of the rulers of
merely representatives of the gods on earth. Assyria. Lamassi often have five legs, so they
However, the .Akkadian rulerswho followed appear to be standing stillwhen viewed from the
Sargon elevated themselves to divine status. front and striding for wardwhen seen from the
Thebronze, life-sized .AkkadianHead (3.8) is side. The lion is an animalthat is often associated
the portrait of a great king,probably Sargon's with kingship, and at this time in this civilization,
grandson Naram-Sin(c. 2254-2218 sce). onlyAssyrian kings were considered powerful
The figure's expression is one of proud majesty. enough to protect the people from the lions that
The artist paidparticular attention to the texture
and patterning of the hair on the ruler' s beard, 3.9 Human-headed winged lion (temassuj, ;rorr gateway
eyebrows, and head. The eye sockets have been in Ashurnasirpal li s palace in Nimrud. Mesopotamia.
Neo-Assyrian, 883-85? BCE. Alabaster (gypsum). 10'3/Y'
3.8 Head o; an A.Kkad'an damaged from violent gouging, either to remove
high. Metropolitan Museum o: Art. New York
Ruler. c. 2300-2200 5CE. the materials (probably shells or lapis lazuli) used
Bronze. 15" high. National
to make the eyes, or to make the figure's presence
Museum o; Iraq. Baghdad
less powerful. The headwas originally discovered
in Nineveh in northern Iraq, andwas one of the
many objects missing after the looting of the
National Museum of IraqinBaghdad in 2003
during the U.S. invasion of Iraq. More than
15,000 artifacts were stolen, ofwhich fewer than
halfhavebeenrecovered—this .Akkadianhead
being one of them.
Assyrians
TheAssyrians, who had intermittently enjoyed
considerable power in the second millennium 3CE,
ruledmuch of Mesopotamia during the Neo-
Assyrian period (883-612 bce). The first great
Assyrian king, Ashurnasirpal II(who ruled
between 883 and 859 bce), usedslave labor to
Ziggurat: Mesopotamia!! buildthe large city of Nimrud (near modern
steppe d tower, roughlypyramid- Mosul, Iraq),whichbecame the capital of Assyria.
shaped, that diminishes in size Ashurnasirpal II's grand palace was covered
toward a platform summit
Hierarchicalscale: the use with relief sculptures of battles, hunting scenes,
of size to denote the relative and religious rituals. .An accompanying
importance of subjects in
inscription refers to guardian figures (called
an artwork
Relief: a sculpture that projects lamassi) at gateways and entrances throughout
from a flat surface the palace: "Beasts of the mountains andthe seas,
roamedthe areas outside the cities, and only Tower of Babel. Walls on ei ther side of the
kings were allowed to hunt the creatures. Many of Processional Way were covered with 120 glazed
the reliefs decora tingAshurnasirpal II's palace reliefsof lions (60 on each side) ,symbols of the
show the king hunt ing lions. goddess Ishtar.
The Ishtar Gate was taken in pieces in the
early twentieth century to Germany and is now
Babylonians
reconstructed at the Pergamon Museum in
Inthe lateseventh century 3CE the Babylonians Berlin. In the same museum, next to the Gate, is
defeated the Assyrians and re-emerged as a a wall from the entrance to Nebuchadnezzar's
powerful force in Mesopotamia. The ruler throne room, which shows stylized palm trees
Nebuchadnezzar II(605-562 bce) built a grand above lions that are similar to those that covered
palace famous for its Hanging Gardens. Around thewalls of the Processional Way.
the city, hebuilt fortified walls with eight
gateways. The dramatic Ishtar Gate was the main
entrance to the streets and temples of Babylon Ancient Egypt
(3.10). This enormous ceremonial entrance was
actually two arched gates, the shorter of which At the time of the pharaohs, the African land
(shown here) stood 47 feet high. Goldenreliefs of Egypt traded with peoples throughout the
of animals that symbolize specificBabylonian Mediterranean, andthus many of the ideas and
3.10 Isntar Gate ;rom
gods project out from aflat bluebackground techniques inventedby Egyptian artists were
Babylon Ilraqj, reign o; made of glazed bricks. taken up by Mediterranean civilizations. Indeed,
Neduchadnezza" II A Processional Way ran through the Ishtar some thousands of years after the}- were made,
1605-562 bceL
Gate, leading to the ziggurat on the south side the ancient Egyptians' extraordinary artistic
Vorderasiatisches Museum,
Staatl'che Museen, Ee'lin, of the city, which some believe to be the and architecturalachievements continue to be a
Germany inspiration for the Old Testament story of the source of wonder and astonishment -worldwide.
c
It is perhaps appropriate that our fascination he had neededwhen living—would be met.
with Egyptian art shouldbe so longlasting So inthe pharaohs' tombs were buried furniture,
objects in an exaggeratedway
when so much of early Egyptian culture focuses weapons, jewelry-, and food. Family and to emphasize certain aspects of
on eternity and the afterlife. The Egyptians servants were even killed to accompany the the object
Sarcophagus (plural
believedthat their pharaohs ruledwith the dead pharaohs, although as time went on
sarcophagi): a coffin (usually
authority of gods, and as a result, the Egyptian the Egyptians came to believethat ar t made ofstone or baked clay-)
people took great care to ensure that, when a portraying these objects and people would
pharaoh died, hisneeds in the afterlife—where be enough. (See Gateway Box: The Great
it was believed a person would require everything Pyramid of Khufu.)

Belief inthe Afterlife
We can fully understand the function of the brain was deemed to be of no value and was
pyramids atGiza (3.11) only if we study Egyptian removed through the nostrils.The liver, lungs,
beliefs about the afterlife. The pyramids housed intestines, and stomach were also removed,
the tombs of pharaohs, who were believed to and preserved in containers called canopic jars
live forever after death. In front of Khafre's (see 3.13 on p. 302). The body was then soaked
pyramid sits a colossal stone sculpture of a in a salt preservative called natron for forty days
Sphinx, a mythical creature with the body of a and was finally wrapped in linen.An elaborate
lion and the head of a human king. The lion was funerary mask was placed upon the face of the
in part an expression of royal power, but also a pharaoh, and he was buried under layers of
symbol of the Sun god who was believed to sarcophagi. These complex burials were meant
carry away in hisboat the dead to their afterlife. to protect the treasure and life force, or ka,
When a pharaoh died, in order to preserve of the buried.The great investment of time,
his body for its afterlife, it was mummified, a labor, and wealth that was involved
process that took severalmonths.The heart in creating the pyramids
was left inside the body; Egyptians believed it v demonstrates the importance
/..•T
to be the organ of thought and therefore hr - Egyptians placed on
__ ÿ
necessary forthe body \ t he afterlife.
to exist in the
f-9, • afterlife. a
3.11 Great Pyramids and

Sphinx, c. 2558-2532 bce.
Giza, Egypt
The image 3.12 shows the statue of the connected by a walkway to his pyramid. When
pharaoh Khafre,for whom the Great Sphinx Khafre died,hisbody was taken to his temple
and one of the pyramids were built.The statue and mummified,to preserve it for the afterlife,
was found in the pharaoh's temple, which was before being taken to his pyramid. In this statue,
Khafre andthe chair inwhich he sits havebeen
3.12 Khafre with the falcon carved from a single block of hard stone called
god Horus embracing the diorite. He seems to sit stiffly, as if attached to
oack o; n:s head. c. 2500SCE.
his throne. Egyptian sculptures portrayed people
Diorite, 56/8 high. Cairo
Museum. Egypt with gracefully proportioned bodies, but they
only subtly suggested movement, inthis case by
showing one hand clenched in a fist. To signify
the pharaoh's importance, the powerful sky god
Horus, symbolized as a falcon, perches upon his
shoulder. In Egyptian belief, Khafre's statue
Hieroglyphs: written language provides a place for his soul to rest during the
involving sacred characterschat afterlife. In fact, inEgyptian writing, "sculptor"
maybe pictures aswell as letters
translates as "hewho keeps alive."
The Egyptians invented a system of writing
usinghieroglyphs and often carved or painted
them on their artworks (see Box: Hieroglyphs).
Egyptian hieroglyphswere gradually deciphered
after the finding of the Rosetta Stone in 1799.
Hieroglyphs
We can understand Egyptian art largely of the complex hieroglyphics of the ancient
because we can translate hieroglyphs, the Egyptians.
written language of the ancient Egyptians. We know quite a bit about the burial practices
This was made possible in 1799through the of the Egyptians from the hieroglyphs written
discovery of the Rosetta Stone, which was on the objects buried with the boy king
found by the French army led by Napoleon Tutankhamun, who ruled from 1333 to 1323 bce.
during the course of its invasion of Egypt.
The lettering on the stone is dated to 196 bce
Four miniature coffins, each only fifteen inches
high, were placed within an alabaster chest
m
and repeatsthe decreesof Ptolemy V, the
Greek ruler of Egypt,in three separate forms
buried inTutankhamun's tomb. These so-called
canopic jars each hold an organ of the dead king
n
of writing. Hieroglyphic and Demotic were
different written forms of the Egyptian spoken
language; Greekwas familiarto many scholars
and are protected by one of the sons of the god
Horus. Hieroglyphsonthe chest and jars tell
us what these jars contain and their religious
a
and wasthe key to deciphering the other two. importance. Thehieroglyphic inscription is
Hieroglyphs are often images of recognizable inlaid in glass and lapis lazuli down the vertical
objects, but the image can represent the gold band of the canopic jarthat held the liver.
object itself, an idea, or even just a sound It isa magicalspell to guard the contents.
associated with that object. In 1822
Frenchman Jean-Francois Champollion was
finally able to claim that, thanksto studying
the Rosetta Stone, he understood the meaning
3.13 Detail o; receotacle :or internal organs, reign of
TutanKnarnun [1333-13235CE.. Gold, cornelian, and
vitreous paste. 15% xdV- x &V.". Cairo Museum, Egypt
o
|C
Perspectives on Art: Zahi Hawass
The Golden Mask of King Tutankhamun
Zahi Hawass is an Egyptian archaeologist and Whenever a television program wants to
Secretary General of the Supreme Council interview me about the golden king, I go
of Antiquities. Among his responsibilities is directly to the mask (3.14). While the film crew
the care of the fabulous treasures of King is setting up the cameras, I have a chance to
Tutankhamun,discovered by the English look again at the mask and I always discover
archaeologist HowardCarter in 1922. Dr. Hawass something new. Each time, its beauty makes
is one of the few people who can study the famous myheart tremble.
mask of the king up close. Here he describes how This spectacular mask represents an
the mask was made. idealized portrait of the king. Intrinsically
beautiful owing to the precious materials and
masterful workmanship that went into its
creation, it was also an essential item of the
royalburialequipment, serving asan image
that the soulcould enter and occupy during the
afterlife ifsomething happened to the body.
The artisans who crafted this masterpiece
began by hammering together two thick sheets
of gold, thought by the ancient Egyptians to echo
the flesh of the gods. They then shaped this
metal into the likeness of the king wearing the
striped nemes headcloth, using inlays of semi¬
precious stones and colored glass to add color
and detail. The whites of the eyes were inlaid
with quartz, and obsidian was used forthe pupils.
Red paint was lightly brushed into the corners
of the eyes, subtly increasing their realism.
Thevulture and cobraadorning the king's
brow, images of the protective goddesses of
Upperand Lower Egypt respectively, were
made of solid gold with inlays of lapis lazuli,
carnelian, faience, and glass. The long curled
beard on the king's chin, emblematic of divinity,
is made of blue glass laid into a golden
framework.
On the shouldersand the backof the mask
is a magical text that refers to the different
parts of the body and mask, andtheir
connection to particulargods or goddesses.
This served to protect the king's body and
render it functional forthe afterlife.
3.14 Funerary mask of Tutankhamun, reÿgn of

Tutanknamun ÿ 1 332—1 323BCE). Solid gold, sem -precious
stones, quartz, andvitreous paste. 21 high. Cairo
Museum. Egypt
each year, iustas Egyptiansbelieved that after
death theywould bereborn. The artist depicted
. ___•
the figures inhierarchical scale, that is, in
proportion to their importance: Nebamun is
shown the largest, hiswife is smaller, and their
daughter is the smallest of all. Nebamun's legs
are shown in profilewhile his torso is shown
frontally, and although his face is inprofile his
eye looks straight at the viewer. This method of
depicting figures isknown as twisted
perspective, also called composite view.
Art of Ancient Greece

"Man is the measure of all things."
(Protagoras,Greek philosopher)
The Greeks, likethe civilizations that came before

them, worshiped gods. But, as the quote from
Protagoras indicates, they also valued humanity.
Although their gods were portrayed as idealized
and beautiful beings,they looked likehumans
3.1 5 Fowling scene. :-om This single discovery made possible a much and had some human weaknesses. The emphasis
the torro o; Nebamun, greater understanding and appreciation of the on the individual led the Greeks to practice
Theoes, Egypt. 18th Dynasty.
art and culture of Egypt. The revelation in 1922 democracy (the word means rule by the demos, or
c. 1350BCS. Painted plaster.
38;/sx 83A". British Museum. of the extraordinary richeshidden within the people), although their society did not give equal
London, England tomb ofTutankhamun fueled renewed interest rights to women or slaves. Their great advances in
inthe ancient dynastic culture (see p. 303, philosophy,mathematics, andthe sciencescontinue
Perspectives on Art Box: The Golden Mask of to influence our thinking up to the present day.
King Tutankhamun). Athleticism was important in Greek culture
Paintings made during the time of the ancient and the Greeks held sporting contests, the
Egyptians are rich in details that tell us about the origins of the modern Olympic Games, at which
way people lived Wealthy people filled their individuals competed for glory and money.
tombs with paintings showing what they wished Sculptures of menwere predominantly of the
to take with them into the afterlife. The image in midebodvÿhovÿnvit}ndÿTgro£ortions.
3.15 is from the tomb-chapel of Nebamun, a For the Greeks, the idealizedhuman form
"scribeand grain accountant in the granary of represented high intellectual and moral goals.
divine offerings" in the Temple of Amun at Indeed,Greek architecture was based on
Karnak.The hieroglyphic writing on the right mathematical systems of proportion similar to
identifies him andtells us that he enjoyed those applied to the human form. Greek pride in
hunting. Nebamun is depicted hunting several their own physical and intellectual achievements
species of birds; a cat holdingbirds in its mouth is evident in the art the}- produced.
is shown underneathhis right elbow*. The artist Even- large city in Greece had its own
included an Egyptian boat and the rich lush government and was protected by its own god.
growth of the reed-like papyrus plant. This scene Each had an acropolis, a complex of buildings
highlights the importance of the River Nile to the on the highest point in the city that was both a
Egyptians, and how the flooding of the Nile fortress and a religious center, dedicated to the
symbolized a cycle of regeneration and new life city's patron deity. Thebest -known acropolis is in
C
contributed funds to prepare for future wars;
these were housed in the Parthenon.
The new Parthenon was so important it was
made of glistening white marble transported
several miles to Athens, and then carried up the
steep slope to the acropolis. Its design was
thought to epitomize ideal proportions,
symbolizing for the Athenians their achievements
as an enlightenedsociety. Modern visitors to
the Parthenon cansee the basic architectural
structure of the building but can gain only a
slight impression of its original appearance
(3.17). Originally it had a timber roof covered
with marble tiles, but this was destroyed in 1687
when Turkish army munitions stored there
exploded. When it was first made, the structure
was coveredwith sculptures. Bothbuilding and
sculptures were painted in red, yellow, and blue.
The bright paint has fallen off or faded over time,
giving modern viewers the incorrect impression
that Greek architecture and sculpture were
intentionally made the natural color of marble.
Inseveral places there were statues of Athena to
receive offerings and prayer. One enormous
statue of the goddess, 38 feet tall and made of
gold and ivory, dominated the interior space.
For many people, the Parthenon is the iconic
example of Classical architecture(see Box:
Classical .Architectural Orders, p. 306).
3.16 Reconstructionview Athens, and is dedicated to Athena, the goddess 3.17 Iktinosand Kallikrates. Parthenon. 447-4325CE.
o; the Acropolis. Athens. of war, wisdom, and the arts ( 3.16). According to Acropolis. Athens. G'eece
Greece, at theoeg'nn'ng
Greek mythology, the city was won by the
of the 4th centuryBCE
goddess in a competition with Poseidon,god of
the sea. Legend says that the goddess grew an
olive tree, givingAthenians a source of wealth and
defeating Poseidon, who hadcreated a spring by
striking the earth with his trident.
The original temple complex to Athena on
the acropolis was burnedby the Persian army in
Twist edperspective. also
480/479 3CE, less than a decade after it was begun.
known as composite view, a
representation of a figure, part in A new temple was built on the sitebecause,
profile and part fron tally according to legend, a new olive tree grew from
Proportions: the relationship in the ashes of the old temple. This new temple, the
sizebetween a work'sindividual
parts an d the whole
Parthenon,-was both the main temple to Athena
Acropolis: a high place in a and a war treasury. After the Persian attackthe
Greek city on which a temple Athenians formed an alliance with otherGreek
is located
Classical: Greek art of the cities to protect one another from further attacks
period c 4SO-323 bce by the so-called"barbarians." The cities
C
Classical Architectural Orders
The Greeks developed three types of designs, order wasused ina building istolookat the
called architectural orders, fortheirtemples. columns, and more specificallythe capitals.
Elementsof Greektemple design have been Ionic and Corinthian columns both have a more
used in government buildings throughout the decorative and slender quality than the bolder,
United States, particularly instate capitols and more masculine Doric order. The Doric column
in Washington, D.C. See if you can recognize has the least amount of ornamental detail. The
aspects of Greek architecture on the buildings Ionic column hasthe most noticeable fluting
nearwhere you live. The Doric and Ionic orders (vertical grooves) on the shaft and a volute
were first used as early as the sixth century bce. (inverted scroll) on the capital. The Corinthian
The Parthenon is unusual inthat it combines column is the most ornate, with layers of
the two: its exterior columns and frieze are acanthus leaves decorating the capital. The
Doric, while the inner frieze (as viewed from the entablatures of the three architectural orders
outside) is Ionic. The reason for this is debated, are also quite distinct. The Doric frieze is
but it is likely that the blending of two styles divided bytriglyphs (a kind of architectural
popularin different parts of Greece marked a decoration so named because it always has
unity between different Greek cities. The three grooves) that alternate with metopes
Corinthian orderwas invented toward the end (panelsoften containing relief sculpture). The
of the fifth century BCE. It was used for very few Ionic and Corinthian friezes have relief
Greek buildings, but was widely applied by the sculpture along the entire frieze, and do not
Romans. The easiest way to recognize which contain metopesor triglyphs.
3.18 D'ag-am o- the Classical

architectural orders.
acroterion
d'i;e"ent'at'ig between the
Do' C. Ionic, and Corinthian. pediment
Key oarta of G_ee< ternple
raking cornice
des'gn, sucn as the ped:rneot,
cornice
entaolatu'e. frieze, capital, dentil
frieze
column, shaft, and base a<"e
molding
also dent ;ed. tri glyph entablature
volute
architrave volute capital
echinus acanthus leaf
shaft
Order Ionic Order Corinthian Order
stylcbate
sterecbate
C
are intensely energetic,yet neither side seems
to win the battle.This subject was chosen as a
metaphor for the Athenians (representedby the
civilized Lapiths) who were always at war with
the Persians (represented by barbaric centaurs).
The sculptural scenes of gods that filled the
pediments, and the reliefs in the metopes, were
taken away between c. 1801 and 1805 bv the
BritishAmbassador Lord Elgin,who was given
permission to do so by the Turks then in control
of Athens. The Parthenon or Elgin Marbles reside
today in the British Museum in London, although
the Greeks have asked for their return.
Ancient accounts tell us that Greek paintings
were remarkably convincing scenes with three-
dimensional figures that seemed to come to life.
Unfortunately, only incomplete fragments
survive. Several Roman mosaics were made as
copies of Greek paint ings, however. We can also
surmise the skill of Greek painters bylooking at
the scenes painted on pottery.
3.19 Metope of = Laoith end The sculpture that coveredthe Parthenon was The vase in 3.20 and 3.21 shows the Greek
centaur in corroat ;ro-n the in a high Classical style (see Box: Sculpture warriors Achilles and Aj ax playing a game while
south side o; the Parthenon,
des'gned by Pheidias, c. 445 ece.
throughout Ancient Greece, p. 308). waiting to battle with the Troians. Through the
Marble. 52Vs" high. British Placed in the metopes of the frieze in the layering of clothing,body parts, and even facial
Museum, London, England Parthenon were sculptural reliefs of the battle hair, the Archaic Greek artist was able to
inwhich the Lapiths, a legendary people in represent figures that seem to fill a real space.
Architecturalorder: a style o: Greek mythology, tried to prevent the centaurs The shields perched behindthe figures also help
designing columnsand related ( creatures that are half-man and half-horse) from to create a sense of depth. The longbody of the
parts of a Greek or Roman
kidnapping the Lapith women ( 3.19). The scenes pot andits two handles identify this as an
building
Frieze: the strip that goes around
the top of a building, often filled
with sculptural ornamentation
Capitals: the architectural
features that crown a column
Shaft: the mainvertical part of
a column
Entablature: the part of a Greek
or Romanbuilding that rests on
top of a column
Relief: a sculpture that projects
from a flat surface
Pediment: the triangular space,
situated above the row of
columns, at the end of a building
in the Classical style
3.20 and 3.21 Andok:des

Painter, Achilles andAjax
Playing Dice. c. 525-5 20 ece.
Black figure and _ed figure
(bilingual) two-handled
jar (amphora), 21" h:gn.
mvm
Museum of F'ne Arts. Boston,
Massachusetts
c
Sculpture throughout Ancient Greece
Greek sculpturesare categorized generallyin which imitates the way humans balance their
three types, referring both to the date of their own weight. The Spear Bearer portrays a man
making and to their style. Archaic works were who stands naturally with his left knee bent and 3.23 Romanversion o;the
produced from the late seventh to early fifth whose weight is shifted to his right hip. His Doryphoros o; Polykleitos,
1 20-50=: E. a;te-a oronze
centuries BCE. Art from c. 480-323 BCEis raised left arm balances this shift in weight.
original o: C. 460 BCE. Marble.
labeled Classical. Later works are known as Such poses made figuresappear less stiff than 6'6"x 19" X 19". Minneapolis
Hellenistic. A comparison of sculptures from the typical kouros versions. Institute of Arts
these three periodsdemonstratesthe main 'IT
differences between them.
The name for one of the earliest Archaic
types of Greek statues is kouros, or "male
youth" (3.22). Compare this work with the
Egyptian sculpture of Khafre (3.12). The
Greek sculpt or subtly suggests movement
by placing one foot in front of the other,
whereasthe seated statue of Khafre
seems bound to the blockof marble
from which it was carved. Unlike
the distant stare of Khafre, which
suggests he is in the spiritual world
of the dead, the kouros has lively
energy and seems to be part ofthe
world of the living. He wears nothing
more than an Archaic smile, which
conveys innocence and serenity.
Statues like this were grave markers
and offerings at sanctuaries. Statues
of young maidens were called korai;
interestingly, these were all clothed,
as were most Greek statues of females at
the time (see Chapter 4.9, Body).
Sculptors of the Classical period tried to
give theirworkthe idealized proportions of
a perfect human form. The subjects of most
Greek sculptors are heroes or gods. The
Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) is a famous example
ofthe work of Polykleitos; unfortunately, only
a Roman copy of the original survives (3.23).
Polykleitos developed a canon, or set of rules,
forcreating a harmoniouslyproportioned
human body using a set of mathematical
ratios. Polykleitos also gave his statue
a new stance, called contrapposto,
3.22 Statue of a kouros [youth), Naxian,

C. 590-580 BCE. Marble. 6'4s/s" high.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. NewYork
c
amphora, a type of pot that was used to carry
and store such goods as wine or olive oil.
Greek pots were made in large w-orkshops
headed by both a master potter, who formed the
vase, and a master painter. The two worked
together closely as the painting technique was
intricately connected with the process of firing
the pot. There were two main types of Greek vase
painting: black figure and red figure. To make a
black figure vase the painter used slip (watered-
down clay) to paint the design on the pot;he
then incised the details into the slip. A three-
phase firing methodthen turned the slip-covered
areas black, while the rest of the pot remained
the original redcolor. The red figure technique
used the reverse process: the slip was used to
outline the figures and paint in the details. This
methodhadthe advantage of making the figures
appear slightly more three-dimensional. This
amphora was made by the so-calledAndokides
Painter, the first artist known to have used the
red figure technique. The artist made this pot to
exemplify the differences between the two
techniques; thus it is called "bilingual,'' with the
same scene on each side, one created in each of
the two processes.
3.24 Laocoonand his Sons, copy of bronze original

probably rnade at Pergamum c. 150 BCE. Marble. 6/2
Roman Art
high. Vatican Museums. Vatican City
The fir st evidence of a settlement at Rome dates
One of the most compelling Hellenistic back to about 900 3CE. This small village grew- to
Archaic Greek art of the period
sculptures is the Laocoon, in which the priest c. 620-480 bce becomethe center of anenormous empire that,
Laocoon and his sonsare shown struggling Classical: Greek art of the by the year 1 17 ce, covered much of Europe,
inagony asthey are attacked by twisting sea period c. 480-323 bce
northern Africa, and large parts of the Middle
Hellenistic: Greek art of the
serpents, sent by the god Poseidon (3.24). period c. 323-100 bce East. In the process of conquering such large
Hellenistic sculpture shows the same idealized Kouros: sculpture of a nude territories, the Romans absorbed many cultures,
Greekyouth
muscular bodies as earlier Greek sculptures. frequently adopting the gods of other people but
Contrapposto: a pose in
Hellenistic artists, however, chose subjects sculpture inwhich the upper giving them Latin names. The Roman emperors
that involved creating figures in dramatic part ofthebody twists in one often associated themselves with qualities of the
direction and the lower part
poses, challenging the artist to convey an even gods, and successful leaderswere often deified
in another
greater sense of movement and heightened Renaissance: a period of after the}- died.
emotion. Renaissance artists were often cultural and artistic change in Another example of Roman absorption
Europe fromthe fourteenth to of other cultures was their adoption of the
impressed by the balanced forms from the
Classical period, but this dynamic Hellenistic Slip: clay mixedwith water used
Corinthian architecturalorder developedby
sculpture, discovered in Rome in 1506, to decorate pottery the Greeks (see p. 306). The Romans also used
inspired such artists as Michelangelo Incised: cut Greek methods to create ideal proportions in
to imbue their art with similar drama an object or figure by which it is
their architecture. At the center of each Roman
and movement. defined orb oun de d city was a forum, or marketplace, which was
c
3.25 Reconstruction
llustration o: anc'ent Ronre.
In this image, the River T'ber
can oeseen flowing by the
city. The two enormous
stad'ums [Circus Maximus
and the Colosseum] stand out
as an oblong and cmcular
snaoe respectively.
surrounded by temples, basilicas, and civic status. His face shows individuality, andhe wears
buildings (3.25). Emperors made a public show of clothing appropriate to hissocial status.
their power by commissioning architects to create The catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius
grand arches and tall columns,which usually in 79 ce buried the buildings of the Roman
celebratedthe rulers' triumphs inbattle. Statues cities of Pompeii andHerculaneum ina
of the current emperor were also distributed matter of hoursunder some sixty feet
throughout the empire. of volcanic ash. This unique act of
The Romans greatly admired Greekbronze accidental preservation has given us,
sculptures and often remadethem in marble. centuries later, an incomparable
While the Greeks celebrated the idealized human opportunity to witness how Romans
body and mostly portrayed nude gods and lived in their homes. Frescoes covered
mythologicalheroes, Roman art focused instead the walls of many rooms in the houses
on emperors and civic leaders, who were usually in Pompeii. Some of the paintings offer
portrayed clothed in togas or wearing armor. convincing illusions of landscape
Romansculpture often portrayed the individual scenes. Some of the interiors are
character of its subject with recognizable, rather covered with what appear to be marble
than ideal, facial features. Aged members of panels,but which in reality are only-
Roman society were portrayed— andviewed— as painted. One such room, shown in 3.27, is
wise and experienced, particularly in political coveredwith scenes believed to describe
settings. rituals relating to the worship of
Romanartists recognized individuals' Dionysus, the god of wine, ecstasy,
accomplishments with naturalistic, lifelike agriculture, andthe theatre. Excavation
portraits often made from death masks. Family of Pompeii began in the eighteenth
memberstreasured such portraits as recording
their loved one's likeness and character. In 3.26
3.26 Patr'c'an carrying death-masks of
a Roman citizen proudly displays the busts of his ancestors, c. BO BCE. Marble. li;e-s'ze.
his ancestors in order to reinforce his own social 6arbe~in: Museum. Rome. Italy
Bust: a statue of a person
depicting only his or her head
and shoulders
Frescoes: paintings made on
freshly appliedplaster
Facade: any side of a building,
3.27 Detail mom Dionysiac

myste'y ;_'eze n Room 5 o;
the Villa o; the Mysteries.
Pompeii, Italy, C. 60 bce. Wall
oainting. 5'd" high
century, andthe remarkablediscoveries there the Gods'1). It was originally constructed inthe
stimulated interest in ancient art throughout fir st century 3CE. Emperor Hadrian had it rebuilt
3.28 Pantheon, e-itraice
Europe. from c. 118 to 125 ce inorder to enhance his own
porch, c. 1 18-25CE, One of the Romans1 most impressive works status. The entrance facade is a pediment atop
Rome. Italy of architecture is the Pantheon ("Temple of all Corinthian columns (3.28). Once inside, one is
MAGRiPPAL-f
standing under a spectacular coffered dome
Coffered: decoraced with
143 feet in diameter and 143 feet from the ground
recessed paneling
Oculus: a round opening at the (3.29). The dome was made possible by the
center of a dome Romans1 revolutionary use of concrete and their
engineeringgenius. In the center of this dome is
an oculus, or eye, open to the skies. One can tell
the season and time of day by where the sunlight
hits the interior. Any rain coming in runs quickly
away into a central drain because the entire floor
slopes gradually.
The enormous .Arch of Constantine ( 3.30)
was built between 312 and 315 ce by the emperor
Constantine to commemorate the military victory
1 (the Battle of the Milvian Bridge) that would

ensure his future position as sole ruler of the
empire. Constantine proclaimed his place in
history, andtherewith his greatness, by placing the
arch close to the famed Colosseum,built by an
earlier family of powerful emperors. Constantine
3.29 (left) Pantheon, also had sculpture removed from other imperial
interior view, c. 1 1 3-25 c = monuments, often erasing the faces of previous
Rome, Italy
emperors from such statues and replacing them
3.30 (below) Arch o; with his own likeness; he then had the sculptures
Constantine. south s'de, placed upon the triumphal arch. By doing so, he
312—1 5c=. Rome, Italy proclaimedbothhis linage to previous great
emperors andhisbelief in his superiority over
them. Constantine associated himself with Apollo
and other pagan gods, as well as with Christianity.
He becameknown as Constantine the Great and
would eventually make it legal to practice all
religions, opening the doors for Christianity to
grow* into the primary religion of the Empire.
Hew-as baptized as a Christian on hisdeathbed.
Discussion Questions
1 Theandent dviKzations of the Mediterranean
regionwere noted for their greatbattles and
powerful rulers. Select two artworks from two
different cultures and compare how- the idea
of power is reflected in your two examples.
2 Discuss the architecture of the .Ancient Greeks
? and Romans. What advancements did each
culture make in building, and why are these
works stillconsideredsuchman-els today?
ÿ-
- 3 How did the natural environment of the

.,N people of the ancient Mediterranean affect the
» T_1 V*
mmmmam X*
MMb - 9BBBI
style, materials, and subiect matter of their art?
c
Images related to 3.1:
4.129 V/oman from V/dlendorf, 4.96a. 4.96b Palette or 4.3 Stonehenge. c. 3200- 1.136 Poseidon [or Zeus], 2.152 Riace Warrior A,
C. 24.000-22.0005CE, p.554 Narmer. c. 2950-2775 BCE. 1500SCE. p.456 c. 460-450 5CE. p. 134 C. 450 EC E. p. 266
p. 526
4.1 4 Sumerian bulllyre, 4.1 31b Menkaure and his 4.27 Stela of Naram-Sin. 4.7 Ziggurat at Ur. 4.99 Stela ofHammuraoi.
c. 2550-2450 ece. p.4 64 Wife. Queen Khameremebty. c. 2254-221 Sbce. p.4 74 c. 21 00 ece, p. 45? C. 1 792-1750BCE. p.523
c. 2520e:e. p.556
4.157 Sphinx o; Hatsheosut. 2.171 Temple of Amun-Re. 4.95 Akhenaten. Nefertiti, 2.151 Sarcophagus from 4.132 Myron. D/SCuS
147?-14585CE.p.575 1417-137? SCE. p. 278 and three daughters. Cerveteri. C. 520 BCE. p. 266 Thrower(DiSCObolosJ .
c. 1353-1335ece. p.525 c. 450 BCE. p.557
1.34 Imperial Procession 4.97 Augustus of Primaporta. 4.5 Colosseum. 72-80CE. 1.161 Equestrian statue of 4.100 Remnants of colossal
from the Ara Pads Augustae, early 1st centuryCE (after p. 458 Marcus Aurelius, c. 1 75 CE. statue of Constantine.
13 BCE. 0.67 original from 20 BCE). p. 527 p. 152 325-6 CE. p.528
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.2
The Roman empire dominated the Mediterranean (today's Istanbul,Turkey). The eastern part of the
region from the second century bce, later empirebecame known as the Byzantine empire
extending its control of western Europe and the and lasted a millennium, until Constantinople
Middle East, but by the fourth century ce the fell to the Turks in 1453. In the west, however, a
empire was crumbling in the west. In330 the series of invasions hadended the Roman empire
Roman emperor Constantine I(272-337 ce) by 476. The period that followed is known as
3.31 Map of Europe and
the Middle East in the moved the center of the Roman empire from Rome the Middle Ages, or the medieval period,
Middle Ages to Byzantium, which herenamed Constantinople because it comes between the time of the ancient
Toulou
• Aries
• Dura Europos
civilizations of the Mediterranean region and the
rebirth,or Renaissance, of Greek and Roman
Art of Late Antiquity
ideals in the fifteenth century.
In the study of the history of art, the Middle Jewish culture thrived periodically during the
Ages is often broken down further because of Middle Ages, although this -was also a time of
the stylistic variations of its art, particularly its persecution. Partially as a result of the constant
architecture. Beginningin the eleventh century-, displacement of many Jews (see Box: Three
large stone churches, heavily ornamentedwith Religions of the Middle Ages, p. 316), few-
sculpture inside and out, were built throughout examples of Jewish art from the Middle Ages
the Christian world. These churches were survive. The oldest surviving Jewish artwork
later given the name Romanesque for their (other than coins) can be found in a synagogue
similarity to the heavy round-arched style of in the ancient Roman city* of Dura Europos,
the Romans. This comparison is not obvious at on the River Euphrates in modern Syria. Here,
first, but the term Romanesque was meant as more than fifty stories are displayed in fresco
a direct contrast to the architectural style that paintings on thewall. The synagogue paintings
followed it,beginning around 1150, inwhich were used to teach the stories uponwhich
great Gothic cathedrals, the spires of which Jewish history and belief are based. The didactic
reached toward the heavens, were constructed. nature of these images explains why figures are
Religious beliefwas integral to the lives of the show*n, a feature that is uncommon in later
people— whether Christian, Jew, or Muslim— Jewish art. On the center of the west wall facing
who lived in Europe and the Middle East Jerusalem is a shrine containing the Torah, die
during the Middle Ages. Much of the art most important part of the Jewish Bible that
andarchitecture from the period reflects contains the commandments given to Moses
their beliefs. by God (3.32).
3.32 In tenor west wall
o; synagogue at Du_a
Europos. Syria. 2ad-5 CE.
Reconst_uct'on in National
Museum, Damascus. Syria
cultural arid artistic change in
1
the seventeenth century*
Romanesque: an early medieval
European style of architecture
based on Roman-style rounded
archesand heavy construction
i
Gothic western European
architectural style of the
twelfth to sixteenth centuries,
characterized by the use of
pointed arches and ornate
decoration
Fresco: a technique where the
artist paints onto freshlyapplied
plaster. Fromthe Italian fre-ca,
fresh
Didactic: with the aim of
teachin gore ducating
ART OF THE MIDDLE AGES 315
C
Three Religions of the Middle Ages
You shall not make for yourself an idol, • Christians worship Jesus Christ (a Jew who
whether in the form of anything that is in lived from c.7-2 BCE to c. 30-36 ce), who they
heaven above, or that is on the earth believe wasthe son of God. The Bible
beneath, or that is in the waterunder the contains both the writings of the Jewish
earth. You shall not bow down to them or Bible ("The Old Testament") and what
worship them. Christians see as their fulfillment in the
(Second Commandment. Exodus 20:6-5) life of Jesus ("The New Testament"). For
Christians, Jesus was a great teacher
Judaism, Islam, and Christianity all have their who demonstrated howto lead a good
origins in the Middle East. They have some and pious life, but who also suffered,
similar beliefs— each religion considers was sacrificed and then rose again to show
Abraham to be a prophet, for example, and each that the sins of man could be forgiven and
considerstheirgod to be the one true god. that for those who were true believers,
Importantly for the study of art, each also warns eternal life could be achieved afterdeath.
against theworshipoffalse idols. Understanding Christians have interpreted the Second
some basic beliefs of followers of these faiths Commandment in different ways, at times
can help us to understand better some of the causing greatconflict and eventhe
art produced during the Middle Ages. destruction of images.
• Judaism began with a contract between • Muslims (followers of Islam) call their one
Abraham and God (Yahweh) inc. 2000 BCE. true god Allah. They believe that Jesus
Abraham promised to exalt Yahweh as the was a prophet but that Muhammad
one true God, and in exchange Yahweh (c. 570-632) was the primary messenger
promised Abraham many descendants, who of Allah. The Koran is the word of Allah
are the Jewish people of today. The Torah (or given to Muhammad and is Islam's
"Teaching") waswritten by Moses under primary sacred text. Islamic art never
divine inspiration and is the core of Jewish depicts the figure of God. Also, human
belief and law. Jewish art does not showany figuresare not shown within the holy
more than the hands of Yahweh, and rarely space of a mosque. The majority of Islamic
shows human figures. Instead, it usually art is decorative and often makes beautiful
depicts objects used in acts of worship- use of calligraphy to showthe word of Allah.
scroll holders, candelabra, and the like.
The fresco painting of the scene in 3.33 does who have been chasing the Israelites.The Exodus
show God, but not his lace; only his hands are painting is a continuous narrative, in which
seen, reaching down from the sky. In the passage different points in time in the story are shown
from the Book of Exodus in the Torah, God tells w-ithin the same scene. Moses is shown inthe center
Moses to guide the Israelites out of Egypt toward while the soldiers on the left are lined up to follow
Mount Sinai, where Moses will receive the Ten him. A second Moses is shown slightly in front and
Commandments. When the}- arrive at the Red Sea, to the side of the first Moses. Behindthe second
Calligraphy: the arc of emotive
or carefully descriptive hand God tells Moses to place his rod in the water. This Moses on the right side of the scene, the soldiers
lettering or handwriting action parts the sea, creating a safe crossing for havebeen w-ashed away as the sea has flooded.
Continuousnarrative: when Moses andhis people. When the}- are safely on the The Christian Church, which had been
different parts of a story are
shown within the same visual other side, Moses again places his rod in the water. unified under Roman rule, split in 1054. The
space The Red Sea floods, drowning the Egyptian soldiers result was a Greek Orthodox Church in the east
31 6 HISTORY AND CONTEXT
c
3.33 Exodus and Crossing of

the Red Sea. panel from west
wall of synagogue at Du~a
Europos. Syria, 2dd-5CE.
Reconstruction in National
Museum. Damascus. Syria
and a Roman Catholic Church inthe west, each shows Jesus as the Good Shepherd in the center
ruled by separate leaders and following different and tells the Old Testament story of Jonah in the
doctrines and practices. The earliest examples of semicircular areas around the central image (3.36).
Christian art date from the early third century. Christians believethat the story of J onah,who
From 200 ce to the sixth century, it was common was swallowedby a whale andthen spat out alive
practice among Christians, Jews, andothers in three days later, foreshadows the death and
Italy to bury the dead in underground cemeteries resurrection of Jesus. It is intriguing to notice
known as catacombs. The catacombs may also that, intheir depiction ofChristian themes, early
3.36 Painted ce'ling. late
haveserved as sites for Christian worship. Scenes Christian artists often used motifs and figures
3rd-earlydth centuryCE.
were often painted on burial-roomwalls and adapted from pagan cultures. For example, the Catacombs of Sai its Pete"
ceilings. One such scene in a catacomb in Rome Good Shepherd in 3.36 w as adapted from images and Marcellinus. Rome. Italy
C
center of Constantinople. One of Justinian's
greatest achievements was his protection of
more than 2,000 icons at the monaster}- of
St. Catherine, Mount Sinai, in Egypt. Icons,
paintings of religious figures on wooden
panels, are stillused inthe Eastern Orthodox
Church for meditation and prayer. Many early
Christians believed icons had special healing
powers; therefore, icons that survive are often
faded from being kissedand touched by
numerous worshipers.
The sixth- century icon of Christ f 3.36) from
the St. Catherine Monastery at Mount Sinai is
3.35 Good Shepherd. of several pagan figures, including the Greek hero intended to show the dual nature of Christ as both
425-6. Mosaic in lunette. Orpheus (who could charm animals with his human and God. As in the Good Shepherd
Mausoleum o; Galla
songs) and the Greek god Apollo (god of music, mosaic (3.35), here Christ is shown as a regal
Placidia. Ravenna, Italy
the sun, and healing, who was always shown as figure, wearing a rich purple robe. Christ is now
a beardless youth). represented with a beard and long hair,which
A century later, the depiction ofChrist becamethe convention insubsequent Christian
changed. Christian artists developed a range of art. Christ's duality is brilliantly portrayed here by
symbols that were more varied andelaborate. The the differences made to eachside of his face; his
mosaic in 3.35 was made for the building known
as the Mausoleum ofGalla Placidia,which was 3.36 Christ icon, 6th century. Encaustic. 33x 1 3".
the family tomb of the Roman emperor Flavius St. Catherine Monastery. Mount Sinai. Egypt
Honorius. We can see that Christ is still portrayed

as a Good Shepherd, here flanked by three lambs
on each side, but he is seatedand more mature.
Compared to the image on the catacomb ceiling,
Christ's appearance is regal. Hewears a fine gold
robewith a purple (the traditional color for
royalty) cloth draped over his shoulder; he holds
a golden cross. His hair is long, and a prominent
Mosaic a picture or pattern
created byfixing together small goldhalo shinesbehind him; the tesserae, small
pieces ofstone, glass, tile, etc. pieces of glass that make up the mosaic, create a
Tesserae: small piecesof stone beautiful glow that glitters and reflects light.
or glass or other materials used
to make a mosaic
Unlike figures in Roman art, Christ's body is
Patron: an organization or sharply delineated and flat-looking rather than
individual \\iio sponsors the
fully three-dimensional. These stylistic qualities
Icon: a small, often portable, foreshadow the art of Byzantium, the Christian
religiousimage venerated by empire that continued in the east after the fall of
Christian believers; first used by the western Roman empire.
the Eastern Orthodox Church
Central-plan: Eastern
Orthodox church design, often
in the shape of a crosswith all
four arms of equal length
Byzantine Art
Nave: the central space of a
cathedral or basilica The Byzantine Emperor Justinian I(483-565) was
Apse: semicircular vaultedspace a devoted patron of the arts. He funded hundreds
in a church
Altar, an area where sacrifices or ofchurches, mosaics, and paintings throughout
offerings are made his empire, including the Hagia Sophia in the
31 8 HISTORY AND CONTEXT
C
right side (theviewer's left) represents his heavenly
half,andhis left side his human half. The right
side of Christ'sface is ideally proportioned,
with a healthyglow, andhishair is in place. By-
comparison, his left side seems to sag slightly, his
eyes andmouth havewrinkles, and his hair is
somewhat dishevelled. His right hand forms into
a gesture of holy blessing, while his left hand holds
scripture, sacredwritings readby those on earth.
One of the most beautiful Byzantine churches
was built in Ravenna, Italy, in the sixth century
(3.37). "Central-plan churches were a common
style in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, as
opposed to the Latin cross design of the west
(see 3.51 on page 326). The floor plan of the
Church of San Vitale is based on two octagons,
one inside the other. The smaller octagon, the
nave, is a space nearly lOOfeethigh, filled with
•window, and covered by a dome. Natural light
glistens off the glass mosaics that cover the walls.
Eight semicircular bays emanate from the center,
with the apse that contains the altar on the
southeast side; above the altar is a mosaic of
Christ enthroned on Earth. Flanking either side
of the apse are glorious mosaics of the Emperor
Justinian andthe Empress Theodora. The mosaic
of Theodora and her attendants is filled with rich
details, such as the Three Magi on the hem of the
empress's stunning purple robe ( 3.38). It is
characteristic of Byzantine art that figures and
their clothing are often boldly outlined. Such
3.37 San Vitale. apse. c. 547.

Ravenna. Italy
3.38 TheodoraandAttendants .
C. 547. Mosaic on south wall
o; aose. S'S"x 12'. San Vitale.
Ravenna. Italy
c
delineation creates a flatness to the figures and
decreases their three-dimensionality. This lack
ofvolume or mass, alongwith the way the figures
seem to float, gives a timeless, spiritual quality to
the image, as ifit belongs somewherebetween the
1
heavenly and earthly realms. It is important to
remember that this mosaic is placed in a very
sacred part of the church. The empress carries
a jeweled chalice of wine that she raises up in
the direction of the actual altar, which is located
directly to the left of the mosaic. The figures in
the image are even layered so that their repetition
creates a sense of movement toward the altar.
On the opposite wall is a mosaic of the Emperor
3.39 Page mom the Koran,
Justinian holdingbread; the breadandwine are probably late 12th century.
symbols of the important religious ceremony of
Maghrib! on vellum, 7V;x
the Eucharist, which took place in this church. 7/z". British Librany, London
It is also significant that Theodora is depicted
outdoors, shown clearly by the greengrass, in fine metals often contributed to decorating
canopies, and fountain. The artist was clari fying the covers. The great effort required to create
that Theodora and her ladies were not in as a manuscript was considered a tribute to God.
sacred a realm as the emperor andhis men in the Islamic manuscripts rarely showhuman figures,
opposite mosaic, who are surroundedby a solid and never the image of Allah (God). Rather,
gold background. Creating such different attention is paid to the word ofAllah, recorded in
backgrounds was a way for the artist to show the Koran, andrevealed inelegant script. Islamic
that women were only allowed inthe courtyard artworks often have an arabesque quality, and
of the church or on the second- story balcony this is particularly apparent in manuscripts.
surrounding the nave. In reality, the Empress Surah (chapters) from the Koran are written in
Theodora would not havebeenallowed near the Arabic, from right to left,but the script varies from
altar (where thismosaicwas placed), not iust region to region. In abeautiful page of the Koran
because she was a woman, but also because she from thirteenth- century Spain ( 3.39), the oldest
was from the lower classes, havingbeen an actress Arabic script, kufic, is used for the headings, while
and a prostitute when she met Justinian. the script magh ribi is used for the rest of the text.
This regional script derived its name from its
popularity in the region of Maghreb,which inthe
Middle Ages included northern Africa and Islamic
Manuscripts and the areas of Spain. The areas inthe manuscript where
Middle Ages the text is thicker and in gold signify- the heading
for a new chapter. The ornamental circular designs Three-dimensional: having
Manuscripts (books written and decorated by in gold break the reading into appropriate sections. height, width, and depth
hand) are some of the richest and most detailed The Lindisfarne Gospels are an illuminated Eucharist: Christian ceremony
that commemorates the death of
artworks made by Muslims and Christians in the manuscript book of the gospels of Matthew, Jesus Christ
Middle Ages. The production of manuscriptswas Mark,Luke, and John. The)- were made during Background: the part of a work
intensely laborious, from making the pages out of the late seventh century. Each gospel is decorated depicted furthest from the
animal hides to copying painstakingly incareful with a "Cross and Carpet" page (named for its main subject matter
handwriting. Manuscriptswere the work of many similarity to a carpet design). The design in the Arabesque: an abstract pattern
artists (usually monks), some specializing in Cross and Carpet page at the beginning of derived from geometric and
vegetal linesand forms
decorative lettering (scribes), and others in St. Matthew's gospel appears to bemade up of Illuminations: illustrations and
paintingimages ( illuminators). Jewelers andwork ers numerous intertwining lines ( 3.60). L'pon closer decorations in a manuscript
-=a
Mil
fe-r:
a 3.40 (fa- Le;t] Cross-carpet

page itroduc'ig trie Gosoet
'
accord'og to St. Matthew.

L'idis;arne Gosoels. fol. 26b.
British Library. London.
eSs®ÿ "w »s England
jwJI©, rw''ÿ0- 3.41 Detalo;3.40
became abbess of a convent in Germany. Her

visions included insights into medicine, astronomy,
and politics,which she shared in a book called
B
Scivias ( Know the Whys), which was read
inspection, however, tiny animal heads can be throughout Europe. The original manuscript was
seen twistingthroughout ( 3.41). While the destroyed during World War II;however, from
specific meaning of these animals is unclear, this copies of Scivias we know that Hildegard was 3.42 The Fifth Vision of
decorative element was common in the Middle repeatedly portrayed in the act of receiving a vision. Hildegard ofBingen .
;_ont'so' ace for Liber Scivias,
Ages, particularly in northeast England where the Her assistant is also usually shown transcribing
C. 1230. 0"'g'"ial rr anuses pt
Lindisfarne Gospels were made. her vision ( 3.42). This misleadingly suggests that lost. Biblioteca Govemativa,
The Lindisfarne Gospels were scribed fully the scribe wrote the actual manuscript. In reality, Lucca. Italy
or inpart by a bishop named Eadfrith,who
signed his name to the manuscript. The pages,
written in Latin,would havetaken him at least
five years to complete. Such beautiful pages as
these are often called illuminations because
their rich colors recall light shiningthrough
stained glass in a cathedral. (Similarly, because of
their didactic nature, stained-glass windows have m
been called "books in glass," andthe sculpture
around cathedrals "books in stone.") Both the
Lindisfarne Gospels andthe Spanish Koran were
made to be studiedand eni oved over long periods
of contemplation.
Manuscripts often illustrated religious stories
or the visions of spiritual leaders. Hildegardof
Bingen was a Christian mystic andvisionary; she
advised kings and popes,who often travelledlong
distances to meetwith her. Borninto an aristocratic
family and educated as a nun, she eventually
C
surroundedbyblinding flames, which signify his
holiness, as he rides his half-human horse Buraq
toward the heavens. On the left, guiding
Muhammad,is the angel Gabriel,whose headis
also surrounded by smaller flames. Manuscripts
in the Middle Ages are richly detailed objects that
reflect the piety of the people of the time.
Pilgrimage in the
Middle Ages
Pilgrimages were integral to the practice of
Christianity, Islam,and Judaism. In medieval
Europe,devout pilgrims journeyed to holy sites
where significant religious events hadoccurred
or where relicswere kept. Relics were holy objects
(such as a piece of thewooden cross on which
Christ was crucified), or body parts of saints or
holy figures. Elaborately decorated containers
called reliquarieswere made to house individual
3.66 Reliquary o: the Head or St. Alexander, 1145. Silver

ÿeoousse. g: It bronze. gems. pearls, and enamel, 77i'
high. MuseesRoyaux d'Art et d'Histo'"e. Brussels. Eelgium
3.63 TheAscent of the Prophet the manuscript tookmonths to make and was
Muhammad or, his Steed. carefully graphed out on large pieces of paper
Suraq. Guided by Jibro'H and
beforebeing put together in book form. Hildegard
Escorted by Angels, 1 539-43.
N':n'atu"e painting ;rom a described the experience of receivingvisions as
manuscript of Nizami's "a fiery light,flashing intensely, which came from
Kha rr.sa / Five Poe ms;. the open vault of heavenand poured through my
originally produced in
Tabr'z. Iran
whole brain," an apt description for what is taking
placing inthe manuscript shown here.
Islamic manuscripts often depict events from
the life of Muhammad, the main prophet of
Allah. The manuscript painting in 3.63 shows the
ascension ofMuhammad, which Muslimsbelieve
took place at the site of the Dome of the Rock in
Jerusalem (see 3.65). Muhammad's face is not
shown, but is covered -with a veil. He is
c
relics, and the}- were designed to look like the relic Muslimsbelieve is the rock from which
Repouss6: atechnique of
the}- contained. Thus, sudi a reliquary as that of Muhammad ascen ded to heaven. To Jews and
hammering metal from the back
the Head of St. .Alexander ( 3.44) houses a skull. Christians, this site is also thought to bethe place
This reliquary was made in 1145 for the Abbot where Adam was createdandwhere Abraham was
Wibald of Stavelot in Belgium. The face is made asked to sacrifice his son.
of beaten silver (repousse), with the hair made The Dome of the Rockwasbuilt as a site for
from gildedbronze.The emphasis on the portrait pilgrims (not as a mosque) between 688 and 691
itself recalls the Roman heads of antiquity. The under the order of Adb al-Malik,who wanted it
head is placed upon a base covered with gems and to surpass all Christian churches in the Middle
pearls. Small plaques painted in enamel show a East. Although al-Malik was a caliph (an Islamic
portrait of the sainted PopeAlexander in the ruler), the Dome of the Rock was probably built
center, flanked by two other saints. by Christian laborers; its proportions,octagonal
shape, dome, and mosaic designs show- a clear
Jerusalem Byzantine aesthetic.
The glorious dome that crowns the shrine
Throughout the MiddleAges, devout people was originally solid gold, but was rebuilt inthe
made pilgrimages to the city of Jerusalem; a twentieth century with aluminum. In 1993,King
shininggold dome still marks a site in the city Hussein of Jordan spent more than S8 million of
that is sacred to Jews, Christians, andMuslims his own money to gild the aluminum with gold.
alike f 3.45). The Dome of the Rock surrounds the The height anddiameter of the dome are
sacredFoundation Stone,which Jews believe is approximately 67 feet each, as is the length of 3.65 Dome o: the Rock.
the site of the beginning of the world and each of the eight walls. The walls of the octagon 683-91 . -.erusaleT. I s~= el
are covered with verses in Arabic calligraphy from 3.67 Mihrab from the
the Koran. Since 2006, although all religions are Madrasa Imami, Isfahan,
Iran. c. 1354. Mosaic of
permitted on the Temple Mount, only Muslims polychrome-glazed cut tiles
have been allowedwithin the domedshrine. on stoneoaste body, set :nto
plaster. 1 T3*'X ?'53/V.
Metropolitan Museum o: Art.
Mecca New York
Mecca, Saudia Arabia, is the most important

pilgrimage site for Muslims. The prophet
Muhammad was born in Mecca around 570.
Mecca is also the site of the Kaaba, a large cube-
shaped building (today draped inblack-and-gold
cloth) ,built by Abraham for God ( 3 .66),which
is surroundedby a large mosque. Like Christian
churches,mosques are designed to reflect religious
belief and practice. In the center of each mosque
complex is usually a large courtyard with a pool
where the faithful can cleanse themselves before
entering the mosque itself to pray. Muslims must
pray five times a day in the direction of Mecca.
The}- are called to prayer from the mosque's large
towers : minarets) that rise above the city: nine
distinctive minaretssurroundthe mosque inMecca.
All mosques include a special prayer niche,
a mihrab, oriented toward Mecca ( 3.67). This designs, and calligraphy are created with small
mihrab from a mosque in Isfahan, Iran, shows glazed tiles. The pointed arch and movement
the decorative attention given to a space of such of the organic lines throughout the mihrab are
importance. Geometric design, abstract floral both qualities of the arabesque style. The words
3.66 Kaaba. Al-Masjid al- sf.f'.fjjti::':

Ha'im, Mecca, Saudi Araoia
Minaret: atall slender tower,

particularly on a mosque, from
which the faithful are called
to prayer
Mihrab: a niche in a mosque
that is in a wall oriented toward
Mecca
PortaL an entrance. A royal
portal (main entrance) is usually
on the west front of a church
Tympanum: an arched recess
above a doorway, often
decorated with carvings
Hierarchicalscale: the use
ofsizeto denote the relative
an artwork
Lintel: the horizontalbe am over
the doorway of a portal
C
of God are emphasized in the decoration of this 3.68 St. Trophime. west
portal with tympanum,
mihrab. Inside the central rectangle, proclaimed
1 2th century. Aries, F-ance
in elegant cursive, are the words, "The mosque
is the house of every pious person." Script
bordering the edges of the rectangular frame
of the mihrab quotes from the Koran (IX:14-22),
telling of the importance of a mosque and the
duties of a believer. The kufic script that borders
the pointed arch refers to the five central
elements, or pillars, of the Islamic faith: devotion
to Allah, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage
to Mecca.
Symbolism in Medieval
Churches
Symbolic Imagery
Most people in the MiddleAges were illiterate, 3.69 (below) Diagram of the
so pictures taught religious stories to pilgrims west portal tympanum n3.68
and parishioners alike, andthus reinforced their
faith. Entrances to Christian churches displayed
relief sculptures of scenes from the Bible.The Votssoir
church of St. Trophime in .Aries, France, displays
a scene symbolic of the Last Judgment ( 3.68).
The sharp twisting of the elongated figures
(a characteristic of Romanesque style) on the
sculpture throughout the portal (see also 3.69)
creates a visually dynamic tension. Inthe
tympanum above the entryway to the church,
hierarchicalscale is used to show the importance
of Christ in the center; he is shown much larger
than the angels, prophets, and ancestors that
surround him. His raisedhand holding two
fingers upright is a gesture of blessing to those
entering the church. Immediately to the left and
right ofChrist are symbols of the four evangelists
who wrote the gospels ( the first four books of the
New'Testament): Matthew is represented by an
angel, Mark by a lion, Luke by an ox, and John by
an eagle. Sculpted on the stone of the lintel below
Christ are the twelve apostles. On thelintel to
Christ's right (viewer's left) are the saved, shown
in procession; on the lintel to Christ's left are the
damned, shown naked, struggling, and chained
to one another ( 3.68).
c
Medieval Church Plans to guide the flow of visiting pilgrims andthe
Axis: an imaginary line shoving
congregation during sen-ices. Worshipers
the center of a shape, volume, or
The church of St. Sernin in Toulouse, France, is entered at the west end andw alked eastward composition
located along a well-traveled pilgrimage road down the nave toward the altar. The choir Transept: structure crossing
the mainbody of a cruciform
(3.50). It is substantially larger thanearlier continuedthe naveon the other side of the church
churches; it was built some 900 years ago crossing. As it was closest to the apse, which Choir: part of a church
specifically to accommodate crowds of pilgrims. contained the altar, it was reserved for the traditionally reserved for singers
and clergy, situated between the
The arches,vaults, andcolumns of this clergy and, as its name suggests, the choir of nave and the apse
Romanesque structure recallarchitectural singers. Pilgrims couldalso circle around Ambulatory: a covered
elements from ancient Rome. For example, behind the apse through the ambulatory and walkway, particularly around the
apse of a church
the arches for the openings of the three lowest visit individual chapels, most of which held
tiers of the bell tower are rounded. A new- sacredrelics.
architectural feature duringthe Romanesque The west-east orientation of churches also
period was the pointed arch, examples of has symbolic meaning. The crucifixion is often
which can be seen on the two upper tiers of depicted in a painting or sculpture at the east
the tower; the spire at the top was added in the end, while an artwork of the Last Judgment
fifteenth century. is displayed at the western portal, where
Churches in the Middle Ages in the Western parishioners and pilgrims would enter and exit.
traditionwere often designed, as St. Sernin The orientation of the churchalso mimics the
was, in the shape of a Latin cross ( 3.51). In this natural course of the sun: thus to the east, Christ,
kind of plan the main and longer axis (nave) as "light of the world/' rises like the sun in the
usually runs from west to east, with a shorter morning,while to the west, the setting sun
axis (transept) at right angles across it nearer the reminds worshipers of their own mortality and
east end. Cathedral floor plans were designed the impending Judgment Day. Ambulator)'
Radiating
3.50 St. Sernin, C. 1 070-1 120. chapels chapels
Toulouse. F-ance
West portal
3.51 [above] Latin cross plan
c
Ribvault: an archlike structure The Rise of the Gothic
supporting a ceiling or roof,with
aweb of protruding stonework
Flyingbuttress: an arch built on New construction methodsheralded a new style:
the exterior of abuilding that
transfers some of the weight of
Gothic cathedrals, which were first built in the
thevault twelfth century, are distinguishedby their great
heigjht and glorious stained- glass windows. Rib
vaults makethegreat heiglit possible: theweight
of the structure is spread through the ribs of the
ceilingvaults, beforefurther dividing the burden
between the wallsand flying buttresses. Flying
buttresses (see 3.52) function like many long,
outstretched fingers to prevent the walls from
falling outward. Because these engineering
achievements distributed the weight previously
3.52 (below) Chartres
carriedby very thick walls, it was possible to
Cathedral, completed 1 260, build at this time with walls that became
F-ance progressively thinner. In addition, large
stain ed- glass windows now* filled
cathedralsbecause the walls no longer
needed solely to bear all the weight of
the structure.
3.53 Chartres Cathedral, .-ite-'or view showing labyrinth
The Gothic cathedral ofChartres in
France (3.52) is famous for the that guided the pilgrims to the numerous chapels
beautiful blue cast from its stained- containing relics.
glass windows (3.53). Upon entering The grand interior ofChartres combines all
Chartres, pilgrims walked the of the characteristicelementsofGothic
labyrinth on the floor, symbolic architecture.The vaulted ceiling is 1 18 feet above
of their physical and spiritual the floor andthe nave is more than 50 feet wade,
journey (3.53). Again, as at surrounding receptivevisitors with height and
St. Sernin, the architects created light to transport them beyond the cares and
through the cathedral a pathway concerns of the mundane world.
•ÿ.-til
From the Gothic to Early
Renaissance in Italy
3.54 [left; Cimabue, Virgin and Child
How did artists represent intwo dimensions the Enthroned. C. 1 230. Tempe-a and gold
on wood. 12'7V2"x7'4". Uffizi Gallery,
equivalent of the soaring spirituality of the
Florence. Italy
Gothic style of architecture? And how did this
evolve into a new style of painting that would
come to be known as the Renaissance? Two
paintings of the Virgin Mary and Christ Child,
one byCimabue (c. 1240-1302) andthe other
made thirty years later by his studentGiottodi
Bondone ( c. 1266-1337), illustrate some of the
characteristics that mark the transition from
the Gothic to the early Renaissance style.
Cimabue's Gothic painting isreminiscent of
Byzantine icons,with the rich goldthroughout,
the stylized quality of Mary's robe, the
organization of the angels' faces andhalos in
orderly rows, the elegant elongation of the
bodies, and the flatness of the figures appearing
somewhatlike paper cutouts ( 3.54). Cimabue's
figures seem to float in space and rise up toward
the top of the composition in much the same
way that Gothic cathedrals emphasized height
to inspireworshippers to lookup toward the
heavens.
While Giotto's Virgin and Child Enthroned
3.55 (right] G Virgin and Child
f 3.55) clearly shows architectural elements that Enthroned, c. 1310. Tempera on wood.
recall Gothic churches (such as the pointed arch 107"x6'9". U:::z Gallery, Flo-ence, Italy
on Mary's throne), his painting makes many
innovations, such as the three-dimensionality
of his forms and the emphasis on creating a
believable sense of the space inwhich Man- sits. Discussion Questions
We can also see through the throne: the figures
nearer us overlap those that are behind them, and TheMiddleAges was a time of strong
light seems to shine in a natural way and cast religious belief. Select tw-o artworks, each
consistent shadows, helping to create the illusion made for believers of a different religion,and
that this is a three-dimensional space. Man-, contrast how-the artist has emphasized the
Jesus, andthe angels all also lookmore three- religious elements of the artwork.
dimensional than the more delineated figures in Compare the ardiitectureof a Gothic
Cimabue's painting. Cimabue's Virgin and Child cathedral with that of an Islamic mosque.
Enthroned seems to focus only on the spirituality How does the architecture of each reflect the Stylized: art that represents
of the scene; Giotto seems to wish to create a beliefs andrituals of itsworshipers? objects in an exaggerated way
realistic space more like the world inwhich we Select one tw-o- dimensional artwork the object
live. This shift in approach was revolutionary, and (paintings, mosaics, manuscripts) from Composition: the overall design
Giotto's artistic inventions were at the forefront the West and one from the Byzanti ne
of the stylistic changes that would take place in tradition. Contrast the form and content defined in three dimensions
the fifteenth andsixteenth centuries. of the two artworks. (height, width, and depth)
2.179 Hagia Sophia. 1.10 Pentateuch with 4.22a Doors depicting scenes 1.27 Banner of Las Navas de 1.32 VesperbiidlP ieta).
532-5 :e. p.2 82 Prophetical Readings and the from Genesis and the Life of Tolosa. 1212-50, p. 61 c. 1 330. p. 65
Five Scrolls, 13th- lath Christ. 1 01 5. p. 471
century, p. 52
1.156 Great Mosque of 4.89 Justinian mosaic. 4.110 Detail of Battle of 2.176 Interior, nave. Sainte- 4.28 Zirgin of Vladimir. ] 2th
Cordoba, 736-6. p. 168 C. 547 CE. p. 52 1 Hastings. Bayeux Tapestry. Foy. C. 1050-1120, p. 230 century (before 1132). p. 675
c. 1066-82. p. 536
4.57 G'slebertus. Last 4.125 Icon of Virgin and Child 4.2 Notre Dame Cathedral. 2.133 Rose wi ndow and 4.34 Main entrance portal,
Judgment, C. 1 120-35. p. 494 with Saints, 6th century, p. 550 1163-1 250. p. 455 lancets. Cna'tres Cathedral, Masjid-i-Shah, 17th century.
13th century, p. 254 p.480
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.3
The Asian countries that we know today as India, sea and along the famed Silk Road—a network of
China, and Japan arehome to artistic traditions trade routesbetweenAsia andthe Mediterranean
that date back many thousands ofyears. Indiaand world— led to the spread of cultural ideasand a
China are large landmasses, both bordered by sharing of religious and philosophical beliefs.
landand by great expanses of ocean. Japan, on the Religion and philosophy havebeen integral to
3.56 Map of Asia: India, other hand, is a country of more than 3,000 islands the ail of die entire region (see Bccc Philosophical
China, and jaoan off the eastern coast of mainland Asia. Trade by and Religious T raditions inAsia) ,yet certain
?
£
Kanagawa
Beijing •
CH NA
Delhi •
• • Sanch
Agra
Khaicraho
•
• Aianta
NO A
3
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stylistic characteristics makethe art of each of ancestors. Ingeneral,Chinese artworks are also very
these cultures distinctive. In Indianart there is a precise andsymmetrically balanced; Chinese artists
noticeable tendency toward elaborate decora tion desire to create uniformity and convey control of
and an emphasis on the human body, frequently their material. In contrast, Japanese artworks tend to
showing sensual movement andsuggesting fertility-. be more asymmetrical, organic, individual,and
Chinese art combines an interest inreligious subject convey spontaneity.Japanese art is also disti nctivelv
matter with a great respect for Chinese heritage and contemplative andreveals a great reverence for
Philosophical and Religious Traditions in Asia

The arts of India, China, and Japan can be fully jing (The Book of the Way) how to live in
understood onlyin relation to each country's harmony with nature and the universe. Yin and
religions and philosophies. Allthree have a long yang is the conceptthat seemingly opposing
traditionof religious pluralism, in other words forces are interconnected and need one another
the acceptance of beliefs from different for balance. Such opposing forces might be
religions and philosophies. They could also be male and female or light and dark. Daoism is
described as syncretic; their religions blend found throughout Asia, but most prominently
two or more belief systems. As one example, in China.
it iscommon in Japan to be a Shinto, and a
Buddhist, and to practice Confucianism all a t Hinduism encompasses a number of beliefs,
the same time. This is possible partly because including reincarnation, rebirth of the soul or of
of the similar values of the various religions the body, and karma, the idea that one's actions
and philosophies. Forinstance, manyofthese will cause a reaction or consequence in the
religions strive for harmony with nature, and universe. Hindus believe in the existence of
have a component of ancestral worship. severalgods (including Brahma, Shiva, and
Vishnu), although individual practice and
Buddhist beliefs are founded on the teachings worship varygreatly among Hindus. Hinduism
of Buddha (563-483 bce). Buddhism originated in India and has been adopted
emphasizes an acceptance of the difficulties of throughout Asia, although India still holds the
life and of samsara (the cycle of birth, death, largest Hindu population.
and reincarnation). Once one attains
Enlightenment, the ultimate wisdom, one Islam: Muslims base their beliefs on a sacred
arrives at nirvana, the end of suffering for text called the Koran that records the will of
eternity. Zen Buddhism promotes meditation Allah (God) as revealed to the prophet
and introspection. Muhammad (570-632 ce). Islam originated at
the birthplace of Muhammad (Mecca, Saudi
Confucianism is based on the philosophy of Arabia) but today is practiced worldwide,
Chinese Master Kong (Confucius) (551 — with many followers in Asia, including India
479 bce), who promoted the use of ethics to and China.
attain social order. His teachings emphasize
self-discipline, moralduty, and paying respect Shinto is a native religion of Japan. Its name
both to one's ancestors and (by extension) to means The Way of the Gods. Shinto worships
the elders of society. Confucianism is common several gods and emphasizes respect for
in China and Japan. nature and ancestors. Kami are spirits-, they are
believed to be forces in nature (such as wind or
Daoism (The Way) comes from the teachings of trees) orof ancestors.
Lao Zi (born 604 bce), who explained in Dao de
ART OF INDIA. CHINA. AND JAPAN 331
nature. This chapter highlights both the for both of these religions are designed to be
individuality of these countries and the themes small replicas, or microcosms, of the universe,
andideas that unite their artistic traditions. places to meditateandworship the gods. Inthe
early twelfth century Muslim invaders from what
is now Afghanistan began centuries of rule in
India India. TheseIslamic rulerswere responsible for
magnificent works of art, including India'sbest-
The landmass of India occupies a peninsula in known landmark, the Tai Mahal.
southern Asia that isbordered on the north by
the Himalayan mountains. It is about one-third Buddhism in Indian Art
the size of the UnitedStates. Buddhist andHindu
beliefs have been important influences on India's Siddhartha Gautama (563-485 3ce), who would
rich visual history. The shrines and temples built become the Buddha or "The Enlightened One,"
•was born a prince inwhat is nowNepal. Traditions
tell how Siddhartha was raised in comfort inthe
royal palace, but at the age of twenty- nine, he
witnessed the lives of the poor and sick and
became an ascetic, rejecting hiswealth andworldly
pleasures. Buddhistsbelieve that heachieved
Enlightenmentthrough meditation and self-
A EH
3.57 Great Stuoa. third
century EC E. enlarged under
the Sunga and Andhra
Dynasties, c. 1 50-50ece.
Sanch:, Ind'a
3.58 East gate o; G_eat

Stuoa. Sanch:. Ind'a
y
"Wif
>;#- / ft-- ÿÿ
discipline; he spent the secondhalfof his life
teaching others to try and do the same. After his
death, his life and teachings were spread byword
ofmouth throughout India.TheBuddha'sremains
were crematedandburied in eight stupas, or burial
mounds, the locations of which were relevant to
important periods in the Buddha's life.
The Great Stupa in Sanchi, India,was built by
King Ashoka as part of a large Buddhist monastery
(3.57). .Ashoka (304-232 bce) was emperor of
India in the mid-third century bce. He was born a
Hindu,but it is said that hebecame a Buddhist
after feeling ashamed of the murderous destr ucti on
caused by a war in which his army killed more
than 100,000 people. He became known as "the
pious Ashoka" and gained a reputation as a
charitable and peace-loving ruler who built
hospitals andschools throughout India .When
.Ashoka converted to Buddhism, hedisinterred
the Buddha's remains and distributedthem to
thousands of stupas he built throughout India.
Surrounding the Great Stupa at Sanchi are four
gateways, or toranas, placed at the four cardinal
points surrounding the large mound. Sensual
female figures of tree spirits hang from thebrackets
on some of the toranas (3.58).These figures
symbolize procreation, abundance, and the source
of alllife. Ata heightof 35 feet, the columns and
horizontal cross-beams of these toranas are covered
with scenes of the Buddha's multiplelives ( jatakas).
The Buddha himself is not shown, but there are
signs of his presence, such as an empty throne and
his footprints. In this -way, Buddhists are invited
to follow inthe footsteps of the Buddha. Pilgrims
enter through the east gate andcircle the stupa in
a clockwise direction, following the path of the sun.
Stone railings added after Ashoka's time allow portions of the iatakas, scenes of contemporarv 3.59 Bodhisattva Pad-naoan-
pilgrims to climb higher safely as they encircle the rulers, or Buddhist teachings. Several paintings Cave 1. Aianta. India. Cave
painting, second nal* o: 5th
Buddha's remains, a ritual that emulates Buddha's are of bodhisatti-as, beings who could have
century
path toward Enlightenment. The stupa and its achieved nirvana but who chose instead to
four gateways represent a three-dimensional sacrifice themselves and help otherswork toward
mandala, or a re-creation of the universe. Enlightenment (3.59). In one cave painting,
During the fifth century ce, in Ajanta in Padmapani,a bodhisattva who embodies
western India, twenty- nine caves were carved into compassion, is dressed as a prince with a glorious
Stupa: a burial mound
the side of a horseshoe-shaped cliff and were filled crown and a pearl necklace, and poses gracefully containing Buddha'sremains
with Buddhist sculptures and paintings. .Although with a serene gaze that suggests contentment and Jatakas: stories from the
previous lives of Buddha
only ff-agments of the mural paintings survive, the enlightenment. He is shown holding a lotus flower,
Mandala: a sacred diagram of
beauty of individual figures and the complexity a common symbol in Buddhist art for its ability the univer se, often involving a
of the scenes are apparent. Most scenes depict to grow from the mud andbecome beautiful. square and a circle
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Hinduism in Indian Art in northern India. The largest of these, the
Kandariya Mahadeva, is dedicated to Shiva, the
Hinduismhasbeen practiced at least as far back Hindu god of creationand destruction ( 3.60).
as 1000 3ce. Today, it is the world's third largest Hindus see their temples as "cosmic mountains,"
religion,with the majority of its followers living linksbetween heaven and earth. The large towers
in India. The kinds of personal practices and gods on Hindu temples are called sh ikharas and
that are worshiped van- greatly among Hindus, represent mountain peaks. Thevertical towers
but Hindus all share the belief that one's spirit is pull the eye upward to the heavens, suggesting to
eternal. Just as Buddhism grew because powerful Hindus a desire for nirvana, or the final endof
3.60 Kandariya Mahadeva peoplepromoted it, the increase in popularity of suffering. Even- temple has a central room
temple, c. 1000, Khaÿu-aho. Hinduismwas largely due to the efforts of rulers underneaththe shikhara that contains an image of
Madhya Pradesh. Ind'a to encourage Hinduworship, particularlyby the god towhom thetemple is dedicated. A Hindu
buildingreligious temples. priest's job is to maintain the sculpture (which
3.61 Detailed exterior
sculpture, Kandariya Around 1020,KingVidvadhara built a large embodies the god itself) through prayer,
Mahadeva temple complex containing Hindutemples in Khaj uraho, mediation, incenseburning, feeding and clothing
the sculpture, and pouring milk or hone)- on it.
The temple is alignedwith the rising and
* setting of the sun,with stairs for entrance on the

east. Horizontal decoration encourages the viewer
to -walk aroundthe temple andview the intricate
caning and relief sculpture. The exterior is
coveredwith more than 600 sculptures in poses
that suggest dancing,which creates a rhythmic
pulsing effect over the entire structure ( 3.61).
Many of the scenes are sensual and erotic,
depicting the physical union of malesand
females. The sexual joining of these male and
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female forces represents the balance of opposing
elements inthe universe, or the unity of the cosmos .
Islam in Indian Art

Bv the mid-sixteenth century the Mughals
(descendants of the historic Mongolian conqueror
Genghis Khan,who hadconverted to Islam) had
conquered part of northern India andwere based
in Delhi. The Mughals brought -with them Persian
artists who worked with their Indian fellow artists
to develop a new painting school inIndia.
Jahangir (1569-1627), whose name means
"World Conqueror," ruled the Mughal empire for
a little more than twenty years in the early 1600s.
Ina beautiful miniature painting from this period
(3.62), Jahangir isseated upon an hourglass throne,
in which the falling sand symbolizes the passingof
time. Cupids, an influencefrom European art, fly-
above the ruler and turn away to protect their eyes
from die blindingnimbus (a combination ofthe sun
and moon) that surroundshis head. Two clothed
cupids below inscribethe hourglasswith a wish that 3.63 Taj Mahal. 1631-48,
3.62 Bichitr.Jahangr Preferringa Sof Shaykh to Kings, :-orn
Jahangir livefor a thousandyears. Infact, the ruler Ag-a, Ind'a
the St. Fete-sou rg album. Mughal Dynasty, C. 1615-18.
Coaque v/atercoto". gold, and ink on pape-, 18/sx 13". Freer died iust a fewyears after die completion ofthis
Galle-y o: A-t. Sm thson an Institution, Washington, D.C. painting, possibly from hisaddiction to opium and
wine, and left his kingdom to his son Shah Jahan.
Portraits of four men that relate to the lifeof
Jahangir are shown on the left side of the page.
The ruler hands an exquisite book to a white-
beardedMuslim Sufi shaykh (mystic scholar)
named Sheikh Husain, to whom Jahangir s father
had prayed when asking for male heirs. Thebook
is a gift and may symbolize the story of Jahangir' s
life. The black-bearded man below him is
believed to be ruler of the Turkish empire,
although scholars do not agree on the specific
identification. Below him is King James Iof
England,facing forward; his likeness is taken
from a paintinggiven by the Englishking to tte
Mughal ruler. The figure in the bottom left corner
is the artist himself, Bichitr. The painter also
signed his name inthe painting upon the step
Jahangir would have used to ascend to his throne.
The Tai Mahal (3.63) is a great tomb built by
Shah Jahan (1592-1666) for his wife, Mumtaz
Mahal ( 1593-163 1). Shah Jahan createdthis
monument to her after she died giving birth to
c
their fourteenth child. Taj means "crown," but beliefs of the other and of Confucianism (see
Minaret: a tall slender tower,
scholars do not know if this was the original Box: Philosophical and Religious Traditions in
particularly on a mosque, from
name of the building. The Taj Mahal is part of Asia, p. 33 1) as well: the Chinese believe a person which the faithful are called
a larger complex ineluding a mosque, smaller may practice more than one belief system. to prayer
Pattern: an arrangement of
tombs, enormous gardens, and a reflecting pool. This affects the whole of Chinese culture. In
pre di ctably re peated ele me nts
Inscriptions carved on the magnificent white Chinese art, for example, scroll paintings are Arabesque: an abstract pattern
marble, and poemswritten by the Shah, explain intended to enhance meditation,and respect derived from geometric and
vegetal linesand forms
that thebuilding represents the throne of God, for nature and one's elders— virtues that are
Calligraphy: the art of emotive
and that the gardens that surround it are the valued by all three faiths. Many great Chinese or carefullydescriptive hand
gardens of Paradise: artworks havebeen discovered in tombs, lettering or handwriting
Colophon: comment written on
providing evidence both of a widespread aChinese scroll by the creator,
Like a garden of heaven a brilliant spot, reverence for ancestors, and of the importance owner, or a viewe r
Full of fragrance like paradise fraught with of the idea of the afterlife.
ambergris.
In the breadth of its court perfumes from the Chinese Scroll Painting
nose-gay of sweet-hearts rise.
The earliest known painting in China dates back
Shah Jahan would later beburiedthere in some 10,000 years. Archaeologists have found
a central crypt, next to hiswife. painted pots, and paint on the waUs and floors
The Tai Mahal is covered inwhite marble of caves and huts. From 200 bce until today,
inlaid with semiprecious stones; it glistens however, many Chinese paintings have been
beautifully in the sun. The central dome is 58 feet madÿvitlnnk on silk or paper, the same
in diameter and 2 13 feet tall. The structure is materials used in the arts of calligraphy (fine
completely symmetricalbothwhen viewed from hand- lettering) and poetry. These three arts
above and from any of its four sides. Four domed are inextricably linked for the Chinese (see The
chambers emanate from this central dome, Three Perfections: Calligraphyÿ, Painting, Poetry).
balancedonan octagon-shaped platform. Four Most Chinese paintings are made as hanging
towers called minarets, each 162 feet high, or hand scrolls; their subject matter includes
frame the corners of the large structure. The battles, scenes of daily life,landscapes,birds,
minarets and pointed domes are characteristic andanimals. Chinese scroll paintings are meant
of Islamic art. Thewhite marble is inlaid to be experienced as though we were on a slow,
with jasper to make geometric patterns and contemplative journey. Artists who paint scrolls
arabesques of flowers and plants. It also shown* do not intend their work to be viewed from one
passages from the Koran that relate to the theme position, as is usual in artworks created in the
ofjudgment. European tradition. Instead,the complexity
and (in the case of a hand scroll) length of a
painting invite us to view one portion of it at
China a time.
The calligraphy in the upper right of the
The earliest traces of civiliz ation in China have hanging scroll shown in 3.6A tells us that Ge
been found along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. Zhichuan MovingHisDwelling is a historical
The first Chinese emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi, scene from thelife of a well-known Chinese
established the first unified Chinese dynasty in writer. Ge Zhichuan was one of the first
221 3ce. China's boundaries have changed alchemists ( someone who seeks to make gold
throughout its subsequent history according to or silver from lead or iron). Heis also considered
its military success or failure, but today it is one of the great teachers of Daoism. In the
approximately the same size as the L'nited States. painting, Ge Zhichuan is travelling to
Buddhism and Daoism are the largest Guangzhou to find the red mercury-based
religions in China. Each faith integrates the mineral cinnabar. He is showninthelower left
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The Three Perfections: Calligraphy, Painting, Poetry
In Chinese society, talented calligraphers are their paintings. The tradition continues to this
accorded the highest respect. The Chinese day. Room for calligraphic inscriptions is often
script used today goes back to at least the Qin left on paintings, not only for the artist's
dynasty (221-207 bce). Chinese calligraphers signature but also to describe a scene, dedicate
can conveya mood through the handling of a the painting, oradd poetry.
brush, the thicknessof a line, the quicknessof The Chinese believe that any inscriptions on
a stroke. Skilled calligrapherscancommunicate a painting become part of the work, whether or
through their script elegance, formality, sadness, not they are written by the painter. Frequently,
or joyful exuberance. Historically, many poets red seals or stamps are pressed on to part of a
became calligraphers so that they could work to claim authorship, or to show admiration
express mosteloquently the moodsoftheir for that part. Colophons are inscriptions
poems. Many painters, too, were calligraphers, usually written in blackink, often poemsor
because both art forms require great skill in the historical information about the artwork, made
handling of the brush. by the artist or admirers of the work. Therefore,
During the Song dynasty (960-1279), a scroll painting with many inscriptions and
painters called literati wrote poems— either colophons is one that has been much enjoyed,
their own orthe work of other poets— next to and this becomes part of the story of the painting.
on a bridge that crosses over a river. His family 3.64 WangMeng.Ge

follows in the lower center. The scene shows Zhichuan Moving As Dwelling,
C.1360. Haog'og scroll,
the power of nature compared to the small scale inkand colo_on paoer,
of man. 54®Ax227#". Palace Museum.
The fantastic landscape full of twisting trees, Beÿng, Cn'na
steep cliffs, and high waterfalls shows the mystical
nature of his journey, it also symbolizes the
wondrous path we all take through life. We
cannot view the entire scroll at one time,j ust as
we cannot see everything going on around us.
This is a metaphor for the Zen-like philosophy
that one can only comprehend the universe in
its entirety through the mind,thus achieving
Enlightenment. As Ge Zhichuan follows his
meandering path, he will eventually arrive at a
new village, seen in the upper left. His destination
is higher in the scroll than his present location;
this is a device used in Daoist painting to
symbolize the growth that the subject will
experience on his spiritual path. Just like the
people in the painting, the viewer may wander in
any direction, exploring new territory and facing
challenges; allot"this is a metaphor for the
journey of life. The mountain ridgeshigh inthe
distance speak to the j ourneys yet to come.
Along the River during the Qingming Festival is
one of China's most famous hand scrolls; only a
ART OF INDIA. CHINA, AND JAPAN 337
3.65 Zhang Zeduan. 4/onp f/ie in 2002, the crowds were so big that viewers were
River during the Qingming
.
Festival Northern Song
.... . allowedjust five minutes to look at the very large
and complex scene.
Dynasty, 1 1th century.
Handscroll, ink and color on The painting illustrates life during the Song
silk. 10"x17'3". Palace dynasty about a thousand years ago. The
Museum, Beijing, China Qingming Festival is the annual holiday when
3.66 Deta'l of Znang Zeduan. people enjoy the springtime and remember their
Along the River during the ancestors. There is no evidence that the artist
Qingming Festival intended to depict that specific occasion, but,
through time, the scroll hasbecomeassociated
with it. Reading from right to left, the scroll
beginswith a serene landscape. This then
transforms into a bustling scene; we can see 800
people going about their everyday activities. The
painting is beloved for its extraordinarily detailed
depiction of street merchants,animals, shops,
bridges, andboats. This is the only knownwork
m by the artist, Zhang Zeduan; we know littleabout

his life. We have learned his name only from one
of the colophons on the far left of the painting,
written in 1 186 by a man named Zhang Zhu in
appreciation of the scroll.
Death and the Afterlife

For thousands ofyears, Chinese people have
worshiped their ancestors, -who the)- believe are-
Piece mold casting: A process transformed after death into supernatural entities
for casting metal objects in with the power to communicate with
which a moldis broken into
several pieces that are then the gods and protect the living. The Chinese
re asse mbled into a fin al small portion of the 17-foot-longscroll is shown used to show- respect for their ancestors by
sculpture here (3.65). This national treasure is so valuable, buryingvaluable items in their tombs. As early
ofwhich is simplified, distorted,
and in such a delicate state, that it is rarely seen. It as the Shang dynasty ( c. 1700-1050 sce) ,Chinese
or exaggeraredin appearance. It hasbeen dubbed "China's Mona Lisa"because of people placed everyday objects in tombs, so that
may re pre se nt a re cogniz able its great fame and intriguing history (it has been the deceasedwould havewhat they needed in
form that has been slightly
altered, or it maybe a completely frequently stolen and copied). When the scroll the afterlife. Flumans and animals were also
non-re presentational depiction was displayed at the National Museum in Beijing sacrificed, in the belief that they would serve
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3.68 Deta'l from pa' nted oanne- ;rom tomb o; Lady Da'
Hou Fu-ren. Han Dynasty,C. 1 63 BCE. Silk. Hunan
Museum. Changsha, China
3.67 Ritualwine vessel •guangj, late Shang dynasty.

C. 1 700-1050 BCE. Bronze, 6 V;x3 V. xS h". Brooklyn
Museum, NewYork
the dead in the next realm. Today, similar

customs persist: the Chinese often burn money,
food, andother objects in the hope that these
will reachtheir ancestors in the spirit world.
The tombs of the Shang dynasty's rulershave
preserved many lavishly made objects in jade, gold,
ivory, and, in particular, bronze. The bronze
scul£tures of this period were made using
a process known as piece mold casting, which
invokes cutting the mold into sections and then
reassemblingit before pouringinthe moltenbronze.
The bronze guang( lidded vessel; 3.67) was
found buried in a tomb. Itwas used to pour wine
during a ritual. The container depicts a horn-
headed dragon with sharp teeth at its spout. The
dragon was one of the most commonly used
motifs in Chinese art, symbolizinggood fortune,
power, and immortality. The mazelike abstract
design on the side of the vessel is called a t' ao t' ieh
(monster mask). It warded off evil spirits and
protected the ancestralsoul.
The tomb of Lady Dai (died 168 bce), a
noblewoman of the Han dynast)- (206 3CE-
220 ce), was excavated in 1972, revealing a wealth
of objects intended to accompany her into the
afterlife. A stunning richly painted silk textile
(3.68) had been placed over Lady Dai's coffin,
protectedby several additional layers of woo den
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coffins. The silkbanner is inthe shape of a T; the
wide horizontal section represents heavenwith
twisting dragons, a toad on a gold moon, and
a crow on a red sun. At the top in the center,
surrounded by a red serpent, is probably an
imperial ancestor. Lad}- Dai stands upon a central In an effort to protect the skills needed to
white platform about halfway down thebanner, preserve Japans traditional art forms, the
awaiting her ascent to the heavenly realm. .Above Japanese government designates outstanding
her is a bird and, at the cross of the T, two kneeling traditional artists "Important Intangible Cultural
figures who are thought to be guardians or guides Property Holder" [popularly known as National
of some kind.A iade circle, crossedby two Living TreasuresJ. Sonoko Sasaki was named a
writhing dragons andknown as a bi— frequently National Living Treasure for herskills in weaving
used as a symbol forheaven—sits below Lady Dai a traditional textile known as tsumugi-ori. Here
on her platform. Scholars have hypothesized that she explains her work.
thisbanner either shows Lady Dai's funeral andher
journey to heaven, or views of the three spiritual 3.69 Sonoko Sasaki. Sea :'n the Sky. 2007.
realms of heaven,earth, andthe underworld. Tsumugi-ito silkth read and vegetable dyes,
70"/: x 51V.". Collection of the a-t:st
Japan
Japan is a country of many islands off the
eastern coast of .Asia. In size, it covers about the
same area as California. Combining its own
cultural and religious traditions with influences
from mainlandAsia, Japanese art reflects stories
of Buddha and of emperors, and ( in modern
times) the lives of ordinary people as well.
Vulnerable to frequent tsunamis, earthquakes,
andvolcanic eruptions, the Japanese have a great
respect for nature. According to the Shinto
religion, spirits called kami are present
everywhere,includingwithin nature. Many
Japanese combine aspects ofShinto with a
belief in Buddhism. The Japanese reverence
for nature, their desire for meditation,quiet
reflection, and mental discipline, are all seen in
the art the}- create.
The Japanese Tea Ceremony

Chanoyu (Way of the Tea) is the Japanese word
for the traditional tea ceremony. Rooted in Zen
Buddhism, chanoyu is a set of rituals that helps
one find peace andsolace from the ordinary
world. It is a tenet of Buddhism that disciplined
observation of the mundane things in life leads
one t oward Enlighten ment, andchanoyu is
designed to facilitate suchobservation. It also
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Perspectives on Art: Sonoko Sasaki
Art andTradition in Japan
I work with tsumugi-ori textiles because the

touch and look of the material are very
attractive to me. Tsumugi thread is different
from cotton thread because it consists of
extremely long fibers that are tough,
waterproof, and glossy.
Actually, tsumugi-ori was originally quite
a rustic textile made by women involved in
silk cultivation after their farming work. As
a result, tsumugi-ori has always had a strong
connection with the earth and nature, and
with the cycle of the four seasons that in
Japan shows us the beautiful scenes of the
naturalworld. I always try to sharpen my
sense of color with all five of my senses,
which helps me give a variety of colors to
my work. The colors I use also come from
nature. The dyes I use to color my textiles
come from roots, flowers, and fruits of plants
of every season.
Water, light, and wind are also essential
for tsumugi-ori textiles. Water is important
for me, and fills me with awe, since the
threads must be boiled in a dye and then
washed. Sunlight and wind are needed to dry
the dyed thread.
Iweave my textiles using a hand-loom and
then tailor the materialto make kimonos, a
traditional Japanese dress. In otherwords,
my works have meaning and value only if
someone wears them. Here the key is again
the fourseasons. I delicately change the color
of the textiles according to the seasons.
At the same time, people who wear my
kimonos place a high value on theirsense 3.70 Son 0*0 Sasaki at work =t her loom
of the seasons. In this way the artist and

the wearer share theirconsciousness of and culture of tsumugi-ori for the rest of
the seasons, a tradition, inherited by my life. I am truly happy to pursue my "road
generations of women, which I think is of coloration" and "road of weaving" now and
special to Japan. forever. Even if I were born again, I would
I do not have any idea why I have been still like to choose tsumugi-ori, as, for me,
designated as a National Living Treasure, nothing is more glamorousthan dyeing
but I understand that Ihave accepted a and weaving.
responsibility to work on and protect the art
ART OF INDIA. CHINA. AND JAPAN 3A1
C
Kyoto is the only remaining teahouse by this
master (3.71). The modest room is made with
natural materials, such as mud for the walls,
andbamboo andother wood for the trim and
ceilings. The windows are made of paper, and the
tatami (floor mats) are made of straw. The simple
room has no decoration except for a simple scroll
or small floral arrangement placed in a niche
called a tokonoma.
Chanovu can take hours. It involves preparing
and drinking the tea, and quiet conversation The
ceremony begins as one removes one's shoes and
enters the house on hands and knees, showing
humility. The contemplative environment invites
participants to enjoy- conversation, and also to
appreciate each object involved in the ceremony.
A teabowlcalled Mount Fuji is so named for its
abstract suggestion of snow above and a landmass
below, bringing to mindthe famous mountain
(3.72). The teabowl shows the integration of forms
drawn from nature with a man-made object. This
type of Japanese ceramics, known as raku, is an
example of wares used in the tea ceremony. Each
piece has its own irregular texture and pattern,
yet is simple, to encourage participants in the
3.71 Sen no R'-<yu, Ta'an teahouse, nterior, c. 1 532. ceremony to notice small details. Users of the
Myoki-an Temole. Kyoto. _.aoan teabowl considerhow it was made from earthly
elements, admire the abstract design, and eni oy
helps create an environment for intense the way the object feels in their hands. By doing
concentration. Tea masters train for many years so, they train themselves to slow- down and take
in the practice of creating a meditative note of every moment in their lives.
environment through the serving of tea and the
preparation of the teahouse. In the sixteenth 3.72 Hon 'am; Koetsu, Teabowl (called Mount Fuji 3.
century, the tea master Sen no Rikvu developed Edo period. early 1 7th century. Ra*u ware, 3VV hign.
an influential tea ritual; the Taian tearoom in 5aka: Collection, Tokyo, ÿaoan
Raku: handmade and fired

ceramic, made for area
ceremony
a work, for example fine/coarse,
detailed'lacking in detail
Continuous narrative: when
different parts ofa story are
shown withinthe same visual
space
c
Storytelling
One of the oldest examples of storytelling in
Japanese art appears ona wooden shrine in the
Buddhist Horyu-ji temple in Nara( 3.73). One
side of the shrine is painted with a iataka ( a story
from the life of Buddha) known as TheHungry
Tigress. The painting is a continuous narrative,
meaning that it shows multiple scenes of a story
in one pictorial space. In this story, Buddha
sacrificed his own body to save a starving tigress
andher cubs. Buddha is shown first at the top of
a cliff carefully hanging his clothes from a tree, his
slender body reflecting the curves of the natural
elements that surround him. He then jumps off
the cliff, and is finally devoured by the tigers in
the valley below.
The Tale of Genji is one of the great works
of Japanese literature. Written in the eleventh
century byMurasakiShikibu, a noblewoman at
the court of the emperor at Heian-kyo (modern-
day Kyoto), it tells of the love affairs of Prince
Genii. The chapters are filled with undercurrents
of sadness, reflecting the Buddhist view that
earthly happiness is fleeting, andthat there will
always be consequences for our actions. Some of
the earliest surviving Japanese painting illustrates
the Tale of Genji, including the scroll section
shown in 3.74.
The scroll is designed so that different portions
of the tale are revealed as the scroll is unrolled
from right to left. Inthis scene we see the prince
from a so-called "blown-offroof" perspective, in
which we as viewers peer, almost voyeuristically,
3.73 HungryTigress.
ÿanel from the Tamamushi
Shrine. Horyu-ji Temple.
Nara, Asuka pe'iod. C. 650.
Lacquer on wood, shrine
7'7'A" high. Horyu-ji Treasure
House. _>aoan
3.74 Scene from the Tale of

Genji. He' an period, first half
o; 12th century. Hand scroll.
ink and color on pap er.
B'/s x 1 S k'. Tokugawa Art
Museum. Nagoya. _.aoan
into the private space of the palace. The flat
Diagonal: a line that runs Composition: the overall design
figures and use of strong diagonal lines to guide
obliquely, rather than or organization of a work
theviewer through the scene are both qualities horizo ntallv orvertically Outlines: the outermost line of
frequently used in Japanese painting. The strict Woodblock: a relief print an obj ect or figure by which it is
processwhere the image is defined or bounded
diagonal andvertical lines not only powerfully carved into a block ofwood
divide the space within the scene, but also create Impressionist: late nineteenth-
a sense of drama and tension. century painter using a style that
conveyed the impression of the
This scene specifically shows Genii at the
effects of light
naming cermony for his first son. Unbeknownst
to anyone but Genii and his wife, however, the
baby he holds is actually his father's son, and
Geni iis being forced to raise the child as his
own. The claustrophobic positioning of Genii,
trappedbetween two rows of curtains and
crushed against the top edge of the page, reflects
the trapped feeling of the character in the story.
In the tale, he is being punished for his past
deeds because he had an affair with one of his
father's wives.
Ukiyo-e
Ukiyo, a Japanese word that means "floating
world," is an idea that growls out of the Buddhist
thought that life is fleeting andthat each moment
shouldbe enioved. Ukiyo-e,or "pictures of
the floating world," were woodblock prints that
when first produced in the seventeenth century
showed characters and scenes from the
entertainment districts of Edo, modern Tokyo.
The subj ect matter therefore ineluded brothels,
geishas, andtheatre actors; later ukiyo-e included
landscapes and images ofdifferent classes of
women. The Japanese printmakerKitagawa
Utamaro( 1753-1806) specialized in bijinga, or
images of beautiful women (3.75). Ukiyo-e artists
chosewoodblock printingbecause it made
possible the mass production of inexpensive
images for a popular market. From the 1860s
onward, ukiyo-e prints also became extremely
popular imports in Europe and America (see
Japonisme: The Influence of Ukiyo-e on French
Artists). KatsushikaHokusai's series Thirty-Six
Views of Mount Fuji remains a popular ukiyo-e
series (see Gateway Box, Hokusai, 3.77, p. 346).
3.75 Kitagawa Utarnaro. Two Courtesans, second half o:

18th century.Woodblock print, 12f/sx 7 V.Victoria and
Albert Museum, London, England
3AA HISTORY AND CONTEXT
C
Japonisme: The Influenceof Ukiyo-e on FrenchArtists
Japonisme is a term used to describe the way

in which the work of Japanese artists
influenced many artists in Europe. Japanese
prints often depicted space, cropped scenes,
and flattened objects through the use of line
ratherthan shadows. Afterstudying Japanese
prints, such Impressionist painters as Claude
Monet, Camille Pissarro, and Edgar Degas began
to incorporate slanted viewpoints, bright colors,
and busy patterns into their work. Likewise,
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec made prints that
were influenced by Japanese techniques, while
Edouard Manet and Vincent van Gogh included
copies of Japanese prints in their paintings.
The American painter Mary Cassatt (1844-
1926) lived most of her life in France and
exhibited with the Impressionists. Afterseeing
more than a hundred of the Japanese printmaker
Kitagawa Utamaro's prints exhibited in Paris in
1890, Cassattwrote to friends raving a bout him;
later she began creating prints very much in the
style of Utamaro. Cassatt herself had always
focused on the daily lives of women in her
paintings. Acomparison betweenone of
Utamaro's prints (see 3.75; see opposite) and a
painting by Cassatt (3.76), made three years after
she had seen the Japanese artist's work in Paris,
highlights the techniques Cassatt emulated.
The composition of the two scenes is very
similar. Each has a form that creates a strong apart from some twisting flowers and crowded 3.76 Mary Cassatt. The Child's
diagonalline from the upperrightto the lower calligraphy in a music book. Cassatt fills her Se:h, 1893. Oil on canvas.
background space, but herbusy floral patterns
39V: x 26 ". Art Institute
left. The musicalinstrumentis gently being
o: Chicago
played by Utamaro's beautiful lady, while the echo the flowers in the Japanese work.
foot of the child in Cassatt's painting is gently Lastly, Japanese prints often look at their
stroked by her mother's hand. The mother's subject from multiple vantage points. Utamaro's
right arm and that of the musician are both, in lady is being viewed from directly in front of her,
contrast to the objects they hold, strictly vertical. but the bottom of her dress, the music, and parts
The dress of Utamaro's lady is completely of the instrument are seen from above. Similarly,
in outline, with no effort to create a sense of in Cassatt's painting, the scene is depicted from
volume in the figure, or shadows in the dress. various vantage points. Forexample, the viewer
Similarly, Cassatt dresses the mother in bold looks at the child'storso, the dresserin the
stripes that create a linear effect that background, and at the pitcher in the lower
resembles the outlines of Utamaro's lady. The right corner from directly in front at the same
background of Utamaro's print is mostly empty, height. Yet, simultaneously, the bowl of water
creating an absence of space behind the lady and the rug are viewed from above.
C
Mount Fuji: The Sacred Mountain of Japan
3.77 Katsushika Hokusai, The
Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa",
from Thirty-Six Views of Mount
Fuji. 1826-33 (printed later).
Print, color woodcut. Library of
Congress, Washington, D.C.
is the only part of the scene

that is not in motion; it is
therefore a powerful
stabilizing force. Indeed,
the fierce movement of the
wave thrashing the boats
around contrasts markedly
with the eternal and still
form of the mountain. As
one looks at the print, an
abstract yin andyang (3.78)
appears in the intertwining
of the large wave with the
sky. Two smaller focal
points then become Mount
Katsushika Hokusai's series Thirty-Six Views of Fuji andthe boat on the left.
Mount Fuji was so popular in his time that he All of the views in this series contrast the
made forty-six scenes. Mount Fuji is the largest stable form of Mount Fuji with the daily actions
mountain in Japan (12,388 ft. high), and has (fleeting life) of people. In "The Great Wave,"
become a recognizable symbol of the country. The Hokusai shows the hard lifestyle of the fishe rmen
mountain is sacred to believers of both Buddhism who worked in the area of Edo, and their courage
3.78 Yin and yang symbol
and Shinto. Because Iis an active volcano, it is in the face of the power of nature. Just as their
believed to have a particularly powerful ka mi, lives were at risk, Hokusai was also likely
orspirit, although it has not erupted since 1708. thinking of his own mortality: he was in his 70s
In one print from Hokusai's series, "The Great when he made this print. Here, he demonstrates
Wave offShore atKanagawa" (3.77), the mountain the balance and harmony of man and nature.
Discussion Questions artwork. Discuss the format of a scroll, how-

it isviewed, andthe skills needed by the artist.
In what ways are religion and philosophy How* do these characteristics of scroll
reflected in artworks from Asia? Cite examples paintings differ from other kinds of painting
from India, China, and Japan. you have studied?
Humankind's relationship with nature is a Religious and political leaders often influence
strong element inmany artworks from .Asia. the kindsand quantities of ar tworks made
Consider the artist' sjnter£retation of nature in a certain time or culture. Qtetwoexamgleÿ
inthree ar tworks introduced in this chapter. in which a ruler or leader impacted the art of
Chinese scroll paintings are a uniquekind of Asia. What role did he or she play?
c
4.11 Soldiers from 4.35 iseJingu. 6th centuryCE. 1.118 Vishnu Dreaming the 4.23 Life of Buddha, c. 675 ce.
mausoleum o: Gin Sh: rebuilt 1993, p. 681 Universe, c. 650-500 ce, p. 1 22 p. 672
Huangd:, c. 210 BCE. p.662
4.124a aid b Colossal Buddha ;rom Bamiyan 4.45 Shiva Nataraja [Lord of 1.123 Muqi.S/x Persimmons. 4.111 Nigh: Attack on the
'oe;ore and a;ter destruction], 6th or 7th centuryCE. the Dance). 11th century. c. 1 2 50. p. 1 26 Sanjo Palace, late 13th
destroyed 2001, p. 569 p. 688 century, p. 537
2.129 Porcela'n flask 1.125 Ax'tayas xandala 1.146 The Emperor Babur 1.152 Pashmin a carpet with 4.90 Portrait of the
with decoration in blue at D'eoung Loseling
c_eated Overseeing his Gardeners, rr Tlefleur pattern, second Yongzheng Exoe_or in court
unde-glaze 1625-35,p. 252 Monastery, Tibet, p. 1 27 c. 1590, o. 160 half o; 17th century, p. 166 dress. 1723-35. 0.521
2.43 Kitagawa Utaxaro. 1.148 Ando Hiroshige. 4.101 Mao Zedong's portrait 2.32 Hung Liu. Interregnum.
.overs inan UpstairsRoom . Riverside Samboo Market. over Tiananmen Square, 2002. p. 1 So
1 788.0.1 96 Kyobashi. 1 857. p. 161 p. 529
c
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.4
Art of the Americas
how people lived in the Americas. Although they

Stylized: art that represents The Americas: were spread over the two continents and their
objects in an exaggerated way
toempihasize certain aspects of When'sthe Beginning? cultures were enormously varied, these people
the object shared some common interests. Their art
Stela: upright stone slab
decorated with inscriptions or
We can never be sure when the first human reflected the ways inwhich their societies were
pictorial relief carvings arrived inthe Americas, but scholars believe that organized; tteir cultural and spiritualbeliefs; and
there were no humans at all in the Americas until their connections with nature.
15,000 to 18,000 years ago, when groups of people
crossed a land bridge that linkedAsia to North
America. Expertly mademammoth-bone spear South America
points, discovered on a firm inClovis, New Mexico,
in 1929, are dated to 11,500 years ago. Similar Erom about 3000 3CE, the region around the
Clovis points,as the}- are called,havebeen found Andes Mountains was home to a host of cultures,
all over North America, indicating that the including the Chavin, Paracas, Nazca, Moche,
continent was populatedwith people using the Tiwanaku, andlnca. The objects createdby
same type of huntingtechnologies. Moie recent
discoveries in Chile (dating perhaps to 12,500
years ago),Oregon ( 14,302 years ago), and Virginia
(possibly 15,000years ago) haveconvinced many

scholars that the Americas were inhabited long
before the Clovis spear points were made.
We can trace the early civilizations of South
SiparN
America, ancient Mexico and Central America •ChavinMachuPicchu
de Huantar
(Mesoamerica), andNorth America through their Paracas • ÿ
La*e Titicaca
art and architecture. Some descendants of these
people still live inthe Americas, speaking their own
languages, continuing ancient cultural practices,
and following artistic traditions hundreds of
years old.The arrival of Europeans from the
fourteenth century onward drastically altered the
ways oflife of the native peoples. European settlers
destroyed many great cities and magnificent works
of art, especially those made of gold and silver,
3.79 (right) Map of South which they melted down tor their monetary value .
Ame-ica Enough remains, however, to tell us much about
C
HowDo We Know?
Althoug h we ca n clearly recognize how skillful writing ofthe Maya has been deciphered and
the artists of the ancient Americas were, how has provided vast amounts of information
can we be sure that the few objects we see about howthey thought and lived their lives.
todayare representative of the art produced
over hundreds of years? Objects made of stone, • Europeanswrote accountsofwhat they saw
bone, and pottery have survived; those made of when they arrived in the Americas. They
perishable materials— textiles, wood, inked often completely misunderstood the cultures
designson bodies— usually have not. It is even they encountered, and scholars need to
more difficult to know why artists madewhat interpret these accounts with care. Other
they made, why they chose particular styles, Europeans translated histories written by
and what their works meant. We do however indigenous Americans in the decades after
have some clues: the conquest.
• Indigenous people left behind oral histories, • Scientific evidence— including archeological
accounts written in bark books, and and DNA evidence— offers furtherdata that
inscriptions on stone monuments that have allows specialists to interpret how objects
survived for many generations. The intricate were made and used.
.Andean artists frequently reflected thelocal creature seems to descend from above; its eyes
environment and resources,with animals, plants, lookdown over a crocodile snout with an
and peoplerepresented, often in a stylized form.
Beliefs about the relationship betweenhumans 3.80 Drawing of detail mom the Raimondi Stela. New
and the parallel supernatural realmwere Temple. Chavin de Huanta", a60-30Q EC E. Stela: granite,
communicatedboth in myths about the origin of 6'5" x 2'5". Museo Nacional de Arquelog'a Anthrooologia
y H'storia del Peru, Lima. Peru
the world and in the images that artists created.
The Chavin and the Paracas

The Chavin culture is one of the oldest in South
.America. The Chavin established a pilgrimage
center in Chavin de Huantar,Peru, around 900
5CE. This site is marked by remarkable temples
andelaborate stone monuments.

TheRaimondi Stela contains a complex
depiction of a deity with both human andanimal
attributes. (The carving on the stone surface is so
delicate that the design is easier to see in drawings;
see 3.80.) .At thebottom of the stela is a creature
with eagle talons for feet. The figure's hands
hold two staffs, which have faces, snakes, swirls,
andvegetation tanglingalong their surfaces. .A
headdress, with scroll- ended pro) ections, takes up
more than halfof the composition. Its eyes are
looking up, like a stalkingjaguar. When we turn
the stela upside down, though, the second
ART OFTHE AMERICAS 3A9
C
additional face above it with thin eyes, a scroll underworld, andbirdswith the celestialrealm
nose, and fanged smile. What was formerly the of the sky.
headdress repeats the crocodile face menacingly. Andean textile design is closely related to
Such designs, with lines that describe more than carved stone relief sculpture, such as the
one object at the same time, possess what is known Raimondi Stela. They both use contour rivalry
as contour rivalry. They allow a figure to serve a to create complex patterns that encourage
dual purpose and to project multiple readings. multiple interpretations. Some of the most
The Chavin culture's principal deity, known spectacular textiles were madeby the Paracas
as the Staff God, has a close connection to people, who lived on the coast of Peru from
nature, agriculture, and fertility, as does the about 600 to 200 3CE. The dry conditions of their
crocodile. In Chavin culture generally and in necropolis have preserved a great number of
3.81 Paracas textile, this artwork in particular, animals feature these textiles. They show a continuation of the
err. oroidered with
prominently and are strongly associatedwith style (single lines describing more than one
mythological "igure. 3rd
century.Wool emoroidery. all three realms of the cosmos: snakes with the thing and readable in more than one direction)
N'useo Arquelog =. L'n-s. Peru earth, crocodiles or caymans with the watery and content (natural life and mythicalbeings)
developed bv the Chavin culture. A Paracas textile
(3.81) shows a mantle, a cape-like garment often
made by the Paracas people forburial purposes.
Intricately embroidered stitches form each
figure; their repetition creates a pattern.
Outlines merge into body parts, and costumes
resembleanimals ( in 3.81, a kind of mythical
beingwith deer on its shoulders — a shaman
with its animal self as a disguise). Plant forms
and animals appear frequently in Paracas
imagery, and deer shown here represent revered
creatures associated with the hunt.
The Moche
Visually and conceptually intricate designs were
also common for the Moche culture of northern
Peru. Moche art, made from about 200 3CE to
600 ce, tells us much about their society. The
earspool (a large-gauge ornament worn through
the earlobe) in 3.82 was found in a royal tomb at
Sipan. It shows a figure dressed almost exactly
likethe man found bur ied in the tomb,who
is believed to be a warrior-priest. Pictured
standing next to him on the earspool (and also
lying next to him inthe tomb) are two attendants
dressed for battle. The detailed depiction
includes replica turquoise-and- gold earspools,
a war-club and shield, a necklace of owl's heads,
and a crescent-shaped helmet. Although gold
was not considered as valuable as textiles in
the ancient Andes, its symbolic associations with
the sun's energy and power made it nonetheless
very important.
C
The Inca
Like the Moche metalworkers who integrated the
world the}- sawaround them into their designs,
the Inca, too, were inspired by nature. The Inca
culture may haveexisted as early as 800 ce. It
became an empire when the powerful Inca ruler
Pachacuti centralized the government. By the
early 1500s a series of rulers hadincreasedthe
area of land under their control until it covered
more than 3,000 miles along the western coast of
SouthAmerica, thus becoming the largest empire
inpre-Columbian America. Pachacuti selected a
ridge high on a mountaintop in Peru for Machu
Picchu, his private estate and religious retreat ( 3.83).
The location offered privacy and protection as
well as breathtaking views. The condor, a majestic
bird of pre>-,is depicted throughout the site, which
3.82 Earsoool, C. 300 -=. Gold, turquo'se. quartz.
includes a building known as the Condor Temple,
and shell, 5" diameter. Royal Tombs of Sipan
Museum, 5'oan, Peru and a stone carved in the shapeofa curved beak. 333 Machu Picchu
The walls, terraces, platforms, and buildings are 1450- 1530. Peru
Contour rivalry, a design in

whichthe lines can be read in
more than one way at the same
time, depending on the angle
from which it isviewed
Relief: a sculpture that projects
from a flat surface
Necropolis: cemetery orburial
place
Mantle: sleeveless itemof
clothing— a cloak or cape
Embroidery decorative
stitchin g generally made with
colored thread applied to the
surfaceofafabric
ART OF THE AMERICAS 351
C
The Importance of Wool
3.84 Llama. 15th century. stand forthe conquest of all possible
Silver with gold andc'nnaoa ethnicities. The tunic refers to an important
Museum o: Natural H story,
Inca creation myth, when the great god
New York
Viracocha sent out all the different peoples
with their ethnic patterns painted on
their bodies.
In the Andes, textiles were made
exclusively by women. Weaving was such
a sacred art that it had its own god, Spider
Woman, who featured prominently in the
Inca creation story. Textiles were not only
considered sacred, but were also more
valuable than gold or silver. This scale of
values was not shared by the Spaniards who 3.85 Tunic. c. 1500.
conquered Peru in the sixteenth century: Interlocked tapestry of cotton
and wool 35/3 x 30Vs" .
they demanded gold and silver from the
Dumoarton Oaks Research
Inca and melted down fine works of art to Library and Collections.
ship the precious metals home to Spain. Washington, D.C.
Andean artists often honored animals in their

artworks. Here, a small silver llama figurine
(3.84) seems to wear on its back a red
blanket— made of inlaid cinnabar edged with
gold. This sculpture was probably a burial
offering and waswrapped, along with the
body, in actual textiles.lt indicates the crucial
role the llama played in supplying wool for
weaving. Cloth not only served the practical
function of warmth and protection, but also
identified the wearer's social status as part
of a particular group. For instance, the clothing
worn by an unmarried woman would easily
distinguish her from a married woman in her
own group, as well as from members of
another social group.
The checkerboard tunic in 3.85 was worn
by an Inca ruler. Its square designs contain a
numberof patterns that together indicate the
high statusand importance of the person who
wore it. The little checkerboard designs would
have decorated tunics worn by warriors
serving the ruler; similarly, the diagonal lines
and dots indicate the clothing of administrators.
The other patterns do not directly represent
specific rolesor people as such, but through
the complexity and variety of designs, they
C
constructed ofhuge stones precisely stackedand andmathematicians, Mesoamericans developed
fitted close together without mortar. Machu an accurate calendar that the)- used to calculate
Picchuwas abandonedaround 1527, probably the dates of important ceremonies and rituals
after the devastating effects of a smallpox epidemic and to predict astronomical events. The)- shared
resultingfrom contact with Europeans. Because similar religious beliefs and many cultural
of its elevated location, the site was not excavated traditions, including a ball game played with a
until 1911, when Yale archaeologist Hiram hardrubber ball (see 3.91, p. 356).
Bingham led an expedition to the Inca trail. After The art and architecture oftheOlmecs, who
more than 100 years, in early 2011Yale University lived on the fertile low-lands of Mexico's Gulf
was scheduled to give the Peruvian government Coast from c. 1200 to 400 bce, influenced
artifacts secured during the excavation. later Mesoamerican people, for example the
inhabitants of the city of Teotihuacan, the Maya,
andthe .Aztecs. The Olmecs used images to record
Mesoamerica information,a tradition also common among
other people of Mesoamerica. Eventually the
"Mesoamerica" is the name given by Olmecs, and later the Teotihuacanos, used images
archaeologists to the area occupiedby modern- as a form of writing, although scholars have
day Mexico and Central .America. The many not yet been able to interpret their scripts. The
different people andcultures that inhabited Maya also developed a system of writing, called
the region founded powerful city-states and hieroglyphs, much of which can now be read.
produced diverse artworks. Skilled astronomers Some Aztec pictographs, too, can be deciphered.
3.86 Map of Mesoamerica
• Teotihuacan
Tenochtitlan*
Hieroglyph: written language

involving sacredcharacters that
maybe pictures as well as letters
Pictograph: picture used as a
symbol inwriting
C
The Discovery of Monumental Portraits at LaVenta
Today we often see Olmec art in modern
museums, but centuries ago thesemassive
monuments were displayedin the ceremonial
centers of Olmec cities. They were then forgotten
for hundreds of years as they lay buriedin remote
locations. David Grove, an archaeologist andan
expert on the Olmec, recounts the discoveryin
1940 of four Olmec heads andother Olmec
wonders at La Venta by the archaeologists
MatthewandMarion Stirling:
It had taken the Stirlings five days to reach

La Venta, and they would spend a total of
ten days exploring the site. Led by a local
guide, they followed trails through dense
tropical forest and then "wallowed afoot in
the muck" of waist -deep swamps until
eventually emerg'ng onto the high ground
upon which La Venta is situated. However,
even after reaching the site's ruinsthe
stone monuments were not immediately
visible to them. hemispherical stone almost completely 3.87 With the help of local
The prima ry purpose of their visit was concealed by vines and growth. Ilooked at villagers, the archaeologists
MatthewStirling and his
to locate, study, and photograph the eight it closely. Lo and behold, here was Blom's
wife. Marion, discovered this
stone monuments that had been reported colossal head that we had a Imost given 8- foot- tall colossal head
by the scholars Frans Blom and Oliver La up hope of locating! ...Less than twenty (Monument 1) in San Lorenzo
Farge in 1925. The narrow four-mile-long yards away a large stela lay on its back. in the state of Veracruz,
Mexico, in 1945, a fewyears
island was heavily forested except for some This Iimmediately recognized as Blom's after thei r discoveries in La
scattered clearings used as agricultural Stela 2. Venta.
plots by the few residents of that remote "While this work was going on, a
area. To assist them they recruited seven small boy who happened to be standing
local men. Some of those workers by remarked that he had seen some stones
remembered seeing carved stones in the near the new milpa (maize field) his father
forest and the fields, but had paid little was working. Iwent with him to a point in
attention to them. They were happy to the forest about a half mile away, and one
show Matt and Marion the stones they after another he showed me three round
knew of— if they could find them again ... projecting stones in a line about thirty
Eventually, one of the workers yards apart." When excavated, those
recalled seeing some stones in another stones turned out to be three more colossal
area of the forestto the south of the site's stone heads! They were positioned about
large pyramid mound.As Stirling relates 100 yards north of the pyramid, and
the tale, the worker "cut his way through occurred in an east-west row (3-88).
the dense growth for no more than The new discoveries receivedthe labels
fifty yards when we ca me to a large Heads 2, 3, and 4.
t
Ciudadela
Temple-pyramid ofthe Ft
Feathered Serpent
fcj
Street of the Dead
Pyramid of the Sun
Pyramid the Moon v
3.88a =nd 3.88b Plan and

aerialview (from Pyramid o:
the Moon J of the ce'emonial
center, Teot' huacan, Mexico
Teotihuacan about three miles long. At its northern end lies

the Pyramid of the Moon. The Pyramid of the
The main components of the Olmec site at La Sun lies on its east andthe Temple of the Feathered
Yenta are a pyramid and a plaza, a layout that also Serpent is located to the south ( 3.88a and 3.88b).
features, on a much larger scale, at Teotihuacan, The Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan's largest
in the Central Highlands of Mexico about thirty structure, is a stepped pyramid (3.89). Covering
miles from modem-day Mexico City. Teotihuacan 13 acres, its base is about 700 feet across on each
was one of the largest cities in the world at the side; it is 2 10 feet tall. The location of the
time. Around 500 ce, at the peak of its power, Pyramid of the Sun was of utmost importance.
it had 600 pyramids and 2,000 apartment It faced west —toward the setting sun andthe
compounds (3.88a and 3.88b). A wide street, the Avenue of the Dead— and was built on top of
Avenue of the Dead, runs north-south and is a cave and a spring. Caves had religious significance
3.89 Pyramid o; the Sun,

c. 225 ce. Teotihuacan, Mexico
St epped pyramid: a pyramid

consisting of several rectangular
structures placed on top of one
another
ART OFTHE AMERICAS 355
away, but the civilization continued to exist in
isolatedlocations. Surviving Spanish colonization,
the Maya continue to speak their own language
and now number an estimated 7 million.
Mythology and cosmology and their
associatedrituals were important to Maya society.
The ballgame was a common ritual event in
Mesoamerica andcould also be played for sport,
gambling, or as a gladiatorial contest to the
death (3.91). The rubber ball, magnified on the
cylindrical vessel shown here,was about eight
inches in diameter. The game was played on
a court; the objective was to get theball through
a ring or into a goal area without using one's
hands. The rings were very- high off the ground
and virtually impossible to get the ball through.
Players wore protective gear, including yokes,
fitted round the waist to strike the ball and
protect the body. They used hachasox palmas
(thin flat stones) to guide and deflect the ball.
3.90 Architectural sculpture throughout Mesoamerica because the)- were The elaborate quality of the yokes and helmet¬
with se'pent heeds end thought to connect the world of humans w-ith the likeheaddresses of the players on thevessel in 3.91
masks on the Temple of
•world of the gods. The Aztecs, who established indicate that this was a ceremonial game played
Guetzalcoatlst Teot'huecen,
Mexico ÿalso known es Temple a powerful empire in central Mexico about 800 for the purposes of ritual.
o: the Feethe'ed Se'oent.i years after Teotihuacanwas abandoned, admired Mesoamericanballgames often served as the
the cultural achievement of the Teotihuacanos. arena for the final stages ofwarfare in which
In tact, the name Teotihuacan is Az tec for "Hie captured enemies met their fate. The murals at
Place of the Gods," and the Pyramid of the Sun the Maya city of Bonampak insouthern Mexico
was a place of pilgrimage for the Aztecs. show the victor)- of the Lordof Bonampak,
The Temple of the Feathered Serpent at Chaan Muan, in 790 ce, and the treatment of his
Teotihuacan is located in an enclosed compound.
The plaza next to it is below ground level to 3.91 Cylindrical vessel with ritual ballqa-re scene.
symbolize the underworld. Sculpted heads on the c. 700-350. Ce-arr'c. 67. x 4". Dallas Museum of
temple depict serpents with feathers andjaguar Art. Texas
features alongside square heads with goggle eyes

and fang-like teeth (3.90). To the Aztecs these
sculptures lookedlike images of their gods
Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent, andTlaloc,
the goggle- eyed rain god. These figures
symbolized warfare and fertility, or perhaps
cycles of wet and dry seasons.
The Maya
The dates for Maya civilization are from about
2000 3ce to 1500 ce. At the peak of the Maya
empire, from about 300 to 900 ce, there-were Maya
centers in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras,
and El Salvador. By 900 most of them had faded
C
3.92 Bona-noak rnural, Room
2. copy o; "esco ;rorr Room 2.
or'g'nal 8th century. Feabody
Museum, Harvard University,
Camb-idge, Massachusetts
defeated opponents. The wÿall illustrated in 3.92 the empire covered Central Mexico, Guatemala,
shows the ritual presentation of captives on the El Salvador, and Honduras; the Aztecs were
steps of a temple. Chaan Muanis shown at the conquered by Co rtez in 1524.
center of the composition wearing a headdress In a manner similar to the Olmec,
with long green feathers; his ministers and aides Teotihuacan, and Maya societies before them,
standbeside him, well armed and in full regalia. the Aztecs placed pyramid structures in the center
The prisoners havebeen stripped of their own of their cities, emphasizing their importance as 3.93 a nu-ran sacrifice,
clothing andweapons, and are nakedand the site of rituals. Among the most notorious foL- 70r of the Codex
vulnerable. They havebeen tortured, perhaps Magtiabechiano, 1 6th century.
of these rituals was the practice ofsacrificing a
European paper, 6/2 x 8 /s .
starved, and likely made to play a fixed and fatal person by extracting from the body his or her eibiioteca Nazionate
ballgame inwhich the losers are eventually to Still-beating heart (3.93). Sacrifices to the gods Centrals. Florence. Italy
be executed The man sprawled out on the step
at the ruler s feet has an incision in his side,
indicating that he is already dead To the left of
this figure are several prisonerswith blood
dripping from their fingers, their fingernails
recently ripped out. The Maya consideredblood
on the steps a sign of their triumph and a sacrifice
to please the gods, and they wanted as much of it
on the building as couldbe spilled.
The Aztecs
The Aztecs formed a powerful empire in
Mesoamerica, which they dominated at
approximately the same time the Inca were in
power in South America (from 1400 until Spanish
occupation in the 1520s and 1530s).At its peak,
C
were performed at specific times of the year,
Pueblos: word meaning "town"
such as planting season, and at certain points in
chat refers to An as azi settlements
throughout the Four C orners the ceremonial calendar, for example the end
areaof Utah, Colorado,New of a 52-vear cycle. Important events, such as the
Mexico, and Arizona; also the
name ofgroupsdescendingfrom
dedication of a new temple, might also be the
the An asazi occasion for sacrifices. Capturing victims for this
purposewas one of the major goals of warfare,
another being to expand the empire. People
sometimes sacrificed members of their own
community. In some cases it was considered an
honor to die by the sacrificial blade; other
individuals were selectedbecause the}- hadbeen
born on an "unlucky" day.
The Aztecs based some of their sacrifice rituals
on the story of their origins, which they traced
to a mythical place called "Aztlan." The Aztecs
believed that their ancestors had journeyed from
Aztlan to their future capital at Tenochtitlan 3.95 The Dismemberment of Coyolxauhqw. Goddess of the
(modern Mexico City). During their journey they
.
Moon late oostclass'c. Stone. ?' 10Vs" dameter.Museo del
Te-nplo Mayor, Mexico City
met Coatlicue, or "Serpent Skirt," the guardian
3.94 The Mothe r Goddess . at Serpent Mountain. Coatlicue hadbeen
Coatlicue, c. 1487- 1520.
impregnatedby a ball offeathers that fell from the made of human heartsand hands, with a skull
Andesite, 11*6". National
Museum of Anthropology, sky;her son Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, was pendant. Coatlicue was the Mother Goddess,
Mexico miraculously born fully armed. associatedwith the earth, fertility, and
When Coatlicue's other transformation, w-ho was seen as both creator
children attempted to and destroyer.
murder their Coy-olxauhqui's dismemberment was
dishonored mother, commemorated ona stone disk ( 3.95) placed at
Huitzilopochtli the base of an early templebuilton the site of the
defended her by- Great Temple of the Aztecs in Tenochtitlan. The
attacking his sister goddess is shown in a simplifiedbut realistic way,
Coy-olxauhqui, with parts of her body scattered across the
or "She of the circular surface. Each limb, like her waist, is tied
Golden Bells." with a rope that has snake heads on the ends. The
Coy-olxauhqui1s incorporation of skulls throughout the scene—
dismembered at her waist,elbows, and knees— evokes her
body was rolled in violent murder. The placement of the disk also
pieces down Serpent symbolized the treatment of sacrificial victims:
Mountain. their bodies were thrown down the steps of
The events of the Great Temple to landwhere the disk of
Huitzilopochtli's Coy-olxauhqui lay as a sign of their defeat.
birth are the source This story- poetically explains astronomical
for many- Aztec artworks, phenomena observedby- the Aztecs. Coatlicue
including a colossal sculpture (the earth) gives birthto Huitzilopochtli (the
ofCoatlicue ( 3.94). A ferocious sun), who then slices up his sister (the moon), as
face, created by- the profiles their siblings (the stars) stand bv. It is a metaphor
of two facing serpent heads, for the phases of the moon,when the sun—with
enhances her imposing the help of the earth's shadow— appears to slice
presence. She also has a necklace up the moon during an eclipse.
c
North America
During the thousands of years before Europeans
arrived, the people who lived in the North
American continent occupied arctic regions,
ocean coasts, dry desert lands, semi-arid plains,
andlush forests. The resources available to these
original Americans were therefore very diverse.
In modern Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado,
some groups lived in permanent dwellings made
of adobe. Other people from the midwest to
modern-day Mississippi and Louisiana
constructedsettlements of wood andearth
andmade large ceremonialmounds. On the
northwestcoast,fishingcommunitiesbuilt
villages using abundant localwood. Still others
livednomadic lives, moving to find their food
andother essential materials. Not surprisingly,
the people of North -America spoke many
different languages and developed diverse
culturaltraditions. Their structures and domestic
objects met their practical needs, but many were
so beautifully decoratedthat today we call them
"art/' -Although European invaders killed many
native people and displaced others, some
survived, maintainedtheir cultural traditions,
andcontinued to make fine artworks.
The Anasazi
The people of North America used local
materials to build practical structures that
provided shelter. Late in the twelfth century
(c. 1150 ce), a drought forced the Anasazi people
toabandon their homes, called pueblos, on the
canyon floors of New Mexico, and move north
to what is now southwestern Colorado. When

they arrived at Mesa Verde they constructed
communal dwellings of stone, timber, andadobe
(sun-driedbricks made of clay and straw) in
ridgeshigh on cliff faces often hundreds of feet
above the canyon floor ( 3.97) .These locations
took advantage of the sun's orientation to heat the
3.96 [above right] Map of NorthAme~:ca
3.97 (right] Cliff Palace. 1100-1 300. Mesa Verde.

Colorado
pueblo in the winter andshade it during the hot wooden poles coveredwith bark or deer and
summer months. Exactly-why or even howdie cliff buffalo hides. TheMandan had been living on
dwellings were constructed we do not know. the Plains in what is now Northand South
Similarly, we do not know -what happened to the Dakota for more than a thousand years. They
Anasazi after the four-corners area (the place had established permanent villages, but they
where today Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and used tipis when hunting or traveling. The Battle
Arizona meet) was abandonedbetween about Scene Hide Painting in 3.98 shows a detailed,
1300 and 1540. Although moderndescendants
of the Anasazi— the Hopi, Zuni,Tewa, and Taos
—
Indians have many cultural and symbolic
connections with their ancestors, even they do
not know the full story.
Plains Indians
Pushedwestward by European expansion,
many native Americans were forced into the
Great Plains region. Groups belonging to the
sT" ,
Sioux clan, such as the Lakota and Crow,
became nomadic, living in portable homes '
called tipis (also spelled teepees), made of 7
3.98a and (detail) 3.98b Robe
with battle scene, 1797-1800.
Tanned bu"slo hide, dyed
porcupine quills, and
pigments. 37x40V-". Peaoody
Museum o;Archaeology.
Harvard University.
Cambridge. Massachusetts
c
3.99 Wo- Haw.V/o-Haw

between Two V.'orids. 1875-7.
Gÿaohite and colored oenc:l
on oaoe-, 8V?x 11". Missouri
Historical Society, St. Lou's
naturalistic representation of a battle in 1797 against white settlers. Twenty-six of the men
betweenthe Mandan of NorthDakota andthe made art while the)- were in captivity. Nd
encroachingSioux. Sixty- four combatants, traditional materials, such as the buffalo hide
twenty of them on horseback, are engaged in andmineral pigments used in the Mandan robe,
battle with spears, bows and arrows, tomahawks, were available, so the)- used the pencils and
and guns. This hidewas meant to be draped paper provided for them.
over the shoulders of its wearer, likely someone Wo-Haw's self-portrait show-s him caught
who played a key role inthebattle it depicted. between the two worlds referenced in die drawing's
Hidesused for tipis and as garments were title: that of his ancestry on his right side (our
decorated with different motifs. This narrative left) andthe new presence of European settlers
scene would have served a commemorative on his left. His Kiowa heritage is represented by
purpose for boththe individual wearer andthe a buffalo and a tipi underneath a crescent moon
Mandan people. and a shooting star. The world of whites is
While theMandan robe tells us something representedby a domesticated bull,cultivated
of a battlebetween two native NorthAmerican fields, and a European-style frame house.
tribes, Wo-Haw between Two Worlds offers a Wo- Haw holds peace pipes towardboth the
window into the changing existence of one Native American and Europeanworlds, expressing
individual as a result of westward European the hope that the)- can learn to live in peace.
expansion ( 3.99). It is a drawing from a Xipi or teepee: portable
dwelling used by Plains groups
sketchbook kept during the artist's imprisonment The Kwakiutl Naturalistic: aver)- realistic or
in Fort Marion, Florida,between 1875 and 1878. lifelike style of making image s
Motif: a distinctive visual
Wo-Haw was one of about seventy Kiowa, The Kwakiutl, native Americans in southern
element, the recurrence ofwhich
Cheyenne, andother Plains individualsarrested British Columbia, Canada, continue to practice is often characteristic of an
in Oklahoma for allegedly committing crimes ceremonies passed dow-n through the generations. artist'swork
C
3.100 EagleT-3n5:o'"Tat:on
Mask from Alert Bay. British
Columb'a. late 19th century.
Wood. feathers. and rooe,
58 x 33". American Museum
of Natural History, NewYork
1 Select three artworks from the Americas
that deal with supernatural beings or gods.
They are known for their masks,which the)- use What do you think they tell us about the
ceremonially in different ways, depending on importance of the supernatural to ancient
the time of year. The late-nineteenth- century Americans? You might choose one work from
Eagle Transformation Mask (3.100) was probably another chapter inthis book, for example:
used in a public summer performance for a 1.35, 2.139, £.51 .
coming- of- age ceremony. The eagle was likely 2 Select three examples of artworks that
the spirit guardian revealed during a vision incorporate aspects of nature or the
quest undertaken at the onset of puberty. environment in their imagery and discuss
As such, the Eagle Transformation Mask showed why artists of the ancient Americas were so
the deep, inner reality of the wearer, who used interested in these themes. You might choose
the strings to open andclose the mask, giving one work from another chapter inthis book,
the impression hewas transforming into an for example: 1.1,6.50.
animal. In flickeringfirelight the mask's 3 Choose three ar twork s tha t r epresen t the
movement created an impressivespectacle as its power of rulersanddiscuss how that power is
human aspects, such as the large nose, combined represented visually. You might choose one
with animal features, in this case a curved beak. work from another chapter in this book, for
The dancer thus transformed himself from example: 6.69, 6.92.
human to eagle andback again as he danced. 4 The arrival of European settlers on the
This performance served a ritual function, American continent had a profound impact
highlighting the powerful nature of the eagle, onjndiÿenousbeliefoandoilturalÿracÿ
transferring that bravery and strength to the Select threeworks of art from the Americas
human wearer and his community. It also that indifferent ways would haveclashedwith
represents the ancestral connections between European viewpoints or that expressed the
humansand eagles. The transformation that views of indigenousAmericans about the
was enacted during the performance also European settlers. You might choose one work
symbolized the changes the wearer experienced from another chapter in this book, for
duringinitiation. example: 6.66.
Art of the Americas
2.154 Great Serpent Mound. 4.12 Cahokia, Illinois, c. 1150 2.128 BabyFigure. 12th -?th 1.1 Spider. C. 500 BCE-500CE. 4.49 Sarcophagus lid. tomb
C. 800 SCE-1 00 CE. p. 267 (reconstruction drawing). century 5CE, p.251 p.47 of Lord Pacal, c. 680 CE. p.490
p. 463
2.127 Seated Figure, 1.35 Stela with supernatural 1.141 Double-chambered 4.92 Shield ÿagua" and Lady 4.59 Eccentric flint depicting
300 ECE-700 CE, p.250 scene, 761 CE. p. 67 vessel with mouse, ath-Bth Xoc, C. 725 CE, p.523 a crocodile canoe with
century, p. 136 passenge-s. 600-900CE. p.497
2.168 Temple I in the Great 6.108 Tula warrior columns. 4.60 Calendar stone. 4.51 Vessel with mask of 4.46 Mummy of a boy.
Plaza, Tikal, C. 300-900 CE, 900-1000CE, p. 534 late post classic, p. 497 Tlaloc. C.I 440-69. p. 491 C. 1500. p. 488
p. 276
2.139 Tlingit Chilkat dancing 4.50 Hop kachina doll. 4.16 Navajo medicine man in
olanket, 19th century, p. 258 C. 1925. p. 491 healing ceremony, c. 1 °08.
p. 465
c
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.5
Art of Africa and the Pacific Islands
As diverse as the}- may at first seem, the artworks lasting several years. In these cultures, learning
produced on the expansive continent ofAfrica traditional ways to make objects is more
and in the remote islands of the Pacific Ocean important than building an individual
have some intriguing similarities. Inboth areas reputation. Although some artists have
art integrates and responds to the environment, become legendary, the names of most have
incorporatesimportant mythologicalbeliefs, been forgotten over time.
and follows traditional methods of construction
and decoration.
Both of these regions' artistic traditions rely Art of Africa
on such natural materials as wood,reeds, shells,
andearth. For example, cowrie shells feature Modern Africa has 54 different countries, more
prominently in the nkisi nkcrnde (see p. 366) from than 955 million inhabitants, and at least 1,000
the Democratic Republic of Congo andthe different languages. .Archaeological evidence
decoration of the Abelam cult house inPapua from about 200,000 years ago suggests that the
NewGuinea(see 3.116, p. 374). Inboth parts of first modern humanslived on the African
the world, the shells are symbols of fertility. continent before moving to other parts of the
Natural materials often have symbolic significance, world. As regards more recent records of human
but because they-— wood inparticular— are activity, oral history hasbeen more important for
usually perishable, few examples of ancient .African communities than written documentation;
artworks made from suchsubstances remain. records of specific events do not exist inmany
As we find elsewhere in the world, artists areas, especially south of the Sahara. .Art has
inAfrica andthe Pacific Islandstend to serve therefore been a particularly important form of
as communicators for andwithin their communication and cultural expression. .Among
communities. They record events and relate the earliest examples of African art are portable
important cultural beliefs, such as rules for objects, such as beadsmade from shells that date
acceptable behavior, or fables that seek to explain back to 75,000 years ago. Wooden sculpture and
the mysteries of the world. Inboth areas, ritual is architecture also have longtraditions,although
an integral part of their creations. Special objects ancient examples have perished.
are produced for ceremonies to celebrate birth,
to mark a child's passage into adulthood, and to
Portraits and Power Figures
remember those who have died.
Perhaps the most strikingsimilarity between For thousands of years, people have used art to
art made inAfrica and that of the Pacific Islands tell stories about and create images of their daily-
is the continuity of traditional techniques. lives. African rulers, likeelites everywhere, have
Artists usually have to undergo an apprenticeship used art to assert and reinforce their power, and
A KAN JIl«
Great Zimbabwe •
3.102 Head from Re-in Kure.C. 500 BCE-200 CE.
Te"cCOtte. 1 «V." n'gh. Nat onsl Museum.
Lagos. Nige'a
3.101 Map of Africa some of the art they have commissioned has also commonly used to make pottery vessels. The
emphasized their connection with die supernatural features and details of the sculptures were
realm, thereby encouraging a sense that their carved in a manner similar to woodcarving.
authority to rulehasbeenbestowed upon them Because clay is a durable but breakable material,
bygods or ancestor spirits. It is also believedthat very few of the sculptures havebeen found
artworks can act as conduits to the spirit world, undamaged. In many cases only the heads remain
and permit supernatural forces entry into the intact (3.102).
human world, to bestow good or ill fortune. Like many Nok heads, the piece in 3.102 has
The objects themselves are investedwith power, a distinctive hairstyle or headdress,-with three
Figurative: art that portrays and a certain amount of power is also associated conical buns on top. .Also characteristic of Nok
items perceived in the visible
world, especially human or with the owner. Often objects or artworks sculpture, the headhas triangular-shaped eyes
animal forms communicate the rules and customs that andholes in the pupils, nostrils,mouth, and ears,
Terracotta: iron-rich day, fired members of society are expected to follow. These which probably facilitated air flow- during firing.
at a low temperature, which is
traditi on ally brownish - oran ge objects can be symbolic, related to a particular Inthe life-sized sculptures that have survived,
in color position or role; or the)- can tell a tale, illustrating Nok figures are shown standing,kneeling, and
Coiling: the use of long coils of a proverb or a story with a specific message. sitting,wearing detailedjew-elrv and costumes.
clay— rather than a wheel— to
buildthe walls of a pottery vessel Although we do not knowthe exact meanings The heads are proportionally much larger than
Firing: heatLng ceramic, glass, and uses of some of the oldest known figurative the bodies, a feature that is also common in later
or enamel objects in a kiln,
sculptures inAfrica, the}- have a strong physical traditions inAfrican art: the head,because it is
to harden them, fuse the
components, or fuse a glaze

presence. The Nok of Nigeria made hollow, lite- associated w-ith know-ledge and identity,is
to the surface sized terracotta figures with a coiling technique emphasized inmany figurative sculptures.
ART OF AFRICA AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 365
social obligations and enforcers of proper
behavior. Objects called minkisi nkandi ( the
singular nkisi means"sacred medicine"; nkondi
comes from konda, "to hunt") could take the
form of shells, bags, pots, or wooden statues.
Substances, or actual medicines, mightbe
placed insidethe minkisi to give them certain
properties. Incarved figures, these medicines
were placed in the head or stomach area. A
- , .} '>'< *T particular type of nkisi, called nkisi Mangaaka,
is a standing figure with a beardthat served as
2k- '' h%
an additional reservoir for magical properties
(3.1OA). White kaolin day, shells, and other
u reflective objects on figures likethis one
symbolized contact with the supernatural.
All minkisi were activated by ritual spedalists
believed to have the power to releasethe spir itual
presencewithin the object.
Each figure served a specific function, but
generally an nkisi Mangaaka was responsible for
making sure that oaths sworn in its presence
were honored. Each time the figure was needed,
the ritual specialists would drive nails,blades,
and other metal objects into its wooden surface
to make it "angry" and"rouse it into act ion."
As a mediator between the ancestral spirit world
3.103 (above left) Twi n ;gur* The Yoruba of western Nigeria contributed and the livingworld of human beings, the nkisi
Drobaoly from Ado Cdo i n much to the richtradition of figurative sculpture Mangaaka was able to bring protection and
Yorubaland. p_e-1B77
(probaoly 19th century).
in Africa. Sculptors working in the Yoruba city of healing to the community. The nkisi Mangaaka
Wood. 1 0" high. Linden Ife produced impressive terracotta andmetal shown herehasbeen activated many times by
Museum, 5tuttgart, Ge_many sculpture; andthe twin figure in 3.103 displays ironblades. The giant cowrie shell on its abdome n
Yoruba skill at woodcarving. This sculpture is is a powerful symbol for the Yombe people as
3.1 OA (above right) Standing
male ;'gu _e (nk's Mangaaka), essentially a doll; it was used to teach young well as other cultures.Widely used as currency,
late 1 9th century. Wood, iron. children how* to raise a baby, and was carr ied the cowrie likely refers to the power of the king,
ra;;'a, ceramic, kaolin around, dressed, and fed. This doll looks like or, more generally, to fertility. This nkisi
pigment, red camwood
a miniaturewoman, with elongated breasts, an Mangaaka haswide, staring eyes and an
powde- [tukuls], res'n, d:rt.
leaves, animal skin, and elaborate hairdo, and scarification associated imposing stance to help ensure that no other
cowrie shell, 43s/. x 1 5V? x with childbirth,but it also has some features that forces will interferewith the fulfillment of its
11". Dallas Museum of Art. are characteristic of a girl: its small size, large eyes, ritual function.
Te«es
andthe lock of hair worn infront. Such dolls were
commonly commissionedwhen twins were born. Personal Stories and Symbolism
If one of the twins died, the doll %vas cared for
alongside the childwho lived. The doll was a Because many kinds of information have
lifetime possession. When a w oman marriedshe traditionally beencommunicatedvisually rather
kept her doll with her to aidher fertility. This twin than verbally inAfrica, objects are often made
figure shows howYoruba hand-made objects are with a specific purpose or even a specific person
investedwith spiritual powers oftheir own. in mind.Artworks that contain abstract designs
Also known for a strong sculptural tradition, and patterns can convey information that is
the Yombe use power figures as reminders of just as important, recognizable, and specific as
vibrant sights, sounds,smells, and movements
of the masquerade. For African groups, though,
the mask is most meaningful when being
performed. In fact, sometimes masks are created
for a particular event and discarded afterward
because they are no longer "alive." Inother cases,
masks aie maintained from year to year and
generati on to generation by the performers and
theirapprentices.
TheDogon of Mali inWest Africa traditionally
usedthe Kanaga mask in ceremonies designed
to assist the deceased in their journey into the
spiritual realm (3.106). The two cross bars on
the mask represent the lower earthly realm
andthe upper cosmicrealm of the sky. In
performance, dancers swoop down and touch
3.105 Textile wrapper (kente). representational images. They can also the mask to the ground; loud noises, like the
20th century. Silk. 6 rf/s"
'1
communicate a great deal about the maker or crackof gunfire, scare away any souls that might
long. NationalMuseum o:
A;rican Art. Smithsonian
the user of an object. The symbols that decorate belingering in the village. Today such rituals, also
Institution, Washington, D.C. utilitarian objects, from clothing and pipes to called masks, are danced only for tourists.
bowls and chairs, andthe care that went into
making them, give them significance.
3.106 Kanaga mask from Mali. Dogon culture. ea_ly 20th
The colors, materials, and designs of textiles century. Polychrome wood, leathe- comis. and h'de,
can indicate a person's age, station in life, and 45 /-" n'gh. Musee Ba~b: er -Mueller. Geneva. Switzerland
cultural connections. In the West African
kingdoms of Akan and Asante in Ghana, woven
fabrics called kente were traditionally worn
only by royalty and state officials: the weaving
techniques were too complex andthe materials
too valuable for ordinary people to wear the
cloth. More recently kente have become accessible
to the general public, though they are typically
reserved for special occasions.
Makingkente requires a loom that allows
the weaver to integratevertical andhorizontal
designs ina strip ranging from two to four
incheswide. The strips are sewn together to
make a complete cloth of geometric shapes and
bright colors. Women wear the cloth in two
parts, as a floor- length skirt and a shawl over
the shoulder,while men drape it around
of which is simplified, distorted, themselves like a toga. The kente in 3.105
or exaggerated inappearance. It contains yellow, representing things that are holy
may represent a recognizable and precious; gold, a symbol of royalty,wealth,
altered, or it maybe a completely and spiritual purity; green, for growth and
non- re prese ntationalde pi cti on good health; and red, for strong political and
Representational: art that spiritual feelings.
depicts figures and objects so
that we recognize ÿiiat is Inmuseums, masks are often presented as
represented lifeless objects on display, isolated from the
c
3.107 Monday market. Great

Mosque. Dienne, Mai
African Architecture lavish, andbuilt a more modest one on the site.
The current building, more in keeping with the
The history of architecture inAfrica is difficult thirteenth-century version,was finished around
to trackbecause so many buildings were made 1907 while Mali was under French occupation.
of perishable materials, such as mud-brick and It is consideredthe largest mud-brick structure
wood. Some ceremonial structures, places in the world.
of worship, and royal residences have been The Great Mosque combines characteristics
maintained over time, but others have fallen of Islamic mosques with West African
into ruin,creating only a mysterious sense of architectural practices. The qibla, or prayer wall,
the past. The symbolism of the structures and faces east toward Mecca. Three minarets, or
ornamentation of the buildings communicate towers, call the faithful to prayer. Spiral staircases
to us the importance of spiritual concerns, ties insidethe minarets lead to the roofs with cone-
to ancestors, and connections with nature. shaped spires topped by ostrich eggs. These
The town of Dienne in Mali has long been ostrich eggs are important symbols of fertility
a trade center and site of Islamic learning and and purity for the people of Dienne.
pilgrimage. The town's Great Mosque is located The clay- mudand palm-wood exterior of
next to Dienne'sbustlingmarketplace. An earlier the building is similar to the houses of Mali.
building on this site was a mosque adapted from Numerous wooden beams line the mosque's
the palace of Koi Konboro when he converted to surface not only to give it a distinctive lookbut
Islam in 1240. Several centuries later, in 1834, also to serve functional purposes. Somebeams
Sheikh Amadou Labbo orderedthat the mosque structurally support the ceiling,but most are used
bedemolished. He consideredthe original too to access the walls for annual maintenance. The
c
religious shrine. During its pr ime, from about
1350 to 1450,this site functioned as an important
cattle farm andtrade center. Exports of gold,
copper, and ivory went to the Indian Ocean region
and East Africa; cloth, glass beads, and ceramics
were imported from India, China, and Islamic
countries. It is estimated that between 10,000 and
20,000 people lived in the city' s surrounding area,
with several hundred elite residing inside the
walls of the Great Enclosure. But by the end of the
fifteenth century, when centers of trade moved to '•A A
the north, the site had been abandoned.
-7
y Many of the original mud-and-thatch
buildings and platforms have long since
VI
disintegrated, but the sturdily built stonewalls
and structures remain. Thewalls likely served • j\.
as a symbolic display of authority, a way to

distinguish the areas used by royalty from the
rest of the village. The curving walls were built
without mortar from slab- like pieces of granite
quarried from the nearby hills. The}- range in
thickness from 4 to 17 ft. and are about twice as
high as the}- are wide. The stability of the walls is
increased by their design,which slopes slightly
inward at the top. The purpose of the Conical
Tower, an imposing structure that is completely
solid and rises above the high wall of the Great
3.108 Con ical Tower, c. 1350-1650, Great Zimbabwe. Enclosure, remains a mystery. 3.109 Bird on top of stone
Zimbabwe Sculptures are often integrated into buildings monolith, 1 5th century.
Soaostone, 161/?"' high [bird
as decoration and to invest the space with symbolic
-nage). G'eat Zimbabwe Site
area's hot climate has also affected the building's meaning. Eight carved pieces of soapstone, each Museum, Zimbabwe
design,with roofventilation to coolthe building about 16 in. tall, were found on top of columns at
andmud-brickwalls to regulate the temperature. the Great Zimbabwe. The image of the creature in
The walls' thickness ranges from 16 to 24 in.; they 3.109 combines the features of a human-like bird
are thickest where the}- are tallest. The}- absorb andcrocodile (the crocodile's eyes and zig-zag
heat to keep the interior cool during the day, and mouth are visible just below- the bird's leg and tail
release it at night to keep it warm. feathers). Thebird'sbeak has been replaced with
.Among the largest and most impressive human lips, and its claws look more like feet,
examples of architecture south of the Sahara suggesting that these figures have supernatural
Desert are the massive stone walls of the Great significance. In fact, the Shona believethat
Zimbabwe, built and expanded from the eleventh ancestral spirits visit the living world through
to the fifteenth centuries in southern Africa ( 3.108) . birds, especially eagles. Birds are considered Qibla: thedirection to Mecca,
The name Zimbabwe comes from the Shona phrase messengers from the spirits because the}- traverse towardswhichMuslims face
for "venerated house," indicating a connection freely between the realms of the sky andthe ear th. when praying
Mina ret: a tall slende r tower,
that the modern-day Shona makebetween These sculptures reflect some of the core beliefs particularly on a mosque, from
themselves and the former inhabitants of this site. inmany African cultures: the symbolic use of which the faithful are called
to prayer
The remnants of altars, stone monoliths, and emblems of royalauthority-, reminders of familial
Monoliths: monuments or
soapstone sculptures found at Great Zimbabwe relationships, and expectations of spiritual sculptures made from a single
suggest that it may have been an important reward in the afterlife. piece of stone
c
HAWAII
- vv . MARQUESAS
NEA
AUSTRALIA
EASTER \
ISLAND o
NEW.
ZEALAND
Art of the Pacific Islands skin so that a permanent mark is left on the body. 3.110 Mao of the
It is not known when the first tattoos were made. Pacific islands
The geographic area of the Pacific Islands The earliest preserved tattooedbodies dateback
includes Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and to c. 3300 3CE and feature abstract tattoos
Australia (see Perspectives on Art: Australian composed of designs with dots andline patterns;
Rock Art). The islands are separated by enormous Maori designs are part of this tradition (3.111).
expanses of ocean, but since ancient times the The designs mark specific events in the
people living there havebeen connected by- wearer's life, such as reaching puberty,becoming
shared beliefs, languages, and similarities in their a warrior, making a kill,getting married, having a
cultures,which strongly value customary ways
of life and behavior, such as farming, ancestor 3.111 Sydney Parkinson,
Drawing o: traditional Maori
worship, andthe preservation of social and tattoo, from A Journal of a
artistic traditions. Voyage to the South Seas
The art of the Pacific Islands includes such [1784). PL 16
portable objects as jewelry,furniture, and weapons;
body ornamentation;wooden sculpture;
paintings on rock;monumental sculptures;
masks; and ceremonialarchitecture. Theworks
often combine practical usefulness with sacred
significance, thus linking the everyday world and
living people with their ancestors and gods.
New Zealand
TheMaori of New Zealandhave oneof the most Tattoos: designs marked on
elaborate traditions of tattooing in theworld. the bodyby injecting dye under
the skin
Their words for it are ta moko. Tattoos (or moko) Contour lines: the oudines that
are made by injecting a pigment or dye under the define a form
|C
Perspectives on Art: Paul Tacon
Australian Rock Art
3.112 X-"ay kanga'oo tock
ÿa nting. C. 1900. Ccher and
kaolin paint. 6'?1/;" high.
Kakadu National Park.
Northern Territory. Australia
Paul Tacon is an Australian anthropologist and paintings could be used to teach young people
archaeologist who specializes in the art of the about hunting and food-sharing practices, it
Aboriginalpeople of Australia. Here he describes seems most paintings were not used as a
howAboriginal rock paintings thousands of magical aid to hunting. Rather, both x-ray and
years oldservedcommunal purposes. He also solid infill animals were more often painted after
connects them to the practice of contemporary they were caught and as part of storytelling.
Aboriginal artists. Aboriginal Australian designs are
tremendously variable across the countryand
Rock art subject matter in Australia is often over time. Some form of art has been practiced
derived from the life experience ofthe Aboriginal for at least 40,000 years, although most
people and from nature, but it also has much surviving prehistoric art is less than 15,000
mythological content. In many cases it is years old. It is estimated there are well over
intimately linked to oral history and storytelling, 100,000 surviving rock art sites— places with
singing, and performance. Hunting kangaroos paintings, drawings, stencils, carvings, and
would have been a familiar activity, but the figures made out of beeswax; these artworks
slender figure, a "Mimi," is one of the spirits who have been made on the walls and ceilings of
taught humans to hunt and paint during one of rock shelters, in caves, on boulders, and on
the early eras of the "Dreaming," or the creation rock platforms. Today, Aboriginalartists paint
period. Paintings of this type from Arnhem Land on such surfaces as sheets of bark, paper,
in Australia's north are less t ha n 4,000 yea rs canvas, bodies, houses, cars. They use cameras,
old. They often show figures with aspects of make films, and produce multimedia and
internal or "x-ray" detail, such as an indication computer-manipulated works. Aconcern for
ofthe spine and some internal organs, in addition the land, people, and othercreatures has
to the exterior contour lines. Althoughthese always been important for all Aboriginal groups.
child, and so on. Tattoos covering the entire face The cloak in 3.113 is decorated with geometric
andbod>- were originally worn by chiefs and their designs, and identifies the wearer as a high-
families, indicatinglineage andsocial status. The ranking member of society. The red feathers
patterns may seem to be the same at first: however, on ahu'ula came from the 'i'iwi bird,andthe
upon closer inspection, no two designs are exactly- yellow feathers from the 'o 'o bird. Because
alike. In fact, elaborate facial designs were so the yellow were rarer, cloaks with more yellow-
distinctive and specific to an individual that at feathers were considered more valuable, andall-
times they were used as a form of legal signature. yellow- cloaks were most valuable of all.
These feather cloaks were prized possessions
Hawaii that were passed from generation to generation,
unless they hadbeen collected by enemies as war
The first inhabitants of Hawaii (c. 600 ce) were trophies or presented as political gifts. The cloak
Polynesians from the Marquesas Islands, more in 3.113 was presented by King Kamehameha III
than 2,000 miles away. Five hundred years later, to American naval officer Lawvence Kearny as a
Tahitian settlers introduced a strict social hierarchy gesture of gratitude for his diplomatic sen-ice on
based on a system of kapu (or taboo) and a new behalfof Hawaii.
host of gods and demigods. King Kamehameha
unified the islands' warring factions during the Easter Island
eighteenth century. In modern times Hawaii
becamethe fiftieth state of the United States in Easter Island is small, measuring 15 miles long
1959, though it has also kept cultural connections and 7V2 mileswide. It is also extremely isolated,
with its Polynesian and Tahitian roots. almost 1,300 miles off the nearest inhabited
The ceremonial andwarfare attire for landmass, the coast of Chile. Easter Island's
Hawaiian nobility included thickly wovencloaks famous stone sculptures are called moai
called ahu'ula, made of feathers ( 3.113). These (meaning "seamount," 'image," "statue," or
garments were used as a kind of armor in hand- "bearers of the gift"). The term refers to abstract
to-hand combat; more importantly, however, monolithic stone sculptures found throughout
they were believed to offer the protection of the Polynesia. Between 900 and 1500 ce, about a
gods. Ahu'ula cloaks were generally made by men. thousand of these huge figures were car ved out
3.113 Feather cloak
This was a time-consuming task that required a of volcanic rockandscatteredaroundthe island,
[Ahu'ula], known as Kearny
CloaK, c. 1 343. Red. yellow. great degree of skill, and was by and large especially along the coast. The)- represent deified
and olack ;eathe"s. olona considered a sacred activity. The feathers were ancestors who were chiefs. The large quantities
cordage, ÿ'ber netting. 55%" tied to a plant-fiber netting with cording that was and size of the moai also suggest some kind
long. B'snop Museum,
Honolulu. Hawa
widely associated -with the gods. of ritual,ceremonial, or cultural importance.
Measuring from 10 to 60 feet in height and
weighing as much as 50 tons, these figures have
unique individual features as well as common
general characteristics.
While their heights and body shapes vary,
thev- all have deep eve sockets (perhaps originally
inlaid), angular noses, pointed chins, elongated
earlobes, and an upright posture; their arms are
by their sides, and they have no hands. Many of
the moai (887 documented to date) were originally
placed on platforms along the coastline, facing
inland; a small number of them wore flat
cylindrical hats of redvolcanic stone, each
weighing more than ten tons. Scholars believe it
likely that the hats on the sculptures represented
c
3.116 Moa ancestor ;igu res.
Ahu Nau Nau, Easter Island
[Chile], be:oi-e tne 15th century
3.115 Yam mask. Abelam,

crowns, identifying them as ancestor chiefs and
Maprik district. Papua New
thus providing a connection between the present Guinea. Fa:ntedcane. 187a'
and the past, the natural andthe cosmic realms. h:gh. Musee Barbier-Mueller,
During a period of civil strife from 1722 to 1868, Geneva. Switzerland
all of the moai on the coastline were torn down by
islanders.Tha nks t o r ecent a rchaeological effort s,
many of the statues havebeen put back in their
original place, and appear to emerge from the sea.
Papua New Guinea

The Abelam live in the wetland areas of the
northern part of Papua New Guinea. One of the
m
principal activities of their society is farming,
especiallyvams, taro,bananas, and sweet
potatoes. Yams are the main crop of Abelam
society. Symbolically, they are associated with
I %
male fertility. The Abelam holdyam festivals each
year to display the most impressiveyams, with the
grower of the largest yam achieving higher social
status and helping to secure the prosperity of the
village as a whole. In the festivals associated with mm*
these contests the yams actually wear masks madt
of baskets andwood (3.115).
C
representing supernatural beings, andwith
meaningful objects.
Colors and shapes have symbolic meaning
in Abelam art; for example,white is believed to
make long yams grow, and the pointed oval
shape represents the belly of a woman. The use
of yellow, red, and white is common. Certain
objects, such as large cowrie shells, represent
fertility and prosperity. .Abelam see individual
can-ings, as well as the entire ceremonial houses,
as temporary. The}- are important during use
but to be discarded aftenvards. Because of the
powerful nature of the objects and imagery, they
mustbetaken far away from the village, and are
sometimes abandoned in the jungle or sold to
collectors or museums.
1 Discuss three artworks that have been used
in a ritual context. Consider how they were
made and why they might havebeen made
that way. Abu might choose one work
from another chapter in this book, for
example: 1.158, 6.16,6.39.
2 Consider the way that inanimate objects
havebeen imbued with power. What has
to be done to them for their power to be
activated? What happens to that power over
time? Abu might choose one work from
another chapter in this book, for example:
6.26,6.63,6.136.
3 Choose three artworks connected with
family or ancestors. Consider how the
artworksexÿressfoeas about family and
ancestors andwhy these concepts might be
important. Abu might choose one work
3.116 interior o; Abelam cult Another important ceremony for the Abelam from another chapter in this book, for
house. Bongio-5. N'aprik, has traditionally been theinitiation cycle for example: 6.16,6.26,6.66.
PapuaNew Guinea, , , , , _.
malemembers orr the community-. Eight separate Mvthologyandlegendhave beenvery
,,
Melanesia. Museum oer
. 4
' 1
Kuituren. Basle. Switzerland ritualstake place over the course of twenty or informative to the makers of art in these
thirty years before a man is fully initiated. The areas. Consider the stories that are being
elaborate ceremonialhouseswhere some rites told according to the evidence we have
of passage take place are meant to impress the about the artworks in this chapter. What
initiate with the power and intrigue of .Abelam kinds of information are we missing?
deities andtraditions (3.116). The interior Howmightwefilÿÿ
space is filled with detailed wooden figures
C
Art of Africa andthe Pacific Islands
0.18 Benin hip pendant. 1.116 RomareEearden. 1.133 Figure or Oni. early 6.1 34 Head, possibly a king, 4.39 Ritual vessel. 13th— 1 6th
mid-16th century, p. 63 The Dove, 1966. p. 120 16th— 1 5th century, p. 132 —
12th 16th century, p. 559 century, p. 686
6.98 Plaque with warrior and 1.158 Bai-ra-lrrai. originally 2.150 Figure of the wa- god 4.26 Mother and child ;igure. 6.168 Chibinda liunga, mid-
attendants, 1oth— 17th built C. 1700, p. 169 Ku-ka'ili-moku, 18th or 19th late 19th-mid-20th centuny. 1 9th century, p. 569
century, p. 265 p. 672
6.64 Kneeling female figure 6.43 Bis ancestor poles, late 6.16 Pair of Gelede 6.26 Chair, early 20th
with bowl and child, 1950s, p. 687 masqueraders, 1970, p. 665 century, p. 673
1°th-20th century, p. 687
ARTOF AFRICA ANDTHE PACIFIC ISLANDS 375
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.6
Art of Renaissance and Baroque Europe
(1400-1750)
The thousand years of European history known with Classical subjects, often have a Christian
as the Middle Ages were followed by the period message.
known as the Renaissance (1400-1600). The The Renaissance was also marked by an
term means "rebirth," a reference to a renewed increased interest in education andthe natural
interest inthe Classical world of Greece and world. Improvedliteracy, travel, andbooks (made
Rome. The influence of Classical subject possible by the invention of moveable type in the
matter is evident in the numbers of nudes and 1400s) expanded the transmission of ideas and
3.117 Map of Renaissance mythological figures in Renaissance art. Yet artistic developments throughout Europe.
andEaroque Europe artworks from the Renaissance, even those Humanismbecame influential as a philosophical
# Amsterdam
I4E NETHERLANDS
• Antwerp
BELGIUM
FRANCE
loreno
ITALY
• Toledo
C
approach to life that stressed the intellectual and
physical potential of human beings to achieve
personal success and to contribute to the
betterment of society.
Religion continued to be a large component
of people'slives. The Reformation (beginning in
1517) resulted in Protestants breaking away from
the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church's
Counter-Reformation ( 1545-1648) -was an attempt
to define further the beliefsof Catholics in
opposition to the Piotestants. Boththe Reformati on
andthe Counter-Reformation had a great impact
on the way art was made. Generally, Catholic
artwork highlightedthe power of intermedia ries —
such as saints and the Church—between 3.118 Portrait o:
Christians and God. Since the Catholic leadership Michelangelo ;ÿorr G'org'o
i H\' ) i I iwfJSAK. I'lt -jf
! (J kIL '• > s «* « « if A x r.:i :in. Vasari's Lives of the Great
was based in Rome,much of the artwork of the Artists, second edition. 1568.
ItalianRenaissance reflectsCatholic doctrine. By Engraving
contrast, in northern Europe, artworks inspired
by Protestant beliefs were commo n. Protesta ntism Renaissance and Baroque periods wereboth
is based on a more individual anddirect mar kedby consta nt war fa re thr oughout Eur ope,
relationship with God rather than one strictly and art was often used to memorializebattles
guidedby and through the Church. As a result, or to inspire people to support their rulers.
northern Renaissance imager}- often includes Throughout these centuries, artworks were
intimate scenes and intricate details. commissioned bywealthy patrons, often a
Italianartist and historian Giorgio Vasari church or ruling family, who determined such
(1511-74) usedthe term Renaissance ( rinascita) things as the size, subject matter, and even how
in the first art history book, The Lives of the Most much of an expensive pigment, such as
Excellent Painters, Sculptors, andArch itects ,which ultramarine blue,the artist could use.
was published in 1550 (3.118).Vasari's text
emphasized the intellectual ability- required to
make paintings, sculptures, and architecture.
Around this time artists began to be seen as
The Early Renaissance
creative geniuses, even divinely inspired, rather in Italy
than manual producers of craft products. The
art of the Renaissance can be divided into Following the renewed interest in the Classical cultural and artistic change in
chronological and stylistic periods: early,high, past andthe influenceof humanist thought, Europe from the fourteenth to
late, and Mannerist, all ofwhich are discussed in Italian artists during the early Renaissancewere the seventeenth century
Baroque: European artistic
this chapter. preoccupiedwith making pictures that their and architectural style of the
The period that followed the Renaissanceis viewerswould find entirely believable. The real, late sixteenth to earlyeighteenth
known as the Baroque (1600-1750). Like however, was balanced by the ideal, especially centuries, characterized by
Renaissance, Baroque refers to both a historical when the subjects were mythological or religious. intensity
period and a style of art. The seventeenth century- Whereas during the Middle Ages, depictions Patron: an organization or
isnoted for an increase intrade, ach-an cements of the nude body had been avoided except individualwho sponsors the
creation ofworks of art
in science, and the permanent division between to show- theweakness and mortality of
Pigment: the colored material
the Roman Catholic Church and Protestants. such sinners as Adam and Eve, during the used in paints. Often made
from finely ground minerals
Baroque art draws on much of the same subject Renaissance, artists portrayed the idealizednude
Ideal: morebeautiful,
matter as the Renaissance, but Baroque images figure as the embodiment of spiritual and harmonious, or perfect than
tend to include more motion and emotion. The intellectual perfection. realitv
ART OF RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE EUROPE 377
Toward the end of the Middle Ages, the works
of Giotto created a more believable, human space.
The}- were part of a transition from spiritual
Gothic art to the three-dimensional space that
became characteristic of the Italian Renaissance
In art, althoughreligious subjects remained
popular, the emphasis switched from a belief in
faith as the only factor in attaining immortality
after death, to a concentration on how human
actions couldenhance the quality of life on Earth.
Mathematicsand science, derived from a
renewed study of classical Greek and Roman
works, encouraged the systematic understanding
of the world. Renaissanceartists usedand refined
new systems of perspective : discussed below)
to translate their careful observations more
consistently into realistic artistic representations.
These influences inspired Renaissanceartists to
combine existing subject matter and techniques
with innovative approaches.
The Italian sculptor andarchitect Filippo
Brunelleschi (1377-1446) is famous for solving
an architectural problem in Florence. More than
a century after construction started, the
cathedral was still unfinished because no one
had figured out how to build its enormous
140-foot-diameter dome. In 1419 a competition
was heldand Brunelleschi's radical proposals
won ( 3.119) .He not only designed the dome
but also devisedthe machinery used to build it,
and oversaw the construction itself, thus earning 3.119 Arnolfo di Carrbioand
him the right to be called the first Renaissance othe's, Flo"ence Cathedral.
view from south, oegun 1296
architect.
The dome was a great technologicalchallenge. 3.120 Filippo B-unelleschi.
Existingconstruction techniques required Dorr e of Florence Cathedral.
temporary wooden scaffolding to form the shape 1417-36
of the dome ( 170 feet above the ground at its top)

untilthe stoneworkwas finished—-which in this
Three-dimensionality: the
case would have been too costly and heavy. The condition of having height,
enormous weight of the bricks and stone could width, and depth
not be held up bv external stone supports either,
space depicted in a work of art
because of the existing buildings aroundthe Perspective: the creation of
cathedral. Brunelleschi invented equipment to the illusion of depth in a two-
hoist the building materialsand came up with dimensional image by using
mathematical principles
an ingenious system that usedeach stage of Linearperspective: a system
the structure to support the next as the dome- usi ng converging imagin ary
was built,layerbylayer (3.120). The dome's sight lines to create the illusion
of depth
constructionbegan in 1420 andtook sixteen Fresco: paintings made on
years to complete. freshly applied plaster
c
3.121 Masaccio. Tribute Brunelleschi is also credited with inventing light and dark) to enhance the illusion of three-
Money, C. 1427. Fresco. a new method for drawing, known as linear dimensional form. Tribute Money is one of
ST'xl ?'7".Brancacci Chapel,
perspective, a technique for creating the illusion Masaccio's most original paintings: it also shows
Santa Maria del Ca'mine,
Flo_ence. Italy of thiee-dimensional space. Hesharedthe process three scenes in a sequence within one setting.
with other Florentine artists, including hisclose While the fresco maintains the medieval tradition
friend, a painter nicknamed Masaccio, or "Big of narrative painting, the composition deviates
Clumsy Tom" (1401-28). Leon Battista Alberti from the earlier practice in an important way.
Scale: the size of an obi ect or
artwork relative to another
( 1404-72) wrote in his treatise On Painting Rather than showing each scene ona separate
obj ect or aro\*ork, or to a system ( 1435) about the theories of perspective that were panel, events that take place at di fferent times
of measurement alreadybeing put into practice by Brunelleschi are show-n together in a unified space, or
Naturalism: a very realistic or
lifelike style of making images
andMasaccio,andthe technique spread. a continuous narrative. In the center, the tax
Vanishing point: the point in Masaccio applied the rules of linear collector, with hisback to us, demands the Jewish
a wo rk of art at whi ch imagin ary
perspective in several large-scale fresco paintings, temple tax as the disciples look on. Jesus tells
sight lines appear to converge,
suggesting depth including Tribute Money (3.121). Here, figures, Peter to retrieve the money from the mouth of
Focalpoint: Theareaina architecture, and landscape are integrated into a the first fi shhe catches .We see Peter doing so in
composition to which the eye believable scene. Thebuildings in the foreground the middle ground on our left. On our right,
returns most naturally
Atmospheric perspective: use
appear on the same scale as the group of figures Peter pays the collector double the amount owed,
ofshadesofcolor to create the standing next to them. As the buildings and using the money miraculously obtained from
illusion of depth. Qoser objects people get further away from us, they get the fish's mouth. This story from the gospel of
have warmer tones and clear
outlines, while objects set further
smaller, and lead, in a naturalistic way, toward Matthew-w-ould havebeen particularly relevant
away are smaller and becomehazy a vanishing point on the horizon. The focal for contemporary Florentines,w-ho were required
Chiaroscuro: the use of light point conveiges on Jesus, and the vanishing point to pay a tax for military defense in 1427, the same
and dark in a painting to c reate
the impression of volume liesbehindhis head, making him the visual and year the painting w-as made.
Narrative: an artwork that tells symbolic center of the scene. Masaccio uses Likeother Renaissance artists, Masaccio used
a story atmospheric perspective to show the distant linear perspective to convince viewers they
Continuous narrative:when
different parts of a story are
landscape, where the mountains fade from w-ere looking at reality rather than a symbolic
shown within the same visual greenish to gray. representation. He incorporated an
space Innovations in this painting include understanding of the movement of the bodies
enclosedby a three-dimensional
consistent lightingthroughout,a wide range of beneath the draper)- to increase the sense of
figure or object colors, and the use of chiaroscuro (extremes of volume. This series of frescoes, which were
displayed in the Brancacci family chapel, was with his disciples before his crucifixion, the artist
a major influence on later artists, including used an experimental mixture of media (3.122).
Michelangelo (see below), who specifically went Leonardo was co mmissionedby Dominican
to the chapel to study Masaccio's paintings. friars to paint The Last Supper for their dining
hall in the monaster)- of Santa Maria della Grazie
in Milan, Italy. Leonardo emphasizes Christ as the
The High Renaissance mosnm£omntfiÿure in four ways. First, Christ

is depicted in the center of the painting. Second,
in Italy he is shown as a stable andcalm triangular form,
in contrast with the agitated activity of the other
The Italian artists Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), figures. Third, hishead is framed by the natural
Michelangelo (1475-1564), and Raphael light of the middle of the three windows behind
(1483-1520) dominated the art world at the him. Finally, Leonardo arranged the linear
beginning of the sixteenth century.All three of i£ers£ective of his painting so that the vanishing
them utilizedthe rules of perspective and point is directly behind Christ's head.
illusionism,but willingly departed from exact Thiswork is not simply a representation of
mechanical precision inorder to create desired a meal,however, for Leonardo highlights two
visual effects. important aspects of religious doctrine related to
Leonardo was the oldest among them. He this event: the Eucharist, or communion ceremony,
was known not only as a great painter but also andthe betrayal of Judas. Here Leonardo portrays
as a scientist and engineer. Leonardo invented the tradition acceptedbv Catholics,who believe
a painting technique hecalled sfumato, which that the communion bread and wine are the body
consisted of applying a hazy or misty glaze over andblood of Christ. The artist also invites the
the painting. In Leonardo's LastSupper, thebest- viewer to locate Judas: by depicting the moment
known depiction ofChrist sharing a last meal when Christhasiust announced,"One of you is
3.122 Leona'do da V nc'.

TheLast Supper, e. U97.
Re;ectory o; Santa Maria
detle Grazie. Milan, Italy
Sfumato: in painting, the

application of layers of
translucent paint to create a hazy
or smoky appearance and unify
the composition
Media: plural of medium; the
materials on or from which an
artist chooses to make avvorkofart
c
about to betray me" (Matthew 26:21), Leonardo
shows, through gesture and facial expression,
the individual reaction of each of the disciples.
Judas has his elbow on the table and is in the
group of three to Christ's right (our left) .The
deceiver clutches a moneybag in his right hand
andhas iust knockeddown a salt dish,which is
a bad omen.
The Catholic Church was an important
patron of the arts. Like the Dominican friars
who hired Leonardo in Milan, Pope Julius II
also commissioned important artworks. As part
of Julius's campaign to restore Rome and the
Vatican to its ancient grandeur, he had Raphael
working on the School ofAthens fresco in the
Vatican apartments between 1510 and 1511
(see Gateway Box: Raphael, 3.125. p. 382), while
Michelangelo was nearby painting the ceiling
of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel. The painting,
which took Michelangelo four years to complete,
is so believable we could be fooled into thinking
the beams, pedestals, and structural elements
are real (3.123). Michelangelo preferred stone
carving to painting, which perhaps explains
why he painted the ceiling with such apparently
three-dimensional figures and surrounded them
with architectural elements and sculpture.
The nine panels at the ceiling's center detail the
Old Testament stories of Genesis, from the
creation of the heavens and earth, to the creation
and fall of Adam and Eve, and endingwith
scenes from the Great Flood. The ceiling is
covered with detailed figure studies,
Michelangelo's specialty. In the Creation ofAdam
panel, for example, human nudity couldbe
associatedwith the perfection of man.
Michelangelo also worked on another famous
commission inthe Sistine Chapel almost twenty
years later.When the artist was inhis sixties,
Pope Clement VII requested that Michelangelo
paint the Last Judgment on thewall behind the
altar (3.1 24). As during the earlier commission,
Michelangelo was forced to delay sculptural
3.123 [above. teit; Michelangelo, Detail of Creation o:

Adam, Sistine Chaoel ceiling. 1503-1 2. Vatican City
3.124 [left] Michelangelo, Sist'ne Chapel, Vatican C:ty,

with view of ceiling [1503-12] andLastJudgment [1534-41]
c
Past and Present inthe Painting
Apollo : god of music Plato (great Classical The sky (and Plato
and lyric poetry; philosopher) modeled pointing to it) as
made to look like after Leonardo a reference to the
Michelangelo's da Vinci heavens as realm of
Dying Slave the ideal
Socrates, in green.
engaging youths Aristotle holding
in debate, talking Nicomachean Ethics
to Alexander and pointing to the
ground— the material Athena: goddess
the Great
world o*'Wi sdom
Poetic Self-portraitof
thinkers Ancient
Raphael, second *rrom
scientists
the right, listening to
Heraclitus, modeled after Euclid bending Ptolemy. In a group
Michelangelo, leaning on a block o*' with compass and because he was
marble. Shown by himself because Ptolemy holding the slate, modeled gregarious. Perhaps
he was a solitary person Celestial Globe a*ter Bramante representing Apelles
C
In The School ofAthens, Raphael depicts the projects that captivated him more fully. His
Classical world within the Renaissance muscular, dynamic figures on both the ceiling
as a rebirth of the physical and mental andthe altarwall highlight Michelangelo's first
advancements of the ancients. Raphael links love of sculpting the nude male body. After
a gathering of great philosophers and scientists years of wishing he could be sculptingrather
from the Classical past— Plato,Aristotle, than painting, and of enduring frequent
Socrates, Pythagoras, and Ptolemy, for unsolicitedadvice regarding his compositions
example—to sixteenth-century Italy by using andchoice of nude figures, Michelangelo
people he knew as models for the figures from painted the mask on St. Bartholomew's flayed
ancient Greece and Rome. By using the skin within The Last Judgment as a self-portrait
Renaissance painter Leonardo da Vinci as of the tortured artist whowould have preferred
the model for the honorable figure of the his chiseland hammer ( 3.126). Some scholars
Greek philosopher Plato,Raphael expresses speculate that the location of Bartholomew
admiration and reverence for Leonardo's (and Michelangelo's self-portrait) on the side
accomplishments. Using the face of the damned are a cloaked reference to the
of Leonardo allows us to see Plato in the flesh artist's homosexuality.
as a fully formed, believable individual. The energetic, whirlpool effect of the
Raphael also pays homage to his contemporary judgment scene is much mere chaotic and
Michelangelo,who is shown sitting by himself psychologically dark than many other Last
on the steps, in the guise of the pessimistic Judgment scenes made bv previous artists.
philosopher Heraclitus.This is a reflection The nude figures within it,which took the
of Michelangelo's solitary, even melancholic artist eight years to complete, represent blessed
personality, which was likely familiar to all anddamned souls as the}- face their last
who knew him. Raphael also subtly includes moments on earth. The Last Judgment reflects
a self-portrait of himself asthe Greek painter the uncertainty of the late Renaissance and
Ape lies in the group on the right listening to points to the preoccupations of the Baroque
the mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy era to come.
(holding a globe), showing himself to be a
gregarious, intellectual person. The thinkers 3.126 Michelangelo. Detail of
on the left represent the LiberalArts of LastJudgment showing self-
portrait in St. Bartholomew's
grammar, arithmetic, and music, while those
skin. 1536-41. S'st:ne Chapel.
on the right of center are involved with the Vatican City
scientific pursuits of geometry and astronomy.
The setting for this symposium is a grand
Roman building with majestic arches and
vaults that open up to the heavens.The
Classical past is further invoked through the
sculptures of Apollo (on our left) andAthena
(on our right) in the niches behind the crowd.
Despite its sixteenth-century references, the
scene is utterly convincing, with calm, orderly
groups of scholars and thinkers from
throughout history gathered according to
Raphael's carefully organized plan.
3.125 Raphael, The School of Athens. 1510-11. Fresco.

16'8" x 25'. Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican City
artists of the Netherlands continued using the
The Renaissance in traditional methods established in medieval
Northern Europe manuscript illumination painting. At that time
the}- had a reputation for producing much of the
Over time, developments in Italian art were best art in Europe,andtheir work influenced
widely admiredby artists in the northern the visual arts elsewhere on the Continent. Artists
3.1 27a ,3i van Eyck,
European countries we now know as the in the northern countries were known for their
.
The A mot fin iPortrait 143 4
Oil on panel. 32V; x 23Vs". Netherlands, Germany, France, and Belgium. careful attention to texture and to fine details
National Galley, London Throughout the fifteenth century, though, the in their artwork, achieved in part through the
Chandelier is very ornamental and expensive, a clear

sign of wealth
Single candle burning in the chandelier: possibly a

symbolic reference to Christ ; or a unity candle used in a
marriage ceremony; or a sign o~ a legal event
Man stands near thewindowto show that he is part o£

theworld outside
Woman stands near the elaborate bed to indicate her

domestic role and the hope that she will bear children
Fruit on the window: sign of fertility. Indicates wealth

(oranges and lemons were expensive because they had
to be imported from Spain); also a reference to
innocence and purity before humans sinned in the
Garden of Eden
Figure carved on the chair: St. Margaret, protector of

women in childbirth
Shoes/clogs : given to a woman as a wedding gift; symbol

o; stability; removed to show that the event taking place
here is sacred and makes the ground so. too
Full-skirted dress: fashion of the day because the current

queen was pregnant (the woman in the painting is not
Dog: sign of fidelity andwealth pregnant herself, because she never had children)
widespread use of ottjraint (see Box: Pieter BruegeL announcing the painter's presence at this event
A Sampling of Proverbs, p. 386). Many of the and possibly suggesting he was one of two
awork, for example fine/ coarse,
detailedflackingin detail everyday objects depicted so convincingly inthese witnesses visible in the convex mirror behind
Oilpaint: paint made of paintings also have significant religioussymbolism. the principal figures (3.127b).
pigment floating in oil
The development of oil paint hasbeen Van Eyck's painting relies on illusion in
Glazing: in oil painting, adding
a transparent layer of paint to attributed to Dutch artist Jan van Eyck ( c. 1395— several ways. The young couple andthe room in
achieve a richness in texture, 1441),who was born into a family of artists and w-hich they stand are painted insuch detail that
volume, and form
eventually served as court painter to the Duke viewers feel as if the}- are looking into a real
of Burgundy. Vasari credits van Eyck with the roomwith real people. Fifteenth- cent ury
invention of oil painting, but it was actually used viewerswould probably have paid careful
in the Middle Ages to decorate stone, metal,and, attention to the mirror,with its circular mini-
occasionally, plaster walls. The technique of pictures, or roundels, depicting scenes from the
glazing,which van Eyck developedwith such crucifixion of Christ, since such an object w-ould
virtuosity,was widely adopted throughout havebeen very expensive, a truly luxurious
Europe after 1450. possession.The mirror helps extend the illusion
One of the most important northern of reality by showing in its reflective surface the
Renaissance paintings, TheArnolfini Portrait by room in front of them,which is otherwise not in
Jan van Eyck,hasbeen a source of mystery for the picture. Numerous other symbols help to
scholars ( 3.127a). Art historians havebeen trying reveal the sacramental nature of marriage:
to identify- the people in this painting since at the shoes that havebeen taken off because the
least the 1930s. Scholars have claimed that the ground is consideredsacred for the event; the
portrait depicts Giovanni Arnolfini andhis wife. dog, which is a sign of fidelity; the single candle
Some have also suggested it couldhave been some lit inthe chandelier, which suggests unity; and
kind of legal document, perhaps certifying their the exotic, ripe fruit near the window, which
wedding ceremony. An inscription on the wall indicates the hope of fertility.
3.127b Detail of Jan van above the mirror says "Johannes de eyck fuit Many northern Renaissance artists also
Eyck. TheArnolfini Portrai: hie 1434," or "Jan van Eyck was here 1434," explored explicitly religioussubject matter.
"Johannes de eyckfuithic 1434": innovative signature

o*' the artist (seen by some as evidence that this is
a marriage contract)
Crystal prayer beads beside the mirror: indicate the

couple's piety
Reflection in the mirror includes the entire room and

likely the artist
Roundels around the mirror show scenes -'rom the

Passion o*' Christ
c
Pieter Bruegel: A Sampling of Proverbs
3.128 Pieter Bruegelthe

Eld e Netherlan dishProverbs .
1559. Oil on oak. 3'10"x5'2'\
Gerraldegaler'e. Staatliche
Museen, Be-lin, Germany
Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c. 1525/30-69) was idealized portraits. The examples shown here
an artist from the Netherlands who became identify a selection of the more than one
famous for his landscapes and humorous hundred proverbsthat Bruegel illustrated in
scenes of peasant life. Hiswork comments on this painting. A few of the proverbs that are still
the beliefs and customs of his day. The painting familiarto us include the "world turned upside
Netherlandish Proverbs depicts recognizable down"; the man who is "beating his head
types, such as farmers and townspeople (3.128 against a wall"; and the two women gossiping
3.129a, b,c Dets'ls ;-om
P ete- Bruegel the Elde-, and 3.129 a-c). The people are generaland —"one windsthe distaff, the otherspinsit."
Netherlandish Proverbs universal figures, rather than specific or
3.130 Matthias Grunewald.
IsenheimAltarpiece (closed;,
c. 1510-15. Oil on panel.
center panel: Crucifixion.
S'?V;"x 10' -. predella:
Lamentation. 2?Vx11'1
5:de oanels 5a nts Sebastian
an d Anth ony 7' 6;/a" x 2?Vi~
each. Musee d'Unterlinden.
Colma". F-ance
Sometime around 1515 the German artist caused a swollen stomach,convulsions, gangrene,
Matthias Grunewald (c. 1475/80-1528) painted and boils on the skin was named "St. Anthony's
a scene of the crucifixion of Christ on an Fire."
altarpiece made for the chapel in a hospital that Christ's sufferingwas further emphasized
cared for patientswith skin diseases, the Abbey when the altarpiece was opened on certain
of St. Anthony in Isenheim (in what is now occasions, such as Easter Sunday. When the left
northeastern France). The crucifixion scene of door -was swung open, Christ's arm would look
the Isenheim Altarpiece, one of the most graphic separated from the rest of his body,making him
images ofChrist's crucifixion inthe history of appear to lose his arm. Similarly, opening the left
art, is visible when the altarpiece is closed ( 3.130). side of the Lamentation scene at thebottom of
It is designed to make the viewer empathize the altarpiece would make Christ's legs appear
with Christ's suffering and to be thankful for to be cut off. As limbs were often amputated
his sacrifice. When patients prayed before this to prevent further spreading of disease,
altarpiece they saw the green pallor of Christ's many patients could directly identify with
skin, the thorns that drew blood from his body, Christ's experience.
and the deformations of hisbones caused A quarter of a century after Leonardo's
by hanging on the cross for so long. The famous painting of the Last Supper, the
altarpiece could be opened to reveal additional woodblock print of the same subject made by
scenes inside. the German artist Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528)
Thevivid details offered patients suffering offers a different interpretation. Diirer was a
from a variety of ser ious diseases a way to identify talented draftsman and one of the first painters
with Christ in his human form, as well as comfort to work seriously on woodcuts, etchings,
that the>r were not alone in their own suffering. engravings, and printed books. Two study trips
St. Anthony, shown on the right wing of the that hemade to see the paintings of Renaissance
Altarpiece: an amcork that
is placed behind an altar in altarpiece,was the patron saint of sufferers from Italywere deeply influential. The}- encouraged
a church skin disease. Indeed, a common disease that him to paint Classical subject matter and to
.
- 9s£§Imiim lift
ill
3.131 Albrecht Durer. The

Las: Supper 1523. Woodcut,
8'AX 1 1 British Museum, W>'»
London. England •mlt*««i
calculate carefully his depictions of the human When Pope Clement VII humiliatingly had to
form and its environment. Like Leonardo, Durer crown Charles as Holy Roman Emperor in 1530,
draws attention to Christ in his composition by it was further evidence of the end of those days
placing him centrally and surrounding hishead of supremacy andassuredness. The disorder of
with white light (3.131). Only eleven disciples are the periodwas reflected in its art.
there; the absence of Judas tells us that he has Compared to the art that came before it, the
already gone out to betray Jesus to the authorities. late phase of the Renaissance (c. 1530-1600)
Diirer's print reflects the ideas of the Protestant tends to feature compositions that are more
Reformation and, in particular, the doctrine of chaotic and possess greater emotional intensity.
the Lutheran Church. While Lutherans accepted The successes of the high Renaissance could not
the Communion ceremony, they insisted it was be rivaled: Leonardo, Raphael, and Michelangelo
only a re-enactment of the Last Supper, not were thought to have achieved perfection inthe
a literal receiving of Christ's body andblood. To arts. Artists were faced with the predicament of
emphasize this important doctrinal point, Durer where to go from there. In reaction, instead of
displays an empty plate in the foreground, harmony, many artworks stressed dissonance.
signifying that the meal has already taken place. Imagination often took the place ofbelievable
reality. Distortion and disproportion, rather
Composition: the overall design than mathematically precisedepictions,
Dissonance: a lackof harmony Late Renaissance and were intentionally used to emphasize certain
anatomical features andthemes. During the late
Mannerism: from Italian di
maniera, meaning charm, grace, Mannerism Renaissance period, a style called Mannerism
playfulness; mid- to late developed, characterized by sophisticated and
sixteen th-century style of
painting,usuallywith elongated
The Sackof Romeby the troops of Charles V of elegant compositions inwhich the accepted
human figures elevating grace as Spain in 1527 brought the high Renaissance to conventions of poses, proportions, and gestures
an ideal a close. Pope Julius II's building campaign and became exaggerated for emotional effect.
repetition of elements in the patronage of the arts had helped make Rome the The Italian Mannerist artist Sofonisba
work center of artistic andintellectual activity in Italy. Ansuissola(c. 1532-1625) achieved a level of
success rarely eni oyedby women during the
Renaissance Known primarily for her portraits,
she gained an international reputation that led
to an official appointment at the court of the
queen of Spain. Anguissola emphasized emotion
and heightened the realism inher artworks.
Portrait of theArtist's Sisters Playing Chess (3.132)
shows an everyday scene in the outdoors, as
indicated by the treebehindthe girls, andthe
landscape in the distance. Anguissola
concentrates on the richdetails of the textures
of the girls' clothing, jewelry, and hair. Rather
than focusing on creating a unified and
mechanically precise scene, Anguissola has
emphasized the individuality of each one of her
sitters, from the expressions on their faces to the
elegant placement of their fingers. As the older
sisters play their game, the clear sense ofjoy in
the youngest sister's face is balanced by the
expression of the maid, who looks on with care features, especially the three Roman arches that 3.132 So;on'soa Anguissola.
and concern. frame andbalance the scene, with the chaos and Partes it of the Artist s Sis:e rs
Playing Chess, 1 555. Oil on
The Last Supper is a traditional biblical activity common in later Renaissance art. Overall,
ca nva 5. 2 8V; x 23 V." . Nationa I
subject; Leonardo's famous version was painted the composition is formally balanced and Museum. Poz nan, Poland
eighty years before the one shown in 3.133. But detailed in an elegant architectural setting, but
Paolo Caliari ofVerona, known as Veronese the artist has introducedlively andunconventio nal 3.133 PaoloVeronese. Christ
in the House of Levi, 1 573. Oil
(1528-88), took a new and unconventional characters. Along with Christ and the disciples,
on canvas. 7*3 4" x 1 6*3 fe" .
approach. His painting combines the strict Veronese includes members of the Venetian elite, Galleria dell'Accademia.
rhythm of the prominent,Classical architectural and entertainers. Venice. Italy
This approach proved controversialwith 3.134 (above) Tintoretto,
Church officials. They objected that Christ, in The Les: Supper, ] 5°2-4. Oil
on canvas, 11'1 13A" x 1 8'7:/s".
this key moment in the gospels, is shown so near San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice,
such unsavory characters as clowns, dwarves, and Italy
dogs. The Inquisition, a religious court that could
punish heresy with death, charged Veronese with
irreverence. To avoid making painstaking changes
to his painting, he re-titled it to portray the Feast
in the House of Levi,based on a story in the Bible
inwhich Jesus scandalizedthe Jewish priests by
eatingwith sinners.
The surge of Protestantism at this time led in
its turn to the Counter- Reformation, in which
the Catholic Church powerfully reasserted core
Catholic values and enforced them through the
Inquisition. Catholicism had longbelieved that
images shouldbe used as powerful teaching tools,
and this belief now became more apparent in
the art of the time. For example, the intensely
dramatic quality of The LastSupper by the Italian 3.135 (-ight) Jacopo da
Pontormo. Deposition, 1525-B.
artist Tintoretto (1519-94) highlights the urgency
Oil on wood, 1 23V. x 75V;".
of the Catholic mission to encourage believers to Capponi Chapel. Santa
remain in the Church rather than converting to Felicita, Florence. Italy
C
Protestantism (3.134). Tintoretto depicts the very unstable (3.135). Pontormohas stacked the
Last Supper as a glorious and spiritual event. figures vertically and placed them inan oddly
There are many or dinar)- people busy in sen-ice skirling pattern, almost as if they are supported
and conversation—we can almost hear the buzz by t he figure at the bo tto mo f the co mpo sition,
of conversation and clatter of dishes. At the same who is crouchingunsteadily on tiptoe. Far from
time, the heavens seem to be opening up to send being a realistic depiction of obsen-able reality,
down angels to witness the event. This scene is the figures are overly muscular andthe colors
a marked change from the symmetry and are striking. We would expect to see grief and
emotional balance of both Leonardo's (3.122; see sorrow in a deposition scene, but heie the faces
p. 380) andDiirer's (3.131; seep. 388) versions. show expressions of feeling lost andbewildered.
But Tintoretto stillmakes Christ the focal point Even-thing contributes to a sense of anxiety
byplacing him in the center with the largest and and disorder.
brightest halo, reaching out with a glass to one Another Mannerist, Domenikos
of the disciples; Judas is easy to find, too, alone Theotokopoulos ( c. 1541— 1614), called El Greco
without a halo on the opposite side of the table ("The Greek"), worked in Venice and Rome
from Jesus. But Tintoretto's picture conveys a before moving to Spain. Laocoon is a subject
—
dynamic even disturbed—sense of motion and from Greek mythology ( 3.136). The Troian priest
drama, with the table placed at an angle pointing Laocoon attempted to warn the inhabitants of
off-center deep into space, dramatic contrasts Troy that Greek soldiers were trying to infiltrate
of lighting, andthe theatrical gestures of the their fortifications byhiding inside the Trojan
characters. Horse,seen in the middle ground at the center
In Jacopo da Pontormo's (1494— 1556) of this painting. El Greco shows the priest and
Mannerist painting of the deposition, the his sons being attackedby snakes sen t by the god
arrangement of the group of figures appears to be Poseidon (who supported the Greeks) to stop
3.136 El Greco, Laocoon,

C. 1610/16. Oil on canvas.
5a x 63 .Nat !o nal G alle ry o f
"
Art. Washington. D.C.
Symmetry: the correspondence

in size, form, and arrangement
of items on opposite sides of a
piane ,line, or point that c reates
direct visualbalance
Balance: a principle of art in
which elements are used to
create a symmetrical or
asymmetrical sense of visual

weight in an artwork
Deposition: a scene showing the
removal ofChrist'sbody from
the cross
Depictions of David
The biblical story of David and Goliath inspired instead placed near the entrance to the main
three renowned Renaissance and Baroque piazza, or plaza, where it could be viewed by
sculptors in three centuries. Donatello, masses of people. Its Classical attributes
Michelangelo, and Bernini each took a different include athletic musculature and essentially
approach to the appearance of the hero, David. ideal proportions. By presenting David as nude,
Each work displays the characteristic cultural with a scarcely noticeable slingshot draped
and artistic concerns of their respective eras. In over his shoulder—the only reference to his
the Bible, David is a young Israelite who battles identity— Michelangelo creates a sculpture of a
the giant Goliath. Goliath challenges the manaswellasa hero. David's facial expression
Israelites to send a champion to fight in single is idealized and calm, but his gaze, which is
combat. Only David is brave enough to face him. purposefully directed off to the side, reveals
Armed with just his shepherd's hook, slingshot, a mood of concentration and intensity.
and a handful of stones, he fells Goliath with a Gianlorenzo Bernini (1 598-1680) created his
single slingshot to the forehead and then uses David in the Baroque period. It is a dynamic,
the giant's own sword to cut off his head. three-dime nsionalsculpture that emphasizes
David'striumph against a powerful opponent movement and action (3.139) . Whereas
became an emblem forthe city of Florence after Donatello's sculpture shows David as
its forces defeated a much stronger army from triumphant and Michelangelo's sculpture
3.137 Donatello. David. Milan in 1428. Our comparison of statues of shows him as contemplative, Bernini's
1630. Bronze. 5'2' high.
C.
Museo Nazi on ale del David considers two sculptures made for sculpture shows David at a moment of dramatic,
Baÿqello, Florence, Italy Florence and one made in Rome. heightened tension, when he is about to launch
Donatello (c. 1386/87-1466) was a skilled the stone. The energy of David's entire body is
sculptor of both bronze and marble. At the time focused on the physical movement he is about
he made David, he was reinviqoratinq the ancient to make. Even the muscles in his face tighten.
technique of bronze casting. His David, the first Bernini is said to have studied his own reflection
nearly full-scale male nude since antiquity, also to create the perfect facial expression forsuch
reflects the sculptor's familiarity with and an energetic feat. Unlike Michelangelo sand
admiration forthe Classical ideal depictions of Donatello's sculptures, which are meant to be
the human body (3.137). Ratherthan emphasizing viewed from the front, Bernini's is intended to
the mortal and corruptible nature of the body, as be seen and understood in the round.
was common during the M iddle Ages, Donatello These three sculptures are clearlydifferent
follows the idealized nude model used by Greek in severalways. Michelangelo's sculpture is
and Roman sculptors. Donatello's statue reveals more than twice the size of the othertwo, in
the artist's careful observation of physical order to allow viewers to see all of the detail
posture. David stands with hisweighton his had the sculpture been installed in its originally
right leg, leaving the left leg relaxed. His right planned location, high above the ground.
shoulder is higher and his left lower as a result. Donatello's sculpture isthe only one to include
Donatello's understanding of human anatomy weaponry otherthan a slingshot: his David
makes his David look mobile and lifelike. holds the sword with which he has just
Michelangelo's David was carved from a beheaded hisopponent, whose head liesat his
single block of marble (3.138). It was originally feet. Bernini's sculpture, like Michelangelo's,
intended to be placed in a high niche of featuresthe slingshot, but it is in action, and a
Florence Cathedral asa symbolof the city's pile of cast-off armor lies beneath. Such a prop
power and (temporary) freedom from the was necessary to allow for the wide stance and
tyranny of the Medici.The sculpture was so gesture of the figure, as marble sculptures are
popularthat on its completionin 1504 itwas prone to snap iftheir weight is unsupported.
The moment each artist chose to depict has Laocoon's warning. The landscape in the
a strong influence on the resulting appearance
background is a view of Toledo, Spain, where
and effect of their sculptures. Donatello shows from all sides El Greco lived andmadehis best-knownworks
a triumphant, boyish David standing in calm Expressionistic: devoted to late in lis life. El Greco combined Mannerist
representing subjective emotions
repose afterthe fight. Michelangelo presents exaggeration, seen in the elongated forms and
and experiences instead of
David as an adult: the sheersize and mass of his objective or external reality distorted figures, with his own expressionistic
form are much more manlike than Donatello's Color, the optical effect caused use ot color,outlines, and modeling. Like other
slim, youthful figure. Michelangelo's Davd Mannerist artworks, this intricate composition
stands poised at a moment of ant icipation and s eparate wavele ngth combines carefully observed factual information
determined contemplation before the battle; Outlines: the outermost lines of with mythological stories according to the dictates
a concentrated expression is visible on his face.
defi ned or boun de d
of the artist's imagination.
Bernini's David, more mature, is dynamically Modeling: the representation
focused on casting a lethal strike at the giant of three-dimensional objects in
Goliath— the time of calculation and reflection

two dimensions so that they
appear solid
The Baroque
has passed; nowit is time foraction.
Religious storieswere common subjects for The Baroque period was a time of exploration,
artworks during the Renaissance and Baroque. increased trade, and discover}- in the sciences.
Instead of having to invent something The Western world now accepted the theory of
completely new, these three artists' David astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus that the Sun,
sculptures show their originality in their rather than the Earth,was the center of the
treatment of the subject. universe— a theory the Catholic Church had
previously rejected. Light,both heavenly and
3.138 ibelow left) Michelangelo. David, 1501-4. Marble.
otherwise,became a prominent feature in many-
14 2/s high. Galleria dell'Accaderria. Florence. Italy
Baroque artworks. The seventeenth century-
3.139 (belowright) Gi an lorenzo Bernini. David. 1623. was also a time of frequent battles throughout
Marble. 5'7 h:gh. Galleria Borghese. Ronre. Italy Europe,largely the result of the divisions in
the Catholic Church after the Reformation.
Baroque artworks give us a sense of this turmoil:
their theatrical, dynamic compositions are
markedby dramatic movement and light.
Some Baroque artists, such as Nicolas Poussin,
continuedthe high Renaissance interest in
carefully orderedcalmness. Others, such as
Gianlorenzo Bernini (see left: Depictions of
David) ,displayedheightened emotion and
created figures that seem to be in action, often
breaking into the viewer's personal space.
French artist Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)
P specialized in paintings of subjects from Classical

antiquity. Everything in his paintings was
car efully constructed a nd positio ned. He would
even arrange miniature figures on a small stage
when choreographing the scenes for his
landscapes. Yet, though these and hisbuildings
look detailed and realistic, their appearance
and placement were always invented from his
/ j/
imagination. The Funeral ofPhocion depicts two
men carrying the deceased Phocion, an Athenian
general, over a winding roadthat leads away from
C
The Influence of Caravaggio
and patrons, particularly those in the pope's
circle. His development of tenebrism, the
dramatic use of intense darkness and light,was
adopted by other painters during his lifetime
and by later artists as well.
In Caravaggio's Judith Decapitating
Holofernes (3.142), a strong beam of light seems
to stop time as Judith's knife slices through the
general's neck. The light emphasizes the drama
of this particular moment and shows the main
characteristics of Caravaggio's style. The scene
seems to emerge into the light from a darkened
background in a way similarto the effect of a
modern spotlight. Because the background is so
dark, the action takes place in a shallow, stage¬
like space, again reinforcing dramatic effect.
3.142 Caravaggio. Judith Along with ma ny other artists in Europe in the The details Caravaggio has focused on, such as
DecapitatingHolofernes, 1599. seventeenth century, Artemisia Gentileschi the seventeenth-century clothing, emphasize
Oil on canvas, 4'9" x6'fdW.
(1593-1652/53) imitated the artistic style of the ordinary aspects of this biblical event.
Galleria Nazionaled'Arte
Antica, Rome, Italy Italianartist Caravaggio (1571-1610). In Artemisia Gentileschi's style was greatly
addition to being an accomplished painter, influenced by Caravaggio's detailed realism
Caravaggio led a tumultuous existence. By the and dramatic use of tenebrism. In their
time he was in his late twenties, Caravaggio's paintings on the same subject, Judith
innovative approach to painting had earned him decapitating Holofernes (see 3.142a nd 3.143),
an impressive reputation a nd he was receiving both artists use extreme darks and lights for
Church commissions. At the same time, he was dramatic effect, emphasize the violence of
3.143 Artemisia Gentileschi, involved in numerous brawls; he eventually the scene through spurting blood and blood¬
Judith Decapitating
killed a man in a fight over a tennis match. stained sheets, and show the female cha racters
Holofernes, c. 1620. Oil on
canvas. 6'63/8" xS'y/p. Uffizi While on the run from these charges, he died of performing the murderwith a marked strength
Gallery, Rorence, Italy unknown causes on a beach at the age of 39. and resolve that are untypical of conventional
Caravaggio's paintings, ideas about feminine behavior at the time.
although often of religious stories, Gentileschi also infused herJudith image
look like everyday genre scenes, with active physical strength on the pa rt of the
filled with people from the lower women in a way that allows the viewer to sense
m classes, shown unidealized and the sheer effort required to severthe brute's
'}JL wearing unkempt clothes. This head. By contrast, Caravaggio's Judith, a part
naturalistic,down-to-earth from having powerful forearms, appears quite
approach offended some viewers delicate, and shocked at her deadly deed.
who believed religious figures in Judith's maidservant in Caravaggio's painting is
artworks should be presented as shown as an old woman who appears to take no
idealized individuals to signify their active part in the murder.The maidservant in
holiness. Caravaggio's talent, Gentileschi's scene, by contrast, physically
however, was also greatly restrains the Assyrian generalas Judith severs
appreciated by many art lovers his head.
Genre: categories of artistic
subj ect matter,often with
and traditions
Tenebrism: dramatic use of
intense darkness and light
to heighten the impact of
a painting
Foreground: the part of a work
depicted as nearest to the viewer
drawn but suggested by elements
in the work
3.160 Nicolas Pouss'n,

The Funeral of Phocion, 1 64 B
Oil on canvas, 44/;" x68/s".
National Museum of Wales.
Cardiff
3.161 Peter PaulRuben s.

the city (3.160). Phocion had been executed after finished works for important clients himself. center pan el from The Raising
of the Cross. 16 10-11. Oil on
being falsely accused of treason; becausehe His Raising of the Cross was one of several
canvas, 5'lVs"x 1 1T.;".
was considered a traitor, he was buriedoutside paintings commissioned by wealthy merchants Catnedral of Cur Lady.
the city. to be installed inchurches ( 3.161). Antwerp, Belgium
The co mpositionhighlights the tr a gedy o f
Phocion's burial as a traitor, when he was in fact
a herowho should havebeen honored. The two
figures earning Phocion's body, covered with
awhite sheet, are prominently placed in the
foreground. The large tree to the right arches
over and creates an implied line from pallbearers
through the figures, trees, andbuildings that
gradually become smaller as they recede into
space.The winding roadboth emphasizes the
distance of Phocion'sburial from the city and
creates a sense of deep space, skillfully guiding
our gaze into the la ndscape. The carefully
structured sense of the landscape continues the
Renaissance emphasis on balance and order.
Similarly, the classically designedbuildings and
figures dressed in antique clothing call our
attention to the past.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) produced
about 2,000 paintings in his lifetime, an impressive
output made possible because he operated a large
workshop inAntwerp (in modern-day Belgium).
Hisassistants were responsible for producing
some of his paintings, but Rubens generally
In The Raising of the Cross, we can sense the of the company aie shown busily organizing
physical exertions of these muscular men to themselves. This painting came to be known as
raise Christ on the cross. Adynamic tension is The Night Watch because its dark atmosphere
created along the diagonal line of the cross that madeitlook like a night scene. Rembrandt
visually connects the men at itsbase as they made skillful use of chiaroscuro, tenebrism,
strain to pull Christ up toward the right side and dramatic lighting to enliven his composition,
of the painting. .Although, in fact, Christ would but the impression of night-time was actually
havebeen tortured and close to death at this createdby years of accumulated dirt and layers
point, the artist has painted his flesh as almost of varnish. The painting was revealed to be
immaculate, and lighter than that of those a daytime scene when it was cleaned after
around him. In this way, and by bathing him World War II.
inlight,Rubens makes Christ the focal point
and emphasizes his holiness.
Rembrandtvan Riin (1606-69) wasan
extremely popular painter who also had a large Discussion Questions
•workshop at one point in his life. Yet, despite his
impressive reputation,he filed for bankruptcy 1 Find two exa mples of a rtworks in ihis
in old age. In The Nigh t Watch ,the gathering chapter in which lineay>ers£ectiÿ plays
ofofficers and guardsmen likely commemorates an important part. Point out the parts of
a visit by Queen Maria de'Medicito .Amsterdam the composition that use linear perspective
in 1638 (3.144). The painting was commissioned to create the desiredillusion. Discusswhat
by the civic militia, and scholars believe that all the artist wants to communicate by using
of those portrayed in this scene contributed linear perspective.
3.146 Rembrandt van Rijn,
The Company of Frans financially to the artist's fee. The Night Watch 2 From this chapter choose a northern
Banning CocqandV/iliem is a fine example of Rembrandt's innovative Renaissance a rtw-ork and an Italian
van Ruytenburch (The Nigh: approach to a group portrait. His painting is Renaissance work. List the prominent
Watch), 1 642. Oil on
not only convincingbut also full of the vitality characteristics of each. Include information
canvas. IT 11 "X 16 6".
Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam. and energ}- typical of a group getting ready for aboutboththe form and the content of the
Netherlands an important occasion. The various members artworks in your lists.
3 Select three artworks that deal with subi ect
matter from the Bible. Consider how they
portray their biblical themes: examine style,
medium and technique, content, and any
other aspects that the artist emphasizes ( 1.70,
, f| 4
2.148,4.163).
Select a Renaissance work and a Baroque
work from this chapter. List their similarities
and differences. Consider their subject
matter, style, content, and emotional
7 JLEpvj... e - :%
*
•
impact.
5 Select three Renaissance artw-orks that draw-
on the artistic andintellectual heritage of
i p ÿ
i
Classical Greece and Rome. Make a list of
the w-ays inwhich they use the Classical past.
Makeanother list of any Renaissance
%£ L .1" innovations, either interms of form or of

content. Abu might choose one work from
another chapter inthis book, for example:
4.133,4.136.
c
Art of Renaissance and Baroque Europe (1400-1750)
0.8 Leonardo da Vinci. 1.65 Masaccio, Trinity, 1.115 P'ero della Franceses. 2.28 van Eyck. The 6.133 San dro Botticelli.
Mona Lisa, 1 503-6, p. 33 C. 1625-26. p. 88 Tie Flagellation, c. 1669, Madonna of Chancellor Rolin , The Birth of Venus, c. 1682-6.
p. 119 1630-36. p. 185 p.558
1.70 Andrea Mantegna. Te 2.62 AlbrechtDu-er. Four 2.2 Leonardo da Vinci. 2.168 Michelangelo. Creation 6.77 Farrr'g:an'no. Self-
Lamentation over the Bead Ho rse me n o fthe Apo calypse . Studies o; the ;oetus in the of the Sun and the Moon , portrait in a ConvexMirror,
Christ, c. 1 680. p. 91 c. 1697-8. p. 193 womb. C. 1510-13, p. 1 67 1508-10, p.266 C. 1526. p. 511
6.136 Titian. VenuS of Urbino, 1.166 Pete- Bruegelthe 1.126 Andrea Falladio. Plan 1.52 Caravaggio. Te Calling 6.163 Rembrandt van Rijn,
1538, p. 560 Elder. Landscape with the Fail and part elevation/ section o; of St. Matthew, c. 1599-1600. Self-portrait with Saskia in the
of Icarus, c. 1555-8. p. 133 theV:lla Rotonda. begun P- 79 Scene of the Prodgal Son a:
1565/6. p. 1 27 the Tavern, c. 1635. p. 580
2.36 Artemisia Gentileschi, 2.16 Claude Lorrain. 6.29 Gianlorenzo Bernini. 1.169 Diego de Silva y 6.58 Johannes Vermeer,
Self-portrait as the Allegory Te Tiber from Monte Mario The Ecstasy of St. Teresa. Velazqu ez. Las Meninas, Woman Holdinga Balance .
of Painting(LaPittura) . LookingSouth, 1660, p. 176 1665-52. p. 675 c. 1656. p. 160 c. 1666. p. 695
1638-9, p. 187
c
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3J
Art of Europe and America
(1700-1900)
The period from 1700 to 1900 was an era of classes financed endless commissions of
upheaval in European andAmerican societies. artworks in a style known as the Rococo.
There were revolutions in France andthe Rococo artworks tend to be fanciful and
Americas, and the great increase in lighthearted, featuring elaborately curved lines
industrializationbrought correspondingly and organic forms of ornament. Stylistically,
rapid socialand economic changes in Europe the Rococo is an outgrowth of the Baroque,
andthe UnitedStates. This was an age also known but while the Baroque's subject matter was
as the Enlightenment, sometimes calledthe Age religious and moralistic, the Rococo's
of Reason. Enlightenment thinkers called for was whimsical.
reason over faith, liberty over tyranny, and equal The extravagance of the Rococo era began
rights for all men. with France's King Louis XIV (1638-1715),
At thebeginning of the eighteenth century, whose self-centered and grandiose view of the
most European countries were governedby world epitomized the power of the absolute
absolute monarchs—rulerswho, itwas believed, monarch. Louis called himself the Sun King to
derivedtheir power and authority from God. associate himselfwith the Greeksun godApollo,
Some artworks of the time are evidence of the and to imply that the activities of France began
extreme wealth and frivolous attitude of these when Louis arose in the morning and stopped
rulers. By the end of the eighteenth century, when heretired at night. He commissionedthe
however, absolute monarchies had been finest artists in Europe to construct anddecorate
overturned in the United States and France, and Versailles as the largest palace in the world The
hadbeen challenged elsewhere in Europe. New palace includes a Hall of Mirrors,which the king
ideologies of governmentby and for the people used as a ballroom and to welcome (and impress)
replaced the concept of absolute monarchy. foreign visitors (3.165). Minors were extremely
Artists reflected this new way of thinking in their expensive at this time, andthe Hall of Mirrors has
work, addressing issues of inequality and the seven teen large arches filled with mirror panels
need to educate the masses. that reflect the view overlooking the palace
Or ganic: having forms and gardens. The 239- foot- Ionghallway is lavishly
organisms coveredwith gilding, chandeliers, sculpture,
Baroque: European artistic Rococo and paintings.
and architectural style of the Louis was a great patron of the arts. When
late sixteenth to early eighteenth
centuries, characterized by The undisputed power of the European ruling hedecided to buildVersailles, he turned the old
extravagance andemotional classes during the seventeenth andmuch of royal palace in Paris, the Louvre, into a residence
intensity the eighteenth centuries inspired a period of for the artists who worked forhim. During his
individualwho sponsors the extravagance among the very wealthy. reign the Royal Academy of Painting and
creation of works of art Desiring the finest in everything, the ruling Sculpture, founded in 1648,was tremendously
c
3.165 Jules Hardouin-

Mansart. Cnateau de
Versailles, Hallo: Mirrors
(Galerie desGlaces), 1673-84,
Versailles. France
influential. Academies offered artists theirbest sometimes with erotic undertones. The delicate
opportunities to display andsell their work brushstrokes and pastel colors create a sense of
(see Box: European and American Art Academies, lightness and ease, and the frequently frivolous
3.166 Balthasar Neumann,
3.167, p. 400). subject matter suggests that thosewho
Basilica o: V:e_zehnhe'ligen
Ornate decoration was used in Rococo palaces commissionedsuch artworks had ample time 1 7<13-72, nea- Bamberg,
andchurches throughout Europe. The German to amuse themselves. Germany
architect Johann Balthasar Neumann (1687-
1753) built churches the interiors of which are
predominantlybright white, as if to reflect
Germany's glistening winter snow. The basilica
ofVierzehnheiligen ("Fourteen Holy Ones") near
Bamberg, in Bavaria, southern Germany, has
fourteen statues aroundthe altar, depicting
Catholic saints; believers pray to the saints for
protection against illnessanddisease. These
saints are venerated in this region because of the
help the}- are thought to have given during the
severe suffering causedby the Black Plague
centuries before. There is constant interest and
vivacity in the ornate decoration of the church's
interior. From the subtle pink and yellow in the
columns, to the paintings on the oval recesses
in the ceilings, to the gilded touches throughout,
rich detail prevails (3.166).
Rococo paintings were often commissioned
by the aristocracy and are playful in mood,
ART OF EUROPE AND AMERICA (1700-1900) 399
c
European andAmerican Art Academies:
Making a Living as an Artist
the subject matter of a
painting. History
paintings, which depicted
historical or mythological
scenes, were considered
to be the finest ofthe
genres, perhaps because
these were most favored
by the Sun King. Portraits
were the next mostvalued
paintings, then scenes
ofthe lower class,
landscapes, and finally
still life paintings.
While artists who excelled
in any of these subjects
could belong to the
Academy, only those who
3.147 Pietro Anton'o Martini, During the eighteenth century and for much wereconsidered history painters were allowed
The Salon, 1 7S5. Musee du ofthe nineteenth, in Europe, government- to teachthere.
Chateau de Versailles, F-ance
sponsored artacademies provided the main Academy painters showed theirwork at the
outlet for European artiststo exhibit theirwork. Salon in Paris, and the public flocked to this
Since patrons often chose artists who were social event. In Pietro Martini's print ofthe Salon
membersof an academy, suchacademies of 1785 (3.147), paintings fill the walls from floor
exercised considerable control over an artist's to ceiling. The history paintings (always much
ability to earn a living. France was the artistic largerin scale) were given prominentplaces,
centerof Europeatthis time, and the French and the lowest ofthe genres, the still lifes,
Academy of Painting and Sculpture [renamed were usually hung lower. Critics around the
the Academyof Fine Artsin 1816) was vastly world reviewed the exhibition, making or
influential in determining artistic success. Its breaking artists' reputations. Martini's print
system of training artists and exhibiting their highlights the prominent placement (at the
work was imitated throughout Europe and in center of the middle wall) of David's Oath ofthe
America. Its strict curriculum required artists Horatiilsee 3.151, p. 403) in the 1785 Salon.
to copy ancient works of art before they were After the French Revolution (1789), the French
allowed to study a living model. Students also Academy continued, but its rules and organization
studied history, mythology, literature, and no longer fulfilled the needs of artists in the
anatomy, which were important subjects of modern wo rid. Previously, enormous and
academic art. The Academy thrived on the expensive history paintings had been popular
notion of competition. The winner of the most with the aristocracy. Now, the emerging middle
important competition, the Prix de Rome (Rome classes began to see the value of the lesser
Prize), was sent to Rome to study Classical genres; they could afford to buy them, and had
works and the masters of the Renaissance . room to hang them in their homes. The increasing
The Academy also developed a hierarchy numbersofsuch people enabled artists to
that determined the relative importance of exhibit in venues the Academy did not control.
C
Classical: artworks from ancient
Greece and Rome
Genre: categories of artistic
subj ect matter, often with
and traditions
Stilllife: a scene ofinanimate
objects, such as fruits, flowers,
or motionless animals
Salon: official annual exhibition
of French painting, first held
in 1667
Engraving (engraver): a
printmaking tec hnique whe re
the artist gouges or scratches the
image into the surface of the
printing plate
a story
Print: apicture reproduced on
paper, often in multiple copies
3.148 Jean-Honore
F-agonard. The Swing. 1766.
Oil on canvas, 3 17s x 251/-".
Wallace Collect on. London.
England
At first sight, The Swing, by Jean-Honore others as a chiding of the Catholic Church for
Fragonard (1732-1806), appears to be an not condemning such conduct.
innocent scene of a refined young lady enjoying Theworks of British painter and engraver
her swinging (3.168). Upon closer inspection, William Hogarth (1697-1764) were a reaction
however, we see that the woman has flirtatiously to the aristocratic classes of the Rococo era.
kicked her shoe into the air, which allows the Hogarth's narratives criticized the morals of his
"gentleman1" (the patron of this painting) in the time. Many of his paintingswere reproduced as
bushesbelow a view up her skirt. In a statue on prints, which were released one at a time to spur
the left side of the canvas, Cupid puts his finger to interest and curiosity; these were the soap operas
his lips, suggesting a secret love tryst betweenthe of the eighteenth century. Hogarth's prints (often
young couple. A bishop, standing inthe shadows engravedby others) madehiswork affordable
in the lower right-hand part of the canvas, holds for the lower andmiddle classes, who were a
a rope that controls the swing. The artist's receptive audience for hissatirical series. If they
inclusion of this bishop,who otherwise seems an could afford only one artwork, it was often a
unlikely character to feature insuch a work, has Hogarth print. Thosewho could not afford to
been interpretedbv some as a comment on the own one themselves could still see them hung in
Church's ignorance of immoral behavior, and by public establishments around London.
c
3.169 William Hogarth. The

.
Marriage Settlement c. 1743.
Oil on canvas, 27V; x 35"/-".
National Gallery. London.
England
The series Marriaged-la-Mode (A Fashionable Thebridegroom admires himself ina mirror,too

Marriage) includes six paintings on which the much of a snob even to look at hisbr ide. The two
highly successful engravings were based. The dogs shackled together in the foreground echo the
MarriageSettlement is the first in the series attitudes of the bride and groom. The marriage
(3.169). The betrothed couple sit together on the contract is beingarranged by their fathers.
left, completely uninterested in one another. The The groom's father, on the tar right,proudly
3.150 William Hoga-th, The
Lady's Death. Engraving miserablebride toys with her handkerchief while displays in his family tree his aristocratic lineage
published London, 1833 her father's lawyer, Silvertongue, flirts with her. as Earl Squander. The bride's father, a successful
merchant, offers a fine dowry inthe form of
a pile of coins placed in front of the earl. Out the
window above the earl can be seen hisbuilding
proi ect,which will be fi nanced by the dowry.
In the rest of the series, both husband and
wife have affairs and gradually fritter away their
fortune. The Lady's Death is the final image of the
series; 3.150 shows it as an engraving, as the public
would have seen it. The wife has poisoned herself;
in the previous scene in the series, her lover
Silvertongue killed her husband; hewas executed
for the murder. Only one of the dogs from the
first scene (which symbolized the couple) returns
here, as an emaciated animal eating the carcass
of the other dog. The fathers, instigators of
this disastrous marriage, are also represented
here. The bride's father has removed the ring
from his daughter's finger just minutes after she
has died. The old earl's use of the dowry can be
seen inthe completed building project outside This statement by the French painter David
the window. summarizes the moral objectives of neoclassical
Much of Hogarth's artwork addresses the need (literally,"new Classical") art. This was a
for social change. He was especially concerned movement that developed during the late
with the needs of children, and in response to eighteenth century. Neoclassicalartworks recall,
the rising number of homeless children, he intheir imager)- and subject matter, the ancient
founded a hospital for orphans and was a foster Classical cultures of Greece and Rome. This
parent to many. interest inthe ancient world was fueled by such
The Marriageti- la-Modeseries condemns the archaeological discoveries at about this time as
devastating effect of immorality on society, the remains of the Roman city of Pompeii.
particularly children. In this final scene, the future Ancient Greece and Rome were thought to
seems bleak for the child as she kisses her mother embody such virtues as civic responsibility and
goodbye; the sore on her face indicates that her an emphasis on rational thought. At a time of
parents have passed on to her their syphilis. In public unrest, neoclassical artworks used
eighteenth-century London,almost two-thirds of historical or mythological stories to convey
children diedbefore the)- reachedthe age of five. a moral message.
Jacques- Louis David ( 1748-1825) lived
through one of the most tumultuous periods
Neoclassicism in French history. He made paintings purchased
by the monarchy, then supported revolutionary
Those marks of heroismand civic virtue leaders who opposed the king, and later painted
presented to the eyes of the people will numerous portraits of the French emperor 3.151 _iacques-Louis David.
electrify the soul, and sow the seeds of gjory Napoleon. Although David's image is often .
The Oa:h of the Horatii 1784
Oil on canvas. 1 0'10"x
and loyalty to the fatherland. linked with the ideas that fueled the French 13' 1 V/i" . Musee du Louvre.
(Jacques-Louis Davi d) Revolution,becauseofits promotionof civic Paris. France
duty, or acceptingpersonal sacrifice in the 3.152 Angelica Kauffmann.
service of one's nation, The Oath of the Horatii Corn e ii3 Pointing to hie r
Children as Her Treasures,
(3.151) was made for King Louis XVI, five years c. 17B5. Oil on canvas, 40x
before the Revolution againsthim. 50". Virginia Museum o: Fine
The painting shows a scene from early Arts. Richmond
Roman history in which threebrothersmake
a vow to their father to fight for Rome.
The scene is neoclassical in its serious subject
matter, its muscular Classical figures, and its
stable,balanced composition.The three
Roman archways divide the scene with the
brothers on the left, the father in the center,
and the women of the family on the right.
While the soldiers stand heroically, the women
mourn thelosses the}- know will come. The and Gaius Gracchus. Cornelia's daughter,
painting's message of sacrifice was particular Im¬ curious, strokes the woman's jewels, but
potent a few years later when the French Cornelia holds her hand firmly andmodels
Revolution began. strength of character rather than pride in
The Swiss-AustrianAngelica Kauffmann materialwealth. Even -without knowing the
( 1741-1807) was one of only two women among story, it is clear that the scene is neoclassical
the thirty-four original members of the British from the figures' Roman attire and the Classical
RoyalAcademy of the .Arts. Founded in 1768, it architecture behindthem.
was the British version of the FrenchAcademy of Neoclassicism represented the ideals of
Painting and Sculpture (see p. 400). Kauffmann's Americans in the late eighteen th century:
neoclassicalscenes arebestknown for their equality, patriotism,and civic responsibility. The
female characters. In Cornelia Pointing to Her new American cities chose neoclassicism as their
Children as Her Treasures, a Roman woman is preferred architectural style. Thomas Jefferson
represented as a model of motherhoodand (1743-1826), author of the Declaration of
morality (3.152).While the woman on the right Independence and America's third president,
displays her fine jewelry, Cornelia gestures to her designed a neoclassical home for himselfin
sons as her source of pride, her ownjewels; they Charlottesville,Virginia; he named it Monticello
will grow up to be the political leaders Tiberius (3.153). The house has a dome with an oculus,
3.153 Thomas Jefferson,

Monticello. 176°-1S06.
Charlottesvi He. Virginia
ADA HISTORY AND CONTEXT
C
similar to a Roman dome. At the front andback andhumanity. Oneofthemost shocking and
there are porticos (porched entry-ways) with moving Romantic images is Francisco Goya's
columns and pediments reminiscent of ancient Third ofMay, 1808 (see Gateway Box: Goya,
architecture. The house also has eight fireplaces 3.156, p. 406), commemorating the Spanish
andthirteen skylights. It was begun in 1769, resistance to Napoleon's occupation of Madrid.
but Jefferson continuedto makechanges and Liberty Leading the People ,by Eugene
additions to it untilhis death, more than fifty- Delacroix (1798-1863), is one of the most prized
year s later. possessions of the Louvre Museum in Paris,
France (see Box: The Museums of Paris, 3.177,
p. 419), partly because it depicts the French
Romanticism people bravely- rising up against their government
in the three-day July Revolution of 1830 ( 3.156).
While the style and subject matter of neoclassical Inthe painting, thebare-breasted symbol of
art were inspiredby ancient Greece and Rome, freedom, Liberty-, carries the flag of the revolution
Romantic artworks,by contrast, surge with in one hand and a musket in the other.
movement, drama, and heightened emotion. The painting shows the sacrifice of people of
Romanticism in art, which emerged in the first all ages andsocial classes. A littleboy fearlessly
halfof the nineteenth century-, reflects the marches forward carrying two pistols,while
turmoil of the European andAmerican an upper-class gentleman ina top hat holds
revolutions, when the people rose up against the a rifle. Crowdsof people with musketsand
ruling classes and demandedtheir freedom. swords follow Liberty- as she climbs over those
Romantic art challenged the traditional norms who have died.
and structures of society, and often showed The British artist and poet William Blake
citizens' sacrifices for ideals of liberty,equality-, (1757-1827) conveys inbothhis visual and
3.156 Eugene Delacroix,

Liberty Leading the People.
1330. Oil on canvas, S'6J'="x
10'3". Musee du Louvre,
Paris, France
Ocuhis: a round opening at the

center of a dome
Pediment: the triangular space.
columns, at the end of a building
in the Classical style
Romanticism: movement in
nineteenth-century European
culture, concerned with the
power of the imagination and
greatly valuing intense feeling
C
The Artist and the RoyalFamily
work. The royal couple's two younger children
stand on either side of her while the eldest,
Prince Ferdinand VII, isshownonthe farleftin
a rich regal blue.He holds hands with a young
lady ; her face is not visible because she
represents the prince's bride,who has not yet
been chosen. Behind them is the grandmother
with a large mole,which the painter made no
effort to hide, on her face.
There is no evidence,however, that Goya
intended to insult or make fun of the royal
family. The painting may reflect his respect
fortruth and nature; and the sitters seemed quite
pleased with the portrait, even allowing the
artist to include his self-portrait in the shadows
on the far left of the canvas. Goya's inclusion
of himself in the painting is a reference to Las
Meninas, a famous royal portrait of the family
of an earlierSpanish monarch, Philip IV, by
Diego Velazquez (see 1.169, p.160).
3.155 Francisco Goya, Family The Spanish royal family commissioned Eight yea rs after he a ppeared in Goya's
of Charles IV, c. 1800. Oil on paintings from Goya before and after the French portrait of his family, Ferdinand VII helped the
canvas. 721A" x 11Vt. Museo occupation of Spain (1808-14). An examination French to overthrow his father. The Spanish
Nacional del Prado, Madrid.
Spain of The Third of May, 1808 and Goya's portrait The people had mixed responses to the French
Family of Charles IV poses interesting questions occupation; some hoped it would bring an end
about Goya's personalviews andthe turbulent to the tyranny of the Inquisition,which enforced
history of the time. religiousorthodoxy. Goya's painting The Third
In his portrait of 1800, Goya shows the royal of May, 1808 documents and memorializes
family ornately dressed. The king wears black the ill-treatment of the Spanish people
military attire and many gold medals.Yet who initially rose up against the French.
critics commented on how Goya represented Interestingly,the painting was commissioned
the less flattering aspects of the royal family, in 1814 by Ferdinand VII, who had replaced his
one describing them as "a shopkeeper and his father as King of Spain.
family after they have won the lottery." The
king and queen are both shown as aging and
overweight, the king'sbulging paunch the
antithesis of what one expects from a nation's
military leader.The queen is prominent in the
center, somewhat obtrusively stealing the
stage from her husband and children. Her
3.156 Francisco Goya, The prominent position perhaps reflects the fact
ThirdofMay. 1808. 1816.
that she was the most powerful person in the
Oil on canvas. 84%" x 11"37/8-.
Museo Nacional del Prado. family; thatshe arranged the individualsittings
Madrid forthe painter; and that she approved the final
C
the Sistine ceiling in Romeinto an emotionally
charged Romantic image. In Blake's vision, God
("Elohim" in Hebrew) has enormous wings that
seem to grow from the tendons in his shoulders.
Blake's figures struggle; the process of creation is
shown to be painful for both creator andcreated.
The sadness evident in Elohim's face may convey
his knowledge that the creation of man will
inevitably bring about the fall of man, symbolized
in the image by the snake. Blakebelievedthat
man's spiritual freedom was suppressed on the
day of his creation, and his painting shows it:
Adam's body is restrainedby a snake andhis
mind is restrainedby the hand of God.
The Hudson River School was a group of
RomanticAmerican painterswho painted the
American landscape as an expression of national
pride in the expansion of the developing nation
andalso in its great natural beauty. This group's
paintings embody the idea of the sublime, where
3.157 WilUam Blake. Elohim literan*works emotionally charged messages of the awe-inspiring power of nature overwhelms
CreatingAdam. 1795. Color hisbeliefs in personal and creative freedom. Blake the smallness of man. Thomas Cole (1801-48)
print finished in ink and
resisted any controls on either his creativity or was the founder of the Hudson River School.
watercolor on pspe~. 17x
21 Vi". Tate. London, England behavior, rejecting many of the accepted Christian In his painting The Oxbow, Cole has chosen a
values of the time and rebelling as well against the dramatic vantage point from which to view the
philosophies of the British Royal Academy. In twisting Connecticut River (3.158).A large tree
Elohim CreatingAdam (3.157), Blake transforms in the foregroundhas beenbatter edby weather,
Michelangelo's famous Creation ofAdam from while the river is far in the valley below.Above the
3.158 Thomas Cole.

View from Mount Holyoke.
Massachusetts, after a
Thunderstorm— The Oxbow.
1336. Oil on canvas. 4' 3/Y'x
6*4". Metropol'tan Museum c;
Art. New Yprk
Sublime: reeling of av%*e or

terror, provoked by the
experience of limitless nature
and the awareness of the
smallness of an individual
c
tree are fierce thunderclouds,while the distance the real world. Realistsobserved contemporary 3.159 Frederic Edwin
shows the sky after the storm has passed The only life,and in par ticular, the circumstances of social Church, Niagara, l B57. Cil
on canvas. 3*6'A" X 7*6/2".
trace of man in this scene is the artist wearing a classes previously rarely depictedby artists. Realist
Co'-coran Gallery of Art.
hat in the lower center of the canvas. artists chose modern-day subjects and portrayed Washington, D.C.
FredericEdwin Church (1826-1900) was them in untraditionalways. Artists also began to
a close student of Thomas Cole. Together, they allow the process of creating art to show through
sketched Niagara Falls,a popular subject for in their final works, andwere less concernedwith
artists in this periodboth because of its grandeur illusionistic surfaces. Gustave Courbet (1819-77)
andbecause it symbolizedAmerica' s territorial is creditedwith first using the term "realist" to
expansion: it marks the northern border of the describe his own work. As a reaction to the
United States. Niagara represented the presence extremely emotional paintings of the Romantics,
of God in nature. When Church's Niagara was Courbet argued that it was more meaningful to
exhibited in 1857,viewers praised its grand scale paint people and things in everyday life.
(3.159). The vantage point was miraculous; The painting Stonebreakers was shocking for
viewers felt as if the}- were almost standing in its depiction of working- class people ona large-
water at the top of the falls. One critic remarked, sized canvas, a scale normally reserved for heroic
"This is Niagara,with the roar left out!" subject matter (3.160). Courbet's painting
highlights the monotonous,backbreakingwork
of the poor. The breaking of stones was a job
Realism taught by older generations to young men, and it
was a job a man would have for a lifetime. The
Show me an angel, and I'llpaint one! painting shows an older worker andhis young
(GustaveCourbet, French painter,defending realism) assistant as powerful and unrelenting, qualities
that alarmedthe upper classes: a year before
Beginning aroundthe mid-nineteenth century, Courbet painted this work,workers throughout
Realism: nineteenth- century
a significant shift took place in the objectives of Europe had rebelledanddemanded an end to bad artistic style that aimed to depict
visual arts and in the way art looked. To varying working conditions and to low pay. nature an d everyday subjec ts i n
an unidealized manner
degrees, a number of artists broke away from the The desire to portray realistic subject matter
Illusionistic: something made
traditions of earlier eighteenth- andnineteenth- that reflected everyday life was taken up by to look real by artistic skill or
century artto create objective representations of painters in the United States as well. Flenry trickery
AO 8 HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.161 (below] Henny Ossawa
Tanner. The Banjo Lesson.
1 393. Oil on canvas, 4Sx
35/;". Hampton University
Museum. Hampton, Virginia
3.160 Gustave Cou roet.Stonebreakers, 1 849. Oil on canvas.

5'3" X 3'6". Formerly in the Gemaldeqalerie, Dresden.
Germany: believed to nave been destroyed in 1945
Ossawa Tanner (1859-1937) was born into a

middleclass Afri can- Ameri can familv.Hewas
educated at the Pennsylvania Academy of the
Fine Arts, where his professor, the painter
Thomas Eakins, encouraged him to study
anatomy and observe nature closely. Later Tanner
moved to Paris, where he was influenced by
French painters, including Courbet.
Just as Courbet's Stonebreakers showed an
older man t raining a younger worker, Tanner's
Banjo Lesson shows the passing of knowledge
between generations ( 3.161). In a humble home,
ayoungAfrican- American boy is patientlybeing
taught bv his grandfather to play the banio.
Tanner s painting challenges the stereotype then
common in .America, of smilingblack men as
simple-minded entertainers. Tanner creates
a dignified image of a poor black family by
showing a thoughtful black man as teacher, and
an intelligent black child engaged in learning.
Tanner sets a calm scene with natural objects
and earthy colors, but he symbolizes the boy's
spiritual andmental growthwith the light
coming in through the window, creating a soft
rhythm, which can belikened to the act of
playing the banio.
The French painter Edouard Manet's (1832— Auguste Rodin (1840-19 17) did the same thing
83) Dejeuner sur I'Herbe (Luncheon on the Grass) in the realm of sculpture (see Box: Modern
revolutionized painting in the way it portrayed Sculpture: Auguste Rodin andCamille Claudel,
characters from the modernworld and 3.167 and 3.168, p. 414). Although Manet and
transformed the painted surface ( 3.162). Viewers Rodin often madevisual references to artists
were shocked to see two men casually placed in a respected by the Academy, their work differed
local park next to a nude woman whose body is dramatically from the Academy' s preferred
not idealizedlike that of a goddess in an academic historical and mythological artworks.
painting,but is harshly lit; she stares boldly out at Manet's painting was not accepted lor the
us. Painters who worked in the more traditional 1863 Salon. In that year, however, so mam-
methodsthat were taught at the Academy tried to artworks were rejected that the French
create an illusion that a painting was a window government created anew exhibition, the Salon
into another reality- Manet was one of the earliest des Refuses (Salon of the Rejected),which was
painters to reject this approach, using his ar t to installed near the official Salon. This second
acknowledge that the canvas is a painted surface. exhibition was designed to appease artists who
In Luncheon on the Grass, each of the figures has felt unfairly excluded from the Salon,but the
a bold outline, rather than gradual shading. Academy also saw it as a chance to allow the
Flat-looking figures that lack volume appear public to ridicule the works its jury had rejected.
almost as overlapping cutouts superimposed Such paintings as Manet's Luncheon on the
on the landscape. Grass were indeedmockedby some critics.
As a result of his integration of traditional But with the public now exposed to art that
painting with new techniques and subjects had not been approved by the Academy, artists
from contemporary lite, Manet came to were emboldened to exhibit independently in
epitomize the notion of a modern painter. venues throughout Paris.
3.162 Edoua-d N'anet, _=

Dejeuner sur I'Herbe
L Luncheon on :he Grass':. 1363.
Oil on canvas, 6'9'/s" x 8'8Va".
Musee d'Orsay. Paris, France
c
defined or bounded
Shading: the use of graduated
light anddark tones to represent
a three-dimensional object in
two dimensions
enclosed bya three-dimensional
figure or object
Pre-KaphaeliteBrotherhood:
English art movement formed in
1S4 S bypainters who rejected
the academic rules of art, and
often painted medieval subjects
in a naive style
Impressionism: alate
nineteenth-century painting
style conveying the impression
of the effects of light
3.163 ÿohnEverett Millais. While Realist painters in Francewere rejecting the way her hair anddress floated. Although she
Ophelia, 1851-2. Oil on the traditions of the Academy, a group of English often had oil lamps aroundher to keep her warm,
canvas. 30x44". Tate.
London, England
painters andwriters who called themselves the the model caught a severe cold from spending so
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, formed in 1848, many hours in the water in the middle of winter.
were opposed to the values of the Royal Academy
of Arts in Britain,which promoted artwork
inspired by artists of ancient Greece and Rome Impressionism
and of the Renaissance. The Pre-Raphaelite artists
were instead inspired by elements of art from the The artists who came to becalled Impressionists
Middle Ages. They were realist in their true-to- life worked in individual,sometimes very different,
depictions of nature and people. styles, but they were united in rejecting the
Ophelia (3.163) by John Everett Millais (1829- formal approach of the art taught in the
96) is a scene from Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet, Academy. Their art attempted not so much to
in which Ophelia drowns herself because her portray exactly and realistically such scenes
lover PrinceHamlet has rejected her and as a landscape or life in a city (although they
accidentally killed her father. Millais' depiction did depict those subjects), as to capture the
of nature is painstakingly detailed. To makethis sensations produced by the scene. The
painting, he selected a single spot on a nearby Impressionists formed a group to show their
river and painted the plants growing there so work together outside the official Salon
carefully that botanists can identify every one. in eight exhibitions heldbetween 1874 and 1886.
He worked at the site almost every day over a Their subject matter was scenes of everyday life:
five- month period. Millais alsoincluded flowers rural landscapes, and life in the modern and
that were not growingby the river but that are growing cities of France— especially scenes of
mentioned in Hamlet. He then took realism to the middle classes engaged in leisure pursuits.
the extreme by havinghis model pose for the The Impressionists were often intent on
painting in a filledbathtub so that he could study capturing the essence of moments in time, and
ART OF EUROPE AND AMERICA (1700- 1900) 611
smooth surface, often finishing paintings with
a topcoat of varnish, so that the way in which
the}- had applied the paint was not evident.
Impressionists, on the other hand, chose to
reveal their brushstrokes. The almost sketchy,
unfinished appearance of many Impressionist
works breaks away from the academic tradition
of simply creating an illusion of three-
dimensional space on the canvas. Instead,
Impressionists playedwith space andwelcomed
visible texture. It is perhaps this desire to
experiment with new ways of painting that most
unites this diverse group of painters.
At the first of the Impressionist exhibitions,
in 1874, hung a pa int ingby Claude Monet
(1840-1926) called Impression Sunrise ( 3.164).
Monet's title -was meant to convey that he had
somehow captured the essence of light glittering
on water in the harbor ofLe Havre. A critic
3.1 64 Claude Monet. many of them painted en plein air (outdoors). described Monef Spainting—-which indicated
ImpressionSunrise, 1872. Many reinterpreted the bright natural light of day with only a fewbrushstrokes the sea, the
Oil on canvas, 1 ?V;x 25'/:".
in their paintings by applying a layer ofwhite reflection of the sun, and theboats in the
Musee Marrnottan, Pa-is,
F-ance paint as a base coat. background— as merely "an Impression indeed!,''
Before the Impressionists, artists who followed thus giving the group of painters their famous
traditional methods of painting gave their work a name. This same critic claimedthat a man had
3.165 Pierre-Auguste Renoir,

.
Moulinde la Galette 1876.
Oil on canvas, 51" sx 637s".
Musee d'Orsay, Paris, F-ance
/
i
ÿ
c
3.166 Gustave Caillebotte.

.
Pa ris Stre e t: Pa <r\y Day 1B 77 .
Oil on canvas. 6'1 IV2" x
Art Inst'tute o; Chicago
run into the street, raving mad from looking at andhis use of dark blues and purples instead
the work. ofblack, are characteristic of Renoir's style.
In the background of his picture, Monet The spontaneous brushstrokes heusedandthe
suggests the masts and smokestacks of an cheerful gathering hechose to depict reflect his
industrial port. The second half of the nineteenth beliefthatlife was, or shouldbe, a perpetual
century was a time when Frenchcities were holiday.
undergoing a major change as they became Another perspective on the life of the urban
industrial centers. middle class can be seen in a paintingby Gustave
Whereas many painters in the past had Caillebotte ( 1848-94). He was a wealthy lawyer
taken the upper classes as their subject, the as well as a painter, andhe supported other
Impressionists instead chose to capture the urban Impressionists financially. His works often make
middle classes of the bustling cafes. In a period use of extreme perspective into the distance, as in
when people had more leisure time than ever Paris Street: Rainy Day,where boulevards extend
before, the Impressionists depictedParisians, for in every direction— as they do in Paris— like
example, dancing, drinking, swimming, and spokes on a wheel ( 3.166). A green lamppost
attending the opera or the ballet. Such paintings and its shadow extendbeyond the height of the
as Moulinde la Galette by Pierre-Auguste Renoir canvas, creating a strongverticalline that divides
( 1841-1919) were intended to transport viewers the composition. To the left of the post is a newly
into a world of beauty and pleasure I 3.165). built housing project. To the right is a well-
Renoir shows people at a popular outdoor cafe dressed couple who, although surrounded by
inthe Montmartre district of Paris. At the end the different classes of people inthe city, seem
Three-dimensional: having of the nineteenth century this venuewas also a to be alone and in their own world Caillebotte's
dance hall and gathering-place for artists and useof£ers£ective makes us feel as ifwe are part
Text ure: the surfac e quality of
awork, forexample fine-' coarse. intellectuals. The absence of strong outline, of the busy city and will soon collide with the
detailed'!ackin gin detail almost as if the artist paintedwith a cotton ball, strollingcouple.
c
Modern Sculpture; Auguste Rodin and Camille Claudel
Rodin did not include them in the final door

composition, and instead made several copies
of The Kiss, one of which was a marble
commissioned by the French government.
Camille Claudel (1 864-1943) worked in
Rodin's workshop, and quickly became his
lover as well. A talented sculptor in her own
right, Claudelwasable, through Rodin's
connections, to meet important people, and to
receive commissions she might not otherwise
have had. The Waltz shows two dancers
intertwined as they move as one (3.168).
The woman's dress hasfallenoff her body
and blows to the side, expressing the energetic
movement of the couple. One writer
proclaimed, "In this group of a waltzing couple,
they seem to want to finish the dance so they
can go to bed and make love." A government
representatiw who had purchased many of
Rodin's erotic nudes remarked that The Waltz
was too erotic, and suggested that Claudel
should put clothes on the figures.
While there is no evidence that either of
The Frenchman Auguste Rodin (1 840-1917) these sculptures was made in reference to
epitomizesthe modern sculptor. Ratherthan the love affair between the two sculptors,
copying from Classical busts and using Claudel's work is often disproportionately
traditional poses, as had been done for seenasan emotional response to her
centuries, Rodin used live models and depicted relationship with Rodin, while his is
energetic and passionate figures. By the not. Camille Claudel's family forcibly
beginning of the twentieth century, Rodin was placed her in an insane asylum for the
one of the most famous living artists. He had a last thirty years of her life. The degree of
large workshop of sculptors who produced his her mental illness is difficult for scholars
works in both bronze and marble. Rodin was to determine, but this event further
careful to maintain his individual style, clouds all interpretations of
however, and frequentlycompleted the final her work.
work on his sculptures himself.
The Kiss is a sculpture of two nude lovers
embracing, engaged in a passionate kiss (3.167).
The couple was originally conceived to be part
of Rodin's Gates of Hell, two large bronze doors
depicting scenes from a masterpiece of medieval
Italian literature, Dante's Divine Comedy. The
Kiss is based upon the story of Paolo and
Francesca, lovers from Dante's time who were 3.168 Camille Claudel.
killed by Francesca's husband (Paolo's brother). 7ft e Waltz
the right, andthe view of the scene from slightly
above (known as bird's- eye view), are techniques
acquired from these two sources. The
experimentation with such influences and a
desire to capture the spontaneity of modern daily
lifewere shared by all the Impressionists.
Post-Impressionism
and Symbolism
By the 1880s,Impressionism had gained great
public popularity,but by the middle of that
decade some artists had already rejectedthe
movement's interest in capturing the essence
of modern life and of nature. Instead, they chose
to emphasize abstract qualities or symbolic
content in their artworks. They explored new-
scientific theories, and usedabstraction andthe
distortion ofform and color to express emotion.
This group of artists came to be known as the
Post-Impressionists. Some Post-Impressionist
painters also developed an interest in a literary
and artistic movement known as Symbolism.
Symbolist painters were inspired by the use of
the emotionally potent and often dreamlike
images of the Romantics;yet,while using
universal symbols and devices in their artworks
3.169 Edg=- Degss. Blue Edgar Degas (1834-1917) iswell known (such as colors to suggest mood),they also
Dancers, c. 1890. C:l on
for his paintings and pastels of female subjects, encouraged individual interpretation.
canvas. 33V; x 29V.". Musee
d'Orsay. Paris. France
includinglaundresses, prostitutes, singers, and The French painter Paul Cezanne (1839-
bathers. One ofhis favorite subjects was ballet 1906) developed a new type of landscape
dancers,whom hestudied not only during painting through intense study of Mont Sainte-
performances,but also during practice, Victoire, a mountain hecould see from his studio
Cropping: trimming the edges stretching, and backstage. Degas' scenes of (and childhood home) in Aix-en-Provence,
of an image, orcomposingitso dancers, in both public and private settings, where heworked for much ofhis adult life.
that part of the subj ect matte r is
evoke the everydayquality of the life of a dancer. Cezanne madeseveral paintings of this
cat off
Abs tra ct : art imagery that His BlueDancers shows the performers mountain, working on some of them for years.
departs from recognizable fixing their tutus and hair, preparing to walk By gradually adding brushstrokes to reflect the
images from the naturalworld on stage (3.169). Degas' composition gives the mountain's changing atmosphere andweather
Post-Impressionists: artists
either from or living in France, impression of immediacy,as if the viewer has conditions, Cezanne sought to capture the
c 1885-1905, who moved away caught the dancers in a fleeting moment. essence of the mountain as it appeared over
from the Impressionist style— The Impressionists experimentedwith time, rather than at a single moment.
notably C ez ann e, Gauguin ,
Seurat, andVan Gogh techniques they learned from two sources: Cezanne created the structure and depth of
Symbolism: movement in popular imported Japanese prints,andthe his landscape in a very different way from earlier
European art and literature, new medium of photography. In Degas' pastel, painters. He conceived a view of nature in which
c 1SS3-1910, that conveyed
meaning by the use of powerful for example, the sharp cropping of the image, forms became abstracted, and depth began to
yet ambiguoussymbols particularly the cutting offof the girl's tutu on disappear. For example, Cezanne utilizedhis
C
The French painter Paul Gauguin ( 1848—
1903) was a successful stockbroker, but at the age
of thirty-five he gave up his career to become a
painter. Modern civilization was, in Gauguin's
view, materialistic and lacking inspirituality.
This led him to becomeinterested in Symbolism,
and, seeking people who were pure and
untouchedby materialistic values, Gauguin
went to Pont-Aven inBrittany. The Vision after
the Sermon shows the pious people of Pont-Aven
dressed in their Sunday clothes (3.171). The
scene in the upper right depicts the sermon the
townspeople have just heard, that of thebiblical
story of Jacob wrestling with the angel. The
spaces are abruptly flattened, the figures lack
volume and are closely cropped. Yet rather than
just showing a scene from everyday life, Gauguin
expresses what is in these people's minds:
3.170 PaulCezanne.Monf understandsgof atmospheric perspective a vision. Some scholars believe that Gauguin
.
Sainte-Zctoire c. 1SS6-8. to blend warm and cool colors within the same depicted himself as the figure with closed eyes
Oil on canvas. 26x36Vt".
structure, as in the mountain (3.170). This creates in the lower right of the canvas, as if he too is
Courtauld Galley, London
a push-pull effect for viewers, as the warm hues experiencing a vision. Gauguin once said, "I shut
of the mountain come toward us, and cool colors mv eves in order to see."The bright red ground
recede. The tree inthe foreground creates a makes this a clearly invented, and intensely
similar experience as we look at it, a feeling of emotional, scene.
Atmospheric perspective use
of shades of color and clarity to being pulled into thedepth ofthe paintingand The paintings of Dutch artist Vincent van
create the illusion of depth. then being pushed forward, as if the image has Gogjh (1853-90) also express strong emotions,
Closer obj ects have warmer
been flattened. The upper branch seems to echo yet Van Gogh claimedhe could not invent images,
tones and clear outlines, while
objects set further away are the outline of the distant mountain, bringing it but instead painted emotion into what he saw.
coder andbecome hazy closer to us. He once stated:
Icannot work without a model. Iwon't say

that Idon't turn my back on nature to
transform a study into a picture, arranging
the colors, exaggerating, simplifying, but
when it comes to form I'm too fearful of
departing from the possible and the true. ..
Iexaggerate, sometimes Imake changes. ..
but Ido not invent the whole picture.
Van Gogh, who struggledwith mentalillness all

his life, painted Starry Nightduring a stay in an
asylum; it is a view from his window ( 3.172).
He infused the scene with his own emotions:
3.171 Paul Gauguin. The Vision afterthe Serrr.on /Jacob

'//restingwith theAngeli. 1 838. Oil on canvas. 28/2 x 35 7s".
National Galleny of Scotland. Ed'nburgh
C
fills much of the left side of the cam-as. The
church in the distance may hint at Van Gogh's
personal trials with religion;somebelieve
it relates to his childhoodchurch in the
Netherlands. Van Gogh's use of color and form
expresseshis emotional suffering; in 1890, the
year following this painting,Van Gogh shot
himself inthe chest with a revolver and died
two days later.
The French Symbolist Odilon Redon (1840—
1916) painted images of well-known scenes, but
he depicted them in an imaginary, evocative way.
Redon's portrayal of Ophelia (3.173) contrasts
markedly with Millais' realistversion of the
same subject (see 3.163, p. 411). The Symbolist
scene is otherworldly, as if Ophelia is caught
somewherebetween thisworld and the next.
Is she floating on the water or trapped
underneath? Are the flowers floating above, or
are some of them part of the pattern inher dress?
3.172 Van Gogh. Starry Night, 1S3?. Oil on canvas. Is this an image of Ophelia, or is it a reflection
Ground: the surface or 2? X 36 V-". MOMA NewYork of one who looks into the water? Redon,
background ontowhich an intentionally mysterious, invites us to infuse his
artist paints or draws _ ,.
impasto: paintapplied in one can sense the very physical act of applying artworks with personal meaning.
thick layers the thick paint (impasto), andthe energy of the
artist, in swirls that show movement in the sky
andthe light emanating from the stars. A cypress
tree, resembling flames reaching up to the sky,
Fin de siecle and Art
Nouveau
3.173 Odilon Redon, Ophelia. 1 900-5. Pastel on pace-.
19 V: x 26 V.". Private collection Fin desitcle (from the French, "end of the
century") refers to the period from the end of
the nineteenth century to the start of World
War Iin 1914. This was a time of great social
change in Europe. A growing middleclass had
sufficient income to enjoy the pleasures that life
had to offer. As the}- faced the new century, some
were anxious, however (and rightly, in view of
the war that ensued a decade later), about the
changes it wouldbring. Others devoted
themselves to self-indulgence, pushing the
traditionalboundaries of etiquette and
challenging the standards laid down by society.
Findes&de artists favoured new, modern
materials, such as cast iron. This was the
material chosen for the construction of the
Eiffel Tower. While it was beingbuilt, many
Parisians considered it a monstrosity that was
ruining the skyline of their city ( 3.176). For its
FOLIESBERGERE
critics, the tower symbolized the decadence of advertises a show by the dancer Loie Fuller, who 3.176 [above left] Gustave
the modern generation,who were destroying performed incostumes made of yard upon yard Eiffel. Eiffel Tower. 1SB?. Paris
French history and long-held traditions: of silk fabric. As she danced, theatrical lighting 3.175 [above] JulesCheret,
captured the movements of the fabric andcreated Poste- advertis ig a da-ice

pe":o"nance by Loie Puller
We,writers, painters, sculptors, architects, such beautiful designs that Fuller herself seemed at the Polies Bergere. 1893
passionate lovers of the beauty, until now to disappear. The swirling colors and sensuous
3.176 GustavKlimt. TheKisS,
intact, of Paris,hereby protest with all our body of the red-haired beauty in this poster 1903. Oi Ipaint, silver, and gold
might,with all our indignation, in the name capture the essence of fin desihle nightlife. le a f on canvas. 7 OVa x 7 0*£"
of French taste. ..in the name of French
art and history under threat, against the
construction, in the very heart of our capital,
of the useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower.
The engineer Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) pushed

on regardless, and the criticism decreased after the
tower was completed. Today, of course, the Eiffel
Tower is a beloved and iconic symbol of Paris.
The Eiffel Tower hadbeen made to welcome
to Paris the 1889 World's Fair,with the intention
that it would later be torn down. Critics hadbeen
concernedthat the unique modern design and its
iron structure would overpower the city. Yet the
delicate curvature of the four corner bases, the
balancebetween modern materials and graceful
organic lines, create an elegant addition to the
Parisian skyline.
During the fin de stick era, Parisian nightclubs
werelegendary for their beautiful dancers, and
many artists created posters promoting the local
nightlife. The French artist Jules Cheret ( 1836—
1932) was one of the first. The poster in 3.175
c
The Austrian artist GustavKlimt (1862-1918) nature found on the couple's clothes and in
Organic having forms and
was well known for his sumptuous and erotic the background reflect Klimt's interest inArt
works. In The Kiss, a woman is engulfed Nouveau (French for "new art"). This was the organisms
by the arms and kiss of a powerful man ( 3.176) . visual style most closely associated with this Salon: a French term for an
exhibition ofwork by- multiple
The anxiety of the fin destick is conveyedby era. Art Nouveau ischaracterized by organic
artists
the couple's position upon a precipice filled flowing lines, simulating forms innature.
with flowers, signifyingboth the danger and Art Nouveau also emphasized decorative
the beauty- of passion. This decorative patterning pattern and applied it to the traditional "fine
flattens the figures, making the ornamental arts" (such as painting and sculpture), the
design the most noticeable aspect of the artwork. decorative arts (such as furniture, glass, and
The work is from the artist's so-called golden ceramics), and architecture and interior design.
phase, named for the large amounts of gold leaf Entire rooms and even buildings were designed
heused in his paintings. The patterns from inArt Nouveau style.
The Museums of Paris

Art museums as we know them today— as
places where artworks a re displayed outside
of their original settings and for all classes of
people to see— are a modern phenomenon.
Many of the artworks made by French artists
from the eighteenth to the early twentieth
centuries are housed in the Louvre Museum
and the Musee d'Orsay, in Paris.
The Louvre is the most visited art museum
in the world. First built as a fortressin the
twelfth century, it was gradually expanded by
French rulers over the next severalcenturies.
It was used as a palace by most of the French
monarchs until Louis XIV decided to make his and Symbolists and belonging to the French 3.177 Louvre with Pyramid.
home at Versailles, a few miles west of Paris. national collections. The structure itself was Paris, F-ance
The Louvre then became a residence for the originally a train station. Built with iron and glass
artists who worked for Louis, mostly in decorating forthe 1900 World's Fair, the Orsay station was 3.178 Musee d'Orsay
Versailles. After the period of the French the first terminalto use electric energy to [interior], Pa-'s, F-ance
Revolution (1789-99), the art collection of the power trains. It isthus a
king became public property. The Louvre was symbol of the modern era
used to display the royal collection and to hold and of the g rowing city of
exhibitions, called salons, of artwork by Paris at the beginning of
contemporary artists. Today, the enormous the twentieth century. The
collection includes artworks from around the arched ceiling and windows
globe. The glass-andmetal pyramid, which marks and a large working clock
the entrance into the lower levels of the museum, remain from the original
was designed by Chinese-American architect train station. As trains
I. M. Pei (b. 1917) and added in 1989 ( 3.177). became longer, the station
The Musee d'Orsay (3.178), acrossthe River became unusable. In 1986,
Seine from the Louvre, houses art dating from it was transformed into
1848 to 1914, made by realists, Impressionists, a museum.
c
3.179 Lucien Levy-Dhurmer.

The Wisteria D:ningRoorn,
1910-14. Can/ed walnut and
eme-anth. Metropolitan
Museum of Art, NewYork
The Wisteria Dining Room ( 3.179) was equal rights,and the importance of reason,
originally in a private home near the Eiffel Tower. rather than faith. Find an artwork in this
It is completely decorated in ArtNouveau style: chapter that reflects such ideas, and discuss
all of the objects, furniture, decoration, and howit expresses Enlightenment thinking.
architecture in the room were chosen to 3 Choose one Rococo, one neoclassical and one
harmonize inwhat was called a "totalwork of Romantiÿmÿrk. Discuss and compare the
art." The French designer, Lucien Levy-Dhurmer visual characteristics of the three works. You
(1865-1953), chose the wisteria vine, a symbol might choose one work from another chapter
for welcome, as a central integrating theme. in thisbook, for example: 4.116, 4.118.
L£vy-Dhurmer himselfpainted canvases for the 4 Select one realist, one Impressionist, and one
walls that include peacocks, herons, andwisteria. Post-Impressionist work of art. Discuss how
The wood paneling is carved to look like the Impressionist work built on and deviated
wisteria. Organic designs that simulate wisteria from the style of the realist work. Next,
are stamped into the leather chairs, used as the discuss how the Post-Impressionist work
bases for lamps, gilded onto the fire screen, built on and deviated from the style of the
and even used as door handles. Impressionist wo rk.Youmightchooseone
work from another chapter in this book, for
example: 4.66, 4.86.
Discussion Questions 5 Inthe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
many artists were trained inAcademies. Find
1 Find in this chapter three artworks that reflect a work in this chapter made by an artist who
new political ideas or revolutionary turmoil. had an academic training, then find an
List the way in which the composition and artwork made by an artist who rejected the
content of each artwork express political ideas. methods of the Academy. Compare and
2 Enlightenment thinkers in the eighteenth and contrast the two works and suggest how the
nineteenth centuries emphasized liberty and artists soldtheir work.
c
Art of Europe and America ( 1700-1900)
6.93 Hyacinthe R;gaud. 6.62 Joseph Wright of Derby. 6.169 Henry Fuseli, 6.96 Elisaoeth-Louise Vigee- 1.166 Jean-Auguste-
Louis XIV. 1701. p. 524 An Expe riment ona Birdin The Nightma re. 1781. p. 584 Leo run. Ma rie An toinette an d Dot Ague Ingres. Grande
the Air Pump, 1768. p. 49? Her Children, 1 787. p. 524 Odalisque. 1814. o. 157
6.116 T heodore Gericault. 2.56 Honore Daumier, Rue 2.79 Louis-Jacques-Mande 6.137 Edouard Manet. 6.170 James Abbott McNeill
Ra ft of the Medusa. 1819. Transnonain. April 15. <83d, D ague -re. The Artist's Studio, Qlympia, 1863, p. 561 Whistler. Nocturne in Slack
p. 542 p. 200 1837, p. 218 and Gold: The Falling Rocket.
1875. p. 534
6.63 Thorras Eakins. Portrait 2.96 Eadweard Muybridge, 6.66 Georges Seurat.Suncfey 1.160 Rosa Bonheur, Plowing 1.18 Vincent van Gogh. The
of Dr. Samuel D. Gross [The The Horse in Motion , on La Grande Jatte , 1884-6. in the Niiemais: The Dressing Bedroom, 1889. p. 56
Gross Clinic), 1875. p. 49? June 13. 1878. p. 22? p. 501 of the Vines. 1849. p. 151
6.172 Edvard Munch.

The Scream, 1893. p. 586
i
6.163 Auguste Rodin,
V/alking Man , c. 1890-95.
p. 565
2.65 William Morris and
Edward Eurne-ÿones. Page
;-orr Works of Geoffrey
Chaucer, 1896. p. 203
2.186 _;oseoh Paxton. Crystal
Palace. 1851. p. 284
3.76 MaryCassatt. The
Child's Bath, 1893. p. 345
ART OF EUROPE AND AMERICA ( 1700-1900) 621
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.8
Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries J
The Age of Global Art
The beginning of the twentieth century was artists re- introduced into their artworks
a period of great experimentation in art. recognizable imagery and references to past
Influenced by the Impressionists and Post- styles of art.
Impressionists (see pp. 398-420), artists Another key aspect that affected art during
continued to explore representational art this time was the rapid spread of many new-
(depicting something easily recognizable) but ideas about society and politics through radio
also ventured into the realm of abstraction. and television. During the Modern ( c. 1860—
Artists responded to this time of great change 1960) and Contemporary ( c. 1960-present)
in technology and society. The invention of periods, art became a global phenomenon in
aircraft andthe automobile; newmethods of terms of exposure, influence, and production.
communication, such as movies, radio, and the Beginningin the 1970s, and continuing into
telephone; progress in such scientific disciplines the twenty-first century, as a result of such
as psychology and physics; the emergence of significant ideologies as feminism and other
large cities; cataclysmic world wars; andthe movements concerned with equality, art became
development of new social ideologies all affected noticeably socially conscious and multiculturally
the ways artists saw the world. As the century aware. During the 1990s,global technologies
progressed, artists responded to the speed of and communication increasingly provided
change by inventing new forms of representation access to beliefs, practices, andthe artistic
andby challenging establishednotions of what production ofpeopleall over theworld.While
constituted art. Art during the twentieth century museums and galleries have continued to play-
Representation; the depiction was very muchabout the artist and the way he important roles in the art world, artists living
of recognizable figures and
objects or she defined art. outside such urban centers as New York, Los
Abstraction: the degree to Partly as a result of this experimentation, .Angeles, Paris ,and Tokyo have been able to
which an image isaltered from the twentieth century was an era of many show their work to international audiences via
an easilyrecognizable subject
styles and approaches. For many artists, the the Internet. In recent years art has taken on
of art— line .form, shape, formal qualities—the elements that make up a distinctly international character.
volume, mass, color, texture, the appearance— of their artwork were a key
value (lightness/darkness) concern. Some avoided specific references to
when reflected%%tiite light of the
their personal experience andinstead favored
a universal form of expression in their work,
The Revolution of
separate wavelength
a preference that often led to a focus on Color and Form
Form: an object that can be abstraction rather than representational art.
defined in three dimensions Some artists, though, concentrated moreon Henri Matisse (1869-1954) andPablo Picasso
Naturalistic aver}* realistic or the ideasbehindtheir works of art than on (1881-1973) are towering figures in the
lifelike style of making images the way they looked. Later in the century, development of modern art. Matisse, a
c
Frenchman,had already earned some Henri Matisse
professional notoriety by the time the young
Pica sso moved from Spain to Paris in 1904. The colors in Matisse's JoyofLife— orange and
Picasso left behind hisacademic training in green bodies, pink trees, a multicolored sky—are
representational art to embrace the brave new- not strictly naturalistic (3.180) . These departures
world of experimental approaches he found from everyday appearances are intentional. An
there. Meanwhile, Matisse was already in Paris, a rtist'sinspired choice of colors varies according
exploring the expressive potential of color to whathe or she sees or imagines. For Matisse,
andits relation to form— as he was to do color was principally a way to express emotions.
throughout his career. Over their long creative He often emphasized colors and madethem bold
lifetimes, Matisse and Picasso developed a and intense rather than rendering them as
mutual respect for each other, but he)- were subdued or covering them up to make a scene
also rivals: each one wanted to be considered more realistic. Matissewas interested in making
the leader of the progressive art world. an artwork, not in imitating nature or copying
As it turns out, both artists enjoyedextremely external appearances. Hewas not trying, as artists
productive careers andhavebeen from earlier times had principally done, to
extraordinarily influential: Matisse for his persuade us into believing that we are looking 3.180 Henri Matisse, Joy of
Life, 1905-6. Gil on canvas,
expressive forms, decorative style, and bold through a window onto a "ieal,r world. Inresponse
5'9Vx7'10V. Ba-nes
use of color; Picasso for his radical handling to a viewer who complained that one of his
Foundation, Merion,
of form and shape. portraits did not resemble the dimensions of an Pennsylvania
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART 423
C
3.181 Henr Matisse, The Red Studio, 1911. Cil on canvas.
5'1 1W x 7 '2 V.". MO MA. New York
"
used paper cutouts as preparatory sketches; later

in his life he presented them as finished artworks
in themselves (see Gateway Box: Cutouts as
Finished Art).
In The Red Studio he has included a lot of
information about his working environment,
but he has also left a lot out ( 3.181). He accurately
shows a number of the paintings, sculptures,
and ceramics he hadbeen working on. The space
is filled with an intense red; this makesthe
artworks stand out against the walls and floor,
which havebeen collapsed into a single flat
plane. The furniture is also red,with subtle gold
outlines indicating the edges and details. Matisse
is keenly concerned with the use of color to
convey his experience of place.
actual woman, Matisse said, "I did not create a
woman. Imade a picture.'" Picasso, Braque, and Cubism
When Matisseworked on a painting he
generally started with complex sketches and, In the early twentieth century, shortly after Matisse
over time, simplified the image by eliminating was experimenting with new ways of using color
details and pari ng downthe composition. He also in the 1890s,Picasso and the French artist Georges

Cutouts as Finished Art
In early 1941 Henri Matisse was

diagnosed with cancer of the
intestines. After his treatment,
he was permanently confined
to a wheelchair (3.1831. Matisse
had previously used cutout
pieces of paperas preparatory
sketches, pinning them on a
canvas to help him place the
3.182 Henri Matisse. Icarus, figures in a composition. After his operation,
from Jazz, 1943-7. Page size however, he began to present the cutouts as
16%x 12%". MOMA NewYork it_ , 4l_
the completed works themselves.
The stencil print Icarus was originally
designed using cutouts that Matisse shaped
3.183 HenriMatisse in his studio. 1953 with scissors, making an image filled with
movement and life (3.182). His assistants
Braque ( 1882-1963) revolutionized the way
artworks were made, by concentrating on their
underlying geometric form and the construction
of pictorial space. The two artists together
eventually developed the style known as Cubism.
Instead of showing conventionally realistic objects
in the illusion of three-dimensional space in the
way that had fascinated Western artists since the
Renaissance, the)- enabled us to see what an object
might look like ifwe could see more than one side
of it at the same time. The}- broke up objects and
figures into geometric shapes and changed them
according to their own conception of deeper truth.
Picasso explored new ways of depicting the
human figure in his painting LesDemoiselles
d'Avignon (3.186). Rather than re-creating the
way we actually see a room with people standing
in it,Picasso has treatedthe space inthe picture,
and the figures -within it, ina truly revolutionary
wav. He has simplified the forms into abstract
planes, made the figures more angular, and
broken downthe individual faces and bodies into
geometric pieces. The blueand white planes of
what would usually becalled the background
clash violently with the angular pink figures of
the women in a complex struggle for dominance. 3.186 Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907. Oil
on canvas, 3'x7'S". MO MA, New York

The two women near the center of the version of a work or part of
painting are simplified, with almond-shaped eyes, a work
Plane: a flat surface
triangular noses, and outlines for bodies, but
Outlines: the outermost lines of
the}- are still recognizable as female figures. an object or figure, bywhich it is
would paint paper in bright colors, then The heads of the standing figures on the farleft defined or bounded
he would use scissors as if to "draw" the and far right havebeen dramatically repl aced by Composition: the overall design
or organi zation of a wo rk
elegant lines of the shapes hewanted. African masks. Picasso, along with Matisse and Stencil: a perforated template
There seems to be no limit to the ideas other European artists in the early twentieth allowing ink or paint to pass
Matisse could fashion in this way. He used century, studiedandcollected art from outside
Style: a c haracte risti c way in
cutouts to design tapestries, the interior the Western tradition, especially Africa andthe which an artist or group of
decoration of buildings, and stained-glass Pacific Islands, andthis interest is reflected in artists uses visual language to
windows. His final cutout compositions the masked faces. give a work an identifiable form
ofvisual expression
were on a large scale, some covering an The crouching figure at thebottom right has Cubism: a twentieth-century art
area of more than 87 square feet. Toward the most abstract features. Her body is splayed movement that favored anew
the end of a long career Matisse found out, and the geometric shapes that make up the perspective emphasizing
geometric forms
that simple scissors and paper offered woman's face do not correspond to the usual Three-dimensional: having
a way to help him continue, once again, orientation. The eye on our left is shown from height,width, and depth
finding new ways to experiment with line the front, while the eye on our right is in profile. Renaissance: a period of
and color. The nose is also in profile with the mouth off Europe from the fourteenth to
to the side and a crescent shape in place of the the seventeenth century
jawline. The composite view of this figure
Composite view: representation
of a subject from multiple
shows us more parts of her both- than we could
viewpoints at onetime see from one vantage point. In this painting, the
Collage: a work of art figures are still fairly recognizable. Picasso'slater
assembled bygluing materials,
often paper, onto a surface. From
Cubist pieces become far more abstract, yet
the French coiler, to glue always intentionally retain a connection to the
visible world
An early Cubist painting, Georges Braque's
Houses at VEstaque, emphasized thegeometry
of the setting ( 3.185). In this painting, inspired
by the style of the Post- Impressionist artist Paul
Cezanne (see pp. 415-16), the housesbecome
stacked golden cubes and pyramids surrounded
by the slightest suggestion of trees andshrubs.
By eliminating the details and making all of the
houses the same color, Braque focuses attention
on the underlying shapes and overall pattern
3.185 (below) Georges of the picture. The shading is applied in a
Braque. Houses atL'Estaque.
decorative way to give the shapes more definition.
1908. Oil on canvas, 2ff/.X
23/;". Kunstmuseum Bern, The bold treatment of this painting's forms might
Switzerland seem to come solely from the artist' s imagination.
3.186 (above) Pablo Picasso, Glass and Bottle of Suze,

191 2. P25ted paper, gouacne. and chancoal, 23/. X 1 93/x".
M Idred Lane Kempe- Art Museum. St. Lou's, Missouri
Photographs taken at this site, however, indicate

that, in fact, Braque was surprisingly true to the
configuration and placement of the trees and
houses. The changes he made to the colors and
shapes make the painting an abstraction based
on nature.
Ina further innovative artistic development,
Braque and Picasso used newspaper and
wallpaper as well as fine art papers to make
paper collage. The papers were cut into shapes
and glued to a support. This kind of construction
is very familiar to us today, but in the early
twentieth century it was a completely new
technique for making art. Picasso's Glass
and Bottle of Suze includes some shapes
that relate to a table ( the bluecircle around
the objects near the center), a glass (the hand-
shaded section to the left) ,and a bottle
(the layered triangular shapes on top of
the table). By using an actual bottle label, the
artist is able to identify the shapes as a bottle
and to bringeveryday materials into
the picture (3.186).
c
Gertrude Stein as an Art Patron
The American writerGertrude Stein (1874- 3.187 Paolo Picasso. Por:rai:

1946) and her brother Leo (1872-1947), who ofGertrudeStein, 1906.
CI on canvas, 39% x 32".
lived together in Paris from 1904 to 1913, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
began to collect art by avant-garde artists, New York
and eventually had an outstanding collection
of modern art. They were among the first art
patrons to support progressive artists, a
major boost for these artists at a time when
their work was not well received by the
general public. The weeklysalons Gertrude
held in herstudio apartment provided a
meeting place for both artists and writers.
In fact, the Steins introduced Picasso and
Matisse to one another, sparking their
friendship and artistic rivalry.
In 1905, two years before Les Demoiselles
d'Avignon, Gertrude Stein commissioned her
%
now famous portrait from Picasso (3.187).
She wrote that she sat for him ninety times.
Picasso worked on the painting for months Paris. The resulting painting inspired a new
but was never satisfied. Eventually he phase of his work that relied on his own
abandoned the naturalistic approach and personal vision rather than on what he
painted out the details of her facial features. observed, starting him on the path toward
He replaced them with mask-like ones, Cubism. When someone remarked that
inspired by ancient Iberian sculptures he had Gertrude Stein did not look like her portrait,
seen in Spain and at the Louvre museum in Picasso responded, "She will."
depicted their subjects, the}- emphasized

Expressionism inner states of feeling. Expressionist artists Avant-garde: early twentieth-
century emphasis on artistic
tried to depict what they felt rather innovati on ,which c hallenge d
The raw emotionality of LesDemoiselles thanwhat the}- saw,with sometimes acce ptedval ues,traditi on s,
d'Avignon was not emphasized inthe Cubists' unconventional results. and techniques
coolly analytical studies concentrating on form The making of self-portraits was central individualwho sponsors the
and space. In the meantime, from around 1905 to Expressionism because artists could explore, creation ofworks of art
to around 1920,other artists evolved a style that in repeated studies, a great variety and intensity Salon: the routine gathering of
came tobeknown as Expressionism, in which of emotions. Self-portraits also allow artists to —

a circle of notable people often
figures from the wo rids of art,
the}- chose to explore ways of portraying expressboth the inner and outerworlds that they literature, andpolitics— at
emotions to their fullest intensityby exaggerating know most fully. For instance, when making a the home of one member
of the group
and emphasizing the colors and shapes of the portrait of someone else, an artist could only Expressionism: an artistic st}ie,
objects depicted. guess at the other person's mood, thoughts, or at its height in 1920s Europe,
Expressionists,likethe Impressionists and motivations. While making a self-portrait, which aimed to portray the
world in terms of vivid
Cubists, were concerned -with the representation however, he or she could decide which moods extremes ofpersonal experience
of objects and the world. But as Expressionists or motivations to show and howbest to do so. and feeling
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART A27
c
The German Expressionist artist Paula
Modersohn-Becker (1876-1907) made several
self-portraits (3.188). She also hasthe distinction
of being one of the first women to make nude
self-portraits. Her style reflects the flattened
forms, reduced details, heavy outlines, andsolid l
geometry she saw in earlier avant-garde styles of
such artists as Paul Cezanne and Paul Gauguin in
Paris (see p. 416). At the same time, her work j
balances delicate details in gesture andmood
with a portrayal of the physical substance of
her body.
Russian Vasily Kandinsky (1866-1944) was
A
one ofthe first artists to make non-objective,
or completely abstra ct, paintings. Non- objective
art makes no reference to recognizable subjects;
there are only abstract shapes, designs, andcolors.
Kandinsky saidhis Improvisation 230 was
inspired by talk of war in 1913, a year before
3.188 Paula Modersohn-Becker.Self-portrait with

Camellia. 1906-7. Oil on canvas. 247ix 12". Museum
Folkwang. Essen, Germany
World War Ibegan ( 3.189) .The chaotic and 3.189 Va si ly Kandi nsky.
energetic forms reflect the turmoil of the time, Improvisation 220 [Cannons],
1913. Oil on canvas,
though the}- do not illustrate any particular event. 633A x 43Vt". Art
While hemade the painting spontaneously, with Institute o; Ch cago
no specific scene in mind, as we look at it we can
make out some leaningbuildings, a crowd of
people, and a cannon firing. But many of his later
pieces avoid such recognizable obi ects because
Kandinsky came to believe that, instead of
expressing any outwardandvisible content, art
should express an inner spiritual necessity.
German artist Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880—
1938) used a deliberately raw painting style in
his search for meaningbeyond surface
appearance. Kirchner used flat planes of intense
color, simplified forms, and rough, even
aggressive, brushwork. Kirchner's painting
StreetBerlin reflects hisbelief that art should
come from direct experience ( 3.190). The figures
he saw in this street scene are very civilized and
dressed for a night on the town. Their similar
clothing and mask-like faces turn these people
into clones. In this painting Kirchner seems to ask
why these elegant people lack purpose and why
c
Non-objective: art that does not
» H '4
depict a recognizable subject *
Oada: anarchic anti-art and
anti-war movement, datingback
to World War I,that reveled in
absurdity and irrationality
\ I&
3.190 E_nst Ludwig Kirchne-,
Street Berlin. 1913. Oil on
canvas, 47V; x 35/;". MDMA,
NewYork
y
H
the}- all appear to be the same. He was part of
a group of artists, called DieBriicke ("The
Bridge"),who intended their new mode of
expression to form a bridge between the past,
present, and future. According to these artists,
tes.
developments in life,but to many people they
seemed primarily to have resulted, disastrously,
in arms production on an unprecedented scale,
and inmass slaughter in the trenches of northern
Europe. The war inevitably also affected artists and
the decadence anddehumanization of society the way they made art. Dada protested the kinds
could only be counteracted by the younger of "rational" thought processes that had led to
generation— artists likethemselves. ÿvar. It also took the Impressionists' and Cubists'
questioning of representation still further and

radically rejected the notion of art altogether.
Dada The name Dada was notoriously chosen at
random from the dictionary. It is both a nonsense
The devastating effects of World War Ihad word and one that has contradictor}- meanings in
a profound impact on how people thought several languages. Dada was anti- art and refused
about the world, "progress," andcivilization. to call itself a movement. It was founded by a
Improvements inscience and industrial group of artists andwriters who avoided the
manufacturing may haveled to some positive draft bytaking refuge in the neutral count rv of
C
several poets would recite at the same time while
others yapped like dogs.
The French artist Marcel Duchamp (1887—
1968) was a key figure in the New York branch of
Dada (hebecame an American citizen in 1955).
One of his earliest and most enduring anti-art
statements was his Bicycle Wheel ! 3.192). Its
date of production, 1913, shows thatthe spirit
of Dada pre-dates the war. This assemblage of
3.192 Marcel Ducnamp, B'.CyCle VJheel, 1913. Metalwheel

mounted on panted wood stool, 50V2X 25.Yx 1 oV;
MO MA. New York
KflRflWflME
b*"*U 4 UIU b«4la
Q'osi.ÿ4 m'pta htbSa hcrem
kato IBMW-* tmju

hoiiaka hotel*
anlogo bung
MaftO buna
bbRi> bun*
boeoo fataha
ÿ HI
t(lun*>« wvtU MtM dobo
he) tilla gftrem
ci»h»iK 2<mtoda
rata swwbb dmo uttvia
tomha ha- umf
Ituuganma
-
ba umf
3.191 Hugo Ball. Switzerland. Dadasoon spread to theUnited

Performance of "Karawane" States and jater t0 Berlin, Cologne, Paris, Russia,
at Caoa_et Voltaire, Zurich,
eastern Europe, and Japan. Dada works,
Switzerland, 1916
performances, and publicationswere critical
and playful. The)- emphasized individuality,
irrat ionality ,cha nee, and ima gi nation.
In keeping with its activist nature, Dada was
inspiredbyrevolutionary thinking and initially
tookthe form of events, posters, and pamphlets.
InFebruary 1916 German actor andanarchist
Hugo Ball (1886-1927) opened the Cabaret
Voltaire in Zurich, Switzerland, with his future
wife, EmmvHennings (1885-1948). The
Cabaret was a bohemian, avant-garde nightclub
that provided artists and writers with a place to
meet, perform, andbe entertained. Ball organized
and promoted many of the events. The
performances were lively and highly theatrical.
At a particularly flamboyant recital of one of his
sound poems, "Karawane," Ball wore a costume
that made him look like a figure from a Cubist
painting (3.191). His poems were made of
nonsense words and sounds, intended to be
chanted, screamed, and howled. Sometimes
foiuid objects resembles a sculpture, with a stool made political statements using the medium
Bohemian: derived from the
gipsies of the former Czech
serving as the base, and the wheel itself as the of photomontage. He boldly published works
Kingdom of Bohemiawho main subject. Duchamp first made the piece for criticizing the then leader of Nazi Germany,
moved around; a wanderer; an his own pleasure,because he "enjoyedlooking Adolf Hitler. As a result, Heartfield eventually
artist or write r who functi ons
at it,just as Ienjoy looking at the flames dancing had to flee to Prague (in what is now the Czech
outside the bounds of
conventional rules and practices inthe fireplace." Republic) andlater to England to escape arrest
Assemblage: artwork made of The original Bicycle Wheel was lost when and persecutio n. He distr ibuted hiswo rk on
thre e- dimensi on al mate rial s
including found objects
Duchamp moved to the United States in 1915. posters and inmagazines. His piece HaveNo
Foundobject: an obj ect found Usually, an artwork's value partly depends on Fear, He'sa Vegetarian powerfullywarns about
by an artist and presented,with the existence of "an original" creationthat is Hitler's plans for conquest (3.193). It foreshadows
work or as a work of art in itself
unique,but Duchamp unflinchingly re-created many of the disasters, from widespread starvation
Readymade: an everyday obj ect the piece for an exhibition in 1916. This version, to genocide (the deliberate mass killing of a
presented as a work of art too, was lost. According to the Museum of specific raceor group of people), that were to take
Kinetic sculpture: three-
dimensional art that moves,
Modern Art in New York, the Bic}'de Wheel in place throughout Europe. Hitler was a vegetarian,
impelledby air currents, motors, its collection is the third re-make. Duchamp, buthe is shown here wearing a blood-spattered
or people in true Dada style, subverts the institution and apron. He also grins maniacally while he
Conceptual art: a work in
%\"hich the ideas are often as
originality of art. sharpens a large carvingknife to kill a cock as
important as how it is made Duchamp was responsible for three major French Prime Minister Pierre Laval looks on.
Photomontage: a single innovations in art in the twentieth century: The cock symbolizes France, a country Hitler
photographic image that
readymades (ordinary objects turned into would invade four years later.
combines (digitallyor using
multiple film exposures) several artworks simplyby the decision of the ar tist),
separate images kinetic sculptures (sculptures with moving
Surrealism: an artistic
movement in the 1920sand later,
parts), andwhat came to beknown as Surrealism
the art of which was inspired by conceptual art (see pp. 442-3 below). For
dreams andthe subconscious Duchamp,the making of the workand its Like Dada, Surrealism was also opposed to
appearance were secondary. What mattered rationality and convention. Surrealists believed
were the choices of the ar tist and art' s effects that art was a model for human freedom,
in our mind. meaning, and creativity in an absurdworld.
A member of Berlin Dada, German John The movement began in 1917amongsta group
Heartfield (born Helmut Herzfeld, 1891-1968) ofwriters and poets inParis, and continued
to develop after World War I;the group's ideas
3.193 john Heartfield. Have
were thentaken up by visual artists. Surrealism
No Fear, hie s a Vegetarian .
published :n Regards, no. I2l was the first artistic style based directly on the
(153). Paris, May 7. 1936. ideas of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud.
Stiftung Archiv der Akaderrie Surrealists used techniques that Freudhad
der Kunste. Berl'i, Germany
originally pioneered to access his patients'
unconsciousminds inorder to make artwork
that was not fully under their conscious control:
dreams anddreamlike images were therefore
very important to their work. Sometimes the
Surrealists used extremely realistic images (see
the work ofDali andMagritte on pp. 504 and 76)
in surprisingways to jolt our expectations.
Surrealists challenged the very idea of objective
reality, which they considered nonsense.
One artistwhose work influenced the
Surrealists was the Greek-born ItalianGiorgio De
Chirico (1888-1978). He was not a member of
the Surrealist movement,but,as the Surrealists
c
later would be, hewas interested inintuitive
and irrational approaches to art. In hiswork
Melancholyand Mysteryof the Street, DeChirico
creates a dreamlike environment in which more
questions are posed thanresolved ( 3.196). The
little girlwith the hoop,her self a shadow, seems
unaware of the figure with a polelooming
around the corner. Although the narrative
remains unclear, a vague sense of threat fills the
still air. The crisp clarity of the forms, the
Classical architecture, andthe gradation of
colors inthe otherwise empty sky are all
characteristic of De Chirico's work and enhance
the enigma.
Max Ernst (1891-1976) was a German-born
artist who was first involved with Dada andthen
Surrealism. For him,the process of making art
was of utmost importance. Ernst used different
techniques— such as collage, rubbing, and
scraping— to encourage chance events that would
reduce his conscious control over hiswork. These
processes, as he stated,would liberatethe human
3.196 G org:o De Cni-'co.

The Melancholy and Mystery
of the Street, 1914. Oil on
canvas, 34V;x2SV:".
Private collection
3.195 Max Ernst. Le

Surrealisme e: la Peinture
(Surrealismand Pa intingj.
1?42. Oil on canvas. 6'5"x
7'8". The Menil Collection.
Hou ston, Texas
imagination. He deliberately embracedthe understanding or explaining creativity generally.
bizarre, strange, and irrational to express truths Perhaps it depicts the chance processes Ernst
that hebelieved were buried by logic in used in making art. The painting on the easel is
the conscious mind. In Ernst's Surrealism and a representation of the equally uncertain results,
Paintingthe figure shown painting is not a here seen as abstractions that seem vaguely-
human beingbut an amorphous blob ( 3.195). cosmic, like planets and intergalactic matter in
This shapeless being can be interpreted in the uncharted territory of outer space. Overall,
different ways. It may refer to the difficulty of Ernst made a strong statement abouthow
liberating it can be to allow the imagination to
3.196 Joan M-6, Object, wander in the mysterious realm of creativity.
1936. Assemblage: stuf;ed Using the technique of assemblage, Surrealists
parrot on wood perch, stuped
silk stocking with velvet
createdthe three-dimensional equivalent of
garte- and doll's paoe- shoe collage. These assemblages were generally
susoended in hollow wood intended to be playful andnonsensical and to
"ame. derby hat. hang'ng
reflect new ways of thinking. Spanish artist Joan
cork oall, celluloid fish, and
engraved map. 31 /sx 1 1 k x
Miro( 1893-1983) compiled an unexpected
10'A". MOMA. New York assortment of objects in his sculpture called
Object (3.196). A derby hat, which serves as the
sculpture's base, has a map placedon one side
of its brim and a red plastic fish on the other.
A block of wood sits on the hat with a perch on
top of it that supports a stuffed parrot. Mir o
fashioned a miniature woman's leg by stuffing a
silk stocking in a shapely manner, placing a doll's
shoe on one end, andwrap ping a band for a
garter on the other. This leg is hanging in an
oval-shaped opening of the wooden block. A cork
ball hangs from the parrot's perchbeside the leg.
The objects have the whimsical quality of toys.
When viewed together, as the artist has arranged
them, they also have an air of mystery, as ifthey
are clues to an unsolved crime or random items
that make sense only to their owner.
The Influence of Cubism

Cubism's (see pp. 425-6 above) ground-breaking
approach to arthada huge impact throughout
Europe. Mam-artists adopted the Cubist
style, while others exploredways of making art
and representing obi ects that had not been
conceived ofbefore Cubism.
a story
Qassical: ancient Greek and Futurism
Roman; more generally, art that
conforms to Greek and Roman
In Italy,during the period from 1909 to the late
models, orisbasedon rational
construction and emotional 1920s,someartists were influencedby Cubism's
equilibrium clashing planes and geometry to develop a style
earned Duchamp an international reputation.
For this short period in his career hecombined
Cubism's figures—broken into geometric planes
—with Futurism's emphasis on movement.
Like many other works at the Armory Show,
this painting shocked an audience familiar only
with representational imager)-, or pictures "of"
something.Although Nude Descending 3-198 Marcel Duchamp.
r . ,
a Staircase no longer
, Nude Descendinq a Staircase.
5 seems dangerous,
°
threatening, or criminal, many people saw it
No. 2. 1912. Oil on canvas.
57>s x 35>s- Philadelphia
that way in 1913. Museum of Art
3.1 97 Umberto Boccioni, Unique Forms of Continuity in

Space, 1913 (cast 1931). Bronze. 4$'.x 35 x 16".
Private collect'on
known as Futurism.Unlike Cubist artworks,

though, Futurist works celebrated dynamic
movement, progress, modern technology, and
political beliefs that were later to be known as
Fascist. The)' also expressed contempt for the
past. Italian Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916)
explored some of these concepts inhis Futurist
sculpture UniqueForms of Continuity in Space
(3.197). Looking like a flame, the figure forcefully
strides through space. Boccioni madethe
sculpture in plaster; it was not cast inbronze
during his lifetime. The shiny,golden appearance
of the metal version embodies the words of the
founder of Futurism,Filippo Marinetti: "War
is beautiful because it inaugurates the long
dreamt-of metallization of the human
body.'" Nonetheless, the figure has heroic
monumentality as it leavesbehind the artistic
traditions of the past.
Marcel Duchamp showedhis Nude
Descending the Staircase at the Armory Show in
New York in 1913 ( 3.198). The scandal it caused
A3 A HISTORY AND CONTEXT
3.199 KazirrirMalevich, hadbeendone in the past. Maievichbelieved
Sup re ma list Ps ;n:< ng(Eight that recognizable objects were a burden for the
RedRectangles'!. 1915. Oil on
canvas. 22V: x 18V. Stedelijk viewer andthat geometric abstraction helped
Museum,Amste'dam, to free the mind from the thoughts of politics,
Netherlands religion,andtradition that were so much on
people's minds in the early twentieth century,
partly as a result of the cataclysmic conflict of
World War I. Most of Malevich's Suprematist
works consist of rectangular shapes floating on
a white ground. While they look like Cubist
collages, the shapes are actually painted. In
Suprematist Painting (Eight Red Rectangles)
the palette hasbeen reduced to two colors,
andthe rectangular forms are tilted to suggest
movement (3.199).
The Dutch painterTheo van Doesburg
( 1883- 193 1) was a founder of the movement
called De Stijl ("The Style") in the Netherlands.
Abstraction He began painting naturalistic subjects in 1899.
In 1915, after he discovered the work of another
RussianKazimir Malevich ( 1878-1935) was, Dutch artist, Piet Mondrian, van Doesburg
like Kandinsky, one of the first artists to make began to concentrateon non- representational
completely non-objective paintings. Unlike works consisting of intersecting lines, diagonals,
Kandinsky,Malevich concentrated solely on right-angled shapes, andcolored planes. In
directÿeometricforms. He called his approach suchworks as Counter-Composition V (3.200),
Suprematismbecause he considered it morally, he translatednatural appearances to geometric
spiritually, and aesthetically superior to what forms. His art was based on mathematical
3.200 Theo van Doesburg,

Counter-Composition V. 1924.
Oil on canvas. 39VgX 3?2/g".
Stedelijk Museum,
Arrste'dam, Netherlands
Monument ality: massive or

impressive scale
Ground: the surface or
background ontowhich an artist
paints or draws
Palette: the range of colors used
by an artist
De Stijl: a group of artists
originating in the Netherlands in
the early twentieth century,
associated with a Utopian style of
de si gn that e mphasi ze d primary
colors and straight lines
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART A35
C
principles andused ideas that van Doesburg saw- of the base—usually wood, metal, stone, or
in the work of the Cubists. Van Doesburg's focus marble— to contrast in texture with a different
on color and geometric abstractions was also materialused for the rest of the sculpture. In this
expressed in his designs for stained glass and tiled case, the comparative roughness andbulk of the
floors, and in his interest in architecture. His stone suggest heaviness and earth,while the
work,like that of other Stiil artists, aspires to a contrasting thinness of the smoothand shiny
rational beauty that is objective and appeals to brass makes it look as if it would slip easily
the mindrather than to the subject ivebeauty through the air.
of the senses. The American RomareBearden (1911-88)
The Romanian-bornFrench sculptor trained as an artist in both the U.S. and Europe.
Constantin Brancusi ( 1876- 1957) devoted Hiswork incorporates many artistic influences,
hisworking life to finding the very simplest including Cubism and African masks. Bearden
and most elegant way to express the essence was also inspired by his childhood spent
of his chosen subject. His Bird in Space growing up in Harlem in New York City. This
distills the vital qualities of a bird to what, was the time of the Harlem Renaissance
at first sight, lookslike a totally abstract form (1918-35) , an artistic,literary,andmusical
(3.20i). The shape exquisitely reminds us of flowering of theAfrican-American community
a bird's body, a feather, or even the soaring that fostered cultural pride and racial
quality of flight. consciousness. Prominent musicians and writers,
This sculpture, with the polished brass form such as Duke Ellington, Langston Hughes, and
stacked on top of a small stone cylinder with a Ralph Ellison were close family friends who
darker-colored stone square underneath, shows instilled in the young Bearden a lifelong
Brancusi's careful consideration of even the connection to literatureandjazz. Insuch pieces
base of fhe sculpture. He chose the materials as ThreeFolk Musicians (3.202), Bearden brings
3.201 Constant'n B'ancus'.

Bird in Scace [L'Oiseau dans
i espace',, c. 1941. Polished
trass. 6'37s" high. Musee
National d'Art Moderne.
Centre Geo_ges Porrpidou.
Paris. Prance
3.202 RoTs-e Bea~den.

Three Folk Musicians, 1967.
Collage of various papers with
paint and graphite on canvas.
50Vs X 60". Private collection
all his diverse interests together inthe form of
Medium: the material on or
collage, the medium for which he is best known. from which an artist chooses to
In thiswork we see a rhythmic interpretation of make awork of art
a common, everyday scene using disjointed Abstract Expressionism: a
mid-twentieth- century artistic
fragments of paper. Here collage hasbeen
style characterized by its capacity
usedby Beardento express African-American to convey intense emotions using
experience. non-representational images

Action painting: application of
paint to canvas by dripping,
splashing, or smearing that
Abstract Expressionism emphasi zes the artist's ge sture s
Whereas the other avant-garde artistic

developments described so far began in Europe,
V-' £
ÿ
Abstract Expressionism was the first Modernist

art movement to originate in the U.S. This * • ;*si
movement, which evolved in the 1940s and 1950s,

was perhaps a sign of increasing national self-
3.203 jeckson Pollock painting in nis Long Island stud'o,
confidence after the end of World War II.Abstract
1950. photo by Hans Namuth
Expressionist artistswanted to create,with energy
and emotion, a universalvisual experience that
anyone could respond to, regardless of their
priorlife experience, political beliefs, or painting about the act of creation itself. The
religious preferences. results of Pollock's process, known as action
To make his enormous paintings, American painting, are complex abstract paintings
artist J ackson Pollock (1912-56) startedby so large that when we stand before them they
unrolling the canvas onto the floor. Then completely dominate our field of vision.
he could move about freely, almost dancing Pollock's artworks evolved organically and
around and over the piece ( 3.203). Pollock spontaneously rather than from precise pre¬
also usedsticks as well as brushes to drip planning. The improvisational process andthe
and pour the paint onto the surface. The tension between the rhythms and cross-rhythms
3.206 Jsckson Pollock.
absence of any recognizable subject fixes our of Pollock's paintings alsohave some similarities
Mural, 1943. Oil on canvas.
attention on the actions and gestures of the artist. to jazz music, which he liked to listen to as he 81V-" x 19' 10" . University of
The process becomesthe subject,making the worked (3.206). lovVc Museum o* Art
ÿSH
$3
&
C
Pop Art
Unlikethe Abstract Expressionists, the artists
who beganproducing Pop art in the late 1950s
embraced recognizable subjectmatter in their
work. But the}- did so ina way that had never
been done before in the realm of fine art. Because
they wanted their subjects to be immediately
familiar to their audiences, Pop artists borrowed
their imager}- from popular culture, including
famous artworks,comicbooks, commerdal
advertising, car design, television, movies, and
everyday experience. At the time there was
a divisionbetween fine art (a supposedly
sophisticated part of "high" culture) andits
opposite,popular culture (considered unrefined
and ordinary) .Pop artists bridged this gap by
combining fine art materials with commercial
elements, such as pictures from newspapers and
magazines, sometimes printing by silkscreen
(which is used for printing packaging), and then
selling their pieces infine art galleries.
American Andy Warhol (1928-87) began his
professional career as an illustrator and graphic
designer in advertising. Around 1960,using the
expressive brushworkand drips of paint that were
characteristic of Abstract Expressionism,Warhol
made acrylic paintings of the comic- book heroes
3.205 Mark Rothko. Untitled, American artist MarkRothko (1903-70) Superman, Batman, andDick Tracy. He then
1 949. Oil on canvas. 6'fk" x emigrated to the U.S. from Russia with his family. quickly turned to the imager}- of advertising,
5'6J/= Nat'onal Galle~y o; Art.
Washington. D.C.
He was originally interested in Surrealism as a using as his subjects such familiar products as
way to move beyonddepicting familiar subjects. Campbell's soup and Coca-Cola. He also began
Eventually he entirely eliminated representation using the silkscreentechniÿue. This process
from his compositions andconcentrated on form allowed him not only to make art more quickly,
and color. For about twenty years, from c. 1950 to but also to give it a depersonalized and mass-
1970, his works consisted ofluminous rectangles produced quality very different from some art' s
floating infields of color, like the Untitled piece emphasis on personal expression or technique.
Popart: mid-twentieth-century
artistic movement inspiredby from 1949 (3.205). This piece includes four Warhol evenborrowed, or appropriated, the
commercial art forms and different- si zed rectangles in red, eggplant, famous image of the Italian Renaissanceartist
popular culture black, and forest green, stacked ona golden- Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa (seep. 33).
Silkscreen: method or
printmakingusing a stencil and yellowbackground. Rothko chose not id give The title of this piece, Thirty Are Better than One,
paint pushed through a screen hisworks narrative titles and allowed us to clearly echoes the language of advertising and
Value: the lightness or darkness respond deeply and individually. Rothko consumerism— "more is better" (3.206). Itrefers
of a plane or area
famously said, "people who weep before my to the multiple reproductions of the painting
Pointillism: a late nineteenth-
century painting styleusing pictures are having the same religious experience in Warhol's work while also undermining the
short strokes or points of Ihad when Ipainted them. And ifyou, as you say, "high art" tendency to value an artwork
differing colors that optically
combine to form new are moved onlyby their color relationships, then financially and aesthetically only ifit is "original"
perceivedcolors you miss the point!" and unique.
c
3.206 (left) Andy Warhol.
ThirtyAre Better than One ,
1963. Silkscreen ink on
synthetic polymer paint
on canvas, 9*2 "X 7'10".
Private collection
3.207 (below) Roy

.
Li chten stein Girl with Mirror,
1964. Enamel on steel.
42x42". Private collection
HieAmerican artist Roy Lichtenstein (1923—97)

also made works based on comics. Lichtenstein
challenged traditional notions of the subject
matter and appearance of fine art paintingby
embracing everyday subjects. In his painting Girl
with Mirror he uses strong black outlines filled
with bold primary colors (3.207 ). In order to create
gradations of a color, Lichtenstein borrowed
a technique from older kinds of newspaper printin g
and comics. The regular pattern of dots emulates
the screen visible on printed pictures, where areas
of light value havesmall dots, andthose of dark
value have large ones nearlyioined together.
Lichtenstein's use of dots recalls the Post-
Impressionist technique of pointillism, while his
use of black,white, and primary colors references
the color palette of such geometric abstract artists
as Theo van Doesburg (see 3.200, p. 435).
C
Religion and Symbolism in The Throne
3.208 _,3-res Hampton. The Throne of the Third Heaven of sheets overwood. paperboard. and glass. 180 p:eces.
the Nations' Millennium General Assembly. 1 950-64. Gold 10V2X 27 x U/V. Smithsonian American Art Museum.
and silver aluminum foil, colored kra:t pape-. and plastic Washington. D.C.
Old Testament (Moses and the Law) NewTestament (Jesus and Grace)
Commandments
Mj
440
Light bulbs are symbols - or God
HISTORY AND CONTEXT

* Crowns are a si gn o*' royalty
James Hampton (1909-64) was a janitor in
Visionary art: art made by self-
Minimalism
Washington, D.C. He would go to a rented
taught artists following a
garagespace after his night shift to work on personal vision Minimalist artists in the 1960s reacted against
what he called his "life's work," The Throne Tableau: a stationary scene what the)- saw as the excessive emphasis on the
arranged for artistic impact
of the Third Heaven of the Nations'Millennium artist's personality in the work of Abstract
General Assembly (3.208). Hampton's work is Expressionists. Minimalism is an approach to
visionary art, art made by artists who are making art that is non-representationalbyits
self-taught and who explore their own creative very nature. Minimalists sought instead to use
vision through their work. Though Hampton neutral textures, geometric shapes, flat colors,
hoped to open his own church one day, very and even mechanical construction inorder to
few people saw this piece during his lifetime. 3.209 Donald Judd. Untitled. strip away any traces of emotion or underlying
1 967. Stainless steel and
Hampton constructed about 180 pieces for meaning in their work.
Plexiglass. 190V; x 40x31".
The Throne with found materials, including Modern Art Museum o; Fort American Minimalist sculptor DonaldJ udd
discarded items he collected while he was at Worth, Texas (1928-94) produced pieces that were totally
work, objects he found on the street, and some abstract, usually rectangles and
pieces he bought at second-hand shops. The cubes. .Althoughduring the early
furniture, jellyjars, cardboard, construction stages of his career Judd was a
paper (originally deep purple, nowfaded to tan), painter and hedid go on to
electrical wire, and so on are transformed by paint some of his sculptures, he
coverings of gold and silver foil. Hampton has generally preferred the medium
arranged them into a large tableau suggesting of sculpture to painting.
the Kingdom of Heaven at the second coming According to Judd, any painting,
of Christ on Judgment Day, as described in the no matter how abstract, shows
Book of Revelation inthe Bible. Hampton something, whereas a sculpture is
believed God visited him often and, through something, in real space. His
religious visions, helped to guide him in the sculptures had an industrial
making of The Throne. appearance andwere
The actual throne is at the center. To the commercially manufactured.
left ofthe throne (aswe lookat it) is the Old For his Untitled piece (3.209),
Testament side related to Moses and the Law, Judd ordered from a factor)- ten
while to the rightis the NewTestament side, boxesmade -with stainless steel
which references Jesus and the Christian idea around the edges and Plexiglass
of Grace. Many of the chairs and furniture are on the top and bottom, each
labelled— Adam, Eve, the Virgin, Pope Pius XI I. measuring 9/ x 40 x 3 1inches.
The wall plaques at the back along the sides Then, when the piece was
also contain the Ten Commandments in installed, it was spaced according
Hampton's indecipherablescript, along with to his specifications. Judd
the names of prophets on the Old Testament preferred to havehis pieces
side and apostles on the NewTestament side. made in this way because it
There are also crowns (a sign of spiritual madethem stand on their own,
kingship), whg shapes (like angels), and light limitedthe role of the artist as
bulbs (a symbol for God as the light of the creator, and downplayed any
world), all of which have symbolic significance. underlying message.
Hampton'sdedication in creating suchan .American artist Dan Flavin's
ornate, spiritually inspired piece while working (1933-96) work, like that of
in complete seclusion makes him one of the other Minimalists, is made from
most fascinating and enigmatic American industrial materials and has a
visionary artists. clean geometric quality. Flavin
created individual artworks and
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART AA1
3.210 Dan Flavin. Untitled.
1996. Installation of 4' fixtures
in two oppo5:ng banks ;or the
east and west :nterior walls of
R:chrrond Hall. F':nk, yellow,
green, blue, and ultraviolet
'luorescent tubes and rretal
fixtures, two sections, each 3"
high, approx. 123' wide. Men II
Collection. Houston, "exes
mi ll 1 1 1 1 1 I I
TOi.nnni i mi | |
installationswith fluorescent light tubes. The are placed together in an installation (see 3.210),
sculptures have a physical aspect (the fixtures and the noticeable glow transforms the space. Flavin's
tubes), but the}- also focus our attention on the work promotes the idea that a simple object that
use of light itself as a means to impact the space. has been commercially purchased can become a
The light from the bulbs, which are commonly work of art and cause us to look at such familiar
used in offices, stores, and even homes, takes on a objects in new ways.
new significance in the form of a sculpture on the
walls of an art gallery. When the fluorescent tubes
Conceptual Art
Conceptual art takes the non- representational
tendencies that are apparent in Minimalism
even further, often eliminating the art object
Am\ < L
altogether. Instead of painting a canvas, for
narsvSsSs.w
example, an artist might arrange certain objects
together in a way that makes people reconsider
each one in a new light. Some conceptual artists
focused their efforts on planning, rather than
producing, artwork. The results of conceptual art
include documentation, sketches, artist's books,
3.211 joseoh Kosuth, One and Three Chairs. 1965.

Mounted onotograoh of a chair, wooden fold'ng cna'-. and
ohotog_aph:c enla_ge"rent o; a d'ctiona-'/ de;'n!tion o;
"cnair," photographic panel 36x241/s". chair 32/tx 14/=
x 207s", text panel 24 x 24V. MOMA. New York
4A2 HISTORY AND CONTEXT
C
3.212 Ana Mendieta, Imager) da Yagui. 1973. ;-o-n the
series Silueta Works in Mexico 1973-1977. Colo-
photog'aoh from 35rr-r si de. 20x 16"
photographs, performances, and mail ar t ( any

artwork, often in the form of postcards or small
packages, distributed through the mail).
The work of American Conceptual artist
Joseph Kosuth (b. 1945) provokes questions in
the minds of viewers. His processes, approach,
andmaterials were inspiredby Marcel
Duchamp's readymades (see 2.159. p. 270 and
3.192. p. 430), as well as by his interest in art that
appeals to the mindrather thanthe senses. On
one level, Kosuth's One andThree Chairs simply
presents three things that a chair couldbe: on our
left, a photographic representation of a chair; in
the center, an actual wooden chair; and on our
right, an enlargeddictionary definition of the
word "chair" (' 3.211). On another level, this piece
represents a sophisticated investigation about
how we know and understandthe world around
us. Which of these chairs is more familiar?
Which is more "real"? Which one provides us
the most information? Ultimately, our
experience of a "chair," its meaning, our
awareness of how we communicate ideas, and
the way all these things impact art is changed
after seeing this piece.
The Cuban-born artist Ana Mendieta
(1948-85) is known for using her own body as an
integral part of her art making. Her performances
and art actions explore personal themes (such
as the social displacement she experiencedby Postmodernism,
moving away from her home country to the
UnitedStates). She also incorporates references
Identity, and
to natural elements (water, earth, fire, blood) Multiculturalism
and biological cycles (life, death, spiritual
rebirth). For her Silu eta series (see 3.212), Postmodernartworks andarchitecture are often
Mendieta situated her body invar ious outdoor complex and even ambiguous, incorporating
environments: on the ground, in front of a tree, visual references to earlier artworks or buildings,
on a sandy beach. In the example shown here, philosophical ideas, or political issues (see Box:
the artist's body is camouflaged by the flowers ModernandPostmodern Architecture, pp. 444-5).
and mud that cover it. Whether her body or its The Postmodern movement, part of the
silhouette is shown inthe photograph, the images Contemporary period ( c. 1960 to the present),
of this series reinforce the powerful connection constitutedboth a reaction to and a continuation Sihieta: series ofimagesby Ana
Mendieta inwhich the artist's
between a woman's body and nature as sites of of ideas developed during the Modern period bod}.- issituated in outdoor
strength, endurance, and nourishment. (c. 1860-1960). Alongside the interest in artistic environments
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART AA3
Modern andPostmodern Architecture
3.216 Gerrit Rietveld.

Schroder House, 1924-5,
Utrecht. Netherlands
In architecture, the predominant style from

the late nineteenth century until the 1960s
was Modernism. Modernist architecture was
characterized by straight lines and geometric
shapes. Its designs were intended to be direct,
clean, uncluttered, and progressive. As early as
the 1960s, Postmodernistarchitects reacted
against the use of lines, severe geometry, and
subdued colors of Modernism, considering the
aims of Modernists to be too idealistic and
inaccessible. As a result, Postmodern designs
often combine dynamic forms (for example,
Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, see
pp. 76-5) and incorporate familiar elements from
different historical periods, such as columns
reminiscent of buildings in ancient Greece.
Like his fellow Dutch De Stijl artists (see
3.200), Modernist designer Gerrit Rietveld
(1888-1965) emphasized geometric shapes,
horizontals and verticals, and a limited color
palette of black, white, and primary colors.
3.215 Michael Graves. Portland Publ:c Services Build ng.

1°S0. Portland, Oregon
LLU HISTORY AND CONTEXT
His Schroder House, created in 1924, integrates form and content that was prominent inthe mid-
Primary colors: threebasic colors
Modernist design into a building that served to late twentieth century-, many Postmodern
from which all others are derived
the specific needs of Rietveld s client. The Asymmetry: a type of design in artists embraced their own personal andcultural
lower floorconsists of traditional kitchen, which balance is achieved by history in their w ork, drawing directly on their
elements that contrast and
dining, and living areas, while upstairs own experiences. By the 1980s artists and art
complement one another without
Rietveld took an innovative approach to the being the same on either side of institutions recognized the need to be more
bedrooms. Modular partition walls separate an axis inclusive intheir consideration of artists from
the areas of the upperfloor, providing private allcultural backgrounds.
by- the as se mbling and
quarters for sleeping but allowing a more open arrangement of objects in a Intriguedby the impact ofAfrican art on
space to be used during the day. The balconies, specific location contemporary culture,American Xenobia Bailey
windows, concrete planes, and linear elements (b. c. 1955) establishedher reputation initially
3.213 Xenobia Bailey,
on the building's exterior, which resembles (RelPossessed [ i n sta lla ti on vi ew. bymaking crochetedhats. After her designs
a three-dimensional version of an abstract John N' chael Kohler Arts were featured in EUemagazine, they appeared
painting, show how architects achieve balance Ce nte r).19 99-2009; mixed me dia as props in Spike Lee's film Do the RightThing
environment: dimensions
through asymmetry. Rietveld's emphasis
variable. Photo courtesy of John
and on television's Cosby Show. Over time,
on geometry and function influenced the MichaelKohle" Arts Cents- her work has expanded to include costumes,
InternationalStyle of architecture, which © the artist and 5te;an Stux wall hangings, and full-blown museum
Gallery, NewYork. Components
stressed logical planning, followed an installations. The forms, shapes, and colors she
include the following: Xenooia
industrialor machine aesthetic, and eliminated Bailey, Mandates. 1999-200? uses are inspiredby African hairdos,architecture,
all arbitrary decoration. and Sistsh Paradise s Great and headdresses; Hindureligious figures; and
By the 1960s architects began to react to
,Vails of F--e Revival Tent. 1 993: Chinese opera head pieces. Her work Mothership
Doughba H. Caranda-Martin,
the severityof International Style Modernism Teas. 200B; Barbara Games, I: Sista h Paradise's Great Walls of Fire Revival
by incorporating references to earlier Tea Service. 2006. Tent (3.213) is a teepee- like structure that, in
buildingsand including ornamentation that
was not required by the structural design.
This newapproach marked the beginning of
the Postmodern style. The Portland Public
Services Building,designed by American
Michael Graves (b. 1934) in 1980, was the first
public building to employ the Postmodern
approach. Its distinctive design includes
a brightly colored exterior, small square
windows, and Classical architectural forms.
Columns have been extended up to ten stories
tall on either side of the entrance andonthe
sides ofthe building. On the facade, the shape
of the exaggerated capitals has been repeated
on the upper floors. While this building has
generated some controversy, it stands as a
significant example of Postmodern ingenuity
and of Postmodernism's potentialto integrate
diverse ideas. More recently, Graves has
become well known for a line of kitchenware
and domestic merchandise available at Target
stores. The line of household productsthat
Graves has designed forTargethas sleek
shapes and stylish colors that incorporate many
Postmodern design principles and integrate
distinctive design into functional items.
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART 4A5
c
addition to looking like an enlarged version of challenges ideas of race, gender, andclass that 3.216 Carrie Mae Weems,
one of her hats, references the absence of were once taken for granted. Pointing out that You Became a Scientific Profile
historical information about enslaved Africans these individuals hadbecomepart of "An
&A PhotographicSubject .
from the sees From Here
inAmerica. Bailey created Sistah Paradise, a Anthropological Debate" and were turned into ISaw What Happenedand
mythological individual,as a reminder of "A Photographic Subject" (3.216) restores some t Cried, 1995. Chromogenic
colonization and as a figure to inspire the of the dignity that had been deniedand color prints with sand-blssted
text on glass, 25% x 22V." .
continued pursuit of justice and equality for motivatesviewers to understandand respect MOMA. New York
African .Americans. the sitters' humanity.
The American artist Carrie Mae Weems Throughout her artistic career, Native-
(b. 1953) also investigates the collective African - American artist JoleneRickard(b. 1956) has
American experience that is rooted in slaver)-. also told complex stories as she examines her
Her work embodies an interest inpersonal and heritagethroughmyths,stories, cultural
cultural identity. Her series "From Here ISaw practices, and experiences, both past and present.
What Happened and ICried'" reinterprets a Her work often combines spiritual experiences
series of early photographs of .African slaves andevents from daily life,which are familiar to
taken bv whiteAmericans inthe nineteenth the Tuscarora nation, but less so to outside
century. In the original photographs the sitters audiences.Rickard'sinstallation Corn Bine Room
were stripped and exposed to the scrutiny of (3.217), part of an exhibition called"Reservation
racist theoristswho sought to examine and X: The Power of Place," explores the importance
investigate them in a coldly analytical, of home in the formation of identity,andalso
supposedly "scientifi c" way.Weems the changing nature of the reservation as
rephotographed the images, coloredthem red, a community andhome. Ears of corn hang
and framed them with circular mats to highlight from above, saturated with blue light. The
the fact that the)- were being seen through the photographs and CD-ROM in the space relate
camera lens. The text she inscribes on the glass to nature on one side (corn, the seasons,
c
community) and technology on the other between the tradition and heritage ofher native
(the towers of a hydroelectric plant owned by Iran and her perspective as a woman living outside
the New York Power Authority), both ofwhich that culture.When she was allowed to return to
have significantly impacted on the Tuscarora Iran in 1990, following the Islamic Revolution,
community's land in upper New York State. the country hadbecome a conservative,
The installation invitesviewers to walk into theocratic republic. One of the most striking
the space and interact with it. By looking at the changes was the requirement for -women to wear
photographs andthe CD-ROM, the}- can the chador, a loose robe that covers them from
experience the importance of songs and dances head to toe,leaving only their faces and hands
as ways of expressing kinship and of passing exposed. Neshat made art as a way to process her
knowledge from one generation to the next. feelings of displacement, exile, andloss. Over
Iranian-born artist Shirin Neshat (b. 1957) time her work hastaken a more critical stance
has lived in the United States since 1974,when against the erosion of individual freedom in the
she was seventeen years old. Her photographs and extremist environment she knows the people
films explore the experience of a woman caught ofher country are enduring.
3.217 Jole-ie Rickard, Com

Blue Room, 1 ??8. Mixed rred =
installation, DenverArt
Museum. Colo'ado
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART UU7
In suchartworks as the film Rapture (3.218a
and 3.218b) Neshat projects two images into the
space at the same time. One screen shows men
wearing white shirts andblack pants in a stone
fortress. The motivationbehind their collective
actions is never explained, but the)- seem to
revolve around the cannons located on the
t building's rooftop. On the other screen, women

wearing blackchadors are shown making their
way to a beachwhere the)- push a small group
of women out to sea in a rowboat. Whether the
womenarebeing per secuted o r 1iberated,
whether the)- chose to leave or were forced to
go is unclear. Because she deals wi th social,
political, and cultural issues in a very poetic way,
Neshat'swork has a broad appeal to audiences
all over the world.
Contemporary and Postmodern art often
contains references to complex matters by
integrating fact and fiction (see Box: The
Complexity of Today's (Art) World).
A captivating video installation called Ever Is
Over All, (3.219) by Swiss artist Pipilotti Rist
(b. 1962) creates a multi-sensory experience that
subtly comments on decorumandthe breaking
of the rules that normally govern society. A
two- part projection into the corner of the room,
it also has an ambient sound component that
pulses throughout the gallery or museum space.
On one screen we see a woman whose brilliant
aquamarine dress and ruby-red slippers contrast
3.218a Shirin Neshat.

Rapture. 1???. Production still
3.218b Shirin Neshat.
Rapture aeries. 1999. Gelatin
silver print, 42Vz x 6 7 Vf
3.219 Pipilotti Rist. Ever Is

Over All, 1997. Video
installation with two
monitors, dimensions
variable. MO MA. New York
c
The Complexity of Today's (Art) World
As computers, televisions, and i-Phones bombard Giant, who is undergoing the final stages of his
us with an overwhelming number of images and transformation to a fully formed man. At the
ideas 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many same time, Barney also plays a charactercalled
contemporary artists acknowledge and embrace The Magician, who jumps off a bridge as part of
the complexity and chaos of the world in which a complicated web of symbols and associations
we live. The Internet and increasinglyeasy that runsthroughout the Cremaster films. In a
international travel make the world seem 2004 interview, Barney explained that he was
smaller, and have hugely expanded our not searching for coherence in the Cremaster
awareness of and interest in other cultures. cycle, but that the films' ambiguity mimics his
Some artists have brought order to their own own wandering interests and the way he absorbs
experiences of this global culture by creating things on a day-to-day basis. The intricate
persona Isymbols and sign systems. Others symbolism that Barney invests in the people,
incorporate widely ranging styles, techniques, places, and things in the films recalls all the
and messages into single artworks. Like the simultaneous meaningsthat these elements
experience of living in the twenty-first century, can have (whether we are aware of them or not),
3.220 Matthew Barn ey.
contemporary artists assimilate approaches and suggests that we can access them at the Cremaster 5. 1997.
from all kinds of sources, past and present, real touch of a button orthe whim of an artist. Production still
and imagined. Artworks made in response to the
complexity of today's world, not surprisingly,
contain many elements that operate on more
than one level.The more you learn, the more
each individualelement makessense and
comes alive.
From 1994 to 2002 American artist Matthew
Barney (b. 1967) produced, created, and starred
in five full-length films called the Cremaster
cycle. The complexity of these films lies in the
large number of characters used, the concepts
behind all aspects of the films, and the underlying
biological metaphorthat is woven into the series.
"Cremaster" literally refers to the set of muscles
that controlthe height of male testicles. Barney
adopted the cremaster as a metaphor because
it expresses the sense that identity changes over
time: from prenatal sexual differentiation (in
Cremaster 1) to a fully formed, or "descended,"
being (in Cremaster 5). The films do not use
narrative or dialogue in the conventional sense,
but visually and conceptually incorporate the
history of the place where the films are set,
episodes ofinvented mythology, Barney's
personal interests, and a symbol system that he
has developed.
In the still from Cremaster 5 (3.220), Ba rney
plays a fictional character known as the Queen's
THE AGE OF GLOBAL ART *49
idea. ..left over from the twentieth century, that
abstraction and figuration are legitimate poles.
I've incorporated the two things from the very
start and been fascinated bv the idea that there is
ii
really no distinction. It's just a question of scale."
In PropositionPlayer Ritchiedoes notlimit
himself to a particular medium or stylistic
approach, but utilizes a variety of visual and
conceptual elements to tell a ston- about "the
infinite possibilities available in the universe."
\ 1 Abstraction has offered many different
possibilities to artists in the twentieth and
twenty-first centuries. In this chapter, find
three artworks that illustratethe artist's use
3.221 Matthew Ritchie. with the drab backdrop of an urban street. of abstraction. Consider the intentions of the
Proposition Player, 2003. On the other screen, thebrilliant oranges, artists as well as the formal appearance of the
Mixed-media installation.
Installation view at the
yellows, and greens of afield of torch lilies, also artworks and then compare their similarities
Conten-porary Arts Museu i calledred-hot pokers, illuminatethe room. and differences. Possible works to consider
Hou ston, Texas In her princess attire, the woman carries a are: 3.186, 3.185, 3.186, 3.189, 3.197, 3.199, 3.201.
torch lily like a staff. As she saunters down the 2 Chocse an artwork from this chapter by Henri
street, she occasionally stops to smash out a car Matisse, Pablo Picasso, or Marcel Duchamp.
window with her flower. Theviolence of her Find an artwork in the chapter that was
vandalism does not have any effect on her happy- influenced or inspired by the work you have
go-lucky demeanor. In fact, she does not even chosen. Discuss the way that the progression
react when a police officer passes her on the of ideas from one artist to another can be seen
sidewalk. The police officer does not react to her in your chosen examples.
apparent vandalism either. They just exchange a 3 Choose two artworks from this chapter in
pleasant greeting. Because the artist herself plays w-hich an artist has incorporated imagery
the part of the window-smasher, this piece could from the media and popular culture or
be seen as a self-portrait. Ultimately Rist has modern technology. Discuss the relationship
created for the contemporary viewer an betw-een form and content in these examples.
enigmatic fain- tale inwhich we feel a release as 4 Find tw-o artworks from the period studied in
the character s aggressions are acted out in this chapter inw-hich the a rtists approach the
unlikely ways -while she (andwe) maintains or same subject in different ways. Compare your
restores a sense ofbeauty in the world. artworks in terms offormal appearance, the
The installation Proposition Player ( 3.221) artists' intentions, and how- you respond to
by Matthew Ritchie (b. 1964),a British artist their different approaches. You might choose
working in New York, is complex on many levels. one work from another chapter inthis book,
PropositionPlayer isbased on drawings, some of for example: 1.153 and 6.162, or 6.70 and 6.169.
which havebeenscanned into a computer and 5 Select two artworks that address questions
translated into three-dimensional sculptures; relating to identity. Com£ai£themedia used
others havebeen magnified and transferred onto by the artists and explain which artwork most
the wall; andstill others are printed, illuminated, impressedyou and why.You might choose
Figuration: representing
something with a recognizable or incorporated into games. In an interview in one work from another chapter inthis book,
form, shape, or outline 2005 Ritchie said, "There's this sort of ridiculous for example: 1.169, 2.109, 2.125, 3.26, 3.105,6.71.
c
Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries, The Age of Global Art
2.159 Marcel Ducnamp. 1.24 Georgia 0'Keei;e. 2.188 Le Corbusier, Villa 4.70 Salvador Dali. 4.119 Pablo Picasso.
Fountain, 1917, p. 270 Music-Pink and Blue II. 191 9. .
Savoye, 1931 p. 286 Persistence of Memory, 1931 . Guernica, 1937, p. 545
P- 5? p. 504
A.I 62 Frida Kahlo. Th,e Two 4.147 Alberto Giacometti. 4.130 W illerr de Kooning. 2.155 Robert Smithson. 1.106 Alexander Calde-.
Fridas. 1939. p. 57? Man Pointing. 1967, p. 567 V/oman i, 1950-52. p. 555 Spiral Jetty, 1969-70. p. 263 Untitled, 1 976. p. 113
2.104 George Lucas, still 4.152 Cindy Sherman. 1.168 Edward Hopper. 4.153 Judy Chicago. The 2.157 Damien Hirst. The
f ro m Sta r We rs Episo de IV—A Untitled Film Still #35, 1 979. Nighthawks, 1 942. p. 1 5? DinnerParty, 1974-9. o. 572 Physical impossibility of Death
New Hope, 1977. o. 234 p. 571 in the Mind of Someone Living,
1991. p. 26?
1.45 Frank Gehry, 1.153 Chuck Close. 2.134 Dale Chihuly.F/Oft di 2.124 Kara Walker. 4.4 Christo and jeanne-
Guggenheirr Museum. 1997, Self Portrait, 1997, p. 145 Co mo, 1993, p. 255 Insurrection! (Our Tools were Claude. TheGates, 1979-2005.
p. 74 Rudimentary. Yet We Pressed o. 457
Onj, 2000. p. 247
Artworks revealthe concerns
of humanity.Throughout
the world, similar issues, or
themes, are explored by artists
By comparing artworks in
terms of their meaning, we
come closer to understanding
the uniqueness of different
cultures and artists. Exploring
topics commonly addressed
by artists throughout space
and time, and through a
variety of methodsand
materials, also makes us more
aware of shared concerns.
Artworks deal with belief
systems, survival, the natural
world, and technology; and
with issues related to status,
power,identity, and creative
expression. By studying art
in this way we can better
understandvarious cultures
andourselves.
(c
PART 4
In this part you will study:
Art and Community

Spirituality and Art
Art and the Cycle of Life
Art and Science
Art and Illusion
Art and Rulers
Art and War
Art of Social Conscience
The Body in Art
Art and Gender
Expression
c
THEMES
4.1
Art and Community
The community mural process makes art community objectives. Because buildings have
more accessible; it brings art into thelivesof such a direct impact on shaping a community,
people who didn't have it. often becomingsymbols of a particular place,
(Susan Cervantes, San Franciscomuralist) we will look at several examples of architecture
as well as at paintings andritual performances.
This is a way of getting your art on the street.
Lots of people stop to look at it. It's not like
being famous, but it's a way of gettingyour art
looked at. You have an audi ence.
Civic and Ceremonial
(Aliseo Purpura- Pontoniere, urban youth arts student) Places
We tend to think of art as the work of a single Structures havebeen designed to house
individual. However, art often involves large ceremonies, civic events, and entertainments in
numbers of people, evenwhole communities. times and places as varied as ancient Greece,
As the statements above by professional artist medieval France, and present-day New York City
Susan Cervantes and a student who worked with (see Box: Art in Public Spaces, p. 456). Whether
her demonstrate, artists can create art for the they- serve as gathering sites, indicate concerns
enjoyment and benefit not just of a single patron, that are important to a group, or come to
or for a larger audience inan ar t gallery,but also symbolize a particular place,buildings (and their
Patron: an organization or for an entire community. Community art may appearance) reflect the concerns and practices of
individual \\iio sponsors the
require numerous people to become involved in the communities that use them.
Gothic western European itsconstruction. Other times, artworks play- The Parthenon inAthens, Greece, yvas the
architectural style of the twelfth important roles for performers in ceremonies grandestbuilding on the Acropolis, the fortified
and group events. Still other community art, districtlocatedatthe highest point of the city.
character!zed by the use of
pointed arches and ornate situated in public places, is contemplated by It yvas an important religious center dedicated
decoration countlessviewers. A community—whether to the maiden goddess Athena, the protector
Passion: the arrest, trial, and a small rural town, an apartment complex, of Athens. The masses did not enter the sacred
execution of JesusChrist, and
his sufferings during them a neighborhood, a college campus, an Internet interior space of the Parthenon,but congregated
Arches: structures, usually discussion group— shares a common interest, outside the temple to worship at the altar to
curved, that span an opening ifnot a physical space. Studying the art made by Athena in front of the building's yvestern end.
Stained glass: coloredglass
used for windows and and for communities throughouthistory tells Reliefsculptures on the Parthenon indicate the
decorative applications us a great deal about the interactionbetween significance of the celebrations that occurred
Vaulted: covered wi than arch- artists and their environments. on this site (4.1). Ordinary- Athenians are shown
shaped ceiling or roof
Nave: the central space of In this chapter we will examine the many participating inthe Pana thenaic Festival,an
a cathedral or basilica ways in which art hasbeen used to pursue annual ritual procession to honor Athena.
45 4 THEMES
4. 1 Detail of The Procession
from the lon:c ;':eze on the
east s'de o; the Parthenon.
c. U5-438 BCE. Marble.
<13 h:gh. Musee du Louvre.
Pahs. France
All of Athens's inhabitants were allowed to take

part in the festival, although only citizens could
enter the Acropolis.
While the Parthenon was designed for
worship at an outside altar, Gothic cathedrals
were intended,with their magnificent interior
spaces, to inspireworshipers to religious
devotion. These spectacular churches, built using
the resources of the entire community, -were a
source of great civic pride. Pilgrims traveled to
NotreDame Cathedral (4.2) in Paris,France, to
worship, bothbecause the buildingwas so
impressive and because it heldrelics Christians
considered sacred, such as a piece of the True
Cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified, a
fragment of the Holy Lance used to pierce his
side, andthe Crown of Thorns that the Romans
made to mock Christ as King of the Jews.
Pilgrims curious to see these items from Christ's
Passion also hoped to benefit from their
mystical power. Notre Dame's grand interior
combines all of the characteristic elements of
Gothicarchitecture, includingpointed arches
andstamecÿlasÿvindowsÿThe vaulted ceiling
is 102 feet above the floor and the nave is more
than 39 feet wide, surrounding receptivevisitors
with soaring height and spiritual light to
transport them beyond the cares and concerns
of the ordinary world.
4.2 Notre Dame Cathedral, interior. 1 163-1250. Tie de la

Cite, Paris, France
ART AND COMMUNITY 455
c
Art in Public Spaces
Two famous works of art, made more than differences, both works share a common aim:
4,000 years apart, occupied public spaces used to focus the attention and movements of crowds
by large numbers of people. Both structures of people indirections calculated by the artists
were created by the efforts of masses of who designed them.
laborers. Considering these enormous works The oldest pa rtsof Stonehenge, on
together can help usunderstand howa workof Salisbury Plain in England, are the circular
art can change a public place and how people embankment and ditchthat surround the
interact with such works. monument. This site was used for hundreds of
Very little is known about the makers of years before the stones were imported from as
Stonehenge (4.3), but the creators of The Gates far as 23 miles away. The massive stones in the
(4.4), Christo (b. 1935) and Jeanne-Claude sarsen circle weigh up to 50 tons apiece, each
(1935-2009), explained themselves in countless one equaling the weight of 500 people orfive
statements and interviews. We know about buses. We will probably never know how the
the construction methods of Christo and builders moved those stones. Most scholars
Jeanne-Claude from descriptions and from believe Stonehenge, 106 feet in diameter and
video documentation, but the techniques used up to 20 feet tall in places, served as a giant
to erect Stonehenge, and the intentionsof observatory or calendar. People who gathered
its builders, remain shrouded in mystery. at Stonehenge on the longest day of the year
Stonehenge is still standingafter thousands (known as the summer solstice) would have
4.3 Stonenenge,
c. 3200-1500=: e. Salisbury of years, while TheGateswas designed to last seen the sun rise preciselyover the great stone
Plain .Wiltshire. England a little more than two weeks. Despite their known as the Heelstone, which stands outside
456 THEMES
U.U Christo and jeanne-
Claude, The Gates, Central
Park. NewYork City. 1979-
2005. Steel, vinyl tubing, and
nylon ;abr'c, C. 16' high
the circle. For a farming community, such as across, depending on the width of the walkway.
the one that built Stonehenge, the precise date Theartists employed engineers; project
of the summer solstice was important: it directors; fabricators forthe materialsin the
signaled the time to prepare forthe fall harvest. U.S. and Germany; 600 paid workers to install,
The Gates, installed in 2005, meandered monitor, and remove the pieces; and security
through the 23 miles of walkways in New York's guards to protect the work at night. After The
Central Park for just sixteen days. The Gates was taken down the materials were
installation was intended for public enjoyment, recycled, reflecting the artists' environmentally
and an estimated four million people visited sustainable practices.
Central Park during the exhibition. The piece Although these two works were made at
required communitysupport garnered through different times on different continents, they
petitions and meetings between the artists and have in common the fact that theirconstruction
New York City officials. Discussions about The required the efforts of significant numbers of
Gates began in 1979 and the project was finally people and that they were used orviewed by an
approved in 2003. The negotiation process was entire community. While it is uncertain how or
integralto the productionof Christo'sand why Stonehenge was built, it is clearthat a
Jeanne-Claude's installations, emphasizing highly organized social structure must have
the important role thatthe community plays in been in place to see such a venture through.
the conception and creation of their artworks. The Gates similarly required teams of experts
Facts and figures provided on the artists' and construction crews to carry out the artists'
website indicate the mind-boggling amountsof vision. Keen on involving the communityand
material and laborinvolved in the making of having theirwork enliven public spaces, but
The Gates. A total of 60 miles of saffron-colored interested in maintaining creative freedom,
nylon fabric hung from 7,503 gates. Each gate Christo and Jeanne-Claude did not accept any
was 16 feet tall with fabric coming down to government or public funding and themselves
approximately 7 feet above the ground. The paid forthe creation, installation, and Sarsen. atypeofhard,gray
gates ranged from about 5 feet to 18 feet maintenance of the work. sandstone
c
4.5 Colosseum, 72-80CE,
Rome. Italy
While worship is a common function of many geometric shapes, which is characteristic of many
community buildings, others havebeenbuiltfor modernbuildings. This white circularbuilding,
public entertainment. Amongst the most famous though, is distinctive among the city's rectangular
arenas of the ancient world was the Colosseum,
one of Imperial Rome's largest public buildings
blocks and glass skyscrapers. For large numbers
of visitors its design is as much of an attraction . ,
_ .
4.6 Frank Lloyd Wright.
and an extraordinary feat of architecture and as the art collected inside. ArchitectFrankLloyd Solomon R. Guggenheim
engineering (4.5). Measuring 615 feet longby Wright (1867-1959) sought to providewhat the Museum. 1 956-?. NewYork
510 feet across and standing 159feet tall, the
Colosseum couldholdbetween 45,000 and
55,000 people. The Romans were the first to
exploit fully the structural possibilities of
concrete, which the)- used to construct the
Colosseum's massive foundations and parts of its
vaulted ceilings. The exterior was coveredwith
traverti ne 1imesto nea nd marble anddecor a ted
with columns andwith pilasters made of
another type of locallimestone. There were
76 entrance doors, called vomitoria, a word that
offers a vivid mental image of the crowds spilling
from the doors after an event. Roman citizens
flocked to the Colosseum to see mock sea battles
and gladiatorial fights with both man andbeast.
The Colosseum was designed almost 2,000
years ago for the entertainment of enormous
crowds. Today, in addition to stadiums and

amphitheaters, we have museums to attract the
public for entertainment, cultural instruction,
and reflection. Museums also serve as sources
of local distinction, much as cathedrals did
centuries ago. The design of the Guggenheim
Museum in New \brk City employs strong
458 THEMES
C
director of the museum had asked for, "a temple While the)- resemble the Egyptian pyramids in
Concrete: a hard, strong, and
of spirit, a monument/' The interior is open, their form, the ziggurat s of the ancient Near East,
versatile construction material
made up of powdered lime,sand, with a continuous spiral ramp aroundthe such as the one in the city-state of Ur in Sumer
and rubble central atrium connecting each successive floor. (now part of Iraq),were built to be usedby the
Pilaster, a vertical element,
The space is filled \vi th light from the domed living rather than to bun- the dead ( 4.7). The
square in shape, that provides
architectural support for skylight above. ziggurat was part of a temple complex with civic
crossing horizontal elements in andceremonial purposes. The mud-brick
post- and- lintel construction;
structures are made up of at least three stepped
also used for decoration
Atrium: a central, normally Manmade Mountains levels, accessedby stairways or ramps. The lowest
public, interior space, first used level is about 50 feet high and about 210 by 150
in Romanhouses
Buildings andother constructions intended to feet in area, with the others decreasing in size
Pyramid: ancient structure,
usually massive in scale, shape and dominate the environment— as as the)- get closer to the heavens. The topmost
consisting of a square base with Wright surely intendedwith his design for the platform served as an elevated stage for the priest.
four sides that meet at apointor
Guggenheim— have been made since ancient The priest, oneof the few people allowed access
apex with each side forming a
triangular shape times. Earthen moundsand pyramids are to the ziggurat, servedboth as the principal human
Ziggurat: Mesopotamian amongst the most intriguing kinds of architecture. intermediary to the god who protected the city
stepped tower, roughlypyramid-
shaped, that diminishes in size
Mysteries surroundtheir creation, function, and andthe chief administrator of the ziggurat.
toward a platform summit symbolic significance. Why were such substantial The ziggurat at Urwas dedicated to the moon
humanandmaterial resources devoted to these godNanna, one of the three important sky deities
manmade mountains? Whether the)- were built in Sumerian religion, whose sacred city it was.
as memorials for the dead, for administrative Festivals were organized aroundthe phases of the
purposes, or for religious worship and rituals, moon, especially when it appeared as a crescent,
these structures had a dramatic and lasting impact and offerings were left on the high platform to
on the geography of their locations (see Gateway please Nanna and ensure the abundance of such
Box: The Great Pyramid of Khufu, 4.8, p. 460). sacred liquids as water, milk,andblood.
4. 7 Ziggurat. Ur
(near Nasiriyah. Iraq).
originally builtc. 21 00 = c E
and heavily restored
C
Gateway to Art: The Great Pyramid of Khufii
Community Art: The Building of the Pyramids
we failed to match the best efforts of the ancient
builders, it was abundantly clear that their
expertise was the result not of some mysterious
technology or secret sophistication, but of
generations of practice and experience.
We found that stones weighing as much as
2.5 tons could be moved simply by tumbling.
Just four or five men were able to lever up and
flip over blocks of less than 1 ton. To shift
heavier blocks, a rope was looped around the
top and it was then pulled by up to twenty men,
with a couple more on leversbehind. But it is
most unlikely that sufficient stones could have
4.8 Great Pyramids at Giza. There are many theories as to howthe ancient been tumbled up a ramp to build a whole
left to right: Menkaure, Egyptiansmanaged to buildpyramids of such pyramid within a king's lifetime. Faster
Khafre. and Khufu. enormous size andprecision. Renowned
c. 2560 bce, Giza. Egypt
methods were needed.
archaeologist Mark Lehner wrote about Wooden sledges on rollers offered a much
assembling a team to test methods that may have quicker way of moving stones, even though, as
been used to construct the Great Pyramids Il.b]. we soon discovered, simply loading a block on
This experiment showedthat an enormous to a wooden sledge is an operation requiring
communal effort over manyyears was required considerable skill. Next, on soft sand we built
to make these great structures. The exact method an artificialtrackway of planed lumber,though
employed to buildthe pyramids remahs a mystery, ancient tracks were wider, with a surface of
however. hardened gypsum or packed clay. Then we used
rollers consisting of small, cylindrical pieces of
Iteamed up with Roger Hopkins, a stonemason wood. The lynchpin of the entire operation was
from Sudbury, Massachusetts, and a team of the man who received the rollers from the back
Egyptian masons, quarrymen, and laborers to of the sledge and putthem down in front, creating
build a small pyramid near the Giza plateau. a continually rolling roadway. With twelve to
Working in the shadow of the Great Pyramids, twenty men pulling the load at a swift pace, his
pressures of a film schedule allowed us only was a very skilled task. A huge number of rollers
three weeks for quarrying and three for building, would have been needed to move the stones up
so we were forced to use tools and technology on to the pyramid. With neither abundant supplies
not available to the ancient Egyptians. Our of wood, nor the mechanical lathe, this method
masons used iron hammers,chisels, and must have had only restricted application.
levers—their ancestors had only wood, stone, Artificial slideways proved a much more
and copper. And Roger brought in a front-end efficient method. In our experiment we built two
loaderforshifting and setting the stones of parallel retaining walls which were then filled
lower courses so that we would have time to with debris to create an inclined ramp. On top
test different methods at the top, where we built a roadbed with wooden crosspieces,
restricted space created special difficulties. following the approximate specifications of those
We knewthat to fully replicate pyramid at Lisht [another site]. We found that a 2-ton
building would require nothing less than stone on a sledge could be pulled by twenty
replicating ancient Egyptian society.Although men or fewer. This success, in conjunction with
460 THEMES
4.9a (right) First course of
pyramid is leveled
4.9b (right below) Raising
heavy blocks by levering
4.9c (farright) Raising
topmost blocks by levering
4.9d (far right below) Masons
-
trim casing from the top
dcwriward
evidenceof tomb representations and remains pyramid core stones. More critically, the
of ancient embankments and trackways at Lisht, wooden supports were precarious and
conv'nced us that this was the most likely unwieldy, in spite of our using planed lumber.
means the Egyptians used to bring in the bulk Similar difficulties arose with the fulcrum,
of the core stones. which had to rise with the load. It seemed to us, Course: a single row of
While it is widely agreed that ramps were therefore, that some system involving a ramp stones orbricks forming
a horizontal layer of astructure

used to raise blocks, several theorists have or ra mps was the most likely method used.
Tumbling: the use of levers
proposed that it was achieved by levering.When Many pyramid theorists resort to levering to to roll heavyobjects over
we put levering to the test, unforeseen difficulties explain how the capstone and the topmost short distances
emerged. A set of levers is needed on two sides courses were set, since by that levelthere was Gypsum: fine-grained,
powdery mineral often used
to lift a block: one side is raised and supported, simply no longer room for ramps. However, to to make a smooth plaster
then the other side is levered up to bring it leveL climb the pyramids of Khufu and Khafre and Levering: to move or raise an
As the stone is rocked upward it is supported on look down theirsteep slopes and narrow steps object using a leverlike action
Capstone: a final stone forming
a stack of wood. This required two deep notches is to realize that the great bulk of the pyramid the top of a structure; on a
in each side of a block,which are not found on could not have been raised in this way. pyramid, it is pyramid-shaped
c
i
A.10 Tomb rnound and Rather like the Egyptian pharaohs, the
complex of Emperor Gin Shi emperors of ancient China also tried to take
Huangd . C. 210 5CE. Lintong.
Shaanxi Province. China
their riches with them to the afterlife. Ancient
'CGI reconstruction) historiansdescribedhow the first Emperor of
China, Qin Shi Huangdi, prepared for his death
by constructing a burial mound with a vast
undergroundcity palace that matchedthe one
f
he occupied in life. These accountswere LA 1 Sold'="5 from mausoleum o: Empe-or C'n Shi
believed to besheer legend until 1974 when Huengd:. C. 2 10 BCE. Terracotta and pigment, :gures
excavations of a tomb moundrevealed evidence approximately lifesize. Lintong. Shaanxi Province. China
that the ancient stories were true ( LA o). Soon

after he came to the throne at the age of
thirteen, Qin Shi Huangdibegan overseeing the 10,000-20,000. As with other communities that
elaborate preparations for his own resting place, built such impressive structures, there is evidence
which continued for thirty- slx years untilhis of a highly organized society, advanced
death in2 10 bce. Artisans filled the complex engineering knowledge, and a productive work
surrounding Qin Shi Huangdi's tomb with all force at this site.
the treasures he would need inthe afterlife, The focal point of the settlement at Cahokia
including an army of terracotta soldiers and was Monks Mound,which was originally
horses (LAi). The 8,000 figures were intended surrounded by about 120 smaller mounds.The
to guard the body of the Emperor. The}- have base of MonksMoundmeasures 1,080 by 710 feet
similar rigid and upright poses, indicating that and is topped bv two smaller platforms. Though
a mold might have been used for the general its exact purpose is uncertain, MonksMound
shape, but each one has unique clothing, likely served as an elite residence, a temple,
weaponry, and facial features. a burial structure, or perhaps all three. Monks
More than one thousand years after the Moundis aligned with the sun at the equinoxes,
death of Qin Shi Huangdi, buildersmade the the two times of the year (in spring and fall) when
largest earthen mound ever discovered in North day and night are exactly the same length. These
America (la 2). Cahokia, located in what is now alignments suggest that it may have functioned as
southern Illinois near St. Louis, covered 6 square a calendar and also served a ceremonial purpose.
milesandhad an estimated population of The site was abandonedaround 600 years ago due
Lt>2 THEMES
c
4.12 Cahokia, Illinois, c. 1 150
'ÿeconstruction drawing)
4.13 Aerial photo o; the "uins

of the Aztecs' Ten-plo Mayor.
downtown Mexico City.
X - Mexico, with overlaid CGI

reconstruction drawing
to climate changes andthe depletion of natural

resources. Because Monks Mound has suffered
from slumping and erosion, the huge earthen
mound's appearance is much lessdramatic and
impressive than it must have been at the height
of Cahokia's occupation.
Unlike Monks Mound,we know that the
Aztec stepped pyramid called the Templo Mayor,
or Great Temple, was designed for a specific
purpose: as a platform for performing ritual
sacrifices (4.13). Our information about the
Great Temple comes from Aztec manuscripts,
Spanish accounts, and archaeological excavations
of the temple's remains underneath present-day-
Mexico City. On top ofthe Great Temple were
two shrines. The North Temple, dedicated to
Tlaloc, the rain god, was painted white andblue
and adorned with symbols of r ain and water,
including water plants. To the south -was the
temple of Huitzilopochtli,the god of war, painted
white and redanddecoratedwith symbols of
war and sacrifice. The construction of the
200-foot- tall Great Temple must have required
the labor of hundreds of people and vast
quantities of construction materials, but clearly
the Aztecs considered it a priceworth paying.
The hearts of war captives were cut out on a
sacrificial stone on top of the pyramid,a sacrifice
presented to the rain god in the hope that the
crops wouldberenewed andlife would continue
to flourish.
C
Three lyres, stringed instruments similar to
Ritual: Performance, a harp, were found amongst the magnificent
Balance, and Healing objects in the Royal Cemetery of Ur. Lyres were
popular musical instruments in ancient Sumer,
The production of art is often deeply connected but the example in £.u is more elaborate than
to philosophical, religious, and ideological most. As it -was found in a grave, it seems to have-
beliefs. Artworks made to be used in a ritual been intended as a suitable burial offering for a
context often have symbolic meanings in powerful person. Although thebodv of the
addition to their appearance and visual impact. instrument disintegratedlong ago, thewooden
With such objects as musical instruments, section of the lyre hasbeenreconstructed to give
temporary constructions, and masks, it is an idea of its appearance. The original panels on
u.M Sumerian bull lyre. important tokeep in mindthat the way they the soundbox of another of the lyres, made of
c. 2550-2«50=:e. Vvood. lap s
were experienced in theiroriginal context lapis lazuli and shell, have survived ( £.15). They
lazuli, gold, silver, shell,
would have beenverv different from the way reveal that the lyre,which played music we can no
bitumen, in modern wood ÿ
wenow see them in the pages of a book or

'
support, 46 x 55" . From the
King's Grave, Royal Cemetery. inside glass cases in museums. The objects
Lr. i -aq. Un ivers ty o- £.1 5 Inlaid panel from a Sume- an lyre's sound box,
themselves are suggestive of the sights, sounds,
Pennsylvania Museum showing mytholog cal gures.C. 2550-2400 EC E. Gold,
of Archaeology and and w'en smells 10 which we 110 lon8er silver, laois lazul'. shell, bitumen, and wood. 13" high.
Anthropology. Philadelphia have access. From the King's Grave, Royal Cemetery. Ur. Iraq
£6£ THEMES
longer hear, was also covered in symbols that we
now do not entirely understand. The panels show
animals engaged in such human activities as
dancing, walking on two legs, and bringing
instruments and refreshments to a ceremony,
probably much likethe ones in which this lyre
was used. The fusion of humans and beasts, such
as the scorpion man below and the human-
headedbulls above, suggests a sacred event,
perhaps a marriage or a funeral procession.
Some scholars, however, suggest that the scenes
decorating the lyre show activities in the
supernatural realm of the dead.
-Although the details of somecultures' ritual
performances, like the music of the Sumerians,
can no longer be recovered, other groups
recorded their rites in rock art that has survived
for thousands of years. Still other ancient people,
such as the Navajo of New Mexico, intentionally
chose an impermanent medium for their andincludes logs,holy plants, animals, and 4.17 Pair of Gelede
important ceremonies. Navajo sandpaintings deities. After an image hasbeen meticulously masque'aders wearing
aopliqued cloth panels,
are temporary works of art, constructed as part created over the course of days or weeks, a healing Ketu area, town of Idanin.
of a prayer or ceremony (4.16). The paintings are ceremony takes place, overseen by a shaman or Benin. Pnoto by Henry
closely connected to nature, both in materials medicine man (rarely a woman) .The person to John Drewal. 1971
used (such as corn, pollen, charcoal, sand, and behealedsits in the painting's center in order to
powdered stones) and imager}-. The subject absorb power from Navajo ancestors and from
matter comes from Navajo creation mythology the gods, whose images are depicted in the
painting. The shaman acts as an intermediary Lyre: a stringed instrument that
is playedbybeing plucked; the
4.16 Navajo medicine man Unhealing ceremony between the natural, physical world andthe
strings hang rrom a crossbar that
supernatural,spiritual realm. is supported bytwo arms
Masks and masquerades serve a similar connected to a hollow- box,
function of mediating between the humanand which amplifies the sound
Lapis lazuli: bright blue
spiritual realms. Masquerades enable humans to semiprecious stone containing
communicatewiththe spirit world, allowing the s odi umaluminums ilicate
masker's personality to be replaced temporarily and sulphur

Medium {plural media): the
with that of the spirit being evoked. At the same material on or from which an
time, the ritual performance of masquerades is artist choosesto makeawork
of art
often designed to reinforce the cultural beliefsof
Sand painting: also known as
a community. While the mask is generally the focal dry- painting, a labor-intensive
point of the performance, it mustbecombined method of painting using grains
with costumes, music, and dance in order to invoke of sand as the medium
Shaman: a priest or priestess
a particular spirit. Gelede rituals performed by regarded as having the ability to
the Yoruba in Nigeria celebrate female power, communicate directly with the
honor women as mothers, and commemorate the spiritual wo rid
Masquerade: performance in
woman's role in producing children in order to help which participants wear masks
sustain the community (4.17). These ceremonies and costumes for a ritual or
cultural purpose
acknowledge the important part playedby female
Gelede ritual: ritual performed
ancestors in Yoruba society and also promote in Nigeria's Yoruba society- to
spiritual well-being andsocial harmony. celebrate andhonor women
public art can be taken out of context or
Art in the Public Sphere misunderstood. Sometimes people can have
different views about what shouldbe seen
Not all art exists in galleries and museums. Public in public or is appropriate in a particular
art generally appears in plazas and parks, or on environment. Public artworks can excite strong
the exterior walls of buildings. Public artworks emotions, both positive and negative, and can
are therefore accessible to a wide audience, and sometimes spark fierce controversies.
the)- are often much beloved by the community. Tilted A rc,by the Ameri can Minimalist
But the)- can also cause problems. Sometimes sculptor Richard Serra (b. 1939),was
Perspectives on Art: Richard Serra

A Sculptor Defends His Work
In 1979 the General Services Administration (GSA)

contractedthe American sculptor Richard Serra
to install a work on Federal Plaza in New York
City. The sculpture, Tilted Arc, was erected in
1981. The work proved controversial and in
1985 Serra had to defend his sculpture at a
public hearing.
My name is Richard Serra and I am an

American sculptor.
I don't make portable objects. I don't make
works that can be relocated or site adjusted.
I makeworks that deal with the environmental
componentsofgiven places. The scale, size,
and location of my site-specific works are
determined by the topography of the site,
whether it be urban, landscape, oran
architectural enclosure. My works become part
of and are built into the structure of the site,
and they often restructure, both conceptually
and perceptually, the organization of the site.
My sculptures are not objects for the viewer
to stop and stare at. The historical purpose
of placing sculpture on a pedestal was to
establish a separation between the sculpture
and the viewer. I am interested in creating a
behavioral space in which the viewer interacts
with the sculpture in its context.
6.18 Richa-d Se-ra. TltedArc. 1981 (destroyed March 15.

198?]. Weatherproof steel. 12'x 1 20'x 27f . Collection
Gene-al Services Adrn'n st'at'on. Washington. D.C.
Installed at Fede-alPlaza. NewYork
666 THEMES
commissioned by the federal General Services attracting graffiti artists, rats, criminals, and
Administration (GSA) andinstalled on Federal potentially even terrorists. .Although the majority
Plaza in downtown New York City in 1981 ( 4.1 8). of testimonies at a public hearing to decide
It becamethe subjectof contr oversy shortly after whether or not to leavethe sculpture in place
it was installed The 12 foot by 120 foot sculpture, were in favor of keeping the work, it was ordered
a curvingwall of Cor-ten steel, cut across the to be removed. The artist's law-suit against the
plaza. Some of the people who worked inthe GSA GSA failed to reverse the decision andthe
building complained that it interferedwith their sculpture was dismantled in 1989. Serra had
use of the plaza and caused a safety hazard as well, argued that TiltedArc was designed specifically
for Federal Plaza and that relocating it was the
equivalent of destroying it,so the metal was sent
One's identity as a person is closely to a scrap yard (see Perspectives on Art Box:
connected with one's experience of space and Richard Serra: A Sculptor Defends His Work).
place. When a knownspace ischanged through Even though the sculpture was demolished, the
the inclusion of a site-specific sculpture, one is artist's hope of making people aware of their
called upon to relate to the space differently. environment, pay attention to the path they
This isa conditionthat can be engendered only follow on the way to work, and think about their
by sculpture. This experience of space may surroundings was in some ways achievedby the
startlesome people. attention generatedby the controversy.
When the government invited me to The dispute over Serra's Tilted Arc raises many
propose a sculpture for the plaza it asked for questions that have a bearing on the form and
a permanent, site-specific sculpture. As the functions of all public art. What is the desired
phrase implies, a site-specific sculpture is one impact of public art? Does it need to please its
that is conceived and created in relation to the audience, or can it be used as a tool to challenge
particular conditions of a specific site, and only their beliefs and experiences? Flow much weight
to those conditions. shouldbe given to the artist's freedom of
To remove Tilted Arc, therefore, would be to expression? Should considerationbe given to
destroy it... whether the artwork is in keepingwith the kind
It has been suggested that the public did not of work an artist is known to produce? Flow
choose to install the work in the first place. In much power should public voices be given,
fact, the choice of the artist and the decision to whether theybelong to specialists in the artworld
install the sculpture permanently in the plaza or members of the general community? What
were made by a public entity: the GSA. Its bearing does the issue of funding—which may-
determination was made on the basis of national come from the government through special
standards and carefullyformulated procedures, programs aimed at promoting public art or from
and a jury system ensured impartiality and the individual patrons— have on how-one answers
selection of art of lasting value. such questions?
The selection of this sculpture was, The subject matter of public art, especially
therefore, made by, and on behalf of, the public. when it has politicalimplications, has also been
The agency made its commitments and a source of debate. One of the most infamous
signed a contract. If its decision is reversed in scandals surrounding a public art project Minimalist: a mid-twentieth-
century artistic style
response to pressure from outside sources, the occurred in 1932when the Mexican artist Diego characterized by- its simple,
integrityof governmental programs related to Rivera ( 1886-1957) was commissionedby- unified, and impersonal look,
the arts will be compromised, and artistsof American businessman andmillionaire Nelson and often employing geometrical
or massive forms
integrity will not participate. If the government Rockefeller to paint a mural in the Radio Cor-ten steel: a type of steel that
can destroy works of art when confronted with Corporation .Arts (RCA) Building at Rockefeller forms a coating of rust that
such pressure, itscapacity to fosterartistic Center inManhattan. Rivera was inspiredby- protects it from the weather and
further corrosion
diversity and its powerto safeguard freedom of Mexico's tradition of adorning walls with Mural: a painting executed
creative expression will be in jeopardy. paintings and sculptures, which originatedlong directly- on to a wall
6.19 Diego Rivera. Man.
Controller of 'Me Universe.
or Man in the Time Machine.
1934. Fresco. 1 5'11"x 37'67=".
Full composite view o: the
i_esco. Palaciode Belles
Artes. Mexico City, Mexico
before European contact. Such murals create an debase himself to the level of unformed and
environment rich with stories related to all impoverished taste."
aspects of life. Rivera's written plan for Man at the Rivera's public art projects have influenced
Crossroads Looking with Hope and High Vision to artists since the 1930s, thoughby no means do all
the Choosing of a New and Better Future ,which public murals generate such controversy. The
Rockefeller approved, included depictions of hundreds of muralsthat now adorn the walls of
forces of nature as well as technology, and looked buildings in San Francisco are part of a rich
forward to "the liquidation of Tyranny" and a tradition that began with the three murals Rivera
more perfect society. In the course of painting, painted at the Pacific Stock Exchange, the San
however, Rivera made some changes inspired by Francisco .Art Institute, and the 1939World's
his communist inclinations.The most notable Fair (now at San Francisco City College).
was on the right side of the mural,where he Contemporary muralist Susan Cervantes (b. 1944)
included a portrait of the Russian revolutionan- founded the Precita EyesMuralArts Center in
Vladimir Lenin leading a demonstration of San Francisco to focus on issues of Hispanic
workers in a MayDay parade. heritage, to promote community-based art
When he was asked to remove Lenin's projects, and to make art accessible to inner- city
portrait, Rivera refused, and offered instead to residents. The community aspects of all these
balance it with a depiction ofAbraham Lincoln. initiatives are crucial. Local residents help decide
Rockefeller rejected this proposal,paid Rivera the subjects of the murals and they also
his full fee, andbannedhim from thebuilding. collaborate on their creation. Cervantes served as
Rockefeller then made plans to remove the lead artist for an award-winning mural called
mural. An outpouring of public support for the Precita Valley Vision on the facade of the Precita
project followed: picket lines were formed, Valley Community Center (6.20). In addition to
newspaper editorials were published, and Rivera shoeing activities promoted by the center, the
made a speech at a rally outside City Hall. mural commemorates a tragic event in nearby
Despite suggestions that the muralbe moved a Precita Park, where tw o teenagers had been
few blocks away to the Museum of Modern Art, murderedwhile on a picnic. Their faces are
it was ultimately demolishedwith pickaxes in included among the depictions of cultural
February 1934. That same year Rivera re-created performances, athletic displays, and welcoming
the mural,with the new title Man, Controller scenes of community As this mural project
of the Universe, in Mexico City ( 6.1 9). Rivera reveals, art displayed in public places often
rather bluntly describedthe conflict that can reflects issues that resonate for the community, by
arise between the vision of artists with strong commemorating people who were once part of it
opinions andtheir audiences: "[The artist] must andby raising issues— such as violent crime—
try to raise the level of taste of the masses, not that need to be addressed.
668 THEMES
c
J
4. 2 0 Pre ci:a Valley Vision .
1996. Lead muralist Susan
Cervantes. Mural, 30x2B'.
C< Frec'ta Valley Community

Center, San F-anc'sco,
California
Discussion Questions consider thework controversial? Explain your

reasons. Was the artwork publicly funded?
1 In this chapter you havestudied artworks th at Are you in favor of such works receiving
in different ways reflect the importance of public funding? Compare the artwork to a
community. What does community mean to controversial artwork discussed inthis chapter.
you? Think of an artwork inyour community 3 rhrww a ur.i-l in this chapter that was the
(a building,painting,or sculpture for result of the combined efforts of a number
example). Discuss the ways inwhich it of people. Then find three other collaborative
conveys (or perhaps contradicts)vour own works elsewhere in this book ( 1.1, 1.125, 2.120)
ideas of the importance of community. or by searching the Internet. Compare the
2 Researdi a public artwork that interests you. ways inwhich collaboration affected the
Consider art in public buildings, parks, works and how the results were innovative
schools and colleges, churches, etc. Do you or inspiring.
THEMES
4.2
Spirituality and Art
For as long as art has been made, there have been spirits of the natural world or ancestors; artworks
artworks inspired by beliefs in ancient deities, that reflect communicationwith the spirit world;
spirit beings, andthe sacred figures of the world's and places that have a sacred resonance.
religions. Through these works artists have sought
to express things that cannot be seen and are little
understood. In this chapter we use the term Deities
spirituality to examine the ways inwhich beliefs
have generally inspired artists for thousands of Artists communicate the stories of specific
years. Spirituality encompasses our sense of being religious figures or deities to help explain their
connected to others, our awareness of both mind importance. Depictions of individuals considered
and body, and our wish to understand life's divine in Greek mythology,the Christian Bible,
4.21 Aoolto. Centau". = nd
Lapith, fragments o; relief meaning and theworld inwhich we find ourselves. and Buddhist scripture can make those
sculptures ;rom West Spirituality serves as a source of inspiration and individuals more accessible and memorable.
Pediment o; Temple of Zeus. a way for us to share our beliefs. This chapter The ancient Greeks often made artworks to
Olympia, G "eece, c. 460 SCE.
investigates tour broad categories of artworks with honor their gods anddeities. The sculptures
Marble. 8'8"x10'10".
Archaeological Museum, a spiritual context artworks that incorporate in 4.21 are from the pediment of the temple
Olympia. Greece specific gods or deities; artworks that refer to the dedicated to the god Zeus at Olympia, Greece,
470 THEMES
where the Olympic Games were born. The scene In Christian Europe in the eleventh century,
Pediment: the triangular space,
depicts the legendary- battle between the Lapiths visual artists often illustratedthemes and events
columns, at the end of a building ofThessalv and the Centaurs— half-human and from the Bible. Bishop Bernward, who directed
in the Classical style half-horse creatures, which, according to Greek the building of the Churchof St. Michael's at
Idealized: represented as perfect
informor character.
mythology, lived in the nearby mountains. Hildesheim, Germany, commissioned a set of
corresponding to an ideal During the wedding feast of the Lapith king, the doors that depict scenes from thebook of
Centaurs, who were amongst the guests, dr ank Genesis on the left side and scenes from the life
too much wine and tried to abduct thebride ofChrist on the right. In chronological order the
andthe other women. The civilized Lapiths doors are read counterclockwise,beginning at
are depicted as idealized, rigid, andwithout the top of the left door. But the panels are also
emotion. The barbarian Centaurs, on the other arranged so that events from the Old Testament
hand,are shown with more dramatic gestures are paired with related episodes from the New
and ferocious expressions. Apollo, the god of the Testament (4.22 a-c).
sun, who was also associated with the poetic arts For example, the third panel from the top
and medicine, stands at the center of the event matches the Tree of Knowledge on the left with
andbrings order to the violent the Tree of Life on the right. In the left scene the
struggle. He is the appropriate original sin iscommitted. Because Eve accepted
deity for this scene because he the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge,
represents reason, order, and male she andAdam were expelled from the Garden of
beauty. The Centaurs, who are Eden into theworld of suffering anddeath. On
associated,by their drinking, the right, the cross on which Jesus was crucified,
with Dionysus the god ofwine, understood as the Tree of Life, offers eternal life
represent the opposite attributes of to believers who ask for forgiveness of their sins
change, chaos, and even madness. and accept Christ as their savior. The elongated
Old Testament New Testament
Paradise Formation Noli Me Paradi se

Lost of Eve Tangere Gained
Eve The Three

Salutations Presented to Marys at the Salutations
Adam Tomb
Tree of Temptation The Tree of Li*'e,
Knowledge and Fall Crucifixion The Cross,
(sin) Salvation
Accusation and Judgment of
Judgment Judgment of Jesus by Judgment
4.22a ;above) Deta'lof Adam and Eve Pitete i
Hildesheim Doors: Expuls on

;-om the Ga'den o: Eden Separation Expulsion from Presentation o: Reunion
from God Paradise Jesus in Temple with God
4.22b ght' Doors deoict'ng
scenes ;rom Genesis and the
Firstborn Son Adam and Eve Adoration of FirstbornSon
of Eve (Cain) Working the Magi o*' Mary (Jesus)
L ;e o: Ch-'st, comm'ssioned and Wealth
and Poverty
by E'shoo Bernwa_d for the
Abbey Church o: St. Michael's. Abel's Offerings by
Sacrificial Cain (grain) and Jesus, Lamb
Hildesheim, 1015. Bronze. The Nativity
of God
1o' 6 high. Dom-Museum. Lamb Abel (lamb)
HTdesheim, Germany
Despair, Sin. Hope and
Cain Slaying The
Murder Everlasting
4.22c ';a"r'ght; Diagram with Abel Annunciation
Life
identi;'cation o* panels on
HTdesne m Doo_s
SPIRITUALITY ANDART 471
behind him. At the top of the sculpture he is
shown reclining as he achieves tranquillity, called
nirvana. The smaller carvings along the sides of
the stela show noteworthy moments after he
decided to leave his princely life at die age o f thi rty
to become a holy man.
Spiritual Beings and

Ancestors
InAfrican cultures, artworks often reflect beliefs
in the spirits of gods and ancestors. According to 4.24 Mother-and-child
these cultures' traditional beliefs, objects are -'igure, late 1?th-mid-20th

century. Wood, 25" high.
infused with a spiritual presence. The)- help to Cleveland Museum of Art.
continue and preserve cultural practices, beliefs, Ohio
and family ties. Contemporary artists who
examineblack history often refer to traditional
African art,customs, and rituals in their artwork.
The religion of the Senufo people of West
Africa is centered on a creator deity, nature
spirits, and ancestors, including a female
ancestral spirit called"ancient mother" or
"ancient wo man." These spirits can be
beneficial or harmful. The)- are often
4.23 Life of Buddha, stela. Gupta period, c. 675 CE. depicted as beingswith an anatomy very different
Sandstone. 61 high. India Museum, Calcutta, lnd:a
"
from that of humans.The head, legs, and

detailed features of the Senufo sculpture in
and frail appearance of the figures and the 4.24 are relatively small while the arms
unnaturalistic settings reflect the Christian andbreasts are exaggerated. The
emphasis on internal, spiritual matters and inclusion of a nursingbaby
themes instead of the exterior, physical world suggests that this is one of the
The subject matter of Buddhist art is the life female ancestral spirits. Such an
of Buddha andhis teachings andbeliefs, which "ancient woman" would serve as a
are considered pathways to achieving spiritual guiding spirit for adult males in the
perfection. Buddha, or the Awakened One, was community, who were responsible
a Hinduprince named Siddhartha Gautama who for maintaining Senufo religious
lived in Nepal andnorthern India from about andhistorical traditions.
563 to 483 3CE. The larger panels of the stela Intraditional African
in 4.23 show the cycle of Buddha's life. In the cultures, functional objects were
bottom section we see his miraculousbirth as often esteemed as status symbols.
he emerges from his mother's right side. These objects,which could
The second section, above thebirth scene, is include staffs, masks, and even
the moment of his enlightenment as hetouches wooden stools, acquired their
the earth with a symbolic gesture of strength and power through use, and only
renewal. In the third section he is shown giving people of a certain rank could
his first sermon, seated with his legs crossedand own them. This chair from
his hands posed in prayer, with thewheel of law the Democratic Republic of
472 THEMES
represented by figure s like "Aunt Jemima." Saar
has an ongoing interest in religious beliefs and decorated with inscriptions or
revered objects, finding imagery and ideas in the pictorial relief carvings
traditions of voodoo and spirit worship. The title Chevron: a V-shaped stripe,
often reproduced upside
of her sculpture Ancestral Spirit Chair conveys the down or on its side in
power an object can have for later generations decorative patterns
(6.26). Like the Ngombe chair in 6.25, which Stereotypes: oversimplified
notions, especially about
incorporatesEuropean tacks and construction marginalized groups, that can
techn iques,Saar' s cha ir co mbines co ntrasting lead to prejudicedjudgments
materialsandmethods.The European- style legs, Voodoo: a religion based on
Roman Catholic and traditional
seat, and back are made of unrefined twigs that
African rituals, practiced in the
have been embellishedwith paint,bone, glass, West Indies and southemU.S.
andmetal. Saar hasstated:
Iam not about imitating African art or

primitive art, but Iam interested in the power
it has and that kind of power being transferred 6.26 Betye Saar, Ancestral
6.25 Cha'". early 20th century. Wood, brass.and 'ron
to the work Ido. .And by power, Imean some Spin: Chair, 1992. Painted
tacks. 23:/sx 13V-x232A". NationalMuseum of African
wood, glass, plastic, metal.
Art. Sm'thson'an Institution. Washington. D.C. kind of communication between me and my
and vine. 60x46x32". Smith
materials on one leveland then the final College Museum 0:Art.
product, communicating with the viewer. Northampton, Massachusetts
Congo isbelieved to have belonged to a chiefof
the Ngombe people ( 6.25). It was carved from a
single block ofwood (with the exception of the
crossbeams) anddecorated with brass and iron
tacks imported from Europe. This stool, by itself
a symbol of dignity and authority, contains a
triangular chevron motif at the top andbottom
of the seat, which suggests masculinity and
royalty. Such a stool, used throughout a person's
life, acquired additional significance after the
user diedby sen* ingasthe resting place for
the soul. Family ties and the continuation of
practices established by ancestors were especially
important inthe case of the chief, who was
considered divine or semidivine. This stoolwas
a tangible reminder of its owner's status and
values even after hedied. As it was passed down
or prepared to accompany the ruler in the
afterlife, such an object served as a tangible
reminder of the owner's life and carried his
legacy for later generations.
The contemporary African American artist
Betye Saar (b. 1926) has adopted some of the
influences that were important to traditional
African groups as she explores themes of personal
andcommunal identity. Saar examines the
survival of African traditions in black culture
and often challenges stereotypes, such as those
C
In other cases, rulershavebeen depicted
Connecting with the interacting directly with divine beings or travelling
Gods into supernatural realms.Artworks that show
thesekinds of interaction reinforce the power
Communication with the gods has been an of rulers by convincing their people that the}- are
important subject matter for art in many blessed, even aidedby the gods, andworthy of
cultures. Sometimes special individuals serve their exalted position.
as intermediaries between people and a deity. Human interaction with a deity is the focal
Christian saints and mythological figures interact point of the Stela of Naram-Sin (4.27). Naram-
with gods to provide role models or to help Sin, an,Akkadian king who ruledcentral
educateviewers about religious practices. Mesopotamia (part of modern Iraq) around
2254-2218 3CE, was both a religious figure and
a military leader. Hisstela commemorates the
Akkadian victory over the Lullubi people.
sandstone, 6'7" x 3'5". Musee
du Louvre, Fan's, France The lower portions of the scene show signs of
the battle that has taken place on a mountain.
Above, Naram-Sin standsvictorious near the
summit, his hornedhelmet and larger size
emphasizing his importance. The sun god is
not depicted in human form but appears
symbolically as a sunburst. Naram-Sin's location
as close as possible to the sun god illustra tes his
own supreme, divine status in society and,
especially considering the recent victory, suggests
that he was looked upon with approval by the
gods. In the ancient Near East there was a close
relationship between people andthe gods.
Because humans were imperfect and in need of
assistance from a higher being, prayerswere
offered, and rituals and sacrifices performed,
to keep the gods happy. As the deified
representative of his community, a ruler like
Naram-Sin needed to maintain a favorable
connection with the supernatural realm in order
to ensure continued prosperity for his kingdom.
During the MiddleAges, Christians in the
Eastern Orthodox Church used icons depicting
holy figures as a focus of devotion and a source
of inspiration. Iconswere believed to be able to
communicate with God and were even sometimes
considered to haveother miraculous powers.
Many were painted on wood panels, which meant
the>r couldbe carried around, although some
were attached to chapel screens in churches.
The portable icons, however, were more
accessible for ordinary people. The}- couldalso
be transported from Byzantium to distant places,
such as Russia, in order to help spread Christian
beliefs. Although icons themselves were not
474 THEMES
been in Moscow almost continuously since 1395).
Icon: a small, often portable,
Only the faces are original; the rest of the panel,
religious image venerated by
probably damagedby people touching it,has Christian believers; first used by
been repainted. the Eastern Orthodox Church
Linear outline: aline that
The Ecstasy of St Teresa byGianlorenzo
dearly separates a figure from
Bernini (1598-1680) is another Christian its surroundings
artwork that is meant to inspire devotion and Stylized: art that represents
objects in an exaggeratedly
reverence (4.29). It was madebetween 1647
and 1652 to decorate a funerary chapel for the the object
4.29 Gianlorenzo Benin. 7he Ecstasy of St. Teresa, 1647-

52. Polychromed n-a-ble. gilt, bronze, yellow glass. :resco.
and stucco. 6'1 1" high [figures only], Cornaro Chapel,
Santa Ma- a della Vittoria, Rorre, Italy
4. 28 Virgin ofVtadirrir, 1 2th century ioe;o-e 1132).

Tempe'3 on panel, 307* x 21Va" . Tretyakov Gallery.
Moscow, Russ'a
worshiped as divine, the}- became the subjects

of intenseveneration because they depicted
individuals whose saintliness meant they
were dose to God, and therefore able to
spread goodness.
The Orthodox Church required the form
and content of icons to follow traditionalrules.
As a result, although each painting is unique,
it has a family resemblance to other icons: gold
backgrounds, linear outlines, and stylized
but believable poses. Itwas important that the
figures inthe icons couldbe recognized bv
anyone who saw them. Thus the Madonna and
Childwere always shown with haloes to
represent their holiness. The Virgin of"Vladimir
portrays Man- as the "Virgin of Loving Kindness,1'
with her face touching Jesus to emphasize her
virtue (4.28).This icon, probably made in
Constantinople, was intended to bless and
protect the city inwhich it was housed (it has
Cornaro family in the Churchof Santa Maria St. Teresa's piety, which serves as an example to
della Vittoria in Rome, Italy. This be followed by the devout
icul£turÿ(more than 11feet tall) depicts one of InBernini's Christian artwork, it is the angel
St. Teresa of Avila's mystical visions: she is about who has had to descend from heaven to visit
to be piercedby an angel's arrow that will infuse St. Teresa on earth. But in Mesoamerica it was
her with divine love. The theatrical staging and the human rulerswho possessed the ability to
the emphasis on dramatic light— createdby the cross the threshold from one world to another.
use of gilt bronze rays behind the figures andby Olmecleaders sat on "altars," or thrones, during
the light falling from a hidden window above the public ceremonies. The altar from the Olmec
sculpture—are typical of the Baroque style. site of La Venta, Mexico, in 6.30 shows a ruler
Bernini's sculpture is executedwith great emerging from a cave opening. He holds a rope
attention to detail. The whole scene seems to take that stretches aroundthe backof the monument
place in the clouds and the angel almost hovers and wraps aroundthe carved necks of several
above St. Teresa. Marble is made to suggest seated prisoners. All of the elements in the
several different textures including smooth skin, altar reflect important motifs in the creation
gauzy fabric, clinging draperies, and the heavy mythology and belief systems of the Olmec. The
wool of the nun's habit worn by the saint. The cave is a point of access to the here and now from
combination of accurate and believabledetails a previousworld or an underworld. The carvings
with an exaggerated picture of devotion reflects over the man's head indicate that the cave is a
6.30 Altar 6, LaVenta, the Catholic Church's new emphasis at that time- livingbeing with eyes, nose, andteeth. This
c. BOO 5CE. Basalt. 5?V."
on believers establishing a strongly personal opening is likethe jaws of the earth monster.
high. Pa "que Museo La
Venta. Villahermosa, relationship with Christ. In Bernini's sculpture The cave was considered the place of creation,
Tabasco. Mexico Christ's Passion is relived in the intensity of like a womb, so when it is combined with the
676 THEMES
c
6.31 Rhinoceros. emerging figure it signifies the birth of man, indicate that a shaman is in a trance-like state,
bird- needed men. end as if all life originates from the ruler. The rope- when he or shebecomes another being and
disennboweled bison.
in his hand reveals that healso possesses the brings divine properties to the community.
c. 15000-13000=:=.
Peinton limestone. Lesceux power to capture and control the prisoners In this painting, therefore, the human figure
Ceves, Dordogne, F-ence who will be sacrificed in order to appease the maybe depictedwi th a bird'shead to show
gods and ensure continued prosperity for the that he is becoming a birdor a bird deity.
entire community. Thus, this painting probably sen*ed a ritual
The spirit world and its impact on people or ceremonial function.
have been conceived of in numerous ways even
beforewritten historybegan. The bird-headed
man painted on a cave wall at Lascauxin Sacred Places
southern France is a rare example of a human
Baroque: European artistic and depicted during Paleolithic times (6.31). In We all have places that restore our souls. Whether
architectural style of the late
sixteenth to early eighteenth this case, it may have been important to show it is the mountains, the beach, or the family-
centuries, characterizedby a person in order to tell a specific story about dinner table, there are places that allow us to
extravagance and emotional the interaction between a man, a rhinoceros, feel connectedand at peace. Certain artworks
intensity
Passion: the arrest, trial, and and a bison. The figure seems to belying down, represent places of personal retreat or communal
execution of Jesus Christ, and his suggesting that he hasbeen killed by one of the worship as sites of reverence, renewal, and
sufferings duri ng them beasts. Because the human hasthe head of a contemplation. By marking these sites and
Paleolithic: prehistoric period.
extending from 2.5 million to bird, he may represent a shaman, who acts as communicating these experiences, artists and
12,000years ago an intermediary between the invisible spirit architects give us a sense of their connectedness
Shaman: a priest or priestess world andthe physical realm of humans. to nature, religion, or community (see Box: What
regarded as having the ability to
communicate directly with the A shaman uses magic for healing or to control Makes a Place Sacred?, pp. 478-9; and Gateway
spiritual world events. Wearing an animal or birdmask can Box: Matisse, 6.37, pp. 482-3).
What Makes a Place Sacred?
Places that people returned to again and again, the most magnificent paintingsare contained in
like the prehistoric caves of Lascauxand the the Hall of the Bulls (4.32b) in the main cave,
catacombs of Rome, were clearly important for which is 66 feet wide and 16 feet high. The hall
their users. When such places, which had been is located near the entrance to the system of
created for memorial orreligious purposes, caves, unlikethe painting in 4.31 (see p. 677),
were adorned with artworks, their sacred which is in a remote part of the complex. The
nature took on a new dimension. hall, asitsname suggests, is decorated with
The walls of the Lascaux Caves in southern outlines and realistic details of numerous
France (4.32a) were painted sometime between bulls— one ofthemmore than 15 feet long.
4.32a Hall or the Bulls. Plan 15000 and 13000 BCE. One section is densely The paintings in this area overlap, indicating
or Lascaux Caves. Dordogne. packed with paintings of animals (4.32b). The that the site was visited repeatedly, that it
France effort requ ired to adorn the walls of the caves was decorated over a period of time, and that
with so many images suggests that these making these paintings in this particular place
4.32b Hall or the Bulls.
F 'gment on limestone rock. depictionsof animals that were encountered on was significant. They mark it as a location that was
Lascaux Caves a daily basis were incredibly important. Some of sacred in some way tothe people who used it.
Becausethe makers of the paintingsat
Lascaux had no system of writing, we must
deduce the stories of these images from the
pictures themselves. In addition to telling a story,
which was one likely purpose of the images,
prehistoric cave paintings mayalso have been
used to teach hunting and to represent shamanic
or ritual practices (as suggested by the bird-
headed man). Paintings similar to those at
Nave
Lascaux have been found in otherplaces in
France and also in Spain, indicating that these
paintings were part of a widespread cultural
practice by people who either moved from place
to place or shared ideas with others.
The human desire to paint important or
sacred places is equally evident in the catacombs
constructed outside the city of Rome, Italy,
between the second and fourth centuriesCE.
An underground system of tunnels measuring
between 60 and 90 miles in length and
containing the ancient remainsof 6 million
people, the catacombs were sacred spaces for
Romans, who held different religious beliefs and
went there to visit their ancestors' burial places.
While pagan Romans practiced both cremation
and burialof the dead, burial was especially
important for Jews and Christians. The
catacombs were also used as temples for
religious observances, a space where Christians
could gather, and hiding places for fugitives.
478 THEMES
C
Prehistoric: daring from the
Catacomb o* Priscilla period of human existence
before the invention of writing
Catacombs: an underground
system of tunnels used for
burying and commemorating
the dead
Realistic: artistic style that aims
to represent appearances as
accurately* as possible
artist paints onto freshly* applied
Cubicle of plaster. Fromthe Italian fresco ,
theVelata fresh
Entrance
6.33a Plan and sect'on

[through nnah gallery o*
oldest region; of catacomb of
Callixtus. 2nd centuryCE.
Rome. Italy
6.33b Catacombs of P-'scilla.

2nd and 3rd centu" esCE,
ViaSalaria, Rome. Italy
Like Lascaux, the catacombs contain the central figure in the Christian fresco from
paintings in different types of areas. In the the catacombs of Priscilla is shown standing in
catacombs, frescoes ornament both the places a praying position (6.33b). Such a pose appears
used for burial and the rooms in which people in pagan art, but it has a distinct meaning for
could congregate. The paintings consist of pagan, Christians, who understand the figure to be
Jewish, and Christian scenes. Although the same praying to their god. Using imagery, such as
imagery was seen by Romans of all three faiths, this prayerful person, that was familiar to
particular subjects, such as banquet scenes or practitioners of other religions probably helped
shepherds, would be interpreted differently, win potential converts to Christianity while also
according to the viewer's religion. For example, conveying a clear message to existing believers.
C
A mosque is a building where Muslims gather times a day facing the direction of the city of Mecca.
to pray to Allah. Because mosques are often the A special prayer niche (mihrab), placed on the
largest structures in a city, the}- havealso played wall orientedtoward Mecca (qibla wall) indicates
a significant role in community activities when the correct direction for worshipers' prayers.
used as schools or hospitals. The Mosque of The -walls of the Mosque are decorated with
the Imamin Isfahan (present-day Iran) has the intricate blue tilework, calligraphic texts,
four iwans, or yaulted entran ces between the and foliage designs commonly found inIslamic
courtyard and the mosque's interior. Large towers architecture. A fine example of complex
(minarets) rise above the city to call citizens to Islamic geometric patterning can be seen in
prayer. Pointed arches, a characteristic feature of the honeycombdesign of the muqarnas in one
Islamic architecture, crown the mihrab, iwans, iwan entrance to the Mosque ( 6.3 6). The
and decorative walkways throughout the mosque. muqarnas (or stalactite vaults) are decorative
6.36 Main entrance portal
(iwan). Masjid-'-Shah, ea_ly In its central courtyard there is a large pool for elements originally used to cover the tombs of
17th century. Is;anan, Iran cleansing before prayer. Muslims must pray five holy men. The shape of the muqarnas in the
pointedvault resembles a series of smalldomes
lined up in rows and stacked on top of one
another. One description suggests that the
muquarnas sanctify the space bysymbolizing
"the rotating dome of heaven."
Marking a site as sacred is a common practice
in the long-standing Japanese religion called
Shinto,which emphasizes the ways such natural
elements as the sun, mountains, water, and trees
are connected to well-being. LTnlike Christianity
and Islam, Shinto focuses on the here and now
and reveres nature itself as a deity. For example,
Shinto recognizes a mountain as a sacred object
because it is the source of water for rice
cultivation. Such a mountainwas once worshiped
directly,but over time shrines were built as places
to worship a god,known as a Kami, that was
important to a particular area or community.
These sites, like the Grand Shrine oflse, or Ise
Jingu, started with small piles of stones in an area
surroundedby stone enclosures, which have
gradually evolved to includebuildings,fences,
and gates.
Ise Jingu is one of thousands of shrines
throughout Japan dedicated to the sun goddess
Amataerasu Omikami. Localresidents visit
the shrine to revere the goddess and seek her
assistance. The site is now marked by a stately
A -framed wooden building that is simple indesign
and made with natural materials (6.35). Because
nature is cyclical, the shrine must also berenewed
and refreshed. Since 690 ce, Ise Jingu has been
rebuilt every twenty years with a special ceremony
in which meals are shared with the Kami, infusing
the everyday act of eating with r itual significance.
68 0 THEMES
c
A-frame: an ancient form of
structural support, made out of
beams arranged so that the shape
of the bulldi ng res emble s a
capital letter A
Octagonal: eight-sided
Abstract Expressionism: a
mid-twentieth-century artistic
style characterized by its capacity
to convey intense emotions using
non- representational images
6.35 ise j ngu, site dates The Rothko Chapel in Houston,Texas, is a wanted his paintings to be hung a certain distance
--on- 6th centu-ycE, -ebudt
1993. Mie Prefecture, Japan , . , „ ...
place of worship open to people of all beliefs
„ , ,,
(6.36 .i. The chapel s octagonal interior walls hold
from the floor, presented in low lighting, and
, , ,
shown together in a group in order to create an
fourteen paintings by the Russian-born American environment that enveloped and transported
Abstract Expressionist painter Mark Rothko viewersbeyond their everyday experience.
( 1903-70). Rothko worked closely with the The canvases at the Rothko Chapel employ a
architects on the designs for the chapel. He restricted, dark palette of colors ranging from
6.36 Rothko Chaoel, 1966-71,

N'ev ICollect'on, Houston.
Texas
c
Designs with Cutouts
The French artist Henri Matisse (1869-1954) nurse named Monique Bourgeois.Bourgeois
employed paper cutouts to create finished later became a nun and she asked Matisse to
works of art, but he also used cutouts to plan build a chapel for herconvent in Vence, near
works in othe r media. Icarus was designed the Mediterranean coast of France.Matisse
as a cutout and produced as a stencil print agreed andworked on the Chapelof the Rosary
in a book (4.38). Late in his career Matisse used from 1948 to 1951.
cutouts to design the entire interior of a Matisse considered the Chapel of the Rosary
4.37 Chapel of the Rosary,
building. to be his masterpiece (4.37). It combined the
Vence, Cote d'Azur, France.
Plan devised by Henri In 1941,while recovering from surgery for interests in form and color that had been
Matisse, 1948-51 intestinalcancer, Matisse was cared for by a developing throughout his entire career, and it
maroon and plum to black. The fields of color
un mtnnws-
Wj are intense and powerful, creating a tranquil and
tjt '.VcxtA
/, A-0
ÿ
&-*A t * ''
* % contemplative atmosphere. The chapel marks a
culmination in the artist's search for the simplest
means to express universal truths that are
Ciiyyif "'"
an*** yyr- spiritual in nature but unconnected to any-
e,ÿ *-<w- particular religious experience or doctrine.
The Rothko Chapel hasbecome a sacred place
at'OrtJ*'""- for worship and religious sen-ices, a site for
cUf ÿ
performances and scholarly lectures, and a space

for visitors to contemplate while immersed in
4.38 Henri Matisse, Icarus, from Jazz. 1943-7. Page size an experience that integrates Rothko's paintings
16% x 12%". MO MA NewYork
with architecture.
incorporated elements derived from his

method of working with cutouts in orderto Discussion Questions
emphasize graphic shapes and bold patterns.
He designed all aspects of the project:the 1 Findthreeworks of art that deal with
architecture of the building; its stained-glass spirituality (in other chapters in this book,
windows; its interior decoration, including in your communityÿ, or any other examples
painted wall tiles; and its furniture. The interior that you know about). Into which category
of the space is bright, white, and serene. The of works in this chapter do they fit? If they
Mediterranean light enters the chapel through do not seem to fit any of these sections, how
three sets of stained-glass windows, which wouldvou categorize them?
transform it into washes of bright color. 2 Review die sacred places covered in this
Matisse designed these stunning windows to chapter and then think of a building, public
look like fluid drawings. Theirappearance was space, or sculpture that is important to you.
inspired by his many years of emphasizing an Qiooseÿ£laceorartwork that you are
economical use of color, as seen in his cutouts. comfortable discussing with others andthat
Like Icarus, the chapelwindows employ a is personally significant and connected in
limited color palette. While Icarus uses bold deep ways to your sense ofself. Describe it as
blue, yellow, red, and black, the stained glass fully as possible ( the function of the space,
has bright yellow and an intense blue what you do there, what it looks like, how
(representing the sun and the sea) with a vou feel when you are there, whether other
slightly more subdued green fortreeand people have similar experiences there, and so
leaf forms. on). Be sure to consider how your experience
Black contour drawings are printed on the couldbest besharedwith someone
otherwise pure white ceramic tiles that cover unfamiliar with your personal sacred space.
the walls. Designs include such natural forms 3 In ihis chapter you have encountered some
as clouds, life studies of figures representing spaces that havebeen sacred to a large
scenes from the Bible, and symbols related to community and even to a globalbody of
the Christian faith. The furniture, designed to followers. .Alone or ingroups describe a sacred
have clean lines and geometric shapes, Medium "plural media): the space with universal appeal, or invent and
includes an altar with a crucifix and design one. Sacred spaces often harmonize
artist chooses to make a work
candlesticks. The chapel brings together of art with nature or featureÿgÿuflgiaÿuaiSi and
many of the essentia Iaspects of Matisse's Stencil: aperforaredtemplate includesacred symbols. Will your space
art: his selective use of light and color, his aliowin g ink or paint to pass include any of these elements? Try to make
emphasis on bold shapes from the cutouts, Palette: the range of colorsused your chosen space reflect feelings and/or
and hislove of drawing a nd sculpture. by an artist physical attributes that are important to you.
SPIRITUALITY AND ART 483
c
THEMES
4.3
Art and the Cycle of Life
How strange is the lot of us mortals! Each of us

is here for a brief sojourn; for what purpose he
knows not, though he senses it. But without
deeper reflection oneknows from daily life
that one exists for other people.
(Albert Einstein, physicist and NobelPrize winner)
Human cultures from the earliest times to the

twenty-first century havebeen deeply concerned
with fundamental questions of existence: where do
we come from? What happens when we die? What
liesbeyond death? These persistent concerns, not
surprisingly, have also been a frequent subject of
works of art.
In this chapter, we look at the ways in which
artists have examinedthe cycle of lite.Visual artists
have dealt with topics as unfathomable as the
beginning of human existence, as miraculous as
the birth of a child, as enduring as natural forces 4.39 Ritual vessel. 13th- 1 4th century. Terracotta.
or the passage of time, and as overwhelming as 9 h high. University Art Museum, Cba;e"n' Awolowo
"
University, l;e, Nigeria

the finality of death. The artworks in this chapter
suggest the enormous variety of ways in which
artists have addressedthese themes. The throughout history incultures across the
examination oflife's mysteries takes the form of globe. Creation myths can help us come to grips
mythicalvisions, narrative accounts, anddirect with concepts that we may not understand
portrayals oflife'sbeginnings, its endings, and intellectually, such as the fact oflife itself.
what happens inbetween. Equally important are stories that tell about the
process of childbirthand emphasize how- we are
connected to our family members. Artworks
with such subjects often reflect the beliefs of an
Life's Beginnings and entire community.
Family Ties Many creation myths tell of separate realms
inhabited bygods and people. A ritual vessel made
Stories about the beginning of civilizationand by the Yoruba of West Africa displays many literal
the creation of humankind are found and metaphorical references to their culture' s ideas
484 THEMES
C
journey through the sky. The goddess Tlazolteotl,
an earth mother and patron of childbirth, was
known as the "filth eater" becauseshe visited
people at the end of their livesand absolved, or
ate, their sins. She was responsible for bringing
disease as well as curing it. A stone sculpture of
Tlazolteotl shows her in the act of giving birth
(4.40). The grimace on her face resembles a skull,
and a tiny figure, a miniature adult, emerges from
her body. Female deities worshiped by the Aztecs,
likeTlazlteotl, often haddual personalities. Not
only were the)- acknowledged as life-givers, but
they were also feared as powerful and terrifying.
While the Tlazolteotl sculpture shows a
4.40 Tlazolteotl giving o' -th to the rn=z~ god, C. 1500. symbolic representation of childbirth, the Dutch
Aztec g_an :te carving. 3x u'/.x 5/s". Dumps-ton Caks artist Rineke Diikstra (b. 1959) highlights some
Museum, Washington. D.C. 4.41 Rineke Dijkstra,Jut/e.
of the stark realities of birth in her Mothers series.
Den hiaag. The Netherlands,
Julie (4.41) captures a mother and her newborn February29. 1996. C- print.
about creation andthe origins and authority of baby just one hour after delivery,at a time and in a 60V. x50V."
their kings (4.39). The vessel was made in Ife
(now in Nigeria), a city sacred in Yoruba
mythology. Ife was the "navel of the world,"
because it was believed to be the place where
humanswere createdand kingship began. Yoruba
kings still trace their ancestry to the first ruler of
Ife. The top of the vessel in 4.39 refers to the navel
as the central point of the body as well as an
opening that connects the exterior to the interior.
The vessel's round shape, which resembles a piece
of fruit, a pregnant female, or perhaps tte earth
itself, further reinforces thebiological connection
with human birth. The snake-like form on the
side of the vessel resembles an umbilical cord.
The snake, which is associatedwith the earth,
regeneration, and rebirth,is joined to the human
figure shown in a rectangular house. Vessels like
this one were ceremonially broken, allowing the
offerings containedÿsi thin them to flow into
the earth and play a key role in the cycle ofbirth
and rebirth.
For some cultures, such as the Aztecs of
central Mexico, itwas important to mark the
physical, if still mystical,beginnings of human
life. For the Aztecs, a woman giving birth was
seen as a female warrior going to battle on behalf
of the state. Women who died in childbirth were
afforded the same respect as men who died on the
battlefield; the)- resided in the same final resting
place as heroes, accompanying the sun on its daily
ART AND THE CYCLE OF LIFE 48 5
c
4.42 Tierney Gearon, Untitled,

200«. F-om the se-:es The
MotherProject. C-print
way that defies most expectations of mother-and- My mom is mentally ill, and a big part of it is
child imager}-. The}- are standing against a cold, how- 1celebrated my mom instead of being
anonymous wall. Their position starkly exposes embarrassed or tr ving to hide from her.
the vulnerability, even shock, thatboth mother Instead, Icelebrate the beauty in her and a lot
and baby probably feel. Dijkstra makes public —
of people especially older people— are moved
a time in a woman's life that is now generally because it is something the}- can relate to.
considered private and personal. Inspiredby
wa telling the birth of a h*iend's baby,Dijkstra's Through these pictures Gearon portrays both
photographs capture the awkwardness and her own experiences with her mother and
enduringstrength of the early moments of the reality of her mother's life altered by age
a new- life. and illness.
Photographs taken bv the American artist The Asmat people live on the island of New-
Tierney Gearon (b. 1963) of her own close Guinea in the southern Pacific Ocean. They
relations also show- unexpectedviews of family trace their origins to the mythical figure called
interactions. For this reason the}- have sometimes Fumeripits,who carved the first humans from
been controversial. Indeed, Gearon gained w-ood and brought them to life by playing
notoriety for a series of images showingher a drum. Woodcarving is thus an esteemed
childrennude andwearing masks. In the Mother tradition amongst the Asmat, and sculptures
Projectseries she shows her aging mother— are often made to represent and honor people
sometimes nudeand sometimes dressed in what who have recently diedandthe ancestors they
looklike costumes— either alone, or with Gearon are joining in the afterlife.
andher children (4.42). According to the artist, Ancestor poles known as bis (4.43) represent
this project was important because: both stories about the cyclical nature of human
486 THEMES
ancestors. Once a sculpture has servedits ritual
Inlay: substance embeddedin
function it is returned to the groves of sago
another, contrastingmaterial
palms to decay and strengthen future harvests
of the trees.
Sacrifice, Death, and

Rebirth
Art andritual often mark different stages of life.
Artists haverecorded images of birthanddeath
as wayÿs to consider the fleeting existence of the
lifeforce that ultimately defies comprehension.
While some artifacts refer to the ceremonies
undertaken to ask ancestors or supernatural
beings to ensure continued prosperity, others
present the lifeless body itself. There are many
questions, often unanswerable, that artists
confront. What happens after we die? Do we 4.44 Kneel'ng ;e"rale figure
leave the world of the living? Is it important for with bowl and ch id, late 19th/
early 20th century. Wood.
the body to stay intact? Is there a place to which
pigment, and glass. 21 '< x
the soul is believed to go? These concerns about 10x 9Vj". Dallas Museum
life,death, andthe afterlife have inspired artists of Art. Texas
for millennia.
For the Kongo people of the Democratic
4.43 Bis poles, late 1950s. Wood, paint, and fiber, Republic of Congo ( in Central Africa) an
1S'x3'6"x5'3". Metnooolitan Museum of Art, New York important connectionbetween past and
present exists in the reverence they- show for
their ancestors andthe nature spirits that
life andthe social and family ties that connect influence their lives. The rituals they' perform are¬
the community. The bis is carved yvith imagery as crucial to their livelihood as the chores and
associated with power, virility, and fertility, tasks of daily life. A painted yvooden sculpture
including strongbodies, horns used in made bv the Kongo people shoyvs a yvoman
headhunting, and trees where the spirits dwelled. kneeling as she holds a bowl in one hand
At the top, a root from the tree hasbeen retained, and supports a child with the other
creating a wing-like projection. In the main (4.44). This sculpture could be a simple
section of the sculpture, there are representations representation of a routine daily
both of the dead individual for whom the biswas event— a yvoman goes to collect water
madeandalso of other ancestors. The lower part andtakes her child with her— but the
of the sculpture, called the "canoe," is believed to artist has given us clues that it has further
earn- the deceased into the afterlife. significance. Her hairstyle and pose, as
.Ancestor poles like this one were once made yvell as the objects she possesses,
in connection with headhunting andwarfare suggest the yvoman is performing a
but now sen*e a ritual function for male ceremonial function. She is kneeling
initiation andmemorial feasts. A profoundbond to show respect to a person of higher
existsbetweenthe figures theAsmat carve and social status, an ancestor or deity. The
the trees they come from,which are as important shiny inlay used for her eyes indicates
as the relationshipsbetween generations of that she is in some sort of trance, perhaps
ART AND THE CYCLE OF LIFE 487
c
destruction that happen when the dance ceases.
During these periods of inactivity,the fire
cleanses the physical world by providing a release
from samsara. Shiva danceswhile poised on top
of a dwarf who represents the evil and ignorance
that are stamped out during the dances. Shiva's
dance creates a balancebetween creation and
destruction that, over the course of time,
manifests itself in the cycle of life.
For the Inca ofSouth America, the deceased
were believed to continue to exist in a separate
realit)- that was parallel wi th the living human
world. As a result, spirits could inform the life
of the living and ancestors couldbe consulted
after death. The Inca sacrificedhuman beings
to ensure prosperity for the community, to
appease the gods, and to achievebalance among
natural forces. For them, sacrificewas a sacred
act in which something precious was given up
in order to gain something else. A number of
mummified children havebeen found on high
mountain peaks throughout the Inca territory.
These children, who usually came from wealthy or
noble families, were adorned with fine tapestries,
iewelrv, and featherwork, and were accompanied
LAS Shiva Nataraja [Lord of in contact with a god. The bowl and the child LA6 Mummy of a boy. C. 1500. Museo Nacional de
:he Dance], Chola Fe-iod, 1 1th Histo'ia Natural. Sant'ago, Ch:le
may be gifts bestowed by the god, or they may
century. Bronze. 43/s high.
represent sacrifices the woman is prepared to
Cleveland Museum o; Art.
Ohio make. For the Kongo people, white paint (as has
been used on this sculpture) identifies nature
spirits, who are associated with the ancestors.
This woman thus provides a rolemodel for the
living members of the community: the)- are to
honor their ancestors with gifts of sustenance
and with childrenwho will continue the
traditions they have worked so hard to establish.
InIndia,connections betweenthe present
life and those before and after it are central to
the Flindubelief system. One of the principal
Hindu deities, Shiva, embodies a balancing of
contradictor)- qualities: half- maleand half-
Renaissance: a period of female, benevolent and fearsome, giver andtaker
cultural and artistic change in of life .As Nataraia, or "Lord of the Dance" ( la5) ,
Europe fromthe fourteenth to
the seventeenth century Shiva is responsible for dancing the world into
Foreshortening: a perspective existence andbringing to life the endless cycle of
technique that depicts a form at deathand rebirth, known as samsara, inwhich
a ve ry oblique (often dramatic)
angle to the viewer in order to Hindus believe. The flames surrounding Shiva's
show depth in space agile form represent the periodic chaos and
£8 8 THEMES
by several specific objects. One mummy, a boy of
about nine years old found at Cerro el Plomo in
Chile, appears still to be sleeping ( 4.46).
Children were selected for these sacrifices
because the)- were innocent and considered near
perfection. It was a great honor to be one of these
sacrificialvictims. The Cerro el Plomo mummy
was preserved along with a featherbag containing
coca leaves, a silver figurine with an elaborate
featherwork headdress wrapped in textiles, and
severalllama figurines. After a prolonged series
of rituals, the childwould havebeen given a
strong drink called chicha (cornbeer), falleninto
an intoxicated slumber, and passed on into the
afterlife. As a result of the mummifying effects
of the freezing temperatures and dry climate, this
child's body has been preserved, achieving a kind
of immortality that matches the Inca conception
of the spirit living on.
Another way inwhich artists have pondered
what happens after a person dies is by creating direct relationship with the dead as people did in 4.47 Andrea Mantegna.
images of the deceased. Christian artists during the past. Then, loved ones died at home, not in Dead Chris:, c. 1 500. Te-noeÿa
on canvas. 26:'- x 31 /a".
the Renaissance often made pictures of the body hospitals; bodies were laid out for burial by family Pinoteca d: B_e"3, Milan. Italy
of Christ after his crucifixion. Such imageswere members, not by funeral homes. The American
important because Christ was thought to live on artist Andres Serrano (b. 1950) made a series of
after the demise of his physical body, and the photographs ina morgue inwhich the subjects
concept of eternal life after death is at the core are identified only by the manner of their deaths.
4.48 Andres 5e"ano, The
of Christianity. The artist Andrea Mantegna The composition of The Morgue (Gun Murder) Morgue (Gur Murder}, 1992.
(c. 1431-1506),who was born nearPaduain (4.48 ), with the feet pointing away from the Coach rorre print, 50x60"
northern Italy, created a direct and intimate
view of the body in Dead Christ (4.47). Because
Mantegna has foreshortened the scene, we are
first confronted bv the stigmata (the wounds from
the nails with which Chri st was hung on the cross)
in his feet and, further into the picture, in hishands.
His body, covered in carefully depicted drapery,
extends away from us ona marbleslab. Beyond the
muscular torso, we see his lifeless face. By Christ's
side are the Virgin Mother and Man- Magdalene,
who are mostly cropped out of the picture. While
their grief adds to the atmosphere of the scene, the
artist focuses our attention on the immediacy of
Christ's body andthe fact that he is no longer alive.
Perhaps becausewe are somewhat detached
from death, or perhaps out of a sense of propriety,
contemporary images of the deceased are not as
common as they were during the Renaissance.
Photographs of the dead can be especially
shocking because today we no longer have such a
C
viewer, is the opposite of Mantegna's Dead Christ. Life, death, and the afterlife are inseparably-
The darkbackground, the whitebandages and connected in many religions andbelief systems.
body bag, and the strong lighting create a sense A tomb lid made for Pacal, the seventh-century
of drama and contrast. The formal beauty of the ruler of the Maya city-state of Palenque in
image itself contradicts the shockingreality that southern Mexico, illustrates the king's integral
this person, whose identity we will never know, role in the cycle of life (4.49). The elaborate scene,
was murdered. As Serrano's photograph carved in low relief. shows Pacal reclining on
demonstrates, art can often challenge us a slab that marks the intersection ofthe earthly
intellectually. Even if we do not find the imagery realmand the underworld. Just beneathPacal is
6.69 Sarcophagus I'd. toTO
o; Lord F'acal [Shield 2[. pleasant, it can convey a powerful message and the face of the setting sun, representing death.
Tenple ofthe Inscriptions, provide us with a deeper understanding of From Pacal's navel sprouts the world tree, which
Palenque, Mexico. C. 6S0 difficult subjects. connects the three cosmic realms: its roots are in
the underworld, its trunk is in the earthly world,
and itsbranches are in the sky. The ruler himself
serves a similar purpose. By carrying on the
lineage of his ancestors, he ensures sustenance
and productivity for his people and provides a
connectionwith the gods.
The Power of Nature

Artists have longbeen fascinated by the power
of nature to benefit or harmhumankind. Many-
cultures believethat natural events are caused
by gods. The authority that the gods possess
can explain everything from the movements
of the sun and moon to the absence or presence
of life-giving rain. Personifying natural forces,
as artists often do in stories and images, makes
them more accessible andmemorable.
For the Hopi of the southwestern United
States, kachinas are supernatural spirits that
personify events andnatural elements. The
phenomena representedbv kachinas includethe
solstices (the longest and the shortest days of the
year,which marked the beginning of a new stage
in the seasonal ritual cycle), patterns of stars
(constellations), plants, and animals. During the
planting season, masked dancers embody the
kachinas inannual festivals dedicated to rain,
fertility, and goodhunting. Dolls associatedwith
these spirits are also made. Originally they were
intended to teach the Hopi about the nature
deities; over time, they were also sold to tourists.
The kachina doll shown in 6.50 represents the
Jemez kachina,which appears near the end of
the season when the kachinas are about to leave
the steep- sided, elevated plateausknown as
690 THEMES
mature corn to the Hopi, this figure helps ensure 4.51Vessel with mask o;
a successful corn crop. Tlaloc, C. 1 440-69. F red clay
and paint. 1 3ViX 14 x 12s/e".
Becauserain is essential to sustain life, rain
Museo delTemplo Mayor.
gods were important to the ancient Mexicans. Mexico City, Mexico
For many groups in central Mexico, such as the
Aztecs, their rain god is known as Tlaloc. Also
4.50 Hop' kachina doll. c. 1925. Wood, feathers, and
o'grrent. 25/-" high. Gustav Heye Center, NewYork associated with the earth's fertility, Tlaloc is
iNational Museum o; the Arne~'can Indian] representedby the colors blue and white and by
the symbols for raindrops and water plants.
Alarge ceramic vessel representing Tlaloc, which
mesas, where the Hopi lived, for six months. was found at the Templo Mayor in the Aztec city
The elaborate headdress on the Jemez kachina of Tenochtitlan (under present-day Mexico City),
contains cloud symbols,denoting its effectiveness exhibits the god's most prominent characteristics:
in bringing rain, and it carries a rattle in one hand goggle-like circles around his eyes as well as
Low relief: carving in which the
and a sprig of Douglas fir (here represented by a snake-like fangs (4.51). In Mexico's dry climate, design stands out only slightly
feather) in the other. As the first kachina to bring the crops depend on seasonal rains. If there from the background surface
ART AND THE CYCLE OF LIFE 49 1
C
Judgment
As we live our lives, our choices determine
the impact we will have andhow we will be
perceived. In many belief systems, the moral
implications of our decisions have lasting
consequences. .As a result, the act of judging
a lifebefore the deceased is allowed to pass
into the afterlife hasbeenthe theme of
_____
numerousartworks.
In ancient Egypt, the deceased were buried
with a set of belongings that reflected their
position in life (see Gateway Box: The Great
Pyramid of Khufu) .One of the most important
of these possessions was a book of the dead,
4.52 Gu stave c ourbet. Fox in was no rain, people went hungry, so the Aztecs a scroll with spells and incantations designed to
the Snow, i S60. C t on canvas,
_
33 Vzx 50". Dallas Museum of
._
, _
were careful to keep Tlaloc happy. It is likely
cc .
that offerings
, , . '
. .
'
were made during ceremonies in
help the deceased navigate the passage into the
afterlife .As we cansee inthe book of the deadthat
which this vessel -was used in order to prevent belonged to a scribe named Hunefer,who lived
droughts and ensure that rain would nourish over 3,000 years ago, a successful journey
the .Aztec crops. required proofthat one hadlived an honorable
The Frenchartist GustaveCourbet( 1819-77) life andthat proper respect had been paid to
painted a very different representation of the the gods (4.53).
violent forces of nature ( 4.52). Courbet shows an At the top of the scroll, Hunefer pleads his
ordinary moment in the wilderness when one life case to the forty-two judges of the dead,
is given for the sake of another. A red fox is represented herebyjust fourteen mummified
devouring a rat that it caught on a snowy day. deitiesbecause the artist did not have room to
Courbet w*as renowned for his ability to render show them all. In the bottom panel, Hunefer
realistic details: he depicts the fluffof the fox's is escortedby .Anubis (the i ackal-headed god
coat, the coarseness of the rocks, the delicacy of associatedwith mummification andthe afterlife)
the snow on the grasses, andthe intensity of the to the scales where his soul will be weighed.
rat'sblood. By choosing this subject, Courbet has
captured a moment that emphasizes the fleeting
4.53 Book of the Dead: Last Judgment be;ore Osiris.
quality of lite, inwhich tomorrow- the fox could 0.1275 EC E. Painted papyrus. 15V;" high. British Museum.
vervwellbe the huntedinstead of the hunter. London. England
Pyramid: ancient structure,

usually massive in scale,
consisting of a square basewith
four sides that meet at a point or
apex with each side forming a
triangular shape
492 THEMES
C
Mathematicaland Astronomical Alignments of the Pyramids
The ancient Egyptians' beliefs about the cycles
of life and death grew out of their daily
experiences. For example, theirwork habits
were controlled by the cycles of the Nile.Its
annual flooding followed the harvesting of
the crops, which were able to grow because
of the previous year's inundation by the river.
The Egyptians,believing that people lived
forever after death, spent much of theirtime
on earth preparing forthe afterlife. They saw
the building of the Great Pyramids,which were
tombs for pharaohs, as integral to the cycle
of life.
The pyramidsbuilt by the ancient Egyptians
on theGiza plateau around 2500BCEare among
the most impressive structures in the world
(4.54). Although the qeo metric shape of the
pyramid appears simple, complicated
mathematicalcalculations and astronomical
knowledge went into the making of the
complex at Giza. The base of each pyramid is
oriented so that the four triangular sides align
with the four cardinaldirections. Alignments Milky Way Galaxy
with such celestial bodies as planets and stars
have also been noted. Perhaps the most
interesting proposition isthat the location and
size of the three pyramids exactly mimicked 10.600 BCE
the arrangement of the stars in the "belt" of
the constellation Orion (4.55). After their
deaths, the Pharaohs Khafre,Khufu, and
Menkaure, who were buried in the pyramids,
were believed to take their places as immortal
beings in the star that corresponded with each
tomb. It seems that the ancient Egyptians
believed in a profound connection between life
Khafre
on earth, a resting place for the deceased,
and an afterlife in the night sky.
4.54 (top right) Great Pyramid of Khufu, c. 2560 bce,

Giza, Egypt
4.55 (right) Diagramillustrating the proposition that the

location and size of thethree pyramids exactly mimicked
the arrangement of the stars in the "belt" of the
constellation Orion
IC
As Ammit ("Eater of the Dead," with the head of
a crocodile, maneandforequartersofa lion, and
hindquarters of a hippopotamus) anxiously
looks on, Anubis determines that Hunefer's soul,
in the form of his heart in a canopic jar, is
lighter than the ostrich feather it is weighed
against. Havingbeen proven worthy, Hunefer
is presentedby Horus (falcon- headed god of
the sun, sky, andwar) to Osiris (god of goodness,
vegetation, and death),who isseated on his
throne. This book of the deadwas placed in
Hunefer's coffin with the hope that its script
wouldbe follow-edandhe would successfully
gain immortality in the afterlife.
Intwelfth- century Europe,depictions of the
Last Judgment tookon an ominous tone in
scenes showing the fate of the blessed andthe
damnedside by side. In 4.57, the lintel
4.56 (right) Detail from Gislebertus. LastJudgment
4.57 (below) Gislebertus, Last Judgment, c. 1120-35.

Tympanum ;rom West Portal, Cathedral of Saint-Lazare.
Autun, France
494 THEMES
Vermeer focuses on an ordinary moment, in
which the woman is standing at a table by a
window near her open iewelry boxes. The
paintingon the wall behind her provides a
symbolic backdrop for her actions. It shows the
Last Judgment, with Christ in the sky above and
the souls to bejudged below, and serves as a
reminder that life is short andthat it is important
to behonest and decent. The scales the woman
holds are empty,but perfectly balanced, suggesting
that one's actions rather than one's possessions
are die true indication of a person's worth.
rilOÿfrwfrimvfrKih'Qm this chapter
that fit one of the following criteria: (1) one
that depicts a human and one that depicts
a mythicalbeing; (2) one personal and one
communal; (3) one about birthand one
about death. Compare and contrast what
the artworks look like and what the)- are
communicating and note at least three
points of comparison and contrast.
y'liat dwi tllii ttmgaiiwn reveal to you
about the artworks that you had not
4.58 Johannes Vermeer. underneath the main panel contains a row considered before?
Woman Holdinga Balance . of figures awaitingjudgment. A pair of hands Find several artworks in this chapter or
C.1664. Oil on canvas, 16 AX
comes down from above to gather the sixth elsewhere in this book (for example, 2.2,
16". National Galle"y of Art,
Washington. D.C. figure from the right for his weighing. In the 2.218, 3.76, 3.93, 4.47, 4.49, 4.52) from the
center of the carved tympanum Christ is same cultural tradition that deal with the
shown as larger than all the rest of the figures, theme of the cycle of life. What do your
indicating his key role in the judgment of chosen artworks have in common? Inwhat
humankind. On his right (our left) are the ways are they similar? What do the)- tell you
angels and the souls of theblessed who will go about your chosen culture's attitudes to life
on to live out eternity in heaven. Their bodies and death?
Canopicjar: a iar used by are smooth, elegant, and peaceful. On Christ's Mam- artworks that deal with the cycle o f
ancient Egyptians to holdthe
embalmed internal organs
left are the scales inwhich souls are weighed, life are full of symbolic meanings, chosen to
removed from the body during and the ravagedbodies of the damned. Their makethe work memorable. Findtwo works
mummmcation horrid,grotesque appearance was meant to in this chapter that use symbols in this way
Lintel: the horizontal beam over
the doorway of a portal send a strong message to churchgoers about the anddiscuss what the)- hope to communicate
Tympanum: an arched recess consequences of living a sinful life and give them to their audience. Then think of an event in
above a doorway, often a glimpse of the miser)- that an afterlife in hell your life that couldbe represented by
decorated with carvings
Baroque: European artistic and wouldhold. symbols. What things (colors, scents, feelings)
architectural style of the late The Dutch Baroque-era painter Johannes standout most inyour mind? Finally,
sixteenth to early eighteenth Vermeer (1632-75) subtly includes religion in translate your own personal myth into a
centuries, characterized by
a scene from everyday life in his Woman Holding picture that can visually communicate the
intensity a Balance (4.58). As was common at the time, event's importance to others.
THEMES
4.4
Art and Science
Customarily, we consider science and art to be regarded as gods, and their movements were
separate disciplines, even complete opposites. closely monitored. Some of the most fascinating
We tend to think of a rt as intuitive and emotional, artworks of the Maya andAztecs reflect this
andscience as rational and objective. But this has interest in astronomy. Careful astronomical
not always beenthe case. Infact, numerous artists observation enabled these people to create
in history actively engaged in the scientific remarkably precise calendars.
questions of their day. The great Renaissance The flint in 4.59 incorporates elements of the
artist Leonardoda Vinci ( 1452-15 19), for cosmology (beliefs about the origin of the world)
example, -was not only a painter, but an engineer, and astronomical knowledge of the Maya. The
anatomist, botanist, and mapmaker. Art and delicate carving of this very hard stone reveals
science interact more often than we might suppose, a high level of craftsmanship. Light enough to
Like scientists, artists are keen observers of be held in one hand, the flint depicts the story
phenomena and events. Often, artworks contain of creation, said by the Maya to have occurred
scientific knowledge and ideas. Sometimes, precisely on August 13, 31 14 bce,when the First
artworks openly celebrate scientific advancements, Father was sacrificedafter losing a ball game
and some artists have even used scienti fic methods against the Lords of Death. The First Father's soul
to make art. The appreciation of art relies, of is seen riding a crocodile to the Maya underworld
course, on the human senses, and artists have (called the Place of Creation, ruled by a water-
always been particularly keen on manipulating monster god) accompaniedby other Maya lords.
the perception of the viewer of artworks. This has The profiles of the First Father and two of the
involved some artists in the science of psychology lords appear on top of the crocodile, leaning
andthe physiology- of perception as well. back to suggest the speed of the journey. Two
Renaissance: a period of additional figures are shown facingdownward
cultural and artistic change in towardthe underside of the crocodile. The
Europe fromthe fourteenth to
serrated edge on the bottom of the flint
Psychology: a science that
Astronomical represents the forceful waves encountered
studiesthe nature, development.
and operation of the human
Knowledge in Art on the journey. The moment shown here is the
mind transformation of the crocodile into a sacred
Physiology: asciencethat For millennia,the regular yet ever- changingnight canoe just before it dives into the roughwaters,
studies the workings of the body
sky was a source of endless fascination and study. signifying the death of the First Father. Soon
and its organs
Flint: an object or tool made We know, for example, that in the Middle East, thereafter, the First Father will rise from the
from thevery hard, sharp-edged navigation guides called astrolabes,which tracked waters, transform into the maize god, and
stone of the same name
the skies and the planets, were in use bv 500 ce. becomethe creator ofhumans.
Profile: the outline of an object,
especially a face or head. In another part of the world, in ancient Mexico, The flint, however, is more than a depiction
represented from the side amongst the Maya and .Aztecs, the planets were of a Mava story; it is also an instrument for
496 THEMES
to pivot and fall out of the sky, resembling a canoe
diving into water. Then, immediately before the
sunrise, the three stars of Orion's belt appear,
symbolizing for the Maya the three hearthstones
.ÿr
ÿp at the site of the First Father'srebirth.
Likethe Maya, the Aztecs were skillful observers
of the skies. The Aztec Sun Stone in 4.60 is a store
o f astr ono mical a nd ma thematical knowledge.
Originally painted in shades of brown,red,white,
blue,and green, theheavySun Stone (weighing
24 tons) stood atop the main temple at
Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire.
Later itwas buried,to be uncovered again only
in 1790 in what is now downtown Mexico City.
The Sun Stone, also known as a calendar
stone, reveals how the .Aztecs counted time,
andillustrates their belief that the earthendures
recurring cycles of destruction and creation.
The center of the stone shows the face of
4.59 Flint deoict'ng a astronomical observations. When held up to the Tonatiuh, the sun god to whom Aztecs offered
crocodile canoe with sky on August 13 each year, the five heads on this frequent human andanimal sacrifices. Each of
passenge-s, 600-900:e.
°V.x 16'/-xV,".Oallas
flint align with thebrightest stars of the Milky the four squares emanating from Tonatiuh's face
Museum or Art. Texas Way galaxy. For the Maya, the stars reenact the frames a symbol representing the ways inwhich
story of man's creation when, at midnight, the the earth previously came to an end: by wind, by
stars of the Milky Way align horizontally east to fire,by floods, andby wild beasts. TheAztecs
west. In the next several hours, the galaxy appears
4.60 Calendar stone 'Sun

Stone., late postclass'c
Basalt, 12' diameter National
Museum o* Anthropology,
Mexico City, Mexico
ART AND SCIENCE 497
The brass astrolabe shown here is an example
of fine metalwork. It was made during the
seventeenth century in the Safavid Empire,in
what is now Iran. Floraldecorations serve as the
pointers on the rete. The astrolabe is coveredwith
Persian andArabic inscriptions. For example, on
the outside edge, there are verses about fourteen
important Islamic figures. On the rete, there is
a series of verses that describe the parts of the
astrolabe metaphorically. The tracery aroundthe
mater contains a dedicationinscribed to a Safavid
leader. And on the back of the instrument, there
is an inscription by the astrolabe's maker
dedicating himselfto God.
Art Celebrating Science

While art can be used to decorate scientific
instruments, many artists havealso observed
science in action and recordedtheir studies in
works of art.
The English painter Joseph Wright of Derby
( 1734-97) was friendly with members of the Lunar
Society-, an informal club of scientists, intellectuals,
4.61 Muhammad Mahdi al- believed that the earthwouldbe destroyed again and manufacturers who met monthly- to discuss
Yazdi. Astrolabe. 1 659-60. Gilt by an earthquake. In the r ing surrounding these developments in science and technology. Wright
brass, silvered brass. b'ass,
and glass. 7 d'ameter.
symbols are twenty animals, each framed by lived during the period known as the
National Maritime Museum, a rectangle. These represent the days of the Aztec Enlightenment, a time of intense interest in
London. England month. Priests usedthe calendar stone to science and reason. Fie often painted scientific and
determine sacrificial periods. industrial subjects, employing a notably- dramatic
Used as guides for navigation, astrolabes use of light and dark, called tenebrism.
were made as early as the fifth century ce in the His painting An Experiment on a Bird in theAir
Middle East, and by 800 they hadbecome Pump shows a traveling scientist demonstrating the
extremely common inthe Islamic world. creation of a vacuum before an audience ( 4.62).
Latitude: a point on the earth's
circumference measured to the
During the early twelfth century, the technology- If the scientist removes all the air from the glass
east or west spread to Europe via Muslims living in Spain. container in which a bird is imprisoned, thebird
Tracery: a complex but delicate The astrolabe was especially useful to Muslims, •will suffocate and die a dreadful death. The artist
pattern of interwoven lines
Enlightenment: an intellectual who were required to pray while facing toward haschosen to depict the climactic moment of truth.
movement in eighteenth- the city of Mecca five times a day-, the astrolabe He hasincreasedthe drama bv his use of shadows
century Europe that argued could find the direction of Mecca as well as and light, which highlights reactions of concern
for science, reason, and
individualism, and against calculate the time of day. and indifference, contempt and resignation, pity
tradition An astrolabe is made up of layers of disks or and fear. Stronglight from behindthe glass (which
Tenebrism: dramatic use plates that fit into a larger brass dial called a contains a skull) in the center of the table shines on
of intense darkness and light
mater. Each of the five plates in the example in the faces of the observers. While light is a symbol of
to heighten the impact of a
painting 4.61 is aligned to a different latitude. On the very- knowledge, the scientist's outwardgaze involves us,
Realism: nineteenth-century*
top is a smaller disk called a rete, which hasbeen the viewers of the painting, in the moment'smoral
artistic style that aimed to depict
nature and everyday subj ects in
cut out almost completely and on which the dilemma as wel 1. We teel a strong desire to stop the
an unidealized manner positions of heavenly bodies are indicated. experiment and prevent the bird from suffocating.
498 THEMES
4.62 ÿoseoh Wright of Derby,
An Experiment on a Bird in the
Air Pump, 1763. Oil on canvas,
6 x8'. National Gallery.
London. England
4.63 Thornas Eak'ns.

Portrait of Br. Samuel B.
Gross [The Gross Clinic) .
1375. Oil on canvas. S'x 6'6".
Philadelpn'a Museum o: Art
and Pennsylvania Academy
o; Fine Arts
.Artists study anatomy to learnhow to depict

figures, and many artists have become interested
in dissection and medical procedures. The
.American painter Thomas Eakins (1844-19 16)
depicted a demonstration hewitnessed by a
tamo us surgeon, Dr. Samuel Gross, in Philadelphia
(4.63). .Assistants surroundthe body while the
white-haired doctor lectures to medical students,
dimly lit in the seating in the background.
Eakins'sdetailed obseryation of the procedure
created such a brutally realist depiction that a
critic for the New York Daily Tribune commented,
It is a picture that even strong men find it

difficult to look at long, if the}- can look at it
at all.
Eakins's meticulousdetail makes his painting

a useful historical document of early surgical
procedure. For instance, he shows us the use of
anesthesia (the anesthetist holds a white cloth oyer
the patient's face), a recent invention that had
made such surgery as this possible. The artist was
not however satisfied with mere accuracy, he also
wanted to give his painting emotional impact. The
lighting is not typical of an operating room,but
ART AND SCIENCE 499
instead is highly theatrical. Eakins also includes the puts himself into a very calm state of mind,which
patient's distraught mother, seen on the left, who slows his heartbeat and decreases hand tremors:
inreality was probably not present at the surgery. "I need to work between heartbeats, or else the
pulse in my finger will cause a mistake," he says.
Heworks through the night so that daylight
activity, such as cars frequently drivingby,will
Using Science to not disturb his steady hand. Wigan found that the
Create Art intenseconcentration required for this sculpting
helped him come to terms with his difficulties as
Advancements in science enable artists to create a dyslexic child. As he recalled:
new kinds ofart. The advent of the microscope,
for example, hasenabled one ar tist to create Ibecame obsessed with making more and
minuscule artworks,while medical studies have more tiny things. Ithink I-was trying to find a
enabled a scientist to preserve bodies and exhibit way of compensating for my embarrassment
them as art. at havinglearning difficulties: people had
The British artistWillardWigan (b. 1957) made me feel small so Iwanted to show them
hascreatedthe smallest sculptures in theworld. how- significant small couldbe.
His artwork is only possible because he uses
a microscope: his creations can barely be seen A German medical scientist, Guntter von
by the naked eve. He carves individual pieces of Hagens (b. 1945), used his knowiedge of anatomy
sand or grains of rice and places them on equally and science to develop a technique, called
tiny bases, such as the head of a pin or a strand of plastination,that preservesbodies after deathand
human hair.The Statue of Liberty in £.6£ was allows them to be arranged in poses. His popular
re-createdinsidethe eye of a needle. Wigan then traveling exhibition, Body Worlds, hasbeen seen £.65 BasketballPlayer, 2002.
paints hisartworks using an eyelash for a brush. by millions of people, many of whom consider it Gunthe~von Hagens'sSody
To create one of these microscopic works, Wigan to be art. Hie exhibition, however, hasbeen Worlds exhibition.
www. oodywo'lds.coT
controversial. Although all thebodies
featured in it are those of willing
donors, many people consider the
display irreverent, and complain
about the overly theatrical
poses of thebodies as
well as the feet
£.6£ (left) Willard Wigan. Statue of Liberty
500 THEMES
that the shows are often promoted as art, rather however, have also experimented with ways to use
Pointillism: a late nineteenth-
than science. their images to trigger responses from the other
century painting style using
One specimen, BasketballPlayer, is posed as if senses, such as hearing or smell. short strokes or points of
dribbling a ball down the court (4.65). The skull Sunday on La Grande Jatte (4.66) is a picture differing colorsthat optically
combine to form new
has been split so that we can see the brain. This of people engaged in the activities of everyday perceivedcolors
dramatic presentation allows us to see the tension life. But its artist, the Frenchman Georges Seurat Color theory: the
of the inner body and to understandbetter how ( 1859-91),also applied to this artwork recent understandi ng of how colors
relate to each other, especially
we ourselves move. The Body Worlds exhibition scientific studies on the way that the human eye when mixed or placed near
also includes a body with the damagedlungs of a perceives color. Seurat developed a process called one another
smoker, and a pregnant woman with her deceased pointillism, a meticulous way of applying color Optical mixture: when the
eye blends two colorsthat are
fetus still in her body. theory inhis paintings. He relied on two placed near one another,
effects ( optical mixture and afterimage effect) ere ati ng a new c ol or
to create scenes inwhich the figures are very- Afterimage effect: when the
eye sees the complementary
The Science of Perception distinct, almost like cutouts,because of the
preciseway inwhichhe applied tiny dots of color
color of something that the
viewer has spent an extended
and the Senses to the canvas. The colors we see when we view time viewing (also known as
successive contrasts)
Sunday on La Grande Jatte from several feet away
Since art is a visual medium, artists expect are quite different from the colors we see up close.
viewers to respond to the artwork through their For example, the green grass is made up of dots
4.66 Geo'gesSeurat. Sunday
sense ofsiglit.lt is not surprising, therefore, that not only of various shades of green but also of
.
on La Grande Jatte 1 334-6.
artistshave often been keenly aware of scientific oranges and purples. Seurat took three years to Oil on canvas, 6'?V-" X 1 0'V.".
studies of visual perception. Some artists, paint this work, meticulously applying dots while Art Institute o; Chicago
ART AND SCIENCE 501
considering the effects of color theory on his
palette choices. To ensure that the optical
arrangementwouldnotbe disrupted when the
painting was framed, Seuratalso painted a border
using the same pointillist technique.
The American artist Jasper Johns (b. 1930)
makes us take a second look at familiar subjects,
objects the artist says are "seenbut not looked at.'"
He uses iconic images such as numbers,letters,
targets, and, perhaps most famously, the American
flag, of which he painted several versions. In the
version of P/aÿreproducedhere, Johns uses his
knowledge of color theory to create an optical
illusionthat forces a viewer to stare intently at an
image of the flag ( 6.67). The top flag is made up of
black and green stripes,while black stars are placed
on a background of orange; these colors are
complementary to the white, red, andbluecolors
of the American flag. Johns's optical effect depends
on the use of these complementary colors. The
rectangle on the bottom halfof the painting is
just afaded ghost of a flag. For the optical illusion
to work, stare at the top flag for a full minute.
Focusyour attention on the white dot in the center.
After a minute has passed, blink andlook at the
black dot in the center of the lower flag. The red,
white, andblue of the American flag will appear.
Johns is utilizing the science behind afterimage
effect. While looking at the top flag,your eyes
became fatigued from the colors. Therefore, when
you blinked your eyes andlooked at the lower flag,
I your eyes produced the complementary colors of
each aspect of the upper flag.
4.67 jasoer Johns, Rag.

1965. Private collect' on
4.68 Marcia Smilack. Cello

Music, 1992. Photograph,
123Ax24". Collection of
the artist
502 THEMES
At times, artists often try to trigger other
senses in addition to sight. The process whereby
Science of the Mind Palette: the range of colorsused
by an artist
stimulation in one sense causes experiences in Complementary colors: colors
a different sense— such as visualizing color when While some artists haveintroducedthe science opposite one another on the
color wheel
we hear music— iscalled synesthesia. Theartist of perception andcolor theory into their works,
Synesthesia: when one of the
Marcia Smilack (b. 1949) experiences life as others have explored different aspects of the five senses perceives something
a svnesthete, and creates artworks that reflect science of the mind. Some artists have tried to that was stimulated by a trigger
from one of the other senses
this correspondence between the senses. She understand and mimic the workings of the minds
Art Brut: "raw art,'' artworks
describes her experience: of children or the mentally ill. Others havestudied made by untrained artists,
psychology anddreamtheories andtried to and having a primitive or
childlike quality
The way Itaught myself photography is to represent the subconsciousworld in their work.
Impasto: paint applied in
shoot when Ihear a chord of color. ..Ihear Many artists speak of trying to recapture the thick layers
with my eyes and see with my ears. creativity we all have as children. The French artist
J ean Dubuffet ( 190 1-85) was influencedby the art
Of the photograph Cello Music (4.68), Smilack of children as well as by ar t made by the mentally
says: ill. He coinedthe term Art Brut to mean art that is
raw*, inspired by very basic instincts, or, as Dubuffet
I-walked by the water andheard cello ... I said, "works produced by persons unscathedby
couldn't resist the sound so Igave in and aimed artistic culture:' Dubuftet's artwork often has heavy
my camera at what hadelicited it. As soon as impasto and a childlike quality. In Cow with the
Ilet go of my thoughts, the texture of the water- Subtle Nose a boldoutline separates the cowfrom
washed over me in synch with the soundand its green back ground (4.69). The brushstrokes are
turned to satin on my skin.When Ifelt myself not smooth, but spontaneous. The cow's eyes are
climb into the shadows between the folds, simply round circles; the horns, udder, and tail
Isnapped the shutter. Ihear cello every time are simple scratches, like those of a child.
Ilook at it today, though Idiscovered that if I In the 1940s, Dubuffet began to collect art
turn it upside down, it becomesviolin. made by the insane. Dubuffet's collectionmarked
4.69 .esn Dubuffet. Cow with

the Subtle Nose. 1 956. Oil and
enamel on canvas, 35 x45V.".
MO MA. New York
ART AND SCIENCE 503
4.70 Salvador Dal'. the beginning of increased public interest in extravagan t,soli tan-, pa ranoiac-critical
Pe rsistenee of Memory, 1931. artworks by the mentally ill ( see Perspectives on Camembert cheese of space and time."
Oil on canvas. ?)'tx 13".
Art Box: Art Inspiredby Insanity)- His collection Daliinventedthe term paranoiac- critical,
MOMA. NewYork
is now housed at the Musee de FArt Brut in which he defined as the
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Salvador Dali (1904-89) -was one of a group spontaneous method of irrational knowledge
of artists known as the Surrealists, who were based on the criticaland systematic
inspiredby psychology and dream studies, and objectivity of the associations and
most particularly by the theories of the father interpretations of delirious phenomena.
of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud.Themes
of sexual desire and fear are common in Dali's The consistency of the cheese inspired the three
paintings, which heassociated with Freud's warped, danglingwatch faces. The limpwatches
Surrealist: an artist belonging studies on sexualdesire and behavior. maybe interpreted as symbols ofboth impotence
In Persistence of Memory (4.70), the stretched and recent sexual satisfaction.
was inspired by dreams and the form in the center (a nose with long eyelashes Scholars haveremarked on a link betweenthis
subconscious and a tongue hanging out) is a self-portrait, and work and the physicist Albert Einstein's theory
Psychoanalysis: a method of the cliffs in the background resemble the Catalan of relativity,which addresses the complexities
treating mental illness by making
coast in Spain, where Dalilived. After a late night of time. In Dali's painting, the clocks each read
consciousthepatient's
subconscious fears or fantasies with some friends, Dali was inspired to paint a different time, conveying a distorted sense of
Motif: a distinctivevisual Persistence ofMemory \vhHe playing with some time and space. Dalialso painted a fly on the
element, the recurrence ofwhich
is often characteristic ofan melted cheese left over from dinner. He saidthe drooping watch on the ledge, a visual metaphor
artist'swork paintingwas "nothingmore thanthe soft, for the phrase 'Time flies."
504 THEMES
Perspectives on Art: MartinRamirez
Art Inspiredby Insanity
Painful experiences and disabling illness can be to his work, born of his use of stylized, large
sources of extraordinary art, as works producedby forms looselyanchored on an indistinct
psychiatric patients demonstrate. Here,the art background. His store ofjaaiits is closely
historian Professor Colin Rhodes,an expert on connected to his cultural background. Ramirez
this subject, discusses the work of the Mexican was a native of Jalisco, Mexico, who left for
schizophrenic artist MartinRamirez 11895-19631, California in 1925 to support his wife and
who spent thirty- three years in Californian mental children. The Great Depression left him
hospitals where he produced hundreds of unemployed and homeless. He became a
artworks, many now in major museums. patient in Californian asylums from 1931 until
hisdeath. Ramirez's diagnosis was firstmanic
For a long time, the imagescreated by Mexican depression and subsequentlyschizophrenia.
artist Martin Ramirez were thought to be the Manyof Ramirez's works include iconic
more orless unconsciousoutpouringsof a images of the Madonna, particularly in the form
mind liberated from daily reality by mental of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception,
illness. His practice was markedly obsessive, standing on a globe, with a serpent at her feet,
characterized by repetition of a few motifs, symbols he would have seen in his home parish.
which nonetheless were combined in powerful Though it is always dangerous to attribute
and subtle variations. There is a visionary feel specific pictorial qualities to illness, there can
be little doubt that Ramirez's condition and
4.71 Martin Ran- rez. Uniitled
experience of incarceration were a sourceof
iLa Inmaculadaj, 1 ?50s.
Crayon, pencil.watercolor,
artistic creativity. Artistic production can fix
an d collaged paoe-s. 7'S" x
3'?". H:gh Museum of Art,
Atlanta. Georgia
m t
memory in the face of separation from loved
ones and of boredom. And since his illness made
'*/ Mi
f
it impossible to communicate in the usual sense,
Ramirez created an alternative world in his
imagination. In this work Ramirez replays his
life in Mexico before incarceration U.71). The
two Mexican Madonnas float above a shallow
landscape of shell-like mountains. Theirgaze is
contemplative and their faces expressive. Their
dress, though, is as much landscape as clothing.
In the background another, more worldly, woman
half imitates their pose. Like most of Ramirez's
works, the large drawing is made from a number
of smallersheets pasted together— the only
materials available to him, but also indicative of
t his compulsive need to expand the universe of

his drawing to accommodate the developing
image, as opposed to fitting the image into a
single sheet. The result, in the case of Ramirez,
whose illness caused a withdrawal from
physical and verbal interaction with the world,
was an outpouring of some of the most
powerfulvisual art of itstime.
ART AND SCIENCE 505
began in 1980, took nine years to complete,
The Scientific twice as long as it took Michelangelo to paint
Restoration of Artworks the ceilingoriginally (4.72).
In order to decide on the best way to clean
Scientificadvancements in chemistry have helped the frescoes, restorers firsthad to determine what
improve the techniques used inthe restoration of was original andwhat was due to the effects of
artworks. The most momentous restorations in time, such as candle smoke, the interventions
recent times have been the cleaning of the frescoes of previous restorers, rain damage, the settling
at the Vatican in Rome, Italy. The restoration of ofbuilding foundations, and even bacteria
Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, which introduced by the visits of millions of tourists.
4.72 Cleaning o: 5 1st: ne

Chaoel ceiling, Vatican City,
1980-9

artist paints onto freshly applied
plaster. Fromthe Italian fresco>
fresh
506 THEMES
c
of the restorers' research, methods, and
handiwork, the panel unanimously declaredthat
the team hadbeen thorough and painstaking,
andthat their approach was accurate and
correct: the original paintings hadindeedbeen
this bright.
The cleaning of the Sistine Chapel ceiling
paved the way for further restorations at the
Vatican, including Michelangelo's Last Judgment
(4.73) on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel
(restored 1990-4) and, down the hall, four
rooms of paintings by Raphael, including
The School ofAthens (restored 1995-6).
1 Mam- artists study synesthesia, are synesthetic
themselves, or try to trigger svnesthetic
responses in theviewer. Study the work of
an artist who is known for trying to evoke
music inhis or her artworks, for example
Georgia O'Keefte (1.24), James McNeill
Whistler (4.170), Vasily Kandinsky (3.189),
or Paul KleeÿÿChooseÿsinÿleÿaintinÿand,
through formal analysis, determine how the
artist is trying to inspire sensations that are
similar to those stimulatedby the playing
of music.
2 Elsewhere in this book we have looked at
4.73 Detail of Christ from The}- analyzed the chemical composition of examples of the artwork of the great Italian
cneiangeio. The Last
:ÿ>'
numerous minuscule samples of the paint, glue, Renaissanceartist Leonardo da Vinci (see
Judgment. Photo taken , ., , , , , ,
, :
during restoration or bistine
wax, andvarnish taken trom the many layers thev
' ' '
forexample 08 and 3.121). Findthree scientific
Chapel, Vatican City. 1990-4 foundon the ceiling. This analysis, plus their studies by Leonardo (2.1 and 2.2, forexample)
ability to examine the entire ceiling at close range, anddiscuss how they might have contributed
causedthem to believethat Michelangelo had to his paintings and other artworks. Would
painted the ceiling almost entirely in buonfresco you categorize Leonardo's drawings as art or
(when the plaster was still wet) with only slight or both? Why? How do you think his
corrections executed asecco (after the plaster had scientific studies may have contributed to the
dried), andthat allother layers were later additions. making of his paintings?
The most shocking discover)', revealed after 3 In this chapter we discussed the art of
centuries of dirt were removed,was the bright Willard Wigan and Gunther von Hagens.
colors that Michelangelo had used. Critics Many contemporary artists create computer-
denouncedthe cleaning as a disaster, accusing generated artwork or reflect subjects (such
the restorers of removing Michelangelo's original as outer space or DNA) influenced by
varnish. However, an international committee discoveries in science. Can you find any
of theworld' s leading art conservators was examples of contemporary art that were
convened to review the approach taken by the influencedby such recent technological
restoration team, and after a lengthy inspection advancements?
ART AND SCIENCE 507
c
THEMES
4.5
Art and Illusion
Zeuxis painted a boy carryinggrapes, andwhen and Parrhasius,to see who could paint the most
Trompe I'oeib an extreme kind
of illusion meant to deceive
the birds flew down to settle on them, he was realistic picture. As Pliny tells it,Zeuxis's painting
the viewer vexed with his own work, and came forward of grapes was so realistic that birds flew down to
Two-dimensional: having saying. ..1 have painted the grapes better than peck at them. Parrhasius in turn painted such a
height and width
the boy, for had Ibeen perfectly successful convincing curtain that Zeuxis reached for the
height, width, and depth with the latter the birdmust have been afraid. draper}-, hoping to see the painting on which his
F resco: a technique where (Pliny the Elder, NaturalHistory) rival was working. After being fooled, Zeuxis
the artist paints onto freshly
appliedpiaster. Fromthe Italian
conceded that Parrhasius had won the competition.
fresco* fresh The ancient Roman author Pliny the Elder tells a Many artists since have striven to continue
Renaissance: a period of story that reveals the centuries-old efforts by artists and even surpass these achievements, developing
to create convincing illusions. Pliny describes a techniques that fool us into thinking we are
the seventeenth century contest between two great Greek painters, Zeuxis lookingat real spaces and objects rather than
artworks. Trompe l'oeil{"fool the eye") is the
French term for two-dimensional artworks that
convincingly appear to be three-dimensional
objects. Even inthree-dimensional art, such as
architecture, artists have employedvisual tricks
to "fool the eye."
Art as an ILLusionistic
Window
Although the paintings of Zeuxis andParrhasius
do not survive, other examples of illusionism exist
from the ancient world in paintings found in cities
that were covered by the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in southern Italy in 79 ce. Frescoes from a
villa owned by a wealthy Roman family create the
illusion of architectural features that are in fact
L.74 Cubiculum from the Villa o; F'ublius Fannius

Synistor, Bosco'eale, Italy. C. 50-40 5CE. Fresco, room s'ze
B'SVfx 1011 x 1?'7V .Metropolitan Museum of Art.
"
NewYork
508 THEMES
only painted, not part of the structure, and of a the desire to impress others with artworks that
Humanism: the stud)' of
distant landscape beyond (6.76). Similarly imitate the realworld. The architect andthinker
subj ects such as history,
illusionistic scenes in other Romanwall paintings LeonBattista Alberti ( 1404-72) wrote in his philosophy,languages, and
show fruit,birds,greener)-, and stage-like settings, treatise On Painting that artists should design literature, particulariyin relation
to tho se of anc ie nt Gr eece
all recalling the story of Zeuxis and Parrhasius. their paintings as illusionary windows through and Rome
Artists of the Italian Renaissance revived the which viewers would be able to perceive a new-
ideals of the ancient Greeks and Romans, including reality (see Gateway Box: Raphael).

ArchitecturalIllusion
The Italianartist Raphael (1483-1520) painted filled with life-sized figures linking the
The Schoolof Athens on one of the walls of the Classical world with the humanist Renaissa nee
library of Pope Julius IIin the Vatican, in Rome, (6.75). This painting was designed as part of a
6.75 Raphael, Stanza della
Segnatura, Vatican City, to create the illusion of an architectural space larger program including three other paintings,
1509-11 that was separate from the actual room and an intricately tiled floor, and a painted ceiling,
all choreographedthematically as a backdrop
for Pope Julius ll's library. The pope's hundreds
of books were laid on shelves built directly
underthe paintings on each of the four walls
(these shelves have since been removed).
The Schoolof Athens highlights the
development of learning in the ancient world,
focusing particularly on the great philosophers
Plato and Aristotle, who are the two central
figures in the painting. The other large paintings,
turning counterclockwise around the room,a re:
Parnassus, a mythological story of Apollo,
representing poetry (seen on the left wall in
6.751; Disputa, a work that unites Classical
ideas with Renaissance Christian theology-, and
Jurisprudence, which emphasizes law and
justice. The thematic decorative scheme reflects
the purpose of the room:the subjects of Julius's
bookswere arranged to correspond with the
Classical topic addressed in the wall painting
above them. Beneath The Schoolof Athens were
books on philosophy and mathematics; beneath
Parnassus, poetry; and so on. The ceiling further
unites the themes of the walls through the
depiction on it of fourfemale figures, who
personify Philosophy,Poetry,Theology, and
Justice. To one standing in the room, the
illusion of depth created in The Schoolof Athens
is even more successful because the paintings
on all four walls appear to be separate rooms.
ART AND ILLUSION 509
c
4.76 Andrea Mantegna,

Detail of central oculus.
ceiling o; the Carre-a degl'
Spos' .Fresco. 3 9' d'a"reter
Ducal Falace. Mantua, Italy
During the Renaissance, the Italianartist Several young girls peer over the balustrade, as
Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431-1506)created does an enigmatic turbaned figure. One light-
a trompeVoeil for an entire room of the palace skinned girl wears a white veil, referring to the
ofLudovico Gonzaga, the Duke of Mantua. title of the room and to the duke's recent
The chamber, known as the Camera degli Sposi marriage to hiswife. Similarly, the prominent
(Room of the Newly-weds), was usedboth to peacock symbolizes Juno, the Roman goddess of
greet government officials and as a bedroom for marriage. All of this activity surprises theviewer
the duke andhiswife (4.76). Mantegna painted below, who may feel particularly nervous about
the walls with scenes of the royal family and of the pottedplant precariously held in place with
Oculus: a round opening ar the
historicalvictories of the Gonzagas. a pole by two smirking young girls. of a dome
center
In the vaulted ceiling the artist painted the The Italianartist Francesco Mazzola ( 1503-40), Putto (plural putti): a
illusion of what seems to be an oculus opening known as Parmigianino ("the little one from representation of a nude or
scantily dad infant angel or boy,
onto a blue sky, andsurrounded it with figures Parma"), gave a self-portrait to Pope Clement common in Renaissance and
looking down at the people below. There are VII in order to attract commissions ( 4.77). Baroque art
putti with their chubbybaby bodies, some The painting is on a convex piece ofwood; Balustrade: a railing supported
by short pillars
hanging on to the painted balustrade, others holding it, one seems to be looking into a convex Convex: curved inward, like the
looking down through the painted oculus. mirror— except that one does not see one's own exterior of a sphere
510 THEMES
c
6.77 Parmigianino.Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror.

c. 1524. Oil on wood. 9V2" diameter. Kunsthistorisches
Museum. V:eona. Austria
reflection inthe artwork,but the portrait of

Parmigianino,who studied himself inan
actual convex mirror to create this painting.
Parmigianino, however, made one change from
what he saw when he studied his reflection.
The artist accurately depicted himself as
right-handed, but inorder to do so hewould
presumably havehad to study his left handwhen
he actually painted. Parmigianino also featured
a portion of the frame of the painting hewas
creating (visible on the right side of the artwork)
in order to heighten the illusion of it being a
handheld mirror.
In the nineteenth century, the .American
painter William M. Harnett (1848-92) was so
skillful at tricking his audiences with trompe I'oeil
that, when hecreated a truly convincing dollar
bill in one of his paintings, he was investigated skillfully painted slightly to the left of the bottom 6.78 William M. Harnett. The
for counterfeitingby the U.S. Treasury of the violin, we would find that the text is Old Violin. 1 386. Oil on canvas,
33x23:''=". National Gallery of
Department.In The Old Violin, Harnett painted gibberish: it is not a newspaper, but another Art. Washington, D.C.
a violin and sheet music so that they appear to superb illusion.When this painting was first
be hanging from a real wooden door ( 6.78). exhibited, guards had to be posted aroundthe
The only part of the painting that is infact real painting constantly to prevent viewers from
is a blue envelope signedby the artist, which he reaching out to test if the objects were real.
attached to the lower left cor ner of the painting. The contemporary Japanese artist Shigeo
The artist teases viewers, leading us to question Fukuda (1932-2009) is known for his optical
what is reality andwhat is illusion. If we were to tricks. In fact, he filled his own home in Tokyo
read the small piece of torn newspaper so with deceptions. What appeared to bethe front
IE
lllusionism as Trickery Form: objects chat can be
(height, width, and depth)
With wonderful skill, he carved a figure, Silhouette: a portrait or figure
represented in outline and
brilliantly,out of snow-white ivory. .. and fell
solidlycoloredin
in love with his own creation. Stylobate: the uppermost
(The ancient Roman poet Ovid on Pygmalion's platform on aClassical temple,
on which the columns stand
carving of Galatea)
Entasis: the slight swelling
or bulge at the midpoint of
InClassical mythology, the sculptor Pygmalion acolumn
created a statue of a woman so fine andbeautiful

that he fell in love with her. He dressed and
pampered her, believing her more perfect than
any human woman. He begged the gods to grant
him a wife as perfect as his statue, and the goddess
of love, Venus, granted his wish bybringing the
statue to life. The myth suggests that an artist's
love for hiswork, andhis skill at re-creating the
natural world, will reap great rewards.
Like Pygmalion, sculptors canuse their skill to
create works that appear to be convincingly real.
With painstaking attention to every minute
detail, the Australian artist RonMueck (b. 1958)
infuses his sculptures with life. He patiently re¬
creates each hair,wrinkle, and pore on his human
figures through a lengthy process that would be
tedious for most of us. The remarkable realism of
—
his works one is tempted to reach out to touch
4.80 Ron Mueck, Mask II,
the figures— catches usby surprise. A sculpture
2001-2. Mixed media.
of Mueck's own sleeping face, even though it is 30Vsxu6V2x337f.
4.79 Shigeo Fukuda. Encore. 1 976. Wood. 1 ?V?x 1 9V:x a disembodied head, is so believable that we Private collection
1 Private collection
door opened onto a blank wall; his real front

door blended into the exterior wall, which
created a secret passageway. Utilizing form,
light, and shadows, Fukudacreated numerous
artworks in two and three dimensions, many
of musicians, in which the subject changes
depending on the beholder's point of view.
In Encore, a silhouette of a piano and pianist
transforms into a violinist when the carved
wooden sculpture isviewed from a different
angle (4.7?). The title of the work (audiences
traditionally call out "encore!" at the end of
musical performances, to encourage the
musician to play"again!") expresses the way
the work is experienced, as if more than one
performance isbeing seen.
512 THEMES
C
anxiously wait for the mask to open its eyes
(6.80). Each feature, no matter howsmall, is
precisely reconstructed.Andthe lips andcheeks
droop slightly, as if subject to the effects of
gravity,just as they would on a human face. At
the same time, Mueck subverts his own illusion
by making his figure extremely oversized.
In ancient Greece, the designers of the
Parthenonunderstoedthat the human eye could
play tricks on the beholder. They usedtheir
knowledge of mathematics to ensure that the
building would appear just as they wished it to
(6.8ia). Because of the great size of the temple,
thebase andcolumnswould appear warped
unless the architects could adjust their design
to counteract these naturally occurring optical
illusions. For example, the stylobate, or platform
on which the columns stand,would appear to
sag ifit were constructed as a precisely straight
horizontal structure. To account for this, the
architects created a slight upward swelling in the
center of the stylobate, which makes the base of
the temple seem perfectly horizontal when we
look at it.
Several othervisual manipulationswere utilized
in the design of the columns. For example, the
columns of the Parthenon actually swell at about
mid-height (6.81d). This optical trick preventsthem
from appearing, when looked at from a distance,
to be hourglass-shaped, which would happen if
the columns were flawlessly straight sided. This no visual adjustments
swelling at the midpoint of suchcolumns is called

entasis. In addition, tte columns are not perfectly
vertical but actually slightly tilted. If they were
extended into the air, the impliedlines createdby
the four corner columnswould eventually intersect
about a mile and a half into the sky. Finally, the
columns are not all spaced equidistantly, as they
appear to be; those closer to the corners haveless
space between them. This is another visual trick
used to compensate for the optical illusion that
makes columns near the end of a row appear
further apart than ones near the middle.
A upward curva tu re o~ s tyloba te

6.81a [top right) Kallikrates and Iktinos, Parthenon, B upward curvature 0*' architrave entasis
dd7-d32ECE. Acropol 5,Athens, G'eece C slight inward angle 0*' columns
D less distance between end columns
6.81 b-d (right) Diagram showing the optical llusions
utilized in the Parthenon
Architectural andtwo-dimensional illusory
t echniqueswere both utilized by t he Itali an ar tist
andarchitectGiulioRomano (c. 1499-1546)
designed a villa for the same Gonzaga family that
hadcommissionedthe decoration of the Camera
degli Sposi from Mantegna (see 6.76). As both
architect and interior painter for the Palazzo del
Te in Mantua (6.82), Giulio Romano designed
a building that subtly broke many of the rules of
Classical architecture,with the result that,when
looked at closely, thevilla appears to be unstable.
Romano achieved this playful illusion by taking
Classical architectural elements used in such
buildings as the Parthenon, and arranging them
to create the impression of instability rather than
the solidity normally expected of architecture.
The architraves that rest on the columns are
narrower thanwould normally be the case; but,
even stranger, the)- seem to break in the middle
rather than reaching from one column to the
next, as the)- should. As a result, some of the
triglyphs in the frieze above the columns appear
to be slipping down, as ifthey might even fall to
the ground. The material of the structure itself is
also an illusion; rather than marble or stone,
which were normally used for luxurious
buildings,the exterior is stucco -covered brick.
The explanation for the odd design of the
Palazzo del Te's exterior becomes apparent when
one enters the building (6.83). A painted scene of
the Fall of the Giants playfully suggests why the
exterior appears to be falling apart. The painting
depicts an episode from Greek mythology,when
the gods defeated the giants inbattle. Having
been trained by Raphael, and having worked as
hisassistant on his paintings for the Vatican (see
p. 509), Giulio Romano built on the techniques
of his master for this powerful painted illusion.
The building in Giulio 's painting appears to be
tumbling down, crushing the struggling giants
below. The powerful wind, shown in the corner
blowing a trumpet, is controlledby the gods in
the clouds of Mount Olympus, and therefore
protected from the turmoil below.
6.82 G'ul:o Rorrano. Palazzo del Te. e>:te"'or, 1 527-34.

N'aitua. Italy
6.83 Giulio Rorrano, Faltofthe Giants, 1526-35. Fr-eaco,

Sale de' G'gant". Palazzo del Te. Mantua. Italy
516 THEMES
The British artist Julian Beever (b. 1960) three-dimensional space. When his Woman in
applies a special form of trompel'oeil known Pool is viewed from the right vantage point,it
as anamorphosis to his sidewalk art. An appears that a w*oman is lyingback in a swimming
anamorphic image is one that is stretchedand pool, drink in hand, kicking her leg in the air
distorted,butbecomes clear andrealisticwhen (4.84a). But when it is view-ed from the opposite
viewed from a single, oblique angle. Beever 's direction, the illusion is destroyed and one can
chalk drawings confront passersbv with what see that Beever used extreme foreshortening
appear to be convincing scenes taking place in to represent the woman's leg ( 4.84b). The only
4.84a (top right) Julian

Beever, Woman in Pool, drawn
in Brussels. Belgium, 1992.
Colored cnalks. 14'9V." x
13" 1 V 2* (correct viewing po nt.
4.84b (below right]

Julian Beever. Woman in
Pool, drawn n Glasgow.
Scotland. 1994. Colored
cnalks, 1 4'9V x 13' 11/2"
(Incorrectviewing oo'ntj
Architrave: abeam that rests on

the top of a row of columns
Triglyph: a projecting block
carved with three raised bands.
which alternateswith figurative
reliefs in a frieze
Frieze: the strip that goes
around the top of a building,
often filled with sculptural
ornamentation
Stucco: a coarse plaster designed
to give the appearance of stone
Anamorphosis: the distorted
representation of an object so
that it appears correctly
proportioned only when viewed
from one particular position
Foreshortening: aperspective
technique that depicts a form at
averyoblique (often dramatic)
angle to the viewer
c
genuinely three-dimensional element inthe doing magic tricks. As an adult artist, he has
photograph of the illusionistic drawing ( 4.84a) is becomeknown for manipulating portraits of
the artist himself, who is holding a drink and has his friends and family. Hebegins hiscreative process
foot placed flat on the pavement. by takingphotographs of them, which hethen
transforms into artworks in another medium.
For exa mple, although Fanny/Fingerpainting
lookslike a photograph, Close actually hand-
Illusion and the painted an image of his wife's grandmother
Transformation of Ideas using only histhumb- and fingerprints (4.85).
As with most of his artworks, Close laid a grid
The American artist Chuck Close (b. 1940) over the original photograph of the subject,
creates artworks that inspire us to question what andthen carefully enlarged and copied each
we see. As a child, one of Close's favorite pastimes block so that the entire image fills an 8 foot 6 in.
was to entertain neighbors and schoolmates by by 7 foot canvas. Through this process, the
4.85 Chuck Close.

Fanny/Fingerpainting , 1985.
Oil on canvas, 8'6 "X 7".
National Gallery o: Art.
Washington. D.C.
516 THEMES
c
original photograph is transformed into a much in front of a mirror,which reflects the Parisian
Medium (plural media): the
bigger imagewhich appears to be a photographic club scene she is facing. Discrepancies in
artist chooses to make a work enlargement produced by technology. Close's the reflection, however, make one question
of art process,while still quite mechanical, remains the accuracy of what one sees. For example, the
Perspective: the creation ofthe
illusion of depth in a two-
personal because of the use of the artist's own bottles next to the barmaid on the left of
dimensional imagebyusing hands in the act of creation. the canvas appear to be placed in a different
mathematical principles T he paintin g ABar at theFdies- Bergfre, order and ina different place in the reflection
by French artist Edouard Manet ( 1832-83), behind her. In addition, some viewers question
similarly asks the viewer to consider the whether the posture of the barmaid on the far
relationship between truthfulness and right is an accurate reflection of the barmaid
illusionism in a work of art ( 6.86). The Folies- looking out at us. Manet certainly hadthe skill
Bergere was one of the mast popular bars and to depict perspective precisely, so one must
entertainment houses in Paris in the nineteenth consider why he chose to create such an
century; the club offered entertainment by ambiguous reflection.
dancers, singers, and even trapeze artists (a pair Several interpretations of A Bar at theFolies-
of feet can be seen hanging in the upper left of Bergerehavebeen suggested. Ifwe assume that
6.86 Edouard Manet. A Bar at
Manet's painting), all dressed in revealing and the figure on the right is indeed a reflectionof
the FoLies-Bergere, 1 BS2. OIL
on canvas, 37 /;x5r/-". provocative clothes. The blurry background the barmaid, then we viewers are standing in the
Courtauld Gallery, London behindthe barmaid suggests she is standing place of the man in the top hat to whom she is
talking. Heis presumably a client. It was common ambiguities in the reflection may be a way for the
for the female entertainers andbarmaids at the artist to suggest different emotional states inthe
Folies-Bergere to be hired by the clientele for barmaid, contrasting her personal experience or
sexual favors. Perhaps that isthe nature of the feelings with her external appearance. Some have
interchange taking place betweenthem. The argued that she appears to be much more
Satirizing Illusionism: Hogarth's False Perspective

In this work, William Hogarth (1697-1764), an seems to be hanging behind the trees on
eighteenth-century British artist, satirizes the the hillin the background.
traditionaltraining of painters who were taught • The barrel behind the large man in the
to use the rules of perspective to create foreground shows both the top and bottom
believable spaces (4.87). Here, Hogarth applies of the container.
these rules in orderto break them. He thus • The vanishingpointof the grid upon which
creates the illusion of a space that is, in fact, the man in the foreground stands is
impossible. On the bottom of the print, he wrote: projecting into the viewer's space, rather 4.87 William Hoga-th, False
Perspective. Engraving from
than receding into the pictorial space,
Dr. Brook Taylor's Me:hod of
Whoever makesa Design without the making it seem as if the man should be Perspective Made Easy. Both
Knowledge of Perspective will be liable falling forward out of the picture. in Theory andPractice. 1 754
to such Absurdities as are shown in this

Frontispiece.
• The woman in the window of her building is

lighting the pipe of the man standing on top
of the hill. Lower in the image, we can see
a tree, and horses pulling a wagon, between
the building and the base of the hill. How
can the woman reach the man?
• The man in the right foreground must have
quite an extraordinarily long fishing line in
orderto reach beyond the rod of the man in
the distance.
• In the lower left, the sheep closest to us are
smaller thanthose furtheraway.
• Similarly, the trees at the bottom of the hill
get larger asthey recede into the distance,
suggesting that the bird on the furthest tree
is improbably big.
• The church in the distance appears to be
both grounded on land and floating on water.
• The man inthe boat in the centerof the
scene appears to aim his gun at a swan,
but instead shoots the underside of the
bridge.
• The sign on the building in the foreground
518 THEMES
c
6.88 Rene Magritte. The Human Condition, 1933. Oil on
canvas, 39% x 31 */= x National Gallery of Art.
Washington. D.C.
engaged in the reflected image than she is as she

stands before us in the center of the painting. Her
gaze leaves us questioning her state of mind:is she
sad,distracted, or bored? .Another interpretation
suggests that the artist is depicting a fantasy.
Some artists employ satire to question or
play with the tradition of using perspective
andother illusionary tools to create artworks
that imitate reality (see Box: Satirizing
Dlusionism). The Belgian artist Rene Magritte
(1898-1967) asks the viewer to questionwhat
appears to be a painting of a landscape on an
easel, which hasbeen placed before a window
that looks out onto the same landscape ( 6.88).
However,we realize that the scene outside the
window is also an invent ion;the win dowand
drapes and the painting on the easel are both
part of the pa inted canvas that we behold.
The artist explains,
[Thetree] exists for the spectator,both inside

the room in the painting, and outside in the
real landscape, in thought. Which is how we
see theworld: wesee it asbeing outside
ourselves even though it is only a mental
representation of it that we experience
inside ourselves.
Magritte confronts us with issues of
representation andtruthand refers directly to Innhflf firfwnrh iby Rene Magritte (for
the achievements inJinear£ers£ective made by example, The Human Condition in this
the artists of the Renaissance.What at first seems chapter ( 6.88) and The Treachery of Images
an extension of the desire to create a convincing on p. 76 ( 1.67)). Write a short essay of two or
viewthrough a window is shatteredwhen three paragraphs explainingwhat Magritte
Magritte forces us to consider what is real, and was saying about the Renaissance idea of the
what is only of the mind. Magritte showedthat 'ÿillusionistic window."
the "illusionistic window" of the Renaissanceis Selectone of die artists inthis chapter and
Vanishing point: the point in a
indeed only a canvas. By so doing, he opened the study other works by them. Does the ar tist work of art at which imaginary
door for artists to make paintings with purposes use illusionism frequently? What do you sight lines appear to converge,
other thanthe representation of perfect three- think is the artist's motivation for doing so? suggesting depth
Satire: work of art that exposes
dimensional illusions of subjects as if the)- were Stud\- Hogarth's False Perspective. Now the weaknesses and mistakes of
real life. .As Magritte demonstrated, painting draw a scene from your imagination and its subjects to ridicule
can be a powerful mode for expressing complex include in it at least three examples of Linear perspective: a system
ideas, rather than solely re-creatingwhat we alteredvisual reality like those included in
sight lines to create the illusion
see with our eves. Hogarth's print. of depth
c
THEMES
4.6
Art and Rulers
Rulers have always made use of works of art to the physical characteristics of the sitter. Rulers
help define and assert their political power and are sometimes identified by their attire and
to influence their people. Seeking to demonstrate placement rather than their facial features.
supreme control, leadershave usedartworks The Byzantine emperor Justinian is
to highlight their right to rule, sometimes even remembered as a remarkable military and civil
to claimthat their author it)- hasbeen granted leader, as well as a great patron of the arts who
by the gods. Regal portraits are often idealized, funded the building of hundreds of churches.
emphasizing rulers' importancebyportraying Portraits of Justinian, who ruled in the sixth
them in elaborate clothing, or showing them century, were often placed in these churches
seated ona throne, placed centrally inthe to demonstrate his patronage as well as his
composition, or depicted larger than other power, which was believed to havebeen granted
figures. Leadershave frequently commissioned by God. In the Church of San Vitale, in Ravenna,
artworks to reinforce their reputations as skillful Italy, there is a glorious coloured glass mosaic
commanders and to project an image of military of the Emperor, which he probably never
strength. Thus artworks can be a potent saw (4.89).
propaganda tool for sustaining a ruler's power. Justinian stands in the center of the mosaic,
This chapter explores how rulershave seen wearing the imperial color purple. On either
themselves andhow they wished to be viewed side of him are clergy in white robes. To his far
by both friend and foe. right are soldiers, who display a large shieldthat
bears the Greek letters for Christ ( chi-rho),
emphasizing Justinian's role as a Christian
Regal Portraits militan- leader. There are other Christian
symbols in the mosaic: the men to the left of
What image comes to mind when you think of a the emperor hold a cross, a copy of the Gospels
great leader? Artists have endeavored for centuries (the first four books of the New Testament),
to develop ways to show rulers as figures of grace and a censer used to burn incense in church
and authority, deserving the trust of the people sen-ices. Justinian holdsthebread used to
Byzantine: relating to the East
Roman Empire, centered on whom the)- govern. Byzantine artists created represent the body of Christ in the communion
Constantinople (modern-day glorious tile mosaics, andthe Chinese usedrich sen-ice, and the mosaic itself is displayed near
Istanbul) fromthe fifth century silks as the base for luxuriously colorful royal the altar -where the sen-ice would take place.
ce to 1453
Mosaic a picture or pattern portraits. The ancient Olmec conveyed their Interestingly, one other figure in this mosaic
c reated by fixin g together small leaders' power in the massiveness of the stone is given special recognition: the local bishop,
pieces of stone, glass, tile, etc. images the)- carved (see Gateway Box: Colossal Maximianus,who arranged the commission,
individualwho sponsors the Olmec Heads, 4.9 1a and 4.9 lb, p. 522). Portraits organized the composition so that his figure was
creation of works of art vary in the degree to which the)- accurately depict the only one identified inwriting on the image
520 THEMES
C
6.89 Justinian mosaic,
c. 547 CE. Glass. San Vitale,
Ravenna, Italy
nm
(his name iswritten above his portrait), and so

that his feet shouldbe placed slightly in front of
the emperor. One wonders what Justinian would
have thought, hadhe seen the mosaic. Justinian
himself needed no suchlabel: the imperial robe,
in addition to his crown and halo,were enough
to identify the ruler.
Unlikethe depiction of Justinian, which
shows the ruler surrounded by followers, the
portrait of the Yongzheng Emperor (who
reignedbetween 1722 and 1735) in 6.90 shows
the Emperor of China by himself and enthroned.
Many aspects of the por trait— the ruler' s
expression and pose, his yellow robe, and the
rich colors on the silk scroll— follow the
traditions of royal portraiture used for centuries
in China. The accurate depiction of the facial
features, however, makes each portrait unique.
The gilded throne and richly coloredtextiles
of his robe, seat cushion, and carpet emphasize 6.90 Port-ait of toe
the wealth and authority of the ruler. Dragons Yongzheng Emperorin
intricately stitchedall over the robe, and the court dre55. Yongzheng
period, 1722-35. Hang'ng
monstrous carving on the throne, symbolize
scroll, colour on silk,
the emperor's fearsome power. Imperial portraits PT'xu'SVj". Palace Museum,
like these were often made upon the death of Beijing, China
ART AND RULERS 521
C
Portraits of PowerfulRulers
The distinctive facial features and individual where ten colossalheads have been found,
headdresses of the seventeen Colossal Olmec the stone would have been transported more
Heads suggest that each one represented a real than fifty miles over rivers and marshy terrain,
person (4.91a). Scholars think they probably suggesting that the ruler had a wealth of
depict specific Olmec rulers.The effort it must resources at his disposal. Many Olmec heads
have taken to create each sculpture is evidence have been discovered underground,indicating
4.91a Colossal Head, Olmec,
of the power of the ruler.The material used to that they were buried as part of a ritual.
1200-600 bce. Museo
Nacional de Antropologfa, make the colossalheads is a hardvolcanic In addition, many of the heads have been
Mexico City, Mexico stone known as basalt. In San Lorenzo,Mexico, mutilated or carved from the stone of Olmec
"altar-throne" sculptures, leading some
scholars to conclude that old sculptures were
damaged, buried, or recycled as new
sculptures when a new ruler took power.
Scholars cannot say with certaintywhy this
was done, but it seems likely that the burial
and mutilation of Olmec monuments occurred
when the ruler died. Although there is much
we will never know a bout why these heads
were made, it seems clear that they express
the power of mighty rulers.
4.91b Colossal Head, Olmec, 1500-1300 bce. Basalt.

Museo de Antropologi'a, Veracruz, Mexico
C
the ruler and hung in family shrines. The ruler's may be related to a specificbattle, as Shield
descendants wouldburn incense andbow before x , , . Lintel: the horizontalbeam over
Jaauar, dressed as a warrior, wears an
ÿ
, ,
the doorway or a portal
their ancestor's portrait, asking for protection elaborate headdress that includesthe shrunken pectoral: alarge ornament
and guidance. Such images were themselves head of a victim sacr ificed to the gods. wom on the chest
safeguarded by an ancestral power. In fact, it He holds alarge burning torch to light the
was consideredblasphemous and even evening ritual.
dangerous to possess the portrait of someone This lintel is one of three that depict
who was not your own ancestor. specificbloodlettingceremonies undergone
byLady Xoc (eachwith different dates); they
were placed together over a doorway in a temple
dedicated to her. Although Lady Xoc is shown
Art to Demonstrate as dearly subordinate to Shield Jaguar, her
Absolute Power
A ruler with absolute power is one who has the 4.92 Sn'eld -.=gu5" and Lady Xoc, C. 725CE. L'-r.estone.
freedom to govern as he or she pleases. How is 43x30". British Museum, London, England
suchunlimited power achieved? Often such
leaders are believed to havebeen given their
authorityby divine powers. Evenwhen rulers
seem unjust or extreme, their subjects are less
likely to rebel iftheir authority isbelieved to
have derived from God. Absolute rulers control
the wealth of their country, and may choose to
spend it on personal luxuries, rather than for
the benefit of all ( see Box: The Extravagance of
the French Monarchy, pp. 524-5). Leaders with
suchtotal power may determine the religion of
their people andhow that religion is practiced.
In ancient Maya culture, a ruler's power
was reinforced through prayers and sacrifices
to the gods. An intricately carved lintel from a
temple inYaxchilan in southern Mexico shows
Lady Xoc, wife of the ruler Shield Jaguar,
kneelingbefore her husband and pulling a rope
covered with thorns through a hole in her
tongue in a bloodletting ritual ( 4. 92). The
writing around the edges of the scene tells us
the names of the figures and describes what is
taking place. According to the symbols above
the king's head, this ritual took place on
October 28, 709 ce.
Bloodletting led to what is called a
hallucinogenic state, inwhich the individual
concerned imagines that he or she is seeing
tilings. The Maya may have enhanced such states
by fasting and takingdrugs; the}- believed that
suchritualscaused spiritual visions. Shield Jaguar
and Lady Xoc prayed to the sun god; they both
wear his image on their pectorals. This ritual
ART AND RULERS 523
The Extravagance of the French Monarchy
Louis XIV (1638-1 715) ruled France as The Sun King stands at the entrance to
an absolute monarch and his power was the famed Hall of Mirrors, anopulent chamber
thought to be based on the divine will of God. filled with mirrors (an expensive commodity
He proclaimed himself the Sun King, believing at the time) in his grand new palace of
that he was the center of all things, and that Versailles, near Paris.Thisenormous edifice
the world revolved around hiswhims. The had hundredsof rooms, each ornately
regal portrait byHyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743) decorated by the finest artists in Europe.
is meant to demonstrate the king's absolute Vast gardens covering almost 2,000 acres
power (6.93). Louis is dressed in royal attire, were designed to surround the palace. They
the gold fleur-de-lis (or "lily-flower," the were filled with 200,000 trees and 210,000
symbolof the French monarchy) embroidered flowers, which were replanted frequently,
6.93 [below le;t] Hya.cnthe on a rich blue velvet gown, lined in expensive and with 2,100 sculptures, many of them placed
Rigaud, Louis XIV, 1701. C Ion white fur known asermine. Insisting on on spectacular fountains. Versailles has more
ca nvas. 0 1" x 6 'uJ/: . Musee
' "
the finest of everything, LouisXIV dressed than fifty fountains. There was not enough
du Louvre. Paris, F-ance
himself in the most opulent textiles from waterto run them all a t once, though, and
6.96 {below right) Elisaoeth- around the world. He invented the high heels servants used a system of whistles to alert
Lou'se Vigee-Lebrun, Marie shown here, which he used to increase his one another to turn on the fountains whenever
An toine tte a nd hie rChiidrsn ,
height (5 ft. 4 in.) and to show off his healthy the Sun King was within viewing range.
1787. C'l on canvas. ?'V;"x
7 "/s" - Musee National du legs. This painting was done when the monarch By the late eighteenth century, the
Cnateau de Versa:lles, France was in his sixties. wasteful spending of the monarchy had
526 THEMES
caused such popular opposition that the
monarchy itself took notice. Marie Antoinette,
the wife of King LouisXVI (1754-93), had
become the symbol of the royal family's
extravagance. While the French state suffered
financial strainand the people went hungry,
the queen decorated herself with expensive
clothes and jewels and was given her own
chateau, or palace, which she decorated
extravagantly. The French directed much of
their angerat the queen; many considered her
promiscuous, even incestuous, although
historians find that some of the accusations
against herwere greatly exaggerated.
The portrait of MarieAntoinette andHer
Children (4.94) was painted to improve the
queens reputation. She is shown seated in
Versailles with the Hall of Mirrors behind her
right shoulder, just as Louis XIV had been
portrayed. While her rich velvet dress shows
herstatusas Queenof France, her wardrobe
is neitheroverly revealing norlacking in 4.95 Akhenaten. Nefertiti, elaborate costume, her role inthe ritual, and
French style and taste, which had been and three daugnte's. the fact that this bloodletting scene was imitated
C. 1 353-1335 =C =. Limestone.
a criticism of previous portraits. In dramatic in artworks of later generations highlights that
12/'-" high.Agyptisches
opposition to her growing reputation as Museum, Staatliche Museen she too was a person of importance.
promiscuous and unavailable to the king, zu Berlin. Germany The ancient Egyptians believed their kings,
she is shown as a loving mother adored by known as pharaohs, were descended from the
herchildren, who cling to her. Her somber gods. The pharaohAkhenaten, like Shield
expression suggests sorrow over the recent Jaguar, ruledunder the authority of a sun god.
lossof her youngest daughter, forwhom Although previous pharaohs had worshiped
the empty cradle was intended. In fact, many gods, Akhenaten, who ruled in the
Elisabeth-Louise Vigee-Lebrun (1755-1842), fourteenth century bce, used his supreme power
who painted this and many other portraits to recognize only the sun god Aten. Akhenaten's
of Marie Antoinette, wrote in her diary of the beliefs are clearly stated in a sunken relief.
kind nature of the queen, and of the queen's originally painted, that depicts the pharaoh on
sympathy for the painterwhen she herself the left, his wife and trusted adviser Nefertiti
was pregnant and when she faced challenges opposite him, andtheir three daughters cradled
as a female artist in the Royal Academy of on their laps (4.95). The sun is carved deeper
Painting and Sculpture. The portrait did than anything else in the relief,which signifies
not, however, assuage the growing anger visually its importance as a god, andits rays
of the French people. It was removed from emanate toward the family, suggesting the sun
public display shortly after being exhibited god's support of the royal family. The flames at
in 1788, forfearthat it would be attacked. the end of the rays are small hands, some
The following year, the French Revolution holding an arikh, the character that symbolizes
began. Three years later, in 1792, the life in ancient Egyptian writing. The depiction
monarchy was overthrown, and in 1793 ofNefertiti as almost the same size as her
LouisXVI and Marie Antoinette were Sunken relief: a carved panel husbandindicatesher importance. Some
where the figures are cut deeper
beheaded. into the stone than the historians believe she ruledthe kingdom
background with Akhenaten.
ART AND RULERS 525
bullheads, which represent the aggressive
Palette: a smooth slab or The Power to Command strength of the king. Between them is a symbol
board used for mixing paints
or cosmetics for the name of the king. In the next register the
Pigment: the colored material The power to command a nation's army is one king is shown larger than the other figures to
used in paints or cosmetics.
ofa leader's most important duties. Rulers are indicatehis importance, a convent ionknown as
Often made from finely
ground minerals expected to protect their people, to defeat their hierarchicalscale. Narmer's unification of Egypt
Register, one oftwo or more enemies in battle, and bring peace. Countless is recordedby a number of symbols. He wears
horizontal sectionsintowhich a
space isdivided in order to
artworks havebeen made to record successful the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, denoting his
depict the episodes of a story military campaign*. Many rulers themselves have rule over that region. (The palette was painted,
Hierarchicalscale: the use of commissioned artworks the}- hope will lead to originally, so the red of the crown would have
size to denote the relative
eternal recognition of their militan- prowess, or been clearly visible.) The figures lined up in a
an artwork that -will persuade their people to consider them procession in front of him hold standards with
High relief: a carved pan el as gods. Such objects are meant to show the ruler markings that probably signify regions now
where the figures project with
as protector of and peacemaker for his people. under Narmer's control. On the far right of
a great deal of depth from the
background The Palette of Narmer, one of the earliest this register are ten bodies with severed heads
surviving ancient Egyptian artworks, records the between their legs,indicating the scores of
unification of Egypt by the first pharaoh, Narmer enemies Narmer haskilled.The intertwining of
(4.96a and 4.96 b). Before die reign of Narmer, Egypt the fantastical long-necked creatures inthe next
was divided into Lower Egypt (near the mouth of register embodies the unification of Upper and
the Nile River, to the north) and Upper Egypt Lower Egypt. In the bottom register, Narmer is
(higher terrain, to the south). Palettes were used to again represented as a bull,who bows his head
grind pigment that both men and women painted toward a fortified city and tramples on an enemy.
around their eyes to protect them from the sun. The The back of the palette features a large scene
round area on the front of the Palette of Narmer, in which the pharaoh, wearing the White Crown
inwhich the necks of two creatures intertwine, that symbolizes Upper Egypt,prepares to club
•would havebeen used for the mixing of the paint. an enemy who kneels before him. The falcon
The detailing and expense of this obi ect, however, represents the god Horus, suggesting that Narmer
suggest that it may not havebeen used; or if it -was, was supportedby the gods. Horus stands on
that it was used only for a very important ceremony. papyrus plants, symbols of Lower Egypt,where the
The front of the palette is divided into four plants grew. The smaller figure standingbehind
registers. The top register shows a pair of horned Narmer is a servant,who carries the pharaoh's
4.96a (front) and 4.96b 'oack]

Palette o; Narmer. Early Dynastic
Period, c. 2950-2775 BCE.
G-een schist. 25V. x 16"/s" .
Egyptian Museum. Cairo, Egypt
ft aMMh
526 THEMES
shoes. (Another servant appears behindthe ruler artworks to reflect their power,
on the other side of the palette.) At the very including plaques to cover the
bottom of the reverse side of the palette is a scene royal palace, many of which depict
of two fallen enemies, viewed as if from above. warriors who followed the orders
Muchof the picture writing on the palette has not of the oba. The central warrior in
yet been interpreted,but it seems to record the this plaque is larger than the two
names of places conquered bv Narmer. Taken as beside him,signifying his importance;
a whole, the palette shows this pharaoh's military he is in higher relief than the others,
might as he unifies all of Egypt under his rule. making him seem closer to us. The
Just as the Palette of Narmer focused on the ceremonial swordhe carries in hislefthand
milit ary successes of Egypt's first pharaoh, andhiselaborate helmet tell us that he is a
Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome,used art as high-ranking chief. His spear and the shields
propaganda to demonstrate his military prowess of thosebeside him are imposing, emphasizing
and to claimdescent from the gods. Augustus their physical power and that of their ruler,
wished to present himself as an exceptional the oba. Thechiefwears a leopard tooth
military leader, and in fact he defeated the rival necklace andhas dotted markings on his
Roman general MarkAntony and Cleopatra, stomach and arms resembling the spots of
Queen of Egypt, in 31 bce, andthus expanded the a leopard.Leopards, known for their power
Roman Empire. The Augustus ofPrimapcrta and speed, were a symbol of the oba.
portrays him in militarygarb andwith his arm
upraised, readvbothtolead his troops into battle .
6.97 Augustus of Prirr.ap or:a e a rly
and to deliver an inspiring speech ( 6.97). Cupid, 1 st-centuryCE copy, after orig'nal p-onze
from 20 ece. Marble. 6'S" high. Vatican
son ofVenus, the Roman goddess of love,is show n
Museums, Vatican City
at Augustus's feet. He represents thedivine lineage
ofAugustus,who claimedto bethe descendant of 6.98 Plaque with warrior and attendants.
Aeneas (also a son ofYenus),the mythical founder 16th— 1 7th century. Eÿass. 18V*" high.
Metropolitan Museum o; Art. NewYork
of Rome. The pose and proportions were copi ed
from Greek art, which the Romans admired, and
were believed to represent an idealyouthful
physical form, althoughAugustus was actually
in his forties when the statue was made.
Originally much of the sculpture v\-as painted
with bright red and blue,making the scenes on
Augustus's armor easier to read. In the center of
his chest plate is a scene showing the return of
one of the Roman military standards capturedby
the army of the Parthian Empire, a reference to
Augustus's superb diplomatic skills. Both Mark
.Antony and the talented general and politician
Julius Caesar had failed to retrieve the standards,
so Augustus's success shows him as more
powerful thanhis predecessors.
A plaque from the palace of an African king
suggests, as didthe statue of Augustus, that military
strength is often needed to bring peace to a
kingdom (6.98). The kings, or obas, of Benin, were
both military and spiritual leaders of a West African
state that was at its height between 1450 and
1700. The obas commissionedhundreds ofbrass
ART AND RULERS 527
not punish a husband for adulter}-, although it
Art and Societal Control did consider the wife's financial well-being if her
husband decided to leave her. In contrast,
Leadershave the authority to try to influence the a woman caught in an adulterous affair was
course of history, and the}- frequently use art to thrown into a river, -with her hands tied, along
announce their intentions. Strong leaders also with her lover. Ifher husband only suspected
understand the power of art as a tool for her of adulter}-, but had no proof, she v-as
propaganda, both to convey their messages and required to jump into the river. If she survived,
to influence the people to adhere to their laws. shew-as deemed innocent.
The ancient Babylonian king Hammurabiused The scene at the top of the stela shows that
an image to emphasize his divine connection to Hammurabi's power hasbeen given to him by
the gods inorder to persuade his people to follow the gods. The sun god Shamash, seen with flames
his decrees. Both the Roman emperor radiating from his shoulders, is seated upon a
Constantineandthe Chinese communistleader throne that is in the mountains, signifiedby the
Mao Zedong utilized their own portraits on a three steps belowthe god's feet. The sun god
grand scale to symbolize their political strength. reaches towardHammurabi as hedictates to the
King Hammurabi of Babylon (now part of king the laws he will implement. Written below
Iraq) is best known today for the code of law that this scene is a long description of the gods'
he established around 1790 bce. It was innovative support for Hammurabiandthe king's law- code.
for being a set of written statutes, as opposed to Constantine the Great ruled part of the Roman
unwritten or arbitrary rules,which might vary Empire from 306 ce andwas sole emperor from
by region or local authority. His code was carved 324 untilhis death in 337. Constantine was
into a stela for public viewing (4.99). King successfulin numerous military campaigns, and
Hammurabi's code has often been summarized he is notable for having beenthe first Christian
as "an eve for an eye,"because it often called for Roman emperor. A colossal marble andbronze
a person to be punished for wrong-doingby statue of the emperor seated ona throne was
4.99 Stela o: Hsnmu-so'. suffering in the same way as the person who had made in 325 to be placed in a basilica in the
C. 1792-1750 BCE. Diorite, been wronged. Yet Hammurabi's laws were often center of Rome. Only parts of the statue survive
885/sx253/s". Musee du more complex andless even- handedwhen they (4.1oo),but the head alone,which is more than
Louvre. Pans, F-ance
pertained to people -with low status, such as slaves, 8 feet tall, gives an idea of the imposing force one
freedmen, and women. For example, the law did must have felt standing in the presence of this
4.100 Re-nnants o; colossal

statue of Constaot'ne toe
Great. 325-6CE. Marble, head
8'6" high. Palazzo del
Conservatori, Rooie. Italy
528 THEMES
statue, which was made to remindthe people of variations. Originally Mao wore the collared
Constantine's power even when he was away. white suit seen in the portrait today, but hishead
decorated with inscriptions or
pictorial re lief carvi ngs In its youthful features andideal athleticbody, was slightly turned. In the mid-1960s the portrait
Basilica: an early Christian the statue was modeled after portraits of earlier was altered to showboth ofMao's ears, symbolizing
church, either converted from or
builtto resemble a type of
emperors. The emperor was enthroned in a that helistened intently to the people. The total
Romancivic building manner similar to seated statues of the Roman god number of portraits of Mao made for this location
Jupiter, but he held in his hand an orb on which a is unknown;however, the Chinese appear to have
Christian cross was placed. This statue is one of copies in storage in case of damage to the one
the earliest examples of how pagan art was often currently hanging.
reinterpreted to incorporate Christian symbolism Mao's colossal image is considered a national
and meaning. Constantine's far-off gaze toward the symbol inChina. Portraits of Mao, in the form of
heavens is also distinct from earlier portraits of posters, paintings, sculptures, badges, and postage
Roman emperors and signifies his dose connection stamps,were disseminated more than any other
to, and therefore power derived from, God. image throughout China in the 1960s and 1970s.
Mao Zedong ledthe Communist Party to When Mao died in 1976, the large oil painting at
power inthe Chinese civil war that ended in 1949. Tiananmen was replaced temporarily with a
Mao,who ruledthe most populous country in black-and-white photograph to signify China's
the world for twenty-seven years, understoodthe mourning. The portrait is a powerful symbol
power of imagery and, like leaders for centuries both for supporters of the Chinese government
before him, usedartwork to promote his political as well as for its opponents. It was splattered with
and social agenda amongsthis thousands of red paint during the pro-democracy student
subjects. Mao installed a huge portrait ofhimself protests of 1989, and in 2007 an unemployed
at Tiananmen (the Gate of Heavenly Peace), in man set tire to it. Inboth cases, the portrait-was
Beijing, the capital of China, when he declared replaced immediately andthe vandals arrested.
the country to be the People's Republic of China
(4.101) .Tiananmen, the site of many important
political and cultural events in China's history, Discussion Questions
4.101 Mao Zedong'sportrait. was built in the fifteenth century as a gateway to
Tne Gate of Heavenly Peace.
the Forbidden City, the home of the Chinese 1 In this chapter -we ha ve examined portrayals
T'ananrren 'soutn entrance to
tne old Forb'dden City], emperors for centuries. The portraithasbeen of rulers from many cultures and eras. Find
Be;jing, China replaced over the years by replicas with only slight another artwork inwhich a ruler is represented.
Considering the elements and principles o f
art discussed in Part 1of this book, perform a
visual analysis ofyour selected artwork. How-
does the artist come)- the power of the ruler?
2 Ruler s are often shown as powerfulwarrior s.
Select one such work from this chapter and
then find another in another chapter in this
book (for example, 1.133,3.12,4.27): make
sure the two are from different cultures or eras .
Compare the two representations. Inwhatwavs
are the)- similar and inwhat ways different?
3 Do roval portraits tell us what a ruler really
looked like? Choose four examples from this
chapter and for eachmake a list of aspects of
the artwork that seem individual andrealistic
andthose aspects that may exaggerate or
idealize the ruler's appearance. Discuss your
findings in a short essay.
ART AND RULERS 529
c
THEMES
4.7
Art and War
War hasbeen a theme of artworks for centuries. therefore, can have a profound impact on the
Artists re-create the terror of battle, the tragedy people who see the artwork, even as the artist's
of death, the joy of victory, and the sorrow of emotions sometimes distort the facts of history.
defeat. Artists choose war as a theme for a variety Art that seems to be do cumentarv evidence may
of reasons: to educate us about the realities of notbe entirely factual. It is important to assess
conflict, to inspire us through the depiction the art of war with great care and attention as
of heroism, or to shock us into opposing violence. to the context in which the work was created.
Artworks about historical events can berich (For two contrastingviews ofthe same battle,
sources of information,skillfully documenting see Gateway Box: Goya, 6.i06and6.i05, p. 532.)
the kinds of weapons used in a particular battle American Timothy O 'Sullivan ( 1840-82)
or the uniforms the soldiers wore; but artists may took the famous Civil War photograph Harvest
also manipulate scenes in order, for example, ofDeath after a day at Gettysburg, thebattle that
to inspire support for one side over another. caused the most casualties of the entire conflict
Art about war should therefore be treated with (6.102). His photograph shows a field covered
caution, for iust as we bring our own biases with bodies, highlighting the tragic loss of life.
when we engage with an artwork, so artists may The clothes of some of the soldiers have been
also be promoting their own point of view. partly removed, suggesting that thieves have
been searching their bodies. O'Sullivan has
focused the composition on the face of the soldier
Documenting War: in the foreground, his arms flung out from his
sides. Byconcentratingonthis individual,whose
Unbiased Facts or features we can see, O'Sullivan reduces to a
Biased Judgments? human level the great loss oflife at Gettysburg.
One often assumes that a photograph can
As a viewer, do you question certainvisual be trusted as an accurate documentation of an
documents ofhistory more than others? Do you event. Yet photographers, like other artists, can
assume that visual images (such as photographs manipulate their scenes through lighting and
and video) that show current events are accurate, composition. O'Sullivan was known to rearrange
or do you sometimes think the)- might have bodies andotherwise alter the settingbefore
been manipulated? taking his photos. We do not know if he arranged
When artists document actual events, the)' may the corpses or their clothing in order to heighten
try to record exactlywhat they have seen. More the emotional impact of this powerful image.
frequently, however, artists tend to infuse their Ifwe knewhehad staged the scene insome
Composition: theoverall design ima8es with the emotions aroused by the sight of way, would we doubt the truth ofthe tragedy
or organization of a work death,destruction, and tragedy. An image of battle, he represents?
530 THEMES
6.102 Timothy 0' Sullivan.
Ha rves: o fDea :h. Ge ttysburg.
Pennsylvania. July >863.
Photograph. Library of
Coog"e55, Washington. D.C.
We tend to assume that photogr aphy is "reap admired at the time as a true representation of
in a way that painting is not. In contrast to a what had happened, was removedby the French
photographer, who makes an image of a subject government from the important public art
that already exists, a painter begins with a blank exhibition, the Salonof 1850,because it provided
canvas. The French painter Ernest Meissonier too powerful a reminder of the recent past.
(1815-91), however, depicted a scene that
eyewitnesses to the event described as remarkably 6.103 Ernest N'e:ssonie".
Remembrance of Civil War.
accurate, as truthful and "real" as one would
1863 [The Barricade, rue de la
assume an eyewitness video to be today ( 6.1 03). Mortellerie. June 1868).
Meissonier was serving in the French ex'nib:ted 1350. C'L on canvas.
1 1V:xSV.". Musee du Louv-e.
National Guard during the insurrection of
Paris, F'ance
1848,when Parisians fought their fellow
Parisians, and rebels overthrew the monarchy
andestablishedthe Second Republic. More than
1,500 people died in the short civil war, many of
them innocent bystanders. Meissonier recorded
the carnage:
Isaw the defenders shot down, hurled out

of -window, the ground strewn with corpses,
the earth red with blood.
In his painting, bodies are piled one upon

another amongst the rocks of a collapsed
barricade in the middle of Paris. The painting,
ART AND WAR 531
C
Two Views of a Battle
Sometimes, we can look at a painting on its previous day (the subject of

own and reach one conclusion; but when we The Secondof May, 1808).
look at it next to another work, our opinion of Unlike The Third of May,
both paintings changes. If we look at Francisco The Secondof May does not
Goya's painting The Third of May, 1808 on its own, show sympathy for the Spanish
for example, we might conclude that it is a rebels.While the figures in The
powerfulcondemnation ofthe French Emperor Third of May seem to be still, as
Napoleon and his troops (4.104). But what if frozen by the horror of the
happens ifweviewthe work beside another moment, The Secondof May \s
that Goya painted in the same year, The Second fullof movement and chaotic
of May, 1808 (4.105)? Can both paintings be action. In fact, when thetwo
understood better as a condemnation, not of paintings are viewed together, we may viewthe 4.104 Francisco Goya. The
Napoleon in particular, but of war in general? executions on May 3 to be inevitable following ThirdofMay, 1808, 1814.
Oil on canvas, 8*4%" x 11'37/a".
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-14), the violent slaughter of French soldiers the day
Museo Nacional del Prado,
the beginnings of which are depicted in The before. The French generalJoachim Murat, Madrid. Spain
Secondof May, 1808,was known for its guerrilla angered by the riots, proclaimed, "French blood
fighting and forthe heroism of the civilian has flowed. It demands vengeance." At least
population. Goya's Third of May shows the 400 Spaniards were executed in Madrid,more
punishment of civilians who had brutally than forty on the hill of Principe Pio, the
attacked the invading French soldiers on the location depicted in Goya's Third of May.
4 i. m
mf W
-
-3ÿ *
lLI ; f
\
'it
r ML*
-- |
J&.
yt
Wk
4.105 Francisco Goya.
The Secondof May, 1808, 1814.
Oil on canvas. 8'9"x11'41/8".
Museo Nacional del Prado.
Madrid.Spain
532 THEMES
IC
Historians consider O'Sullivan's and
Meissonier's artworks to be amongst the most
truthful records of the aftermath of battle, yet the
emotional impact createdby each scene suggests
that they may havebeen somewhat manipulated.
The photographby the VietnameseNick Ut
(b. 1951) of children running from their village
in Vietnam after a napalm attack was so shocking
that some, including the U.S. president Richard
Nixon,questioned its authenticity when it
a
<r
appeared in newspapers on June 12, 1972(4.106).
The image also moved many .Americans to
question their nation's involvement in the
Vietnam War. The photographer defended its
authenticity for years:
The picture for me and unquestionably for

many others could not havebeen more real.
The photo was as authentic as the Vietnam In contrast to Nick Ut, who stated plainly that 4.106 NickUt, Vietnamese
War itself. The horror of the Vietnam War he opposed the Vietnam War andwanted to Girt Kim Phuc Runningafter
NapalmAttack .juneS. 1 972.
recorded by me did not have to be fixed. influence opinion with his images of the conflict,
Phot ograph
That terrified little girl is still alive today the American artist Chris Burden (b. 1946) has
andhasbecome an eloquent testimony to saidthat his 1987 work All the Submarines of the
the authenticity of that photo. United States ofAmerica was meant tobeunbiased:
it simply documented the totalnumber of
.Although the photograph records an actual submarines there had ever been in the United
event, Ut's disapproval of the war and his States Navy up untilthe year this artworkwas
concern for its victims influenced the way his made (4.107). His installation comprises 625
shot was composed. He focused on the little girl, cardboard models of submarines hung at
Kim Phuc, screaming in terror, running naked, Installation: anartworkcreated
her clothes having been burned off her body. Her 4.107 Chris Burden.Ait the Submarines of the United by the assembling and
two brothers are running on the left side of the States Of America. 1987. 625 cardboard subrna-ines. arrangement of objects in a
80 X 20 x 12 . Installation at the 198? Whitney Biennial specific location
image, while her two cousinsholdhands behind
her on the right. The soldiers in thebackground
appear strangely calm, a dramatic contrast to the
horrified expressions of the running children.
The story of the people in the photograph
did not endwith that moment. The nine-year-old1
girl kept screaming; the photographer gave her
his water andrushed her to a hospital. Physicians
predicted Phucwould die. But because of the
fame of the photograph, money poured in to save
her. She underwent seventeen surgical operations
and later emigrated to Canada. NickUtbecame
"Uncle Nick" to the little girl and the two have
remained in close contact throughout their lives.
.Although this photograph shows the suffering of
a small group of people, it symbolizes for many
the tragedy of the entire Vietnam War.
ART AND WAR 53 3
c
different heights from the ceiling of a large room.
The name of each submarine is listed in black
Warriors and Scenes
on a -wall of the gallery. of Battle
It is left to the viewer to interpret the artwork,
as the piece embodies opposing forces: Artists have often recordedandcelebratedthe
individualismversus unity,war versus peace. braven- of warriors, both their successes and
Individualismis representedby each crafted defeats, in great detail. Although at times, as we
submarine; at the same time, the submarines work have seen, an artist's interpretation of historical
as a whole unit,appearing in die room like a school events is skewedand presented through an
offish. One viewer might naturally see U.S. Navy emotional lens, artworks can bevaluable records
submarines as weapons ofwar because submarines of critical historical moments. They can teach us
are stealthyby nature, travelingsecretly under the significance of certain battles, and provide
6.108 Tula warrior columns.
water. Another viewer, conversely,might interpret accurate studies ofthekinds of weapons used and 900-1000CE. Basalt. 15-20'
a submarine as a tool for keeping the peace. the uniforms worn by thosewho took part inthem. High. Tula. H'dalgo, Mexico
536 THEMES
c
6.109 Alexarder Mosaic [Battle

oflssus). c. 200 bce. Mosaic,
B'10"x 16'?". National
Archaeolog'cal Museum,
Naples. Italy
Four large warrior columns, standing between guards. By contrast, the so-called Alexander
15 and 20 feet tall, are some of the few remaining Mosaic in 6.109 glorifies the military prowess of
artworks of the ancient Toltec people of Mexico Alexander the Great (shown on the far left) and
(6.1 08). Little is knownabout this militaristic his victory over King Darius IIIof Persia (to the
society except what can belearnt from the right of center) in the Battle oflssus in 333 3CE.
legends of later cultures, such as the Aztecs, who This mosaic, a copy ofa well-known Greek
often sought to demonstrate an ancestral link painting that does not survive,was madearound
with die Toltec. These legends suggest that the 200 bce for a private home in the city of Pompeii
Toltec ruled a substantial empire. It is believed in southern Italy. Its dynamic composition gives
that around 1000 ce the Toltec capital of Tula was us an idea of the beauty of Greek fresco painting.
the largest city in Mexico at that time, with a complete examples of which no longer exist. It
population of more than 50,000. also displays the skill of ancient mosai cists, who
Thewarriors in 6.108 stood high above the pieced together more than one million tesserae
city, painted inbright colors. The imposing innumerous subtly different shades to create
figures once supported the roofof a temple that a battle scene with layers of depth and figures
stood on a pyramid andwas reached by a steep with three-dimensionality.
stairway. The carving of the columns gives us The composition of the Alexander Mosaic is
some sense of how a Toltec warrior would have designed to convey action and emotion. The
looked. The figures are identical, eachwearing men and horses are crowded together in the
a leathered headdress, a butterfly-shapedpectoral, lower two -thirds of the scene, while the lengthy
sandals decoratedwith symbols of the gods, and spears pointing invar ious directions evoke the
a belt supporting a large mirror or shield on their chaos that takes place on the battlefield. Darius is
lower back. Eachwarrior holds spears or arrows shown rising above the rest, eyes wide openwith
in his left handand a spearthrowing device inhis fear. The horses communicate the urgency- of die
Pectoral: a large ornament
right. Similar warriors— ranging from the small movement with their expressive faces and their
worn on the chest
scale to the large, and occurring both as bodies turning inevery direction, including Mosaic: a picture or pattern
freestanding figures andas columns in temples— away from the viewer. Under Darius's left arm, created by fixing together small
comprise die majority of the few Toltec sculptures and lying on the ground, one man witnesses in pieces of stone, glass, tile, etc.
Fresco: atechniquevcherethe
that survive. This suggests that the Toltec horror his own demise through the reflection artist paints onto freshly applied
probably lived in a time of frequent warfare, in his shield. Alexander (on the left) is depicted plaster. Fromthe Italian fresco ,
and that they revered their warrior rulers. as a fearless warrior, ready to face Darius's entire fresh
Tesso-a e small piec es of stone
The Tula warriors are not shown fighting in army as he stabs an enemy soldier with his or glass or other materials used
the heat ofbattle but are standing still, acting as long spear. to make a mosaic
ART AND WAR 53 5
Other artists have conveyed the sounds and to complete. It shows the events that led to the 4.110 Detail o; Battle of
sensations of war using completely different battle, the preparations of the Norman fleet, Hasting5. Bayeux Tapestry,
c. 1066-32. Linen with wool
media. Both the Bayeiix Tapestry andthe Tale the Battle of Hastings itself, and finally the
275' long. Bayeux Tapestry
of theHeiji Rebellion (HeijiMonogatari) portray coronation of William the Conqueror as King Museum, Bayeux, France
rousing battle scenes (4.110 and4.1i i).We can of England. More than six hundred men, but
almosthearthe clanking of weapons and smell only three women, are shown inthe fifty scenes
the odor of burning flesh. Andwhile a few figures on the tapestry. The embroiderers were highly
illustratethe courage of the enemy, both artworks skilled. To establish a sense of depth, each figure
are skewed toward celebrating the overwhelming is given a border, which is filled inwith stitches
prowess of the victors. Both artworks, too, consist running inthe opposite direction to the rest
of multiple scenes and are meant to be viewed of the embroider)-, andthenoutlined in boldly
slowly,unravelling their historical stories one contrasting colors. The process creates clearly
incident at a time. Their very long horizontal delineated figures, a flat sense ofspace ( to
formats take the viewer on a visual journey guide theviewer in a horizontal direction),
through history. and, through repeated caitansi a ssnss ti
The 275-foot-long Bayeux Tapestry records overall rhythm.
the events surrounding the Battle of Hastings The Night Attack on the Sanjo Palace (4.111)
( 1066), inwhich the Normans, led by William the is one scene from one of five long painted scrolls
Conqueror, seized control of England from the that depict battles from the Tale of the Heiji
Anglo-Saxons. It was probably commissioned Rebellion, a Japanese war epic about the short¬
by William's brother Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux lived Heijiera (1159-60). Inthis period several
in France, shortly after the Norman victor)-. clans fought for control of Kyoto, the historical
The so-called tapestry was actually embroidered capital of Japan. This scene shows the burning
by women (legend says William's wife was one of of the palace by samurai warriors of the Fuiiwara
the embroiderers), and took more than ten years andMinamoto clans during the raid in which
536 THEMES
c
6.111 Night Attack on the Sanjo Palace . from Hey are shown coveredin intricately detailed armor
Monogatari , Ka-rckura period, late 13th century. Hand atop their fine and powerful horses. Lengthy
scroll, nkand colo- on paper, 1 o -9" X 22' 1 17." [whole
scroll]. Museum o: FineArts. Eoston
bows and arching swords are their weapons of
choice. The soldiers of the Bayeux tapestry wear
patterned armor and conical helmets, and cam-
the}- captured the Emperor Nijo. Soon afterward, broadswords, kite-shaped shields, and spears.
another clan, the Taira, rescued the emperor and
regained control of Kyoto.
Like the Bayeux Tapestry, the NightAttack on
the Sanjo Palace is representative of the visual style
The Artist's Response
of its period. The 23-foot-long Japanese scroll to War
employs isometric perspective from a bird's-eye
view: the diagonal lines of the buildings andthe Artists have often created artworks that attempt
layering of the figures function as a kind of guide to convey their personal experience of war. This is
to direct the viewer (reading from right to left) sometimes a cathartic exercise, releasingemotion, Medium (plural media): the
from one scene to the next The horsesandwarriors and it is sometimes meant to inspire awareness of material on or from which an
are carefully delineatedanddetailed. The precise the realities ofwar. But by no means all powerful artist choosesto makeawork
of art
linesandlimited use of blurry brushwork (as in responses to war havebeencreatedbv artists who Tapestry, hand-woven fabric—
the horses' tails and the billowing smoke) actuallywitnessed the events they portray. Artists usually silk or wool—with a
demonstrate the artist's intense skill. can produce powerful visual statements about the non-repeating,usually
figurative, design woven into it
.As with the sculptures of the Toltec warriors, horrors of war from boththeir experiences and Rhythm: the regulator
the attention to detail inboththe Japanese scroll their own imagination. (See the Perspectives on ordered repetition of elements
and the Norman tapestry gives us a strong sense Art Boxes: Michael Fay, Storm and Stone: An in the work
Isometric perspective: a system
of the equipment and weapons usedby the Artist at War, pp. 538-9, and Wafaa Bilal, Domestic using diagonal parallel lines to
warriors ofthese peoples. The Japanese samurai Tension: An .Artist's Protest against War,p. 540. ) communicate depth
ART AND WAR 537
Perspectives on Art: Michael Fay
Storm and Stone: An Artist at War
Michael Fay was a combat artist in the United

States Marine Corps. He is now retired from the
Marines. As he says, "I ama combat artist. Myjob
is simple, go to war, do art. " Here he explains how
he created one of his works and why, even in war,
fine art has value.
I am often asked why, in our era of instant

digital satellite imagery, the traditional
practice of fine art is still valid in capturing
images of war. Perhaps the answerlies in the
"slowed" vision of the images. With a painting
or sculpture the artist can take many personal
impressions, images, and memories and
through the creative process distillthem into
a single composite creation. War isoften seen of 2005 (4.112). I participated in a long-range 4.112 Michael Fa/.Storrr.
asone of the most potentially dehumanizing patrol into the foothills of the Tora Bora and Stone
and destructive experiences and perhaps Mountains to a place called Wazir Pass.
it is also reassuring that artists are still The ride there was a bone-jarring journey
willing to witness and create from it. crisscrossing rivers swollen with the spring
My painting, Storm and Stone, is melt, and along rocky trails lined with
a composite of personal experiences while mulberry trees, and whitewashed stone
deployed to Afghanistan during the spring cairns warning of minefields.
The German painter Otto Dix ( 189 1-1969) , that will take place in the central panel. The
who fought inWorld War I,recordedthe hor rors right-hand wing shows a man, a self-portrait
he witnessed in the painted triptych The War of Dix,carrying a wounded soldier. The sky in
(4.113). The central panel shows death and the triptychsymbolizes the increasing danger
destruction. A soldier wearing a gas mask, of the situation, beginning on the left with pale
representing Dixhimself,witnesses the sunlight,moving toward forebodingclouds, and
devastation first hand. Bloody bodies are piled on ending with a stormy and destructive sky on the
top of one another, one with legs in the air. Chaos right. Underneaththe central panel, in a section
fills the scene. Arched pieces of metal stretch out calledthe predella, Dix has painted a sleeping or
across the sky and support a skeletal figure, whose dead soldier, lying in a trench.
outstretched finger points towardthebullet- The triptych format is traditionally used
ridden body on the right. The arching forms for religious scenes,with Christ's crucifixion
enclose the scene,leaving us feeling smotheredby portrayed in the center and hisentombment
the horror that is shown. Our anxiety is increased in the predella below. By using this format, Dix
with nothing to calm us or to rest our eyes upon. elevates the importance of his subject matter.
The left wing of the triptych shows heavily And in associating an ordinary soldier with the
equipped soldiers, united in their duty and soon-to-be-resurrected Christ, he endows him
prepared for battle.The scene precedes the horror with the status of a martyr.
538 THEMES
c
Everywhere you looked there was the intense tension, in the middle. I was not after a well-
Triptych: an artwork
beauty of earth and sky framed by snow-capped balanced soothing pastoral effect, but rather
comprising three painted
peaks. At the same time this beauty was something unsettling that went to the core or carved panels, normally
juxtaposed with the imminent threatof of my own personal experience on that joined together and sharing
a common theme
a violent death. particularpatrol.
Predella: an artwork designed
Ourfirst night out was marked by the My own artistic impulse is naturalistic, as a companion piece to amore
most violentthunderstorm I've everwitnessed. to render as closely as possible the reality of important work
In the lightning flashes through thick curtains what is before me in the context of my own
of torrential rain Icould see fellow Marines experience. It is also my hope that this
being rolled about in uprooted tents. Later, personal experience, though grounded in
inthe damp inky blackness, I could hearthem realism, is more poetry than prose, and
stumbling aboutrighting gear and nursing more art than journalism. I have been to
bruised bodies. With the next day's dawn the war; in the heat, watchful and tense at the
phrase storm and stone was deeply etched in beginning of a dawn raid; surrounded by
my mind. children at the edge of a soccerfield littered
Storm andStone is essentially figures in with unexploded mortar rounds; confronted
a landscape. I wanted to express several key by the slack and ashen gray faces of friends
elements.- anexpanseof space, groupsof killed in battle. I have been discomfited by
figures, and the approach of a storm. But the horrors and boredom of war, and at the
I also wanted to get something of the feeling same time filled with the mystery of people
of being far off the beaten path in the most and places in times of conflict. It is from this
violent and dangerous place on Earth. From internal chemistry, steeped in genuine
field sketches and photos I created two distinct experience and rooted more in artthan
groups of figures. To the far left are four science, that I've tried to create an exterior
Marines, the basic "fire team," and at the reality, a body of authentic artwork flowing
right is a lieutenant pointing into the from the most controversial and demanding
distance while conferring with his sergeant. of human experiences... war.
I deliberately left a void, a source of visual
LA 13 Ctto Dix. The War,

I°2?-32. Oil snd temoe-a on
wood, 6'8V="x 1
Staatliche Kunstsarnmlungen.
Ge"naldegale"ie Neue
Meister, Dresden. Gern-any
ART AND WAR 53 9
C
Perspectives on Art: Wafaa Bilal
Domestic Tension: An Artist's Protest against War
A TV news segment about a

soldierin Colorado remotely
dropping bombs on Iraq
highlighted the anonymous and
detached nature of this current
war, and the complete disconnect
between the comfort zone here
in the U.S. and the conflict zone
in my home country. I needed
to create a platform for people
to be nudged out of their comfort
zone.
The result was an intflrflfitiYfl
performance entitled Domestic
Tension (6.116). I stayed in a
Chicago galleryfora month with
a paintball gun aimed at me.
People could controlthe paintball
gun, and command it to shoot at
me, over the Internet.
I wanted to create a virtual
and physical platform, turning
the virtual to physical and vice
versa, and, by putting my body on
6.116 Wafaa Bilal. Iraqi-born Wafaa Bilal teaches photography and the line, create a physical impact in viewers by
Domestic Tension art and technology at the School of the Art Institute enabling them to identify with the physical
of Chicago. His art reflects his concerns with the effect on my body.
injustices committed in Iraq under the dictatorial The project generated worldwide attention,
regime of Saddam Hussein and, since then, during with more than60,000 shotstakenand 80
American military operations in the country. million hitsto the website from 137 countries.
I never anticipated how many people would
As an Iraqi artist living in the U.S. since 1992, be drawn to the project and how it would become
I have created many provocative works to raise a truly dynamic artwork in which the viewers
awareness and create dialog about U.S.-Iraq had control overthe narrative. It achieved an
conflicts. But when my brother Haji was killed unexpected goal of democratizing the process
by an American bomb at a checkpoint in our of the viewing and the making of the artwork,
hometown of Kufa, Iraq, in 2004, the war by enabling the audience to participate.
becamedeeply personal. As evidenced by dialog on the website's chat
I had to find an unconventional new approach room, the experience had a profound
to translate this tragic event into a work of art impact on many people from all sides of the
that empowered its audience. Not something political spectrum. At the conclusion of the
that lectured the audience, norsomething project, I felt fulfilled in my mantra that,
dogmatic, but a dynamic encounter between "Today we silenced one gun; hopefully one day
me and my audience. we will silence all guns."
560 THEMES
the Holocaust (6.1is). The imposing 27-foot-tall
artwork is made of lead and glass. The heavy lead
books appear to be scorched, iust like the human
beings (also holders of knowledge) who were
incinerated in concentrationcamps. The
shattered glass also recalls Kristallnacht (Night
of the Broken Glass), when the Nazis destroyed
f. hundreds of Jewish stores and synagogues in

1938. The splintered glass on the ground makes
any access to these books of knowledge a
dangerous and frighteningproposition.
Symbolically, Kiefer has conveyed the fear and
pain one must face to confront the past.
In Breakingof the Vessels ,Kiefer draws upon
the Jewish religion and more specifically the
Kabbalah, a collection of Jewish mystical wri tings.
The words "Ain-Sof," which mean the infinite
presence of God, are written on the arched piece
of glass above the bookshelf. Ten lead labels are
placed aroundand on the bookshelf; these
represent the ten vessels containing the essence
ofGod as described in the Kabbalah. In this way,
the books represent the presence of God even in
the midst of human destruction.
1 Find an artwork that depicts a battle. Perhaps
choose one from the Revolutionary War, Civil
War,or a famous battle from European history.
Study the history of the battle and then ask
yourself whether the artist recorded the event
6.115 Anselm Kiefer, During World War II,Otto Dix's work was accurately. Didhe or she try to persuade the
Breaking of the Vessels, 1990. censoredby th? Nazis for its negative presentation viewer to support one side inthe battle? How?
Lead, iron, glass, copper wire,
ofwar. The contemporary German artistAnselm 2 Find a photograph that documents a scene
charcoal. andAquatec,
12'5 'x27'5Vz' x 17. St. Louis Kiefer (b. 1945) addresses such censorship inhis from the CivilWar, WorldWar II,or the
Art Museum, Missouri work. Kiefer was born in Germany just months Vietnam War. Considering the elements and
beforeWorld War IIended. He grew up in principles of art discussed in Part 1of this
a society ashamed of its past. His artworks force book, perform a visual analysis of the
viewers to acknowledge the horrors of the Nazi photograph. What does this tell you about
regime that ruled Germany from 1933 until 1945. the way the artist used the medium of
His attempts to confront this past have often photography to convey a message?
shockedand angered Germans. For example, he 3 Study imagss of the entirety of the Bayeux
photographed himself making the Nazi salute— a Tapestry and of the HeijiMonogatari scroll.
gesture that hasbeen illegal in Germany since 1945. Bearing in mindthe format of these works,
Kiefer's Breakingof the Vessels conveys the loss how do they use their format to convey a
of life andthe destruction of knowledge caused narrative? Stvlisticallv, howdoes each artwork
a story by the extermination of millions of Jews during shw scenes of battle
ART AND WAR 561
c
THEMES
4.8
Art of Social Conscience
The visual language of art can be an extremely It can also inspire us toward a better and more
effective medium for communicating a point of iust world. This chapter is concernedwith the
view on social issues. While words can describe ways that artists have expressed their convictions
an event, art can demonstrate it visually with raw through artworks that have, at times, caused
power. Art often reflects historical,social, and powerful,evenviolent, reactions.
political concerns. It can even provoke change.
Artists can spur people to becomeinvolved in a
social issue, and can call for the punishment of Art as Social Protest
those responsible for a wrong. Art is able to arouse
such strong emotions that artworks themselves By creating potent artworks that activate
can become the focus of protest, sometimes emotional responses, artists can instigate social
suffering damage or destruction as a result. Art change. Here we examine artworks that have
can commemorate with enormous power the sought to combat cruelty and slavery; and protested
sacrifices made bv individuals or an entire nation. against thebarbarities ofwar. And, closer to
4.116 "heodore Ger'cault.

Raft of the Medusa, 181?. Oil
on canvas. 1 2' l3/s"x 17'?7a".
Musee du Louvre. Pa-'s.
F-ance
542 THEMES
Perspectives on Art: Dan Tague
Art Made from Dollar Bills
you can buy love, happiness, and status through

possessions. You can even right wrongs by taking
away a bit of someone's happiness through fines
and lawsuits. Politicians buy votes through
claims of lowering taxes.
Lackof money wasthe reason that the
rebuilding of New Orleans was slow and for most
/ of the city non-existent for well over a year after
Katrina devastated the city. Displaced, confused,
and feeling neglected, I decided to use the design
qualities of dollar bills, which contain detailed
decorative engravings, masterful portraits and
6.117 DanTague. Unite architectural renderings, and elegant type.
NQLA. 2003. Archival ;nkjet I folded and twisted the bills to create abstract
print on ~ag oape-, 42 x 3d" .
imagery. The precise and calculated folds of the
Collection New C'leans
Museum o: Art bills combined to make political messages from
the letters on the bills in such works as Unite
The American artist Dan Tague (b. 19741lives and NOLA (New Orleans, LA) as a battle cry for the
works in New Orleans. He was displaced for a community and the nation to take action; Home
year after Hurricane Katrina, in 2005. When he Is a Tent, inspired by people living in a tent city;
returned to the city he created a series of works and The EndIs Near, referring to the failing
made from folded dollar bills to protest at the tack economy and failure to rebuild the city.
of resources to rebuildNew Orleans fc.117/. Here I scanned the folded bills at very high
he explains why andhow he made thes e artworks. resolution and made ink-jet prints on archival
rag paper. I made fifteen prints and showed
The appeal and power of money are the issues them at the Jonathan Ferrara Gallery, in New
at the core of this series. In a capitalist society Orleans, and laterat galleries in New York,
cash rules everything. Society teaches us that North Carolina, and Florida.
home,we look at a project that focused attention boardedthe lifeboats, the rest of the passengers—
on the plight of the people of New Orleans after 146 men and one woman, some of them slaves—
HurricaneKatrina in 2005 (see Perspectives on got onto a makeshift raft that had beenbuilt from
Ait Box: Dan Tague: Art Made from Dollar Bills). the -wreckage. .Although the raft was pulledby the
While considering this section's protest artworks lifeboats initially, the captain soon abandoned it.
from past and present, also think about your own Left to battle starvation, sunburn, disease, and
response. Does the artist inspirevou to agree with dehydration, only fifteen men survivedthe
his or her point of view? horrors of the sea; some cannibalizedtheir
The painting Raft of the Medusa (6.116), by the shipmates. Gerica ult's painting shows with
French artist Theodore Gericault ( 179 1-1824), emotional intensity the moment when the raft's of which is simplified, distorted,
memorializes on a grand scale a scandalous event survivors are about to be rescued. or exaggerated in appearance. It
in history. On July 2, 1816, the French naval vessel Gericault interviewed the survivors, studied may representa recognizable
Medusa ran aground off the coast ofWest Africa. corpses, and even had a replica of the raft built in altered, or it ma}- be a completely
While the captain and approximately 250 crew hisstudio in preparation for this project. The non-representational depiction
ART OF SOCIAL CONSCIENCE 563
C
survivors told him of their despair and madness made from the mast in the upper left to the nude
Composition: theoverall design
when ÿ w a shi Qn ÿ hori20n Qn ÿ male body on the lower right,which appears to be
thirteenth day. The}- had seen ships in the distance falling from the raft.
beforebut the ships' crews had not seen them, and Gericault's picture criticizes not only the
many feared this ship, too, would disappear. But Medusa disaster but also colonization and slavery.
the survivors, allclose to death, were rescued, and Although only one African survived the wreck,
they toldthe world the story of their abandonment. Gericault includes three inthis painting,
In Raft ofthe Medusa, Gericault depicts the including the powerful figure trying to attract
emotions of the survivors. Several men, their the attention of the distant ship.
arms reaching out toward the tiny ship in the A couple of decades later, the British painter
distance, convey desperate hope. Another is J. M.W. Turner (1775-1851) created a painting
shown stillslouched in despair, andsurrounded that also condemned the slave trade ( 4.1 18).
by corpses; he even holds one on his lap. The Although slaven- was illegalby this time
artist painted the skin of the men with a green throughout Britain,Turner was highlighting the
pallor to indicatethat the}- are near to death. ini ustice of the slave trade and protestingagainst
Yet the musculature of their bodies gives them any consideration of itsrenewal. His dramatic
nobility. Standing at the painting's apex, atop canvas portrays an infamous incident aboardthe
a pyramid of bodies, a black man waves a piece of slave ship Zong in 1781. It was common practice
his clothing to get the attention of the ship in the for slave-ship captains to fill their vessels with
distance. The dramatic intensity is heightenedby more slaves than the}- would need, knowing that
the use of diagonal lines that compose the figures disease might spread amongst them. The captain
into a large X. From the bottom left corner of the of the Zorcÿknew that hewould be paid for anv
composition thebodies of the men are arranged slaves lost at sea, but not for those who were sick
in a line that leads the viewer's eye to the black when the}- arrived. He therefore hadsick slaves
man in the upper right. An opposing diagonal is thrown overboardwhile still far from land.
4.118 joseoh Mallord

Wi llianr T j rn er,Sldve Ship
(Slavers Throwing Overboard
the Deadand Dying. Typhoon
Coming On), 1 840. C It on
canvas. 35V-X 48V-". Museum
o; Fine Arts. Boston
544 THEMES
c
Turner's chaotic canvas shows a fierce storm. citizens of the small Spanish town, Picasso never 4.119 Paolo Picasso.
Body parts, still shackledand being attacked by explained the specific symbolism of the figures in Guernica, 1937. Cilon canvas,
11'5Vf x 25'53A". Museo
sharp-teethed fish, can be seen in the central and the painting, nor elaborated on his political Nacional Centro de Arte
right foreground. Turner uses intense colors and motivations for the work. Picasso would have Re'na So:'a. Madrid. Spa n
turbulentbrushstrokes to convey the heightened accepted all interpretations becausehe believed
emotion of the event. Man versus nature was in viewers making their own reading of an
a common theme inart during the nineteenth artwork. He stated;
century, andhere the immense power of nature
overpowers the slaves. Turner's canvas has an A picture is not thought out and settled
abstract quality, making its subject matter beforehand. While it is being done it changes
difficult to understand. Turner placed beside his as one's thoughts change. And when it is
painting a quotation from the book that had finished, it still goes on changing, accoidingto
inspired it, in order to help viewers understand the state of mind of whoever is looking at it.
his artwork's meaning.
The Spanish artist Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) The painting is black, gray, andwhite, perhaps
painted Guernica as a passionate response to the because Picasso associated the attack with black-
aerial attack carried out on April 26, 1937, on a and-white newspaper photographs. The small
small town of that name in northern Spain dashes on the body of the horse also seem to
(4.119). During the Spanish Civil War, the recallthe pri nt from a newspaper. Expressive
Nationalist general Francisco Franco, who would faces with distorted necks scream and cry in
later become the country's ruler, allowed German despair. On the right,a figure reaches to the sky as
and Italian planes to test their bombing tactics it escapes from a burningbuilding; flames appear
on Guernica andlearn about the psychological like scales on thebackof a dragon. The tortured
effects of air warfare. More than 1,000 civilians figure on the left experiences the horror of her
were killed in three hours of bombing. News child's murder.
of the attack quickly spread to Paris, where Thebull, often associatedwith theviolence of
Picasso read stories and saw photographs of Spanish bullfighting, is seen by many as a symbol
the devastation. of Franco. The terrified horse, as it tramples upon
While the general meaning of Guernica is a man lying on the ground, may represent the
clearly outrage against theviolence directed at the chaos inflicted upon the people by the attack.
c
4.120 Po5te-:oÿthe;'lrr Hotel Rwanda, directed by
Terry George. 2004
Thelightbulb shining powerfully at the top of the

canvas may symbolize awareness andknowiedge,
as if illuminating the situation.
Picasso exhibited this large protest statement
at the Spanish Pavilion during the 1937 World's
Fair in Par is,France,anddeclaredthat neither
he nor the painting would go to Spain as long as
Franco ruled. The artwork travelledthe world
before coming to rest in Newark's Museum of
Modern Art. Franco died in 1975, two years after
Picasso. In 1981, Guernica was finally sent to
Madrid,Spain, to be exhibited permanently.
Many artists use the plight of a single person
to address larger social problems ( see Gateway
Box: Lange). The movie HotelRwanda (2004)
increasedthe American public' s awareness of
the 1994 genocide of 800,000 Tutsi people by Wh«n »• world
Flutumilitias inthe small CentralAfrican clo«»d it»
ho opened hl» ermt.

country of Rwanda (4.120). The killings
resulted inthe deaths of approximately one
out of every seven Rwandans. The film,which
DON CHEADLE
tells the true story of one man's personal SOPHIE OKONEDO
sacrifice during the atrocities, is also a protest NICK NOLTE
against the world's failure to intervene. The
Irishdirector Tern- George (b. 1952) focuses
the story on a single individual to reveal the
impact one person can have, even on a
WINNER \jk
monumentalproblem. a
«- MM W
Paul Rusesabagina, manager of the Hoteldes
j
MillesCollines,protected more than 1,000 hotel

guests, mostly vulnerable Tutsi, when the violence
broke out. The film depicts the atrocities he
witnessed, and shows him risking his own life to
get supplies for the people hiding in his hotel.
The film also highlights the role played by the
Art as the Object of
Americans and the Europeans inallowing the
war to continue. The weapons possessed by Protest
the Hutu, we learn, were obtained from France
and Belgium. The local presence of the United Art can inspire a forceful response. Sometimes the
Nations is depicted as ineffective andhelpless. power of a work of art issuch that viewers wish to
Through the medium of film, Tern- makes destroy it, alongwith the message or attitude they
the unimaginable vividly real, and condemns see represented init. The following two artworks
the violence in Rwanda and the lack of werenot made in protest at a social issue. They
intervention by the world community. were, in tact, not intended to be offensive to anyone. Medium (plural media i: the
The film's goal is to inspire more activism Each, however, came to represent something artist chooses to make a work
against contemporary genocides. offensive or even dargerous to someb odv. of art
546 THEMES
C
The Impact and Ethics of Documentary Photography
taken she was recently widowed, had six
children, andworked wherever she could to
support her family. She eventually had eleven
children, and lived in fearthat if the government
knew of her financial difficulties they mighttake
her children away. The identity of Thompson was
not discovered until 1978, and she was quoted
as saying, "Iwish she hadn't taken my picture,"
and complained about never being compensated.
After Thompson's death, her children spoke
of the frustration the photograph caused them
as well When they first saw their mother's
photograph in a newspaper in 1936,with an ink
mark across her forehead, they assumed she
had been shot and ran home, relieved to find
herthere alive andwell. Additionally, Lange's
notes seem to have mixed up the details of the
Thompsons with another family. The newspapers
never mentioned that Thompson was a native
American who became a migrant when she was
displaced from her tribal land at a young age.
It was not until 1983,when Florence lay on her
deathbed, and letters of sympathy poured in,
that the children changed their outlook:
4.121 Dorothea Lange. Dorothea Lange's famous photograph of
Migrant Mother, 1936. Florence Thompson, known as the Migrant None of us really understood how deeply
Library of Congress.
Mother,was used to demonstrate the plight of Mama's photo affected people...it gave us a
Washington. D.C.
the poor and remains a powerful symbol of the sense of pride.
struggle against poverty (4.121). The picture was
taken in 1936 when Florence and her children The experience of the Thompson family raises
were living in the remains of a Californian questions of the role of an artist when depicting
pea-picker's camp. Lange'simage had an an actual event. To what extent shouldthe
immediate impact. The photograph was subject's privacy be protected, and to what extent
published in several newspapers and Time should they be compensated, if at all, when their
magazine. The federal government sent 20,000 image has demonstrable effects on the social
pounds of food to the camp. Unfortunately,the conscience? Because photonraohv is a medium
Thompson family had migrated elsewhere that can be reproduced and manipulated, an
before the supplies arrived. image like Migrant Mother also raises the ethical
While the photograph had an incalculable question of how such an image should be used
affect on people's understanding of the later. Lange's photograph continues to be a
devastation of the Great Depression,Thompson symbol of people struggling against poverty and
herself was always ashamed and irritated by deprivation. Since 1936ithas been published
the portrait.To her mind, it never had a positive many times in books and newspapers and has
effect on her life.When the photograph was twice featured on U.S. postage stamps.
c
6.122b !aoove) Photog_=oh o; damage to the Rokeby

Venus caused by Mary R'chandson, 1914
6.122a DiegoVelazquez. Phe Toilet of Venus (Rokeby

Venus), 1647-51. Oil on canvas 486x693/4". National
Gallery, London. England
The Rokety Venus (or TheToilet of Venus) by did not seem to help the Suffragette movement
the Spanish artist Diego Velazque2 (1599-1660) either (although some women did gain the
(6.122a) may seem inoffensive to the modern right tovote in Britain in 1918). For a while after
viewer, but in 19 14 it was the target of a violent the incident, in tact, women were forbidden to
protest. A woman called Mary Richardson, armed enter the National Gallery, unless they were
with a meat cleavershe hadhidden insideher accompanied by a male chaperone.
coat, slashed the Rokeby Venus seven times While Velazquez's Venus was the subj ectof
(6.122b). Richardsonwas a member ofthe protest centuries after its creation, the American
Suffragette movement,which campaigned to give artist Eric Fischl's(b. 1948) FaUingWoman
women the right to vote. For her, the painting
represented a sexist definition of ideal beauty,
provokedan instantaneousreaction (6.123). When
the bronze sculpture,
r intended as a tribute to the
_
_ .
6.123 Erie F.schi.halbng
showing a woman solely as an object of male victims of the terror attacks of September 11, .
Womgn 200 1-2. Bronze. 3Bx
desire. Richardson was motivated more 2001, was unveiled in New York City, it was 72 x 48". Private collection
specifically to protest against the imprisonment
of the Suffragette leader Emmeline PankhursL
Richardson later explained that shebelieved
justice to be more valuable than art:
Ihavetried to destroy the picture of the most

beautiful woman in mythological history as
a protest against the Government for
destroying Mrs. Pankhurst,who is the most
beautiful character in modern history.
Richardson's attack on the painting did not

have its intended effect on perceptions of the
Rokeby Venus. The seven slashes were soon
completely repaired, and many still consider
the painting to be a defining representation of
female sensuality and beaut}-. Richardson was
imprisonedbriefly after the attack; the incident
568 THEMES
considered so offensive that it was covered over Some viewers, however, were upset that the
almost immediately. It shows a woman in sculpture was covered up, consideringit a powerful
freefall, with her legs above her head and reminder and a valid, even cathartic (emotionally
her arms flailing. Fischl placed a poem next releasing) response towhathappened."Thesculpture
to his artwork: was not meant tohurt anybody ' saidthe artist:
We watched, It was a sincere expression of the deepest

Disbelieying and helpless, sympathy for the vulnerability of the human
On that say age day. condition. Both specifically towards the victims
People we love of Sept. 11and towards humanity in general.
Began falling,
Helpless and in disbelief. In 1996 a movement known as the Taliban
took control of the government of Afghanistan.
Many New Yorkers had-witnessed firsthand The Taliban forbade the practice of all religions
the tragedy of desperate victims, trapped in the other than Islam, including the representation of
World Trade Center towers, jumping to their figures from those religions. Inthe Bamiyan valley
deaths to escape the fire. Perhapsbecause of this, in Afghanistan, more than 800 caves are carved
FischTs sculpture, displayed only a year after the into the cliffs, which were used as Buddhist
terrorist attack, was seen as too potent and heart- temples and monasteries between the fifth and die
wrenching. The artwork andthe response to it ninth centuries ce. Within most of these caveswere
reflect one of the challenges artists face when small sculptures and wall paintings of Buddhas
the>- address contemporary issues. Would Fischl's andother religious figures. The cliff face also held
sculpture hayebeen accepted if it hadbeen two colossal sculptures of Buddha, one of them
unveiled many years later, when the event was the tallest in the world at 175 feet ( 6.126a).
no longer fresh in the minds of so many? Or was Ignoringappeals from the international
it simply too graphic, depicting a moment too community, the Taliban dynamited the colossal
shocking and too unbelievable for people ever Bamiyan sculptures in 2001 (6.126b). The)- also
to want to remember? destroyed hundreds of artworks in the caves, and
6.126a and 6.126b Colossal

Buddha fnorr Bamiyan.
A;ghan;stan, 6th or 7th
century ;e. destroyed by
Tal:oan, 2001. Be;o-e and
a;te_ destruct'on
c
Iconoclasm: Destruction of Religious Images
Commandment: "You shall not make for

yourself an idol in the form of anything in
heaven above or on the earth beneath or
in the waters below. You shall not bow down
to them or worship them." Some Christians
tookthis commandment to mean that icons,
which might inspire too much worship,
should be prohibited.
A st udy of t he ico n Virgin and Child
Surrounded by Saints (6.125) can help us
understand why the iconoclasts were so
concerned that Christians might confuse
worship of an image with worship of the holy
figures themselves. In the icon, Mary initially
attracts our attention because she sits in
the center, wearing a dark purple gown (the
imperial color), and presents Christ, who
sits on her lap. The bearded St. Theodore
and the beardless St. George stand slightly
in front of the Virgin's throne. The saints are
closesttous because they are humanand
therefore most like us. A hierarchy isthus
created as we "enter" the picture through
them and become closer to Mary, who is
herself an intercessor for Christ. The two
figures behind the enthroned Mary are
angels looking up at heaven. Their gaze
remindsChristian believers that the figures
in the icon will bring them closer to the
heavens above.
Iconoclasts believed that the faithful
we reworshiping icons of religious figures
rather than worshiping Mary and Jesus
directly. This fundamental disagreement led
to the destruction of thousands of Byzantine
6.125 Virgin andChild Icons, or religious images, are designed to icons, including almost all portrayals of Christ
Surrounded by Saints .6th create a state of meditation, in which the and Mary. Most of the surviving icons from
century. Encaustic. 2~x 1
Monastery o; St. Cather'ne.
artworks are studied for long periods, inspiring before the ninth century are in St. Catherine's
.
S'na: Egypt worship. Iconoclasm, orthe destructionof Monastery at the foot of Mount Sinai, where
religious images, shows the power art can they were protected bytheir location in the
have, and the fear its power can generate. Egyptian desert. Iconoclasm has occurred
The Byzantine Empire's iconoclastic many timesin the history of humankind,
controversy in the eighth and ninth centuries whenever people passionately believe
was provoked by divisions among Christians that certain art has gained too much influence
overthe interpretation of the Bible's Second and power.
550 THEMES
when paintings could not be completely removed time in a medicinal bath, worked and even
Icon: a small, often portable,
from the walls, the)- scraped out the eyes of the received visitors while in his tub. A young woman religious image venerated by
feces. That such destruction happened at Bamivan named Charlotte Corday, who claimed to have Christian believers; first used by
is particularly disheartening: located on the Silk the names of conspirators working against the Eastern Orthodox Church
Iconoclast: someone who
Road,a centuries-oldtrade route running from the French revolutionaries, infact supported
destroys imager)-, often out of
China to the Mediterranean, it was historically a a political party opposed to Marat; she stabbed religious belief
place where cultures from East and West had met him in hisbathtub on July 13, 1793. Corday
and exchanged ideas. The sculptures reflected this was executed by guillotine for the murder.
blending of cultures, fusing two very- different David, a close friend of Marat,was a
styles. The body forms and facial features master of propaganda. In order to fuel the
foil owedAsian traditions,while the figures wore revolutionaries' anger, he organized a spectacle
draper)- represented in a manner derived from two days after Marat's death, which included a
the artistic style of the ancient Greeks. public viewing of Marat' s corpse. The body was
The Taliban said that the)- destroyed the nude from the waist up to display the wound.
Buddhasbecause the)- consideredthem to be false The dead man's bathtub, the wooden crate on A.I 26 jacques-Lou's David,
idols (see Box: Iconoclasm: Destruction of which he wrote, and his inkpot and pen were Death of Marat. 1793. Oil on
canvas. 5'3"xAT\ Musee
Religious Images). The)- later argued, however, also carried in procession behind him. Later, Royale des Beaux-Arts,
that the)- had destroyed the artworks to protest David organized a ceremonial viewing of his Brussels. Eelgium
that so many countries -wanted to give money to
preserve the statues but did not think to make
donations to help feed the people of Afghanistan.
Many people believed that the Taliban would use
any do nations for weapons instead of helping the
people. Today the Bamiya n area is still a refuge for
the poor, and the enormous cliffs andniches that
were made for the now destroyed sculptures can
be seen from miles away, an ever-present reminder
oftheir violentdestruction.
Memorials and
Remembrance
Art can serve as a way to acknowledge a historical
tragedy, mistreatment, or suffering, often in the
hope that similar events will not be repeated.
Memorials may address the history of a single
individual or of many people. While memorials
are often designed to promote healing and
comfort the grieving, the)- can also be statements
of tragedy, and can fuel uprisings. They can also
express hope for a better world in the future.
The French artist Jacques-Louis David
(1748-1825) memorializedthe French
revolutionary leader Jean -Paul Marat in a
painting completed a few months after his A MA P.AT
murder (a.126). Marat, who suffered from a skin DAVio
disease that required him to spend much of his
painting, on the same day that the queen, powerfulvisual expression for the enormous loss
Marie Antoinette, the symbol of the selfish of life during the war. It symbolizes the eternal
waste of the French monarchy, was guillotined wound inAmerica causedby the conflict, but
In this painting, David portrays Marat as if in also the healing that Lin hoped -would take place
a tomb. The bathtubresembles a rectangular box, as those who experienced the monument -would
like a coffin, covered by green cloth. The box physically rise again.
placed next to ttebathtub represents a tombstone, The names of the dead are carved into the wall
with a dedication to the fallen leader: "To Marat, and organizedby the date of death. The surface is
[from] David." It is dated from the beginning of polishedbecause, the artist explained, "the point
the revolutionaries' new regime: "Year Two." is to see yourself reflected in the names." The
In the painting, Marat's left hand holds the note walls are aligned toward two other monuments,
from Charlotte Corday that allowed her to visit the Washington Monument and the Lincoln
him. The letter on the crate is an offer of money Memorial. The integration of the Vietnam
to a widowed mother of five, suggesting that Veterans Memorial with these important
Marat was a generous man. The stab wound and structures acknowledges the significance of the
knife on the groundhighlight theviolence of his Vietnam War to American history.
death. Marat's pose is that of a martyr. Lin intended the memorial as a tribute, and
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial -was built in most visitors are moved upon experiencing it.
Washington, D.C., to pay tribute to many fallen Some veterans, however, saw it as part of a
men and women and in the hope oflaying to rest continued condemnation of the war. Rather than
some of the lingering controversy over the war uplifting and instilling pride in the soldiers who
(4.127). The design itself was immediately fought, they said, the monument's descent into
controversial, however. The competition to the ground symbolized a moral criticismboth of
design the monument—which drewmorethan the war and its soldiers. They also perceived the
1,400 submissions—was won by a 2 1-year-old choice ofblackgranite, as opposed to the more
American of Chinese descent studying conventional purewhite marble, as a criticism.
architecture at Yale University. Maya Lin (b. 1959) In response to these protests, a bronze sculpture
envisaged her monument as a place for mourning of three soldiers, more traditional instyle, was
4.127 Mays Lin, Vietnam and healing. A black- granite,V-shaped wall later placed a short distance from the wall.
Veterans Memorial.
descends into the earth, andthen ascends, giving The Chinese artist Wenda Gu (b. 1956) says
Washington. D.C., 1981-3.
Granite, each wing 246' long. one a sense of coming into the light. The wall also that hemakes hisso-called"hair monuments" in
1 0'l " h'gn at hignest point becomes taller as one descends, creating a an effort to unite the people of the world through
a chain of artworks. The monuments are made of
walls or screens woven from human hair that has
been donated by people from countries around
the globe. Gu then paints what appear to be
ideograms (symbols that convey the meaning
of words) with a brushthat is itself made from
human strands of hair.The signs he paints are
simply suggestive of particular cultures rather
than literal transcriptions. China Monument-
Temple of Heaven (4.128) is reminiscent of
a Buddhist temple inwhich one partakes of a tea
ceremony, and includes ancient-looking Chinese
tables and chairs.Video monitors in each chair
seat show clouds, so that the people experiencing
this artwork are given the sense that the)- are
sitting in the heavens. The artist's words are also
seen in the video.When translated, thev read:
552 THEMES
c
mmm
4. 12 8 We nda G u , United
Natio ns—ChinaMonument:
Temple of Heaven, 1998. Mixed
rredis. 52x20x 13'. Hong
Kong Museum of Art
Ancient wisdom says that life is as fleeting as Discussion Questions

clouds...
1 In ihis chapterwehave studied manyways in
you shall sit. .. which artists have made a powerful case about
you shall listen ... an issue that concernedthem. Now ask yourself
you shall be silent... what issue you feel most passionately about,
you shall meditate. .. and create an artwork that communicates
you shall be free from gender, rationalities, your ideas. Be persuasive and try toconvev
races, politics, cultures, religions. .. the reasons you believe a s you do.
you shall fantasize while you ride on running 2 Study artworks in this chapter that havebeen
clouds... censored or in some other way withheld from
you shall have moments of transcending. .. public view. Are there any other works you
have readabout that the public has been
The space also unites a variety of cultures prevented from seeing? Do youbelieve that
by ineluding symbols that imitate Arabic,Hindi, artworks should never be censored, or do you
and Chinese, as well as the Latin alphabet used think that there are some subjects that should
bv western languages. Gu's United Nations series bebanned? Write half a page defendingyour
of hair monuments hasbeen made in more than belief inthe limits or freedom ofexpression in
twenty countries on five continents. More than art, using at least two specific artworks as
a million people have contributed their hair examples to make your point.
to this series. Humans aroundthe world are 3 Which of the artworks in this chapter do you
thus physically connected, through their find to bethe most moving or persuasive?
common biology,in Gu's work. The artist Considering the elements and principles of art
Ideogram: a symbol that
hopes someday to create monuments in every discussed in Part 1 of this book, perform a
expresses an idea or a thing
without representing the sounds country in the world, linking all the different visual analysis of the artwork and consider what
in its n ame (for example, "S") cultures of humanity. the artist did (in your opinion) so successfully.
c
THEMES
The Body in Art
The human form is one of the most common years ago Female figurines have beendiscovered
subjects in art. Some of the £arliestscul£tureÿ all over the world. In fact, such sculptures as this
made during prehistoric times depict human are commonly among the oldest created obj ects
figures. Since then, artists havecontinued to in a number of societies. The small size of this
portray the body,bothclothed and unclothed, figurine, iust over 4 inches tall, made it easily
in motion and inrepose. The body is not always portable, a benefit for nomadic people. Because
portrayed as it "actually looks," and it may even of the maker's emphasis on female anatomy
be altered so much that it does not resemble a real (breasts, buttocks, androtundbelly), the Woman
human body at all. The reality of the body can be
distorted to suggest great beauty, or to emphasize 4.129 Woman fromVMendorf.c. 24.000-22.000=:=.
Ool tic limestone. t£!i nigh. Naturhistorisches Museum.
such qualities as power, status, wisdom, even god¬
Vienna. Austria
like perfection. Personal and cultural preferences
often determine the way an artist chooses to
portray a body. Of course, the body itself can also
paniyipaiÿ in yythipugh performances, dances,
rituals,and so on. The body as a subject offers
endless expressive possibilities.
Archetypal Images of
the Body
The Dutch-bornAmerican artist Willem de
Kooning ( 1904-97) made a series of paintings
ofwomen that incorporate bold,apparently
aggressive, even violent, marksandslashing strokes.
De Kooning famously saidthathis Woman series
referred to "the female painted through all the ages,
all those idols." The types of ancient figures to
which de Kooning alluded, for example the
Prehistoric: dating from the Woman from Willendorf (l.129), serve as iconic
period of human existence artistic models for the idea and image of woman.
before the invention ofwriting
Iconic: a sign, the form ofwhich The Womanfrom Willendorf is one of the
directly suggests its meaning earliest known artworks, dating to about 26,000
55 A THEMES
c
4.130Willem de Kooning.
V/orrtar\ I. 1950-52. Oil on
canvas, 6'3/s" X A 10".
MO MA. NewYork
from Willendorf isbelieved to be a fertility figure. top of the composition. By contrast, the Woman
Perhaps it was used as a charm to encourage from Willendorf does not include facial features
pregnancy, or as a teaching tool. It almost at all. In Woman Ithe most prominent parts of
certainly celebrates the woman as a mother and the body are thebreasts, whilethe armsandlegs
bringer of life. are minimized in a manner similar to the Woman
The exaggerated form and emphasis on from Willendorf. Although both artworks convev
characteristically female elements of human the inherent power of women as givers and
anatomy visually connect the Woman from protectors of life, they do so very differendv.
Willendorf with de Kooning's Woman IU.130). De Kooning's woman seems strong to the point
This large painting, madethousands of years after ofbeing ferocious. The painting is physicallybig,
the tiny sculpture was created, features the glaring over lifesized, making literalthe larger-than-life
eyes and grinning mouth of a woman's face at the feeling conveyedby the small sculpture. Both
THE BODY IN ART 555
figures have an abstracted form, visible in the European artists during the Renaissance. These
rough shapes of the Womanfrom Willendorf and idealized proportions, clearly visible in figurative
the iaggedbrushstrokes of Woman I.Their paintings, reliefs, and three-dimensional
appearance makes them less representations sculpture, were applied to architectural
of individual people and more reflections of construction as well. The canon of proportions
a universal idea of powerful women As de was developed to make the depictedbody match
Kooning's statement suggests, Woman Iembodies ancient Egyptian notions of perfection.
"the female. ..through all the ages." The Egyptian canon of proportions is
calculated in the form of a grid that provides
consistent measurements of the parts of thebody
Ideal Proportion (4.131 a). Each square of the grid represents a
standardsmall measurement, or a unit,based on
Longbefore de Kooning's search to find the width of the palm of the hand. Sometimes
somethinguniversal about the female figure, the other ratios are used to makethe grid,resulting in a 4.131a [below left] Canon of
ancient Egyptians applied formal mathematical proportions: Menkaure an d His
slightly different but still standardized appearance.
V/ife. Queen Khamerernebty
systems in consistent ways to depict their ideal of Thus, in ancient Egyptian art, the portrayal of
the human form. They developed a standardized the body followed conventions , or prescribed 4.131b (below right)
method for depicting men and women andused methods, that produced consistent results. MenkaureandHis Wife. Queen
it for thousands ofvears. The Egyptian system of Khamerernebty. 4tn Dynasty.
Egyptian depictions of the human body, as a result,
C. 2520 EC E. Greywacke. 54V. x
proportion was later adopted by the Greeks for look very similar even when they have been 22'/2x21V.". Museum o: F:ne
their figurative sculpture and influenced produced thousands ofyears apart. In sculpture, Arts. Boston
556 THEMES
IC
royal figures are shown either seated or standing, underlying canon of mathematical proportions
Abstract: art imager, that
firmly connected to the stone from which they with the finely honed physiques possessed by
are carved, with their arms andhands close to male athletes. Itwas tar more common to see a images from the naturalworld
their sides. In standing poses, the feet are firmly Greek malethan a Greek female figure sculpted in Figurative: art that portrays
items perceived in the visible
planted on the groundwith the legs slightly apart the nude. Depicting the bodywithout clothes
world, espe dally human or
and one foot in front of the other, as if the figure allowed artists to study musculature and reflect animal forms
is about to take a step. Any suggestion of observations and knowledge of the anatomy in a Renaissance: a period of
movement is potential, however, as if the figure is way that a clothed body does not show. Because
frozen; if it were in motion,itsweight would shift the Greeks hoped to model themselves after gods, the seventeenth century
to one side or the other. In the Egyptian figure, they aimed for perfect balance between mind and Idealized: represented as perfect
in form or character,
the feet are flat, the hips are even and immobile, body in both their lives and their art Such
corresponding to an ideal
andthe shoulders are entirely square. sculptures as die Discus Thrower demonstrate the Canon of proportions: a set of
The use of the canon gives the sculpture of ideal musculature of the athletic body ( 4.132). ideal mathematical ratios in art,
used to measure the various
Menkaureand His Wi fe, Queen Khamerernebty Greek athletes competedin the nude,and sculptures
parts of the human body in
an austere strength (4.131b). Their poses make of male sportsmen celebratedthe strength and relation to one another
the figures look rigid, calm, and enduring. They virility inherent in the masculine form. The Convention: a widely accepted
way of doing something; using
stand close together, as a single unit,hishands Discus Thrower also shows the competitor
a particular style, following a
close to his sides and hers embracing his arm and immersed in concentration, hismind in complete certain method, or representing
torso. Their bodies do not twist and the features harmony with his physique. something in a specific way
are bilaterally symmetrical (meaningthat theleft
side matches the right). The strong, frontal pose (height,width, and depth)
suggests that the power of the pharaoh is changeless,
unwavering, andeternal. This representation is
idealized: the couple's appearance isbased on
abstract concepts rather than direct observatio a
Notions of Beauty
Idealproportions inform many culturalnotions
of preferred body type. Our notions of beaut}- are
formed by our personal experiences and by the
society inwhich we live. Ifwe look at the ways in
which artists have depicted the human form,we
soon realizethat in different times and places
beauty canmean very different things (see Box:
Reclining Nudes, pp. 560-61). In some cultures
small teet or long necks are admired. Some groups
may favor plump, even voluptuous, bodies, while
others prefer slender, very thin and angular

physiques. Our bodies can also express mam-
things about our personalities: we can appear
calm or agitated,elegant or unkempt, smart or
stupid, sensuous or intellectual. The complex
relationshipbetween internalcharacteristics and
outward appearance has led artists to explore 4.132 Myron, D:SCuS Thrower
(DiSCObolos]. Roman copy of
these aspects of beauty through the human form.
bronze o_'g;nal from c. 450 ECE.
The notions of beauty held by the ancient Marble. 5'1" high. British
Greeks were based upon the combination of an Museum, London, England
THE BODY IN ART 557
c
4.133 Sandro Botticelli. In ancient Greece, although the male nude indicating that chastity is part of her appeal.
he B r:h of Venus, c. 1 482-6.
_
Tempera on canvas. 5'S
o- 1 : | .(l . ,
X „ , _
was certainly more common, the female nude
. ™. .
eventually began to gain respectability in the
The graceful shape and the flawless quality of
her body reflect the purity of the newborn
Florence. Italy fourth century 3CE. "Vfears later, during the goddess and create a harmonious and pleasing
Renaissance, such Italian artists as Sandro composition. Botticelli has modeledhis
Botticelli (c. 1445-1510) revivedthe appearance figure on an ancient sculpture, thus basing
of the female nude as it hadbeen depicted in his conception of beauty on Classical
antiquity-. In Botticelli's day the female nude Greek standards.
became an acceptable subject as long as it InAfrican societies, notions of beauty are
appeared in a historical or mythological context. often closely tied to the community's core values
According to Classical mythology,Venus, the of composure, wisdom, and power. In other
goddess o f loveandbeautyÿ, first emerged from words, beauty is about more than external
the sea as a fully formed adult on a shell. In his appearance. It is also about internal andsocietal
painting The Birth of Venus (4.133), Botticelli principles. Being calm,wise, and composed were
focuses on the moment when Venus hasbeen important attributes for the kings ofIfe inWest
blown to shore. She is wafted toward the land Africa. The elegant lines, delicate features, and
by Zephyr, the god of the west wind, who is elaborate headdress of the terracotta head in
accompaniedby the earth nymph Chloris. 4.1 34 indicate that it probably represents an Ife
Awaiting her is a goddess or nymph who will king, or oni As the headwas consideredthe seat
wrap her in a blanket of flowers. Venus has of intelligence and the source of power, this
smooth ivory-colored skin, long flowing hair, and sculpture's exquisite features draw our attention
an elegant pose. She discreetly covers her nudity, there. The lifelike details—the folds of the ears,
558 THEMES
C
andher gei, or art. After three years of
apprenticeship, a geisha adopts less elaborate
kimonostied with simpler knots, lighter
makeup, and a subdued hairstyle, like the one
seen in Kaigetsudo Dohan's Beautiful Woman
(6.135). Like other Japanese artists, Kaigetsudo
Dohan (working 1710-16) celebratedbeautiful
women, here emphasizing the experienced
geisha's impressive attire and relatively natural
appearance. In addition to her musical skills and
gift for intelligent conversation, this mature
geisha would havebeen appreciated for her
inner beauty.
6.135 Kaigetsudo Dohan,

Beautiful Woman, Edo Period.
1 Sth century. Hang'ng scroll,
ink and color on paoer, 66/8 X
20/;". Metropolitan Museum
of Art. NewYork
6.13d Head, ooss'bly a king, 12tn-14th century.

Terracotta with residue of red pigment and traces o; Tica.
10V:x5"/-x7J.r. Kirnoell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas
the contours of the nose, and the plumpness

of the lips—are extremely naturalistic, but also
graceful and refined The fine lines on the face
resemble scarification patterns, or scars created
by cutting or branding the skin. Beauty in
this case is a balance of invisible internal
characteristics and an idealized visible
outward appearance.
Many cultures determine beaut}- by a person's
ability to conform to expectations,whether
through clothes, cosmetics, or body shape.
In Japan, traditional female performers called
geisha are known for their socialskills and artistic
talents, such as singing, dancing, and serving tea.
Geisha, not to be confused with courtesans or
prostitutes, have a professional relationshipwith
their clients and are strongly discouraged from
becoming too intimate with them. A geisha's
appearance changes over the course of her career.
Early on she wears dramatic hairstyles,heavy
makeup, dark eyeliner, and redlip pencilapplied
to make her lips look small. As an apprentice,
the source of her beauty lies in her appearance, Nude: an artistic representation
but later it is seen to derive from her maturity of the naked human figure
THE BODY IN ART 559
C
Reclining Nudes
While nudes have long been a subject in the Tit ian was able to explore in depth such
history of art, the tradition of depicting the nude secular themes as the nature of love
female figure lying down or reclining was and desire.
established during the Renaissance. These It isclearthat the Frenchartist Edouard
types of picture recall the ancient Greek Manet (1832-83) was familiarwith the Venus
emphasis on the beauty and honesty conveyed of Urbino when he painted his Olympia (4.137).
by the nude human form. Insome cases they The composition of the paintings and the
also suggest the sensuality of the nude. posture of the women withinthem are almost
The Venetian painter known asTitian identical. Manet, however, has replaced the
(c. 1488-1 576) was influenced by the Classical sleeping dog at the foot of the bed with a
tradition when he painted a female nude for hissing blackcat. And instead of the maids in
the duke of the Italian town of Urbino (4.136). the background, there is a black servant who
The roses in the woman's right hand hint at brings Olympia flowers. In this painting, as
her identity:they are a symbol of Venus, the in others, Manet took a Classical subject and
Classical goddessof beauty (hence the name updated it forhis own time. In modernizing
by which the painting is commonly known, the the reclining nude, Manet considered the reality
Venus of Urbino). She looks out from her couch of the situation. Why would a woman be naked
with a coy expression and casually covers her and on display? One obvious answer: because
pubic area, at once modest and inviting, as if she is a prostitute. Not only was Olympia a
she exists simply to be looked at. The presence common name for a prostitute, but Manet
of the maids in the background preparing her depicted her as a real woman, thin (at least by
clothes, however, connects her to the concerns the standards of the time) and probably poor.
of a real woman. But by suggesting that his Olympia's pose would have seemed
painting depicted a mythologicalfigure, confrontational because she stares out at
4.136 Titian, Venus of

Urb<no, 1538. C;l on canvas,
3'1 OVs" x 5'5". Urfizi Gallery.
Florence. Italy
560 THEMES
c
6.137 Edou=-d Manet, Olympia. 1363. Oilon canvas. 3'3/s"
X-6'23/.". Musee d'Orsay, Paris. France
the viewer in an assertive way, while people at

that time were used to seeing more passive
women with voluptuous bodiesand docile
expressions similar to the Venus ofUrbino's.
In the late twentieth century, the Japanese
artistYasumasa Morimuralb. 1951) revisited
the theme of the reclining nude (6.138). The
meaning of this piece, like that of Manet's
Olympia, gains depth if one knows about the
earlier artworks to which it alludes. Morimura
employs digital processes, which allow him to
play the roles of both Olympia and the servant.
The resulting photograph is part of a series that
the artist made in which he impersonates
famous female icons from western culture, Cat, commonlyfound in Japanese restaurants
transcending race, gender, and ethnicity. Here, and shops as a ta lisman of good fortune.
the act of covering the genitalia with the left hand Morimura's reclining nude updates the theme
takeson entirely newsignificancein disguising with current technology and raises pertinent
the truth of his masculinity. The robes of the questions about identity, suggesting that
earlier pieces are replaced with a kimono and appearances can be deceptive, that race and
the cat at the foot of the bed is a porcelain Lucky gender are artificial constructions, that we
should not make assumptions about identity,
6.138 YasumasaMo-imura, Portrait IRjtago:. 1 933-90. and that our understanding of who we are is
Color pnotog'aoh, printed in 2 ed'tions at varying sizes influenced by the past.
&
THE BODY IN ART 561
c
a bright, dense, ultramarineblue, a color that he
Performance Art: eventually patented as "International Klein Blue"
Performance art: a work
involvingthe human body,
The Body Becomesthe (1KB). Klein integrated performance in an usually including the artist, in
innovative way to make the blue paintings for front of an audience
Artwork which hewas known. The first paintings made by
by the assembling and
the "living brushes" were monochromes that arrangement of obi ects within
Geisha are considered living works of ar t. Similarly, lookedlike the ones Klein himself had produced. a specific location
Monochromatic: having one or
inperformance art, and in someHnstcdlationsÿhe Later, the women left imprints of their bodies on more values of one color
body and its actions becomethe artwork (see the canvas or paper (4.139 b).
pp. 564-5, Perspectives on Art Box: Spencer Tunick: Kleindevised the pieces, directedthe women,
Human Bodies as Installations.) A performance andhired an orchestra for the first public
by definition involvesthe human form in action, performance of the "living brushes," called
but by engaging all of a viewer' s senses through Anthropometries de i'epoque hleue (or
movement, expression, sound, smell, and so on, it Anthropometries of the BluePeriod ) (4.139 a). In
also activates the space itself. The performers share order to create a musical accompaniment that
a space with the audience, and the art becomes was suitable for monochromatic paintings, Klein
part of the viewer's lived experience. Because had the musicians play a single chord for twenty-
performances are not permanent or static, once minutes andthensit in silence for twenty minutes.
they are finished they can only be re- experienced In an art gallery,works of art are usually inert,
indirectly, through documentation. Written still objects and it is the viewers who move
accounts, photographs, andvideos taken at the time around (often in silence). In the case of Klein's
later remind us of the performances themselves. performances, the artwork itself moved and made
Perhaps inspiredby his deep interest in the sounds while the audience sat still, giving the work
martial art ofjudo, the Frenchartist Yves Klein a very physical presence in the usually quiet and
(1928-62) began experimentingwith "living austere gallery. At the same time, attentionwas
brushes,'" or women using their bodies as the brought to the odd circumstance of living nude
vehicle for applying paint to canvas. Inthe late figures as "art," now active in the gallery space
1950s he hadbeen one of the first ar tists to make instead of represented in artworks, and
monochromatic, or one-color, paintings. He used surroundedby a fully clothedaudience.
4.139a Yves Klein,

Anthropometries deiepcque
hleue. March 9. 1960. Galer'e
Internationale d'Art
Conten-porain. Paris, F-ance
4.139b Yves Klein.

Anthropometry sans titre
1960. Pu_e p'gment and
.
synthetic "es'n on paoe-
mounted on canvas.
50?/sxUVe". ÿmm
Private collect:on
rf
562 THEMES
c
coveredwith gestural marks, viewers were pushed
out of the gallery space. The artwork comments
on several typically "feminine" actions, including
the domesticity of mopping and the messiness of
usingcosmeticsfor bea utification.Antoni takes
the dynamic creative role here, bringing attention
to the actions she is performing a swell as to the
status of women in the art world and in society.
The Italian artist Vanessa Beecroft (b. 1969)
also brings the female figure out of the frame and
into the gallery space. She takes the idea of the
confrontation between the model and the viewer
to a new extreme. Her performance pieces consist
of groups of women standing in the gallery space
with instructions not to speak or move. They
create a sense of discomfort because the models
are occupying the same space as the viewers, and
actively returning their stares.
6.160 Janime Anton Loving Unlike Klein,who directedrather than Inpieces like 1rB35 ("VB" stands fo r Vanessa
Care. 1993. Performance with participated in his artworks, artist Janine Antoni Beecroft and "35" is an identifying number, given
Loving Ca~e hair dye Natural
Black, dimensions variable.
(b. 1964 in the Bahamas) uses her own body and sequentially to her performances), the women's
Photog'sohed by Prudence her own actions as the basis for most of her appearance at once embodies and challenges
Cum ing Associates at performances. In LovingCare, named for a brand the expectations of ideal beauty established by
Anthony D'Offay Gallery,
of hair- care products, Antoni dipped her head in contemporary media (6.161). The women are
London. 1993
a bucket of hair color and proceeded to mop the all model thin and posed like mannequins,
floor with it, using her hair as a paintbrush reinforcing the idea that women, in order to
(6.160) .As more and more of the floor became bebeautiful, must all look the same. Closer
6.161 Vanessa Eeec-o;t,

VB35. 1993. Performance at
Solomon R. Guggenne'm
Museum. NewYork
THE BODY IN ART 563
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Perspectives on Art: Spencer Tunick
Human Bodies as Installations
TheAmerican photographer Spencer Tunick worked on individual portraits of nudes on the

(b. i9671is famous for his installations involving streetsof NewYork. I gained confidence in my
large numbers of nudepeople fc.i42aJ. Here ability to work on a public street, to deal with
he explains how he came to make work that traffic, traffic light intervals, and the police.
sometimes involves thousands of nudes, andhow I switched to multiples when I had so many
complicated it can be to organize them. people to work with. I would carry the
photographs round in my wallet and show them
I didn't start out photographing hundreds or to people. By 1994 I had phone numbers for
thousandsofnude people. From 1992 to 1994 1 twenty-eight people and I decided to photograph
4.162a Soence- Tunick.

Installation atZocalo, Mexico
City. Mexico. May 6, 2007.
More th an 18.000 people
partic'oated
6.162b (oppos'te aoove.

Spence- Tunick steps
through 300 people whom
he arranged as a liv:ng
sculpture nea- City Hall.
F-'bou,-g. Switzerland. 2001
564 THEMES
c
inspection reveals the women's individuality.
Some have darker skin, others lighter. The}- have
differenthair color and different hairstyles. Their
black bathing suits— like their bodies, poses, and
posture— are not identical,but individual to each
woman. In fact, some women in the performance
were nude anddid not wear a bathing suit at all.
Beecroft's performances broach the subject of
body image for a world ofwomen, young and old,
trying to live up to impossible standards.
The Body in Pieces

Artists haveused exaggeration, stylization, and
innovation to create abstract representations of
them all at once outside the UN building in New the human body. Approaches from outside the
York. Then in 1997 I gathered 1,000 people on western European tradition, such as African masks
an air-force base in Maine at a music concert. and Pre-Columbian sculp tures from the Americas,
I travel with a team of eight. In each city a influenced some modern European artists to make
contemporary art museum commissions my works that suggest forms that are alteredbut
work and I can workwherever inthe city I like. recognizable. Others havetaken certain elements
The museum provides team leaders and of the anatomy out of their usual context by
volunteers. Mexico City tookthree years to distorting or fragmenting the body. We do not have
organize and one day to make the art. There to see a whole body to read it as a human figure
were 250 team leaders and volunteers and 250 4.143 Augusts Rodin. Walking (see Gateway Box: Matisse, 4.145, p. 566 ).
police officers. In Caracas, Venezuela, there Man, c. 1890-95. Bronze. 332/- Recognizing this fact, artists have focused attention
were almost 1,000 police and military. x22x 11". MOMA. New York away from identifying a particular individual or
I know 75 percent of what I am going to do illustratinga coherent story inorder to emphasize
before we start but I like to keep an element of ways inwhich the body canbe broken down and
mystery. I have controlofthousands of people, presented as a product of the human imagination.
but in a way I don't like that control. I like to The French artist Auguste Rodin (1840-1917)
keep the event loose, personal, and intimate. alteredthe appearance of the human body, which
Participants are not involving themselves in a is one of the reasons heis now known as a pioneer
spectacle but in a work of art. After ten minutes, in the field of modern sculpture. His innovations
once they get used to being nude, they get excited influenced many twentieth-century sculptors,
and start raising their hands in the air and so on, ineluding Henry Moore andAlberto Giacometti
and thenthey calm down and we get organized. (see 4.146 and 4.1 47). Although he hadbeen
I considermy works to be installations, not formally trained, Rodinchose not to make his
performances or photographs. I document the sculptures in the traditional way. Insteadof
installations with photos and videos. I have two idealizing figures to look like perfectedversions
videographers and could have people take the o factual people, Rodin intentionally left his
photographs also, but I like to frame the photos surfaces rough, as seen in his sculpture Walking
and tweakthem on location. Maw (4.143). The scrapes and gouges on the
I still do individual portraits in streets. I am figure's chest, torso, and hips stand as
interested in the body and its relationship to the evidence of the material the artist touched
background. Instead of the body creating a and manipulated to makethe sculpture.
meaning forthe background, the background Rodinalso considered fragmentary
creates a new meaning forthe body. representations, such as this one, which has no
THE BODY IN ART 565
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TheBlueNude: Cutouts andthe Essence of Form
Experimental artists like the Frenchman Henri 4.145 Henri Matisse, Blue
Matisse (1869-1954) have consistently used Nude II, 1952. Gouache on
paper, cut and pasted on
the female nude as a subject forcreative
white paper, 653A x 32'A".
innovation. Throughout his career, Matisse Musee Nationald'Art
was moving toward a more economical use Moderne, Centre Georges
of artistic elements. Early on, he made very Pompidou, Paris, France
detailed recordings of the world he observed

around him.After the 1940s, he chose to isolate
forms and reduce the range of his palette,
emphasizing the elements he thought to be
the most importa nt for a particular subject,
because, as he wrote, "exactitude is not truth."
Even hissketches for individua Iartworks went
from complex recordngs of very detailed
observations to pictures with selected details
and limited colors. This approach suited the
technique of making cutouts. In his cutouts,
as seen in both Icarus (4.144) and Blue Nude II
(4.145), Matisse gives us enough information
to knowthatwe are looking ata human body. character that does not depend on forms
Their shapes are rough, but energetic. The being copied exactly as they are in nature,
palette in Blue Nude IIis restricted to blue only. or on the patient assembling of exact
The color blue is not used to shade the female details, but on the profound feeling of the
figure or to make her look as if she is bathed in artist before the objects that he has chosen,
blue light. Instead, her form is made entirely on which his attention is focused, and
of flat planes of color. whose spirit he has penetrated.
An essay of 1947 by Matisse, describing a My conviction about these things
series of self-portraits made using a mirror, crystallized when Irealized for example
helps explain how he arrived at this technique that in the leaves of a fig tree— of a fig tree
andwhat he hoped to communicate by making particularly— the great difference of forms
art the way he did: that exists among them does not keep them
These drawings sum up, in my opinion, from sharing a common quality. Fig leaves,
observations that Ihave made for many whatever their fantastic variations of form,
years about the character of drawing, a always remain unmistakably fig leaves.
Ihave made the same observation about
othergrowing things.- fruits, vegetables, etc.
eft £*.'6*4 Thus there exists an essentialtruth
that must be disengaged from the outward
af
4ÿ0 & <A f appearance of the objects to be represented.
CcryYV'yt'CA. This is the only truth that matters-
9*
e-n.
ac-<+- Exactitude is not truth.
rU'l
4.144 Henri Matisse, Icarus, from Jazz, 1943-7.
Page size 16%x 127/a". MOMA NewYork
566 THEMES
boundaries of the recognizable form: first through
Surrealist examinations of thehumanbody, and
then, after World War II,through the existential
views represented in such sculptures as Man
Pointing (4.147). Giacometti's obsessive nature at
times caused him to reduce figures to the point
where the)- were almost nonexistent. Eventually
hebegan to accepthis own artistic vision, inwhich
\ the bodies look as if they are being seen from

an extreme distance. The figures seem to have
stepped out of the artist's dreams and into reality,
earning with them an air of mystery. Man
Pointingis an imposing figure, despite its apparent
fragility. At almost six feet tall, it is hard to believe
4.146 Hen ry Moore. head or arms, to be completedsculptures rather that it can support its own weight. Giacometti
RecumbentFigure, 1938. than preparatory sketches. At the time, Rodin's struck a delicate balancebetween the figure and
Green Hornton stone.
35 x 52V. x 29". Tate. London
pieces, which looked so different from the smooth, its surroundings in this sculpture,which he first
idealized figures people had come to expect,were made in clay andthen cast in bronze. Nothing
harshly criticized. Since then, his approach has indicates why the man is pointing,but the space
Contours: the outlines that been praised for allowing the figures to be more around him seems almost heavy. The sculpture
define a form
expressive, emotional, and individual. lookslike a trace of the shadow the man casts
Avant-garde: early twentieth-
century emphasis on artistic Like Rodin, the British sculptor Henry Moore rather than the man himself, emphasizing the
innovation,which challenged (1898-1986) created figures that did not match figure's loneliness andisolation.
acceptedvalues, traditions, the way the human body
and techniques
actually looks. Instead
Moore made connections Discussion Questions
with natural forms in the
shapes of bodies and their parts, 1 Thinking of artworks vou have studied in this
which often resemble mountains, hills, chapter, compare and contrast a work that
cliffs, and valleys. The organic lines in his contains static representations
sculptures mimic the organkcontourÿof the form with a performance. Howwould making
materialshe used, usually wood and stone. these two types of ar twork have been different
In addition to nature, Moore was inspired by for their creators? What roledoes the person
other works of art. He studied a range of artistic represented in the artwork play? How do the
traditions outside the West, as well as Classical results compare visually?
and avant-garde European app roadies. As 2 What havethe artists in this chapter discovered
a result of these influences, he departed from through their exploration of the human body?
visible reality for the sake of making a strong Find an example in the chapter that was
artistic statement. A consistent characteristic of especially interesting to you. What did learning
his sculptures is his use of the void, an empty- about that artist's exploration reveal to you?
space that opens up the figure and creates 3 In this chapter we have looked at several ways
visualinterest. In Recumbent Figure thelarge inwhich artists have explored the body as
4.147 Alberto hole inthe center of the piece is surrounded an artistic theme. Identify three of those
Giacorrettl. Man by the masses that make up the body ( 4.1 46). approaches. Now think of other works you
Pointing, 1 947. Bronze. The legs look like peakswhile the abdomen is have seen in thisbook andselect three
70 V; X 40V-X 1 6*/f.
MO MA, NewYork
in the place of a valley. The breasts help examples from outside this chapter that take
to identify the shape as a female figure. a different approach to the body. List the ways
The Swiss artist Alberto Giacometti inwhich your chosen works differ from those
( 190 1-66) also stretchedthe discussed in this chapter.
THE BODY IN ART 567
c
THEMES
4.10
Art and Gender
Gender affects all people, including artists,

whether the)- are male, female, or someone who
Gendered Roles
does not fit neatly into either of those categories.
Unlike sex,which indicateswhether a person is Our assumptions about gendered roles are
biologically male or female, gender refers to oftenbased on cultural stereotypes. For example,
a person's inner identity. It is one of the most the ancient Egyptians and Greeks developed
significant aspects of a person's sense ofself. formal methods for representing the ideal
But it is not clear whether common assumptions human figure in art, with malesbeing presented
about gender roles are natural or imposed by as strong and athletic, while females appear
society: should pink anddolls always be demure. Similarly, in our modern societywe
associated with females andblue and airplanes construct our own ideas about what men and
with males? women shouldlooklike and how- the)- should
While gender affects everyone onsome level, behave. Artworks depicting men have historically
it often becomes an issue for discussion in referred to their powerful bodies or leadership
relation to groups that havebeen disenfranchised roles. In contrast, women have tended to be
by the mainstream andmale-dominated culture, shown in artworks either as passive, eroticized
perhaps because the)- are female, or homosexual, subjects who exist solely for the viewer's pleasure,
or transsexual. At several points inthe twentieth or, alternately, in the role of nurturers in domestic
century, feminism encouraged us to consider the scenarios. There are, however, numerous
role ofwomen as both creators and subjects of examples of artworks that consciously counter
important artworks. Contemporary feminist these stereotypical representations andshow-
and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) images of men as vulnerable and women in
movements have inspired a great deal of debate positions of power.
about and exploration of the ways gender affects In many cultures, heroes manifest the
personality, relationships, and preferences. desirable attributes of the society in a larger-
The artworks in this chapter illustrate some than-life way. The sculpture Chibinda Ilunga,
of the ways inwhich artists have explored, made bv the Chokwe people of Central Africa,
reinforced, and challenged traditional gender depicts a legendary leader who was a masterful
distinctions. By presentingtheir own personal hunter, a successful king, and a descendant of
experiences of daily life,their interpretations a deity (4.148). The figure carries a staff, a
of historical events, and their commitment to symbol of prestige that stands for the passage
social or political agendas, artists encourage us of power from an ancestor to a chief or from
to question common assumptions about gender one chief to another. His flaring nostrils and
andthe possibilities beyond thebinaries of male the antelope horn he carries identify him as
and female. a hunter. The horn was a trophy of his successes
568 THEMES
work. Shortly after World War I, the American
sociologist and photographer LewisWickes Hine
(1874-1940) made a series of Work Portraits.
Unlike some of his earlier projects,which
condemnedthe exploitation of children in
factories and mines, this series celebrated the
positive connectionbetween theworker and
the machineshe used. PowerHouse Mechanic
Working on Steam Pump salutes the man's
muscular physique and its complementan-
4.149 Lewis Wiekes Hine.
relationship with the tools of his trade ( 4.149). PowerHouse Mechanic
Hine's visual commentary records the Vforking on Steam Pump, 1920.
commanding role the worker played as the Silver gelatin print, sheet: 97;
x 63A". NationalArchives and
driving force behind the progressive industrial
Records Administration.
era. (As a counterpoint to Hine, see Gateway Records of the Work Projects
Box: Lange, 4.151, p. 570.) Administration
4.168 Chibindallunga, mid- 19th century. Wood, hair,

and hide, 16x6x6". KimbellMuseum of Art. Fort
Worth, Texas
in capturing game, and it also sen*ed as a

container for potent substances or medicines,
contributing an additional element to his arsenal
of impressive traits. The sculpture conveys the
valued attributes of authority, potency, and
restraint that made this celebrated hunter
a model leader.
Manuallabor relies on strength and
endurance, which have traditionally been
considered distinctly masculine, allowing
laborers to be seen a s heroic through their hard
ART AND GENDER 569
c
The British photographer John Coplans
( 1920-2003) directly challenges traditional views
of the ideal male nude. He frankly shows wrinkles,
sags, and rolls of skin. Self-portrait Sideways No. 3
is part of a series of self-portraits the artist began
when he was in his sixties ( 6.15 o). These self-
portraits highlight the realities of the aging body
in direct and personal but also enigmatic ways.
The photographs often transform actualbody
parts through extreme close-ups, making it hard
to tell ifwe are looking at the crook of a finger,
the crease of an elbow, or the bend of a leg.
These images,which rarely include Coplans's
face, give an edge of humility, and an unexpected
voice, to the artist's self-examination, and
A.i 50 John Coplans. Self-portrait Sideways No. 3 . 200' . expand the depictions of male figures and aging
Gelatin silver print. 4'2" x o'8". bodies in art.
The .American photographer Cindy Sherman
(b. 1954) plays the roles of all of the women

The Image of Motherhood
Byzantine, medieval, and Renaissance children as more precious than jewels
depictions of mothersand children generally (for example, see p. 404, 3.152, Angelica
focus on the ideal mother. Later artists show Kauffmann's Cornelia Pointing to Her Children
asHer Treasures) and revealthe sweet
4.151 Dorothea Lange, interactions of ordinary moments (see, for
Migrant Mother, 1936. example, p. 345, 3.76, Mary Cassatt's Child's
Library of Congress,
Bath). Lange captured a slightly different view,
Washington, D.C.
showing the intimacy of a family that hasvery
little but each other.
a Migrant Mother offers poignant evidence

of a mother's strength and determination in
a time of extreme need (4.151). Because the
early pea crop had failed, this migrantworker
and her three young children were starving.
Photographer Dorothea Lange found the
family surviving on frozen vegetables from
the surrounding fieldsand birdsthey were
able to kill. Like other mother and child
images, Migrant Mother draws attention to
the nature and enduring quality of the bond.
This photograph resonates because of the
way the mother's face reflects the pressures
placed on the family unit.
570 THEMES
c
portrayed in her acclaimed Untitled Film Stills
Nude: an artistic representation
series, creating an intriguingvisual puzzle as we
of the naked human figure
try to uncover the "real" Cindy Sherman. The Renaissance: a period of
images she makes are not, however, intended to be cultural and artistic change in
self-portraits in the way that Coplans's photogra phs the seventeenth century
are. Sherman has explained that the images are
not about her, but are about the representations
of the women being shown andthe ways that each
viewer interpretsthem (see Perspectives on Art Box:
Cindy Sherman: The Artist and her Identity).
For the UntitledFilm Stills, Sherman
fabricated backdrops and costumes for imagined
characters from nonexistent 1950s B-movies. At
that time, the film roles for women were limited
to such stereotyped characters as housewife,
starlet, country girl come to the city, and so on. In
Untitled Film Still F35 we see a woman—perhaps
a housewife or a maid— with a distinctly bad
attitude ( 4. 152). The circumstances of the scene
are far from dear, though. Is she sulking about
4.152 Cindy Sherman. Untitled FilmStill #35. '979. Black

and white photograph. 10 x 8". MOMA, New York
Perspectives on Art: Cindy Sherman

The Artist and Her Identity
The American photographer and film director throughout mychildhood I had stored up so
Cindy Sherman is best known for her photographs many images of role models. It was real easy
in which she is dressed in costumes as if she were to think of a differentone in every scene.
another person (see above, 4.1521Here she But they were socliched that afterthree years
explains her general working process and one I couldn't do them a nymore. I was really
specific image, Untitled Film Still #35. inspired thinking about the movies, the characters are
by the Italian film actress Sophia Loren. almost typecast from movies.
For the woman standing in front of my
There is a stereotype of a girl who dreams studio door, I was thinking of a film with
all her life of being a movie star. She tries to Sophia Loren called Two Women. She plays
make it on the stage, in films, and either this Italian peasant. Her husband is killed
succeeds or fails. I was more interested in and she and her daughter are both raped.
the types of characters that fail. Maybe I She is thistough strong woman, but all
related to that. But why should Itry to do it beaten-upand dirty. I liked that combination
myself? I'drather look at the reality of these of Sophia Loren looking very dirty and very
kinds of fantasies, the fantasy of going away strong. So that's what I wasthinking of....
and becoming a star... I realized Ihad to become more specific
The black-and-white photographs were... in details, because that's what makes a
fun to do. I think they were easy partly because person different from other people.
ART AND GENDER 571
something, planning to leave, or about to pull a subject matter of art, making it more relevant to
wallet from the jacket hanging on the hook? Why wo men's issues, and many more works made by
of which is simplified, distorted,
are there so many scuff marks on the door? More womenwere included in museums and galleries. or exaggerated in appearance. It
questions are raisedthan answered inthe scenarios The American artist Judy Chicago (b. 1939) may represent a recognizable
Sherman invents. Her Untitled Film Stills, which appreciated the achievement of such women as altered, or it maybe a completely
were created between 1977 and 1980, revisit these Gentileschi. She realized that many women had non- re prese ntationalde pi cti on
1950s- inspiredwomen inorder to make it clear been forgotten over time and, likewise, that Baroque: European artistic and
how narrow the representations ofandexpectations women who seem prominent today might in the
for womenhad been onlya lew short years before. future also be omitted from history. From 1974 centuries, characterizedby
At the time Sherman made Untitled Film Still?35, to 1979, Chicago worked onan epic sculpture extravagance and emotional
intensity
feminism was beginning to have a significant called The Dinner Party (6.153), which honors Medium plural media): the
impact on artistic representations ofwomenas women from the past and present. Her huge material on or from vhich an
well as on the possibilities for women in society. triangular dinner table hasthirteen place settings artist chooses to make a work
of art
Sherman made sixty- nine photographs in the on eachside. Even* setting features a placemat,
Ceramics: fire-hardened clay,
series and the women in them always seem as if on which is embroideredthe name of a famous often painted, and normally
the}- are being watched, the obi ect of an unseen historical or mythicalwoman, and an elaborate sealed with shiny protective
coating
voyeur's gaze. These scenarios call attention to and plate designedintentionally to resemblethe shape
question the way we look at these and all women. of a butterfly or a vagina. The appearance of all
the elements on each setting was inspired by the
woman whose place it is. Layers of lace designate
Feminist Critique the place of the nineteenth- cent ury poet Emily
6.153 Judy Chicago,
Dickinson,while the plate for the artist Georgia The Dinnerparty, 1976.-9.
In Western countries, for many centuries women O'Keeffe (6.153) resembles a sculptedversion of nstallati on view showi ng
had far fewer opportunities than men to become one of her abstract flower paintings. Artemisia Georgia O'KeeTe placesetling.
artists, and were rarely given the recognition Gentileschi's place setting has a brightly colored Embroidery on linen and
china paint on porcelain,
granted to their male counterparts. For example, plate surrounded by lush fabric similar to the entire work 48 x 48'
women were not allowed to draw from the nude in kindshown in her paintings. Brooklyn Museum, NewYork
their art classes until the nineteenth century. Itwas
also believedthat "genius" was a trait exclusively
available to men, and language with a gender
bias— such as theword "masterpiece" to describe
a great artwork— reinforcedthatbelief. Before
the 1970s few people even noticed that women
had largely been excluded from the institutions
and systems that produced serious ar tists.
In many cases, successful women had simplv
been written out of the history of art. The Italian
artist Artemisia Gentileschi, for example, enjoyed
an impressive reputation in the seventeenth
century, but her efforts were eventually forgotten,
only to be rediscovered in the early twentieth
century (see Gateway Box: Gentileschi). The
feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s made
a significant impact on the production and
understanding of artworks madeby women. It
acknowledged that women artists hadbeen left
out of much of the histcry of art, and it introduced
the possibility that this situation couldbe
rectified. As a result, feminist artists expanded the
572 THEMES
C
ProfessionalArtist and Painter of Women
At a time when there were very few women
professional artists, the ItalianArtemisia
Gentileschi (1593-c. 1656) earned a reputation
as a ta lented and accomplished Baroque
painter. While women were accepted as
portrait artists in the seventeenth century,
Gentileschi also worked in the more highly
esteemed genres of historical, mythological,
and religiouspaintings.Women were not
allowed to follow the traditional avenues of
apprenticeship tocompletetheirtraining as
painters and sculptors, but Gentileschi was
the daughter of an artist, and her talent was
recognized and fostered by her father. Unlike
her male contemporaries, Gentileschioften
depicted strong female figures with emotion,
intensity, and power.
One of the subjects she painted was the
story of Judith Decapitating Holofernes, from
the Bible (4.154). Judith became a heroine
of the Israelite people when she murdered
Holofernes, an Assyrian genera Isent by
King Nebuchadnezzar IIto punish the western
nations of his empire—includiig the
Israelites—for not supporting his reign. After
Holofernes became intoxicated, Judith used his
sword to cut off hishead.The Hebrewswere
then able to defeat the Assyrian army and avoid
surrender. Scholars generally agree that such Gentileschi was sexually assaulted by her 4.154 Artemisia Gent ilea:hi.
Judith Decapitating
scenes of powerfulwomen taking vengeance painting teacher and had to endure a
Holofernes. c. 1620. Oil on
on immoral men are connected to events in humiliating public rape trial in herattemptsto canvas. 6'6ya" x 5'3 Uffizi
Gentileschi's own life.At the age of eighteen bring her attacker to justice. Gallery, Florence, Italy
Chicago made the table an equilateral triangle Supper, here reconfigured with women as the
not only becausethe shape was an ancient sign for guests instead of Jesus andhistwelve disciples.
both woman and goddess,but also because it could The idea of a dinner party—as well as the media,
be usedhere to symbolize the world of fairness such as needlework and ceramics,which are
and equality that feminists sought. She chose to included in her piece—evokes the role of -woman
havethirteen guests to a side bothbecause there as homemaker, which Chicago and other
were thirteenwitches in a coven andbecauseit feminists believed shouldbe admired and praised.
was an important number for those ancient In 1985, a group of women artists in New York
religions that worshiped a mother goddess. The City formed a collective organization calledthe
number is also a reference to the biblical Last Guerrilla Girls to protest at the unequal treatment
ART AND GENDER 573
c
Do women have to be naked to
get into the Met. Museum?
Less than 5% of the artists in the Modern
.J
Art setfions are women, but 85%
of the nudes are female. 4.155 Guerrilla Girls. Do
V.'omen Have :o be Naked :o ge:
<nto the Met. Museum?, ' 989.
Guerrilla Girls (OIKIIKd OA TM AIT H011D Poster, dimensionsvariable
of female artists in the art world. Their name ofwomen, as well as assumptions regarding race,
indicates their willingness to engage in in art and society. Her combinations of text and
unconventional tacticsin their fight for equality. imager)- raise questions about gendered and racial
The Guerrilla Girls, who are still active, are known identity,both verbal andvisual. You're Fine shows
for the gorilla masks the memberswear to avoid a woman lying onan examination table ( 4.1 56).
beingrecognizedby the art world establishment She wears a nondescript white slip and has her
and institutions the)- might criticize. Their back to us, so we are not able to identify her by
productions take the form of public protests and the usual means of looking ather face. The text
lectures as well as flyers and posters. One of their accompanying the image indicates multiple levels
best-known posters, Do Women Have to beNaked of meaning. This woman, whose pose recalls a
to Get into the Met. Museum? (4.155), includes reclining nude from Classical art, is lying down
statistics to highlight the disproportionate here for the purposes of a medical inspection.
representation ofwomen artists (5 percent) The plaques on the left list procedures and tests,
compared to female nudes (85 percent) in the probably ones she is undergoing. Those on the
collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art right, however, suggest that she is being subjected
in New York. As this poster shows, one of their to this scrutiny inorder to gain a secretarial
principal goals is to oppose the lack of position. Finally, the lettering above andbelow the
representationofw-omen artists in major picture revealsthat her body has passed inspection: 4.156 Lorna Simpson, You're
museum collections. Fine, 1988. -cur color Polaroid

"You're Fine. You're Hired." Unlike all those images
prints. 1 5 engraved plastic
The American artist Lorna Simpson (b. 1960) that the Guerrilla Girls noted, Simpson's model is plaques. 2' ceramic pieces,
has confronted similar issues about the treatment not nudeand her identity has not been exposed. 3'4"xS7". Private collection
VOU*U.I_ lllsll
VOL lKL UlKl£D

574 THEMES
Blurring the Lines: 4.157 Sphinx of Hatshepsut. :8th Dynasty.
'479-1 458 b:e. Granite and paint, 5'4:/f x
'
"3".
Ambiguous Genders Metropolitan Museum 0*' Art. New York
We frequently assign roles to men and women

according to our ideas of "normal" gender. Of The American photographer Diane Arbus
course, traditional roles are frequently reversed: (1923-7 1) was fascinated by subjects that
women havebeen primary breadwinners,worked crossedestablishedboundaries, including
in mines or gone to war, and men have been conventional gender distinctions. She made
nurturers andraised children. But inrecent years direct, even confrontational pictures of people
it has become more acceptable to address other outside the mainstream, such as the midgets,
ways of transcending the conventional gender giants, twins, andsword swallowers that she
boundaries. Public awareness of such issues as met at sideshows,carnivals, andcircuses.
transvestism andtransgender surgery hasbeen Her photograph Hermaphrodite with a Dog
raisedby more open discussion. The investigation conveys a fascination with, and a kind of
of the ways thatbodies and identities can assume reverence for, extreme difference (4.158).
various levels of masculinity and femininity, Her subject's experience of beingboth male
however, is not entirely new to art. It is a question and female and, at the same time, not
that artists from many cultures and eras of conforming to either gender, adds up to
history have sought to address. a shocking reality. The spectacle of the
.Almost 3,500years ago, ancient Egypt was hermaphrodite's dual nature is highlighted in
governedby a woman called Hatshepsut. She the visible juxtaposition between the feminine
4.158 (below) Diane Arbus.
was arguably the most powerful of the handful costume, make-up, and clean-shaven right side
Hermaphrodite with a Dog.
of female rulers inEgyptian history. Hatshepsut andthe masculine tattoo, wrist watch, and hairy "968. Gela:in silver print.
controlledthe kingdom for about twenty years body on the left. 20x16".
in the fifteenth century bce, first as regent for her
stepson and nephew Thutmose III,andthen as
pharaoh in her own right. To legitimize her reign,
Hatshepsutemphasized that she was her father's
choice as successor, ahead of her two brothers
and half-brother.She also claimeddirect lineage
from Amun, the sun god who was worshiped
at that time.
Like all Egyptian rulers, Hatshepsut
commissioned manvscul£turesandrelieÿ
carvings to replicate andimmortalize her image.
A few show her as a woman, but she is most often
depicted in the conventional poses and clothing
of a male king. The image in 4.157 is one of a
group of sphinxes that possess Hatshepsut's face.
It was not uncommon for pharaohs to be
represented in the form of a sphinx, a creature
with the body of a lion and the head of a human.
The artist has clearly followed the customary
guidelines for depicting male pharaohs, including
the traditional headclothand royal beard. But,
although the portrait is idealized, the sculptor
has not attempted to disguise the delicate lines
of Hatshepsut's features.
ART AND GENDER 575
c
UnlikeArbus, the American artist Robert Mapplethorpe,however, did not see a significant
Mapplethorpe (1946-89) photographed a difference between a flower, a Classical sculpture,
lifestyle ofwhich he was himself a part. The issue or a nudemale figure.
of gender affects his photographic workbecause In Mapplethorpe's 1980 Self-portrait ($385) ,
he chose subjects that were highly sexualized his hair is curled andhe wears eye shadow,blush,
and often related to his own interests as a gay andlipstick (4.159). Ifonelooks solely at his face,
man. His photographs are carefully composed, he seems to be a woman. His bare chest,however,
elegantly lit, and technically perfect, making tells us that he is a man. Mapplethorpe's
subjects that might previously havebeen seen appearance raises many questions about the
as deviant appear normal,even beautiful. assumptions we makebased on the way people
A national controversy was sparked by the look. It also reveals the degree to which gender
exhibition of Mapplethorpe's work that traveled is a construction and suggests that not all people
to several museums across the U.S. shortly after fit the conventionaldistinctions betweenthe
the artist died ofAIDS- related illness. Some sexes. Mapplethorpe photographedwhat he
museum officials and politicians considered wanted to see, the things that he considered
the graphic sexual nature of Mapplethorpe's X visually interestingbut did not find elsewhere
Portfolio to be problematic becausethe artist had in the art world. Through his carefully crafted
been awarded a grant from public funds. compositions and technically masterful prints
4.159 Robert Mapplethorpe,

Self-portrait (#385}, 1980.
Gelatin silver print, 20 x 'o"
576 THEMES
c
4.160 Catherine Opie.

Melissa & Lake. Durham. North
Carolina. 1998. Chromogeric
print. 40x50"
he ensured his models (including himself) Discussion Questions

lookedtheir absolutebest.
TheAmerican artist Catherine Opie (b. 1961) 1 What kind of words can vou think of that are
uses photography to investigate the nuances of specifically gendered? Come up with a list of
gender and identity. Her pictures includestudio five "male" and five "female" adjectives. .Are
portraits of her lesbian friends dressed inleather thevbasedon factsor opinions? Findan
or wearing false facial hair, staged depictions artwork to illustrateeach of your terms. Find
of radical performance artists, high school an artwork that contradicts each of your terms.
football games, and landscapes. Opie created Make sure that at least halfthe artworks you
her Domestic series while traveling across the choose are not from this chapter.
U.S. in order to photograph lesbian couples, 2 What obstacles have women faced inbeing
such as Melissa and Lake, in their everyday taken seriously as professional artists? What
settings (4.160). This photograph accentuates hasbeen done to counteractthatinequity?
some of the similarities in the couple's Whatartworks, either in this chapter or
appearance, such as their short haircutswith elsewhere, effectively express either these
bangs. The point of the picture, however, is challenges or the changes ininstitutional
their bond, not their gender or sexual identity. practices toward women in the arts?
Opie's portraits,byhighlighting the lesbian 3 Consider the artworks you lavestudied and
community, introduce some viewers to new thendescribe an ar twork that expresses your
ways of life. The}- remind others that the personal experience as a man or woman.
familiar people,places, and things we see What roles have you played inyour life that
each day can be thought of in new ways. conform to or deviate from established
Such pictures are not about difference, they norms? How can you communicate that
are celebrations of individuality. experience to your audience in an artwork?
ART AND GENDER 577
c
THEMES
4.11
Expression
Throughout this book, as you have looked at thought. Art can also explore the character of art
artworks, you have probably realizedthat they itself by experimenting with the impact of color
have something in common: the}- make visual or or the distortion of form. Some artists have
_conce£tual statements. In other words, art is at defined art as beingsomethingoriginal, and, as
its core a medium of expression, a means bv such, many artworks are unique creations by an
which an artist communicates with an audience. individual. Others have activelychallenged the
In fact, art is such a powerful form of expression idea that originality is an essential aspect of art.
that there is virtually no limit to what artists can Some artists have gone so far as consciously to
address through their work. Inthis chapter we borrow the existing imager}- of other artists in
will examine what some artworks can tell us order to question the very idea of originality.
about an artist's creative intentions. Expression is fundamental to art, but it is
Art often conveys something personal, even also a very complicated subj ect, as we will
intimate, about the artist, such as deeply held continue to discover when we examine some
beliefs or emotions. Consider a very directly of the many means bv which artists have
personal form of expression, the self-portrait. expressedthemselves.
Intheory, a self-portrait presents a picture
of the artist, but does it give an accurate
portrayal of the artist's physical appearance? Does Making a Self-portrait
it show the way the artist wants to be seen? Does
it somehow reveal anything that the artist thinks One definition of a self-portrait is an artwork
or feels in addition to (or insteadof) showing that represents the physical appearance of the
the artist's likeness? Alternately, some artists use artist. In practice, however, self-portraits are
their artworks to make a statement about the never quite that simple. As well as depicting the
world around them rather than about themselves. likeness of the artist, self-portraits often tell
For example, in this chapter we will see how us something about the artist' s personality,
artists use visual language to comment on the experiences, or choices. Another form of self-
expectations that society imposes on women, to portraiture involves the ar tist assuming the role
address issues of national or cultural identity, or or persona of someone else, much as an actor
refer to current events.
to portrays another person on the stage.
Visual expression is certainly notlimited to The Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh (1853-90)
comment about one's own feelings or opinions. made a specialty out of self-portraiture inwhich
Art canbe a powerful medium for exploring he emphasized the internal reality of what he-
even non-visual experience. Art can, for example, felt rather than simplyrecordingwhat he saw-.
Conceptual: rdatingtoor
the sections of hearing music, His Self-portrait with Bandaged Ear and Pipe,
concerning ideas experiencing nature, or contemplatinghuman one of approximately thirty self-portraits that
578 THEMES
suffering. Kahlo is perhapsbest known for her
self- portraits,w-hich comprise up to one- third
of her artistic output.
The women in The Two Fridas are almost
mirror images of one another ( 4.162). They
depict distinct aspects of the artist' s identity.
Kahlo'smixedculturalbackground is represented
inthe clothes worn by the two figures. The Frida
on the right wears a Mexican dress ( related to
her mother's heritage); the one on the left, a
European gown (reflecting her father's German
roots). Another complicated element in Kahlo's
life was her turbulent relationshipwith her
husband, fellow Mexican artist Diego Rivera
( 1886-1957). When this painting was being
made, Kahlo was in the process of divorcing
Rivera (subsequently, a year after the divorce,
the)- remarried) .While the Mexican Frida holds
4.161 Vincent van Gogh. Self-portrait with Bandaged a small picture of Rivera, the German Frida has
.
Ear and Pipe * 889. Oil on canvas. 257; x 197'-" . a broken heart and tries with surgical pincers
Privatecollection to stop the flow of blood from the artery that
joins the two women together. The presentation
4.1 62 -rida Kahlo, The Two
he made, refers to a notorious incident in his life of the hearts on the outside of the bodies
Fridas . ' 939. Oil on canvas.
(4.161). At the time this paintingwas made Van emphasizes the sensitive emotional content of 5'8"x5'8". Museo deArte
Gogh lived in Aries, inthe south of France, and the painting. Moderno, Mexico City, Mexico
hoped to realize his dream of starting an artists'
colony there. When he learned that his fellow-
artist and close friend Paul Gauguin was planning
to return to Paris, the)- had an intense argument,
during which Van Gogh threatened Gauguin's
life. Afterward Van Gogh cut off a portion of his
ownear. He then wrapped the severedlobe in
newspaper and presented it to a prostitute in a
brothel before hew-as hospitalized and treated for
acute bloodloss. The Self-portrait with Bandaged
Ear and Pipe displays, in its restrainedbut
nervous lines and bold, contrasting colors,
some of the agitation that the artist certainly
experienced during the episode.
Self-reflection inthe work of the Mexican
artistFrida Kahlo ( 1907-54) is presentedby
combining depictions of her physical appearance
with metaphorical references to her feelings.
Kahlo began making art around the age of
eighteen,while recuperating from a devastating
trolley-car accident that left her bedridden for
three monthsand in pain for the rest of her life.
As a result, her paintings tend to be very personal
portrayals of psychological and physical
EXPRESSION 579
c
4.163 Rembrandt van Rijn,

Self-portrait with Saskia n the
Scene of the Prodigal Son in
the Tavern, c. '635. Oil or
canvas. 5'3"/=" x 4"3:/=".
GemaldegalerieAlte Meis:er,
Dresden. Germany
More than two centuries before van Gogh, facial expressions andcharacter types. In Self-
another Dutch painter, Rembrandt van Riin portrait with Saskia in the Scene o f the Prodigal
( 1606-69), known as Rembrandt, was one of the Son in the Tavern, Rembrandt appears as the
first artists to dedicate a significant portion of his prodigal son, from thebiblical story of a young
output to self-portraits. He made more than ninety man who rebels against his father 'swishes by
ofthem over the course of forty years, reflecting squandering his inheritance on wasteful living
the changes that occurredboth in his appearance (4.163). Rembrandt creates a lively mood in the
and in the style of hisartworks across his lifetime. tavern : he raises his glass towardthe viewer, as the
Rembrandt's self-portraits portrayed him in barmaid, modeled on his wife Saskia, looks on.
many guises, from a peasant to an aristocrat, and A slightly different (and much later) take on
gave him the opportunity to examine different the story of the Prodigal Son is provided by the
580 THEMES
c
p.I rti-Jiit or PHODI9K. C1'
4.164 Duane Michals, The

Return of the Prodigal Son , ' 982
.American photographer Duane Michals (b. 1932). her paintings, Saville refers to photographs and
Like Rembrandt, Michalsincludes himself inthe medical illustrations of flesh tones, bruises,
scene, although he plays the part of the forgiving dimples, and pockmarks. Suchw*ords as
father rather than the wayward son ( 4.164). The "delicate," "supportive," "irra tional," "decorative,'
reconciliation between father and son is shown in and "petite," inscribed on her body, comment
five frames. Inthe first scene, the father is reading on society's expectations of the kind of body a
the newspaper by a window as his son enters the
room, naked and with his head hanging in shame.
In the second frame, the father stands up, while
the son hideshis face and body, not sure what kind
of reaction to expect. By the final frame the father
and son have switched places: the father is now-
naked andthe son is wearing his clothes as they
embrace. This reversal suggests that the father, in
addition to welcoming his son back into his life,
also accepts some of the blame for his son's failings.
The British painter Jenny Saville (b. 1970) is
another artist who haschosen an unconventional
approach to the self-portrait. In suchlarger-than -
lifesize paintings as Branded,which is 7 feet tall,
she appears as a monumental nude (4.1 65).
From this vantage point Savilie'sbreastsand
stomach are far more prominent thanher head,
which isbarely squeezed into the frame. She
glances dowm with a look of disdain as she
pinches a roll of flesh with her left hand, as if
peering into a mirror. Not only does her nude
figure appear fat, countering conlemporary
society's bias toward thin women (and
noticeably exaggerating Saville' s actual size),but
her discolored skin is also tar from ideal. To make
4.165 JennySaville, Branded. '992.

Oil on canvas. 7x6'
EXPRESSION 581
c
4.166a ORLAN. Seventh woman should have. Savillehas said that she uses Renaissance canvas; her nose from Psyche, the
surgery-performance, her body as a prop that she is -willing to distort mythical lover of Cupid, in a later French
entitled Omnipresence ,
and manipulate. The results are direct, ifharsh painting by Francois Gerard; andher brow from
November 21.1993. Smile of
Delight (Sourire de Plaisir). andcritical. By confronting— even exaggerating— Leonardo da Vinci's MonaLisa. ORLAN has said
Cibachrome in diasec mount. the imperfections of reality, Saville comments on her work has several aims: to intervene in the
63"ax65" the conflicted relationshipwomen sometimes historical representation of women inartby
6.166b OR-AN, -ourth
have -with their o-wn body image. actively determining her own appearance; to
surgery-performance, The French performance artist ORLAN comment on the ways technology- empowers us to
entitled Successful Operation . (b. 1947) adopted an even more extreme transcend our human limitations; to critique the
Decembers. '991. 3aris
approach to constructing the self. ORLAN's cult ofbeauty that imposes unfair standards on
artistic medium is her own body: in order to women; and to make a statement about the
create a completely new persona, she underwent impossibility of physical perfection even in an age
a series of plastic surgeries that transformed her when plastic surgery- is performed routinely.
appearance, anddocumentedthe entire process Ultimately, ORLAN has used her oyvn body to
(4.1 66a and 4.166 b). An operating room became raise questions about cultural perceptions as yvell
the stage for ORLAN's "performance." She was as about y\-hat constitutes art.
the star, the medical team the cast, with costumes
createdby famous fashion designers. Because she
was given only a local anesthetic, ORLANwas Finding an Artistic Voice
able to remain conscious andread aloud from
philosophical and poetic texts while the surgical In addition to depicting themselves directly or
procedureswere carried out. Video cameras in indirectly- intheir artyy-orks, artists often use
the operating room transmitted a live feed of the their oyy-n experiences, dreams, fears, or
surgery to CBS News, the Sandra Gering Gallery confusions as inspiration. Sometimes the result
in New York, and the Centre Georges Pompidou is very- different from the yvay other people might
inParis. ORLAN also documentedthe stages of have experienceda similar emotion or event.
her transformation with photographs taken Learning about the original context of a piece
as she healed. of art, such as the circumstances surrounding
Inher final incarnation, ORLAN hadbecome its making, can help us to understandthe artist's
Performance artist: an artist a composite woman. Her features were modeled intentions and theyy-ays that their yy-ork might
whose work involvesthe human a fter several fa mously beaut iful paintings o f contain more than meets the eye. (See Gateyvay
body (often including their own) women: her chin was copied from Botticelli's Box: Gentileschi; and Perspectives on Art Box:
individual who sponsors the Venus (in The Birth ofVenus);her mouth from Mona Hatoum: Art, Personal Experience, and
creation of works of art the Roman deity Diana in a renowned French Identity, p. 585.)
582 THEMES
C
Self-Expression inthe Judith Paintings
The powerful heroines in the paintings of
Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-c. 1656), such as
Judith, who beheads Holofernes with steadfast
determination, have a strong correlation with
events in the artist's own life.Gentileschi was
the victim of a sexual assault byAgostino Tassi,
who was her painting teacher and a colleague
of her father. During the public rape trial that
followed, Tassi claimedthat Gentileschi was not
only a willing lover,but also quite promiscuous.
Gentileschi and her father felt that, in addition
to the physical violence she had suffered in the
assault, their family name and reputation had
been attacked. They feared that her prospects
of marrying had been damaged both by the
rape and the trial. Tassi was eventually
sentenced to exile, and Gentileschi married
another man,with whom she had five children.
Gentileschi isknown to have painted seven
works showing different events from the biblical
story of Judith's encounter with Holofernes.
The first, depicting Judith and her maidservant
cutting off his head, was painted about ayear
after the Tassi trial (4.167). The painting of this
violent assault by a woman on an invader has
been interpreted as both an expression of the
artist's anger at her own attacker, and as a
cathartic way of healing the effects of her
ordeal. In fact, Gentileschi's heroines in the Another of the painter'sdepictions of the story, 4.168 Artemisia Gentileschi.
Judith paintings resembleher own features. made about a decade later, shows Judith and Judith and Her Maidservant
with the Head of Holofernes,
her maidservant by candlelight while making
1623-5. Oilon canvas. 6'%" x
their escape from the murder scene with the 47V*". Detroit Institute of Arts
bloody head (4.168). While there may indeed be an
element of autobiography at least in Gentileschi's
earlier paintings, the variousversions of the
story that she made over a thirty-year period
were probably created for a variety of other
reasons. The beheading of Holofernes was a
popular theme with other artists of the time,
suggesting that the patron who commissioned 4.167 (left) Artemisia
Gentileschi's painting may have requested the Gentileschi. Judith
DecapitatingHolofernes,
subject orthat some of her later representations
c. 1620. Oil on canvas,
may have been intended for purchaserswho 6Wx5'3Vt". Uffizi
had seen and admired her earlier work. Gallery. Florence. Italy
EXPRESSION 583
c
Chiaroscuro: the use oflight
and dark in a painting to c reate
the impression of volume
Installation: an artwork
created by the assembling
and arrangement of objects
in a specific location
Foundobject: an object found
by an artist and presented,with
work or as a finishedworkof art
in itself
4.169 HenryFuseli,
.
The Nightmare '781.
Oil or canvas, 40x50".
Detroit nstituteof Arts
HenryFuseli (1741-1825), a Swiss-born artist it communicates the rhvthm. patterns, andmood

who lived inEngland after 1779, was inspired by of a darkened landscape (4.170).
gruesome elements from folklore, horror stories, Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket
and the occult to make his own uniquely was controversial in its time. Viewers and critics,
disturbing paintings. In one of his most famous unsure of what the)- were seeing, accused
images, The Nightmare, a woman in white is
stretched out on a divan with an incubus on top
of her body (4.169). In the background, a fiendish
horse peers around the curtain. Accordingto
legend, an incubus is a maledemonwho comes to
people, usually women, while they sleep andhas sex
with them. Fuseli depicts a moment somewhere
between sleep and death-when the woman's
nightmare seems to come to life aroundher.Fuseli's
use of chiaroscuro, or contrasted light anddark
colors, enhances the sinister mood created by the
expressions on the faces of the incubus and the
horse. At the time it was made, the painting's
sexual implications were consideredscandalous.
The American artist James Abbott McNeill
Whistler (1834-1903) used music as the inspiration
for an artworkthat exemplified an approach 4.170 ÿames Abbott McNeill
known as 'Art for Art's Sake." He titledhis Whistler. Nocturne in Black
and Gold: The Falling Rocket.
painting Nocturne in Black and Gold: The '
875. Oil or. wood panel,
FallingRocket because, like a "nocturne" or a 23®A x ' 8V=". Detroit
musical composition inspired by the night, nstitute of Arts
584 THEMES
C
Perspectives on Art: Mona Hatoum
Art, Personal Experience, and Identity
Mona Hatoum is a native of Lebanon (b. 19521and birdcage, or a large wooden bed, or perhaps
now lives in London. Her work is exhibitedalt over a house. The work's shifts of scale may feel
the world. Here the art historian Professor confusing or threatening to the viewer.
Whitney Chadwick, of San Francisco State Approaching the sculpture, one often feels
University,explains some of the connections disoriented, ordisconnected. Is this object-
between Hatoum 's art and her personal so familiarand yet so strange because of its
experiences. size— a common household object that just
happens to suggest a prison? Are its
Mona Hatoum's Untitled ( Baalbek BirdCage) associations friendly or threatening?
(1999) is one of a series of sculptural works The actualdimensions of the birdcage
onthe theme of cages and caging ( 4.171). An were, in fact, based on the measurements of
international artist, Hatoum travels extensively the cells at Alcatraz Prison in California.
and her installations often incorporate found The most famous inhabitant of that prison,
objects that affect her emotionally and/or whose story became the subject of a well-
psychologically. Often her works recallthe known Hollywood film, was the so-called
dislocations of her own life, much of it lived "Bird Man of Alcatraz," an incarcerated
farfrom her family and the land of her birth. murderer who raised canaries as a hobby in
This sculpture originated in a beautiful his cell. In literature, from nineteenth-century
Victorian birdcage that she discovered in a English poetry to twentieth-century
market while on a trip to Baalbek, Lebanon. autobiography, women authors have often
Perhaps it reminded her of the loss of her identified domestic life with feelings of being
childhood home. Enlarged to ten times its a caged bird. Here, as elsewhere in Hatoum's
normal size, her sculpture may suggest a giant work, the birdcage occupies both a physical
and a psychic space that incorporates a wide
4.171 Mona Hatoum. Untitled
[Baalbek BirdCage). '999.
range of associations— from containment
Wood and galvanized steel. and femininity to liberation.
'0'27Vx9'9"x6' 5" The feelings of dislocation that accompany
the experience of Hatoum's installations and
objects, including Untitled [Baalbek BirdCage),
often evoke the artist's own sense of having
been "displaced" and "unsettled" by world
events. Born in Lebanon of Palestinian parents,
who had themselves been uprooted from Haifa
in 1948, Hatoum was visiting London when civil
war broke out in Lebanon in 1975. The war
prevented her return to Beirut and she did not
see her family for some years. Much of her work
since the early 1980s has been produced in
geographically far-flung locations and under
conditions of exile that have encouraged herto
reconsiderwhat it means to be "settled"or "at
home." Baalbek BirdCage is one among many of
Hatoum's sculptures and installations that fuses
individual experience and geopoliticalreality.
EXPRESSION 585
C
Whistler of trying to deceive the public by
presenting a work that was incomplete or
carelessly done. The critic John Ruskinwrote
that with this painting Whistler w as "flingin g
a pot of paint in the public's face." In reality,
Whistler was depicting a fireworks display he
had seen in London. He departed from the
accepted standards of detailedrealism in order
to convey his sense of the rhythmic scene with
bright sparks ina darkened night sky. .About this
painting,Whistler saidthat hewas not interested
inconveying a story or a recognizable moment,
but insteadhadwanted to focus on line, form.
and color. Wilistier was also influenced by
the way in which music communicates. He
appreciated the flow of music andthe fact
that it does not depend on recognizablewords
or images.
The Norwegian artist EdvardMunch ( 1863—
1944) used the realm of his own mind as
inspiration for The Scream (4.172).As a child
he endured the death of hismother and sister
and throughout his life sufferedfrom physical
illness and depression. These tragic experiences
and psychological disturbances motivatedhis
art. Munch reported that he felt psychologically
driven to make art. His painting The Scream
presents a ghoul-like figure on a bridge with
a vibrant red sky in the background. At first
glance it appears to be a fictional scene. Entries
in Munch's diary,however, indicate that his
painting in fact represents his interpretation of the importance of the collective unconscious 4.172 Edvard Munch, The
an actual event. While walking on a bridgewith and archetypes, or psychological models that Scream. '893. Caseirard
tempera on cardboard, 357= x
two friends (the figures looming in the distance), we inherit through our unconscious minds. A
297':". Munch Museum. Oslo,
Munch saw the sky turn red, and he froze with notably enigmatic work, MaleandFemale (1942) , Norway
anxiety. Scholars have suggested Munch when interpreted through Jungian analysis,has
witnessed an incredibly intense sunset caused been understood as an integration of the Expressionism: an artistic style,
at its height in 1920s
Europe,
by the dust thrown into the atmosphere during masculineand feminine elements, and thus a
which aimed to portray the world
a volcanic eruption thathad occurredyears reflection of a balanced psyche ( 4.173). The in terms of vivid extremes of
before he madethe painting. Others believe female figure, on the left, can be related to the personal experience and feeling
he experienced an attack of agoraphobia, or feminine archetype, with its paisley shaped eyes, Psychoanalysis: a method of
treating mental illness by making
fear of open spaces. Like many Expressionist flowing eyelashes,bright colors, and curving consciousthe patient's
artworks, this painting does not depict what body parts. The male figure, seen on the right, subconscious fears or fantasies
Munch actually saw, but -what he felt. canbeconnected to the masculine archetype Paisley, teardrop-shapedmotif
of Iranian origin, popular on
Many artists, like Munch, have found new because of its more angular facial features, rigid Europeante xtil es since the
ways to follow their creative impulses. During form, and a mathematical script written on the nineteenth century
the 1940s the .American painter Jackson body. In this painting, Pollock, inspired by Surrealism: an arcistic
movement in the 1920s and later,
Pollock (1912-56) was undergoing J ungian Surrealist approaches for tapping into the the art ofwhich was inspired by
psychoanalysis, a type of therapy that stresses unconscious mind,began to explore unfamiliar dreams andthe subconscious
586 THEMES
c
6.173 .acksop Pollock. Male and Female, c. ' 942. Oil or
canvas. 6'i3/='x6'i Philadelphia Mjseum of Art
regions ofhis own psyche in order to access

what might be seen as universal ideasabout
humanity.
The American artist and filmmaker Julian
Schnabel (b. 1951) first madehismark on
the art world with innovative mixed-media
paintings. Schnabel's unconventional approach
to painting included attaching broken plates to
his canvases and painting on velvet. His work
The Exile contains antlers along with a seemingly
random assortment of images,bothrealistic and
abstract (6.176). The figure on the left is copied
from a portrait of a boy with a fruitbasket by the
Baroque painter Caravaggio. To the right is a
wooden figurine that resembles a kachina doll
made by the NativeAmerican Hopi. On the
upper right is a bearded man with a turban,
who is probably a reference to the Ayatollah
I
Khomeini, the political and spiritual leader of the
IslamicRevolution in Iran,which was happening 5 &
about the time that Schnabel madehis painting.
Through this unlikely collection of imager}-,
Schnabelblends together influences from art
history and current events in orderto conveyhis
own experience oflife in the present moment.
6.176 Julian Schnabel.

The Exile. '980. Oil, antlers.
geld lea*, and nixed nedia
on wood. 7*6" x 12'
Abs tract: an artwork the form

of which is simplified, distorted,
or exaggerated in appearance. It
altered, or it may be a completely
non- re prese ntationalde pi cti on
Baroque: European artistic and
centuries, characterized by
intensity
Kachina: carvedwooden doll
made by the X aliveAmeri can
Hopi,re pre se nting a
supernatural being in human
form as a masked dancer
EXPRESSION 587
c
imager}- into galleries and
Borrowing an Image museums. Their sources
includedcomic-book characters,
9
Many artworks are personal statements, and movie stars, popular commercial
those statements can take many forms. Some products, and everyday
artworks are createdby borrowing obi ects, household items. The Brillo Box
figures, or entire compositions from the work sculptures by theAmerican
of other artists. This practice, known as artist Andy Warhol (1928-87)
appropriation, canbe traced to the invention exactly copied the design of
by French artist Mar eel Duchamp (1887-1968) the product's packaging (4.176).
of readymades (see p. 270), which consist of He had the plywood boxes built
ordinary objects transformed into artworks in his studio, The Factor}-, and
!
simply by the decision of the ar tist. then silkscreened by hand
Duchamp appropriated such objects as (although the}- look
urinals,bicyclewheels, snow shovels, and even
other artworks as viable material for his ar t.
Overtime, other artists followed in his footsteps
manufactured rather than
handmade). The square shape
of the boxes and the blue,red,
:/7i
by continuing to appropriate artworks andw-hite of the labels recall
( including ones by Duchamp). Some also some of the formal elements
borrowed images from the realms of popular in abstract artworks. By combining the practices 4.l75Sherrie Levine,
culture, advertising, and even social stereotypes. ofwhatwas then considered"high art" at the Fountain (After Marcel
Duchamp: A. PJ, 199'.
Thus an artist can make a personal statement time with the "low- art" ofÿrÿhicdesign,
Bronze. 26xU7':x U"
by appropriating the work of another. Warhol was able to bridge the gap between the
The American artist Sherrie Levine (b. 1947) is tw-o and expand the boundaries of acceptable
known for her appropriation of famous paintings, fine art practices to include popular imagery
sculptures, and photographs from the past. These andcommercial printing processes.
pieces raise many questions: Who canbe an Even though Warhol's work challenged
artist? What roledoes the artist play? How has accepted practices, many people in the art world
that role changed over time? What is originality? readily embracedhis approach. An even more
Who can be original? The pieces Levine controversial line was adopted by the Panamanian
appropriates are generally by male artistswho
worked at a time when there were very few- 4.1 76 Andy Warhol. BrilioBox. ' 964. Synthetic polymer Appropriation: the deliberate
women inthe art world, as hasbeenthe case pain: and silkscreen ink on painted wood. '7x'7 x '4". incorporation in an artwork of
throughout most of history. Levine's work leads Collection Andy Warhol foundation material originally created to¬
us to reconsider the structures of art institutions other artists
Keadymade: an eve rvday obj ect
as the}* existed in the past. Her sculpture Fountain presented as a work of art
(After Marcel Duchamp: A P.) (4.175) recalls Popart: mid-twentieth- century
Duchamp's famous porcelain urinal from 1917. f>ACA ANT SIZE PKGS. artistic movement inspired by
commercial art forms and
L'nlike Duchamp, though, who took an existing popular culture
urinal and declared it to be art, Levine had a Silkscreen: method of
urinal cast in bronze, a material traditionally used printmaking using a stencil and
paint pushedthrough a screen
for fine art sculptures. Levine encourages the Elements: the basic vocabulary
viewer not just to interact with her own piece, of art— including line, form,
but also to consider his or her attitude toward shape, volume, mass, color,
texture, space, time andmotion,
Duchamp's urinal. Her quotation of a past artwork sGQBJQS**™ and value (lightness/dar kness )
makes Levine's sculpture most meaningful for Graphic design: the use of
images,typography, and
viewerswho are familiar with Duchamp'swork.
technol ogy to c ommunicate
In the 1960s, Pop artists began using ideas for a client or to a
appropriation to bringrecognizable and familiar particular audience
588 THEMES
C
For her Projects series, the Koreanartist
Nikki S. Lee (b. 1970) joined a number of
different communities, from yuppies and tourists
to Hispanics and senior citizens, shopping in
the stores they frequented and adopting their
mannerisms. Lee said, "My goal is not to become
black,white, or Hispanic. It's more like becoming
an Asian person who really likes that culture."
Once she felt shehadbecome a genuine member of
the group, she would have a snapshot self-portrait
ofher self taken with her new peers. For the Hip
Hop Project in 2001, Lee went to a tanning salon
three times a week to darken her skin, andthen
immersed herself in the subculture ofthe hip hop
music scene (4.178). .Although she toldthe people
in the close-knit group depicted in this image that
she was an artist, most of them did not believe her.
4.177 RichardPrince. born American artist RichardPrince (b. 1949). It is surprising to learn that her interaction with
Untitled(Cowboys}, '980. While working for Tine Life publications in the these people is temporary, becausethere are no
£k:acolor print. 27xi0"
1980s, Prince began to use advertisements as clues to suggest that she is not one of them. Such
edition '/2. Museum of
Contemporary Art. thebasis for his artworks. His Cowboys series guises as this one become borrowed personalities
Los Angeles focused on the Marlboro man from the cigarette for Lee, who considers her identity to be very fluid.
company's print ads (4.177). He cropped the
images in such a way that the logos were not
included, but otherwise, the color, composition, Discussion Questions
and vantage point of Prince'sartworks were
predeterminedby the advertisements. When 1 Several artists created multiple self-portraits.
the imageswere enlarged to fit an art gallery- Select three self-portraits by the same artist
wall they became grainy and blurry,revealing and study them closely. What are the
that they were copies, not originals. Prince's differences betweenyour three selections?
photographswere considered sufficiently- What do you think the artist was exploring
4.178 Nikki S _ee.
HipHop Project (25;. different from the source to have their own or conveying ineach example?
200 1.Fujiflex print artistic merit. 2 In this chapter we have studied artists who
appropriate imagery. Elsewhere in this book
you will see examples of artworks that have
been influenced by another artist or culture
(see for example 3.76, 3.184, and 4.130). How-
does influencediffer from appropriation?
How-do the tw-o groups of artwork relate to
the earlier work that influenced them or that
w-as appropriated?
3 Consider artworks in this chapter that were
inspiredby the artist's personal experience.
Now- think of a specific event in y-our life or a
set of circumstances that wouldbe interesting
to translate into an artwork.What would you
want people to know-? What feelings stand out
inyour mind? What kinds ofcolors and
imagen- relate to y-our experience?
EXPRESSION 589
the viewer has spent an extended time Artist's book: a book produced by an
Glossary viewing (also known as successive artist, usually an expensive limited
contrasts) edition, often using specialized printing
Aisles: in a basilica or other church, the processes
spaces between the columns of the nave Assemblage: artwork made of three-
note: A few terms have more than one andthe side walls dimensional materials including found
definition, depending on the context in Altar: an area where sacrifices or objects
which they are used. offerings are made Asymmetry: a type of design in which
Altarpiece: an artwork that is placed balance is achieved by elements that
Abstract: ( 1) art imagerythat departs behind an altar ina church contrast and complement one another
from recognizable images from the Ambulatory: a covered walkway, without being the same on either side of
natural world; (2) an artwork the particularly aroundthe apse of a church an axis
form of which is simplified, Analogous colors: colors adjacent to Atmospheric perspective: use of shades
distorted, or exaggerated in appearance. each other on the colorwheel of color and clarity to create the illusion
It may represent a recognizable form Anamorphosis: the distorted of depth. Closer objects havewarmer
that has been slightly altered, or it representation of an object so that it to nes a ndclea r o utlines ,while obj ect s set
maybe a completely non- appear s cor rectly pro port ioned only further away are cooler andbecome hazy
representational depiction when viewed from one particular Atrium: a central, normally public,
Abstraction: the degree to which an position interior space, first used in Roman houses
image is altered from an easily Appropriation: the deliberate Automatic: suppressingconscious
recognizablesubject incorporation in an artwork ofmaterial control to access subconscious sources of
Abstract Expressionism: amid- originally created by other artists creativity andtruth
twentieth-century artistic style Apse: semicircular vaulted space in Avant-garde: early twentieth- century-
characterized by its capacity to convey a church emphasis on artistic innovation, which
intense emotions using non- Aquatint: an intaglio printmaking challenged accepted values,traditions,
representational images process that uses meltedrosin or spray and techniques
Academies: institutions training artists paint to create an acid-resistant ground Axis: an imaginaryline showing the
inboth the theory of art and practical Aqueduct: a structure designed to cany- center of a shape, volume, or composition
techniques water, often over long distances
Acropolis: a high place in a Greek city on Arabesque: an abstract pattern derived Background: (1) the part of a work
which a temple is located from geometric andvegetal linesand depicted as behindthe main figures;
Action painting: application of paint to forms (2) the part of a work depicted furthest
canvas by dripping, splashing, or Archaic: Greek art of the period c. 620- from the viewer's space, often behindthe
smearing that emphasizes the artist' s 480 BCE main subject matter
gestures Arches: structures, usually curved, that Balance: a principle of art in which
Actual and Implied lines: actual lines span an opening elements are used to create a symmetrical
are solidlines. Impliedlines are Architectural order: a style of designing or asymmetrical sense of visual weight in
impressions of linescreated from a series columns and related parts of a Greek or an artwork
of points that orient our gaze along a Roman building Balustrade: a railing supported by short
visual path Architrave: a beamthat rests on the top pillars
Actual line: a continuous,uninterrupted of a row of columns Baroque: European artistic and
line Armature: a framework or skeleton used architectural style of the latesixteenth to
Aesthetic: related to beauty, art, and taste to support a sculpture early eighteenth century, characterizedby-
A-frame: an ancient form of structural Art Brut: "raw art," artwork s made by extravagance andemotional intensity-
support, made out ofbeams arranged so untrained artists, and having a primitive Base: the projecting series of blocks
that the shape of the building resembles a or childlike quality- between the shaft ofa column and its
capital letter A Articulate: to makesmaller shapes or plinth
Afterimage effect: when the eye sees the spaces within a larger composition Basilica: an early Christian church,
complementary color of something that Artifact: an object made by a person either converted from or built to resemble
590 GLOSSARY
a type of Roman civic building protective coating subject from multipleviewpoints at
Bas-relief: a sculpture carved with very Ceramist: a person who makes ceramics onetime
little depth Chevron: a V-shaped stripe, often Composition: the overall design or
Bauhaus: design school founded in reproducedupside down or on its side in organization of a work
Weimar, Germany, in 1919 deco rative patter ns Concentric: identical shapes stacked
Binder: a substance that makes pigments Chiaroscuro: the use of light and dark in insideeach other sharing the same center,
adhere to a surface a painting to create the impression of for example the circles of a target
Bohemian: derived from the gypsies of volume Conceptual: relating to or concerning
the former Czech Kingdom of Bohemia Choir: part of a church traditionally ideas
who moved around; a w-anderer; an ar tist reserved for singers and clergy, situated Conceptual art: a work in which the
or writer who functions outside the between the nave andthe apse ideas are often as important as howit is
bounds of conventionalrulesand Classical: ( 1) ancient Greek and Roman; made
practices (2) artworks from ancient Greece or Concrete: a hard, strong, and versatile
Boldface: a darker and heavier typeface Rome; (3) art that conforms to Greek construction material made up of
than its normal instance and Roman models, or is based on powdered lime,sand, andrubble
Bust: a statue of a person depictingonly ratio nal co nstruction andemotional Constructivism: an art movement in the
his or her headandshoulders equilibrium; (4) Greek art of the period Soviet Union inthe 1920s,primarily-
Byzantine: relating to the East Roman c. 480-323 bce concerned to make art of use to the
Empire,center edon Constantinople Classical period: a period in the history working class
(modern- day Istanbul) from the fifth of Greek art, c. 480-323 bce Continuous narrative: when different
century CE to 1453 Clerestory windows: a row of windows parts of a story are shown within the same
high up in a church to admit light into the visual space
Calligraphy: the art of emotive or nave Contour: the outline that defines a form
carefully descriptive hand lettering or Coffered: decoratedwith recessed Contour rivalry: a design inwhich the
handwriting paneling lines can be read in more than one way- at
Canon of proportions: a set of ideal Coiling: the use of long coils of clav- the same time, depending on the angle
mathematical ratios in art used to rather than a wheel- to buildthe walls of from which it is viewed
measure the various parts of the human a potten- vessel Contrapposto: a pose in sculpture in
body in relation to one a nother Collage: a work of art assembledby- which the upper part of the body twists
Canopicjar: a jar used by ancient gluing materials, often paper, onto a in one direction andthe lower part
Egyptians to holdtheembalmed internal surface. From the French coller, to glue in another
organs removed from the body during Colophon: comment written on a Contrast: a drastic difference betw-een
mummification Chinese scroll by the creator, owner, or suchelement s as color o r val ue
Capital: the architectural feature that a viewer (lightness/darkness)
crowns a column Color: the optical effect causedwhen Convention: a widely acceptedway
Capstone: a final stone forming the top reflectedwhite light of the spectrum is of doingsomething; using a particular
of a structure; on a pyramid, it is divided into a separate wavelength style, following a certain method, or
pyramid-shaped Color field: a term used by a group of representing something in a specific way
Cast: a sculpture or artwork made by- twentieth-century abstract painters to Convex: curved inward,likethe exterior
pouring a liquid ( for example molten describe their work with large flat areas of of a sphere
metal or plaster) into a mold color and simple shapes Corbeled: with a series of corbels—
Catacombs: an underground system of Color theory: the understanding of how- architecturalfeature made of stone, brick,
tunnels used for burying and colors relate to each other, especially —
wood, etc. each projecting beyond the
commemora tin g the dead when mixed or placed near one another one below
Central-plan church: Eastern Orthodox Column: freestanding pillar, usually- Cornice: molding round the top of a
church design, often inthe shape of a circular in section building
cross with all four arms of equal length Complementary colors: colors opposite Cor-ten steel: a type of steel that forms
Ceramic(s): fire-hardened clay, often one another on the color w-heel a coating of rust that protects it from the
painted, and normally sealed with shiny- Composite view: representation of a w-eather and further corrosion
GLOSSARY 591
Course: a single row of stones or bricks generally madewith coloredthread so that the figurebecomes background
forming a horizontal laver of a structure applied to the surface of a fabric andthe ground becomes the figure
Cropping: trimming the edges of an Emphasis: the principle of drawing Firing: heating ceramic, glass, or enamel
image, or composing it so that part of the attention to particular content within objects in a kiln,to harden them, fuse the
subject matter is cut off a work components, or fuse a glaze to the surface
Cross-hatching: the use of overlapping Engraving: a printmaking technique Fixing: the chemical process used to
parallel lines to comer darkness or where the artist gouges or scratches the ensure a photographic image become
lightness image into the surface of the printing plate permanent
Cubism: a twentieth- cent ury art Enlightenment: an intellectual Flint: an object or tool made from the
movement that favored a new perspective movement in eighteenth- century Europe very hard, sharp-edged stone of the same
emphasizinggeometric forms that argued for science, reason, and name
Curator: a person who organizes the individualism, and against tradition Flyingbuttress: an archbuilt on the
collectionandexhibition of Entablature: the part of a Greek or exterior of a building that transfers some
objects/artworks in a museumor gallery Roman building that rests on top of of the weight of the vault
a column Focalpoint: (1) the center of interest or
Dada: anarchicanti-art and anti- war Entasis: the slight swelling or bulge at activity ina work of art, often drawing the
movement, dating back to World War I, the midpoint of a column viewer's attention to the most important
that reveled in absurdity and irrationality Etching: (1) a printmaking process that element; (2) the area ina composition to
Deposition: a scene showing the taking uses acid to bite ( or etch) the engraved which the eye returns most naturally
dorm of Christ's body from the cross design into the printing surface; (2) an Foreground: the part of a work depicted
Depth: thedegree of recession in intaglio printmaking process that uses as nearest to the viewer
perspective acid to bite (or etch) the engraved design Foreshortening: a perspective technique
De Stijl: a group of artists originating in into the printmaking surface that depicts a form at a very oblique
the Netherlands in the early twentieth Eucharist: Christian ceremony that (often dramatic) angle to the viewer in
century, associated with a Utopian styleof commemorates the death of Jesus Christ order to show depth in space
design that emphasized primary colors Experimental film: films the style and Form: an object that can be defined in
and straight lines content of which are very different from three dimensions (height, width, and
Diagonal: aline that runs obliquely, mainstreamcommercial films depth)
rather than horizontally or vertically- Expressionism: an artistic style at its Format: the shape of the area an artist
Didactic: with the aim of teaching or height in 1920s Europe, aiming to portray uses for making a two-dimensional
educating the world in terms ofvivid extremes of artwork
Directionalline: implied line within a personal experience and feeling Found image: an image found by
composition, leading the viewer's eye Expressive: capable of stirring the an artist and presented with little or
from one element to another emotions of the viewer no alteration as a work of art
Dissonance: a lackof harmony- Found object: an object found by an
Documentary: non-fiction film based Facade: any side of a building,usually artist and presented, with little or no
on actual people, settings, and events the front or entrance alteration, as part of a work or as a
D ome : an evenly curved vault Fauves: a group of early twentieth- finished work of art in itself
Drypoint: an intaglio printmaking century Frenchartistswhose paintings Fresco: (1) a technique where the artist
process where the artist raises a burr usedvivid colors. From the French fauve, paints onto freshly applied plaster. From
when gouging the printing plate wild beast the Italian fresco, fresh; (2) paintings
Figuration: the portrayal of things in the made on freshly applied plaster
Edition: all the copies of a print made visible world Frieze: the strip that goes around the top
from a single printing Figurative: art that portrays items of a building, often filled with sculptural
Elements: the basic vocabulary of art— perceived inthevisible world, especially ornamentation
line, form, shape, volume, mass, color, human or animal forms Futurism: an artistic and social
texture, space, time and motion, and Figure-ground reversal: the reversal of movement, originating in Italy in 1909,
value ( lightness/ darkness) the relationship between one shape ( the passionately in favor of everything
Embroidery: decorative stitching figure) and its background (the ground), modern
592 GLOSSARY
c
Gelede ritual: ritual performed in High relief: a carved panel where the Impliedtexture: a visual illusion
Nigeria's Yoruba society to celebrate and figures project with a great deal of depth expressing texture
honor women from the background Impression: an individual print, or pull,
Genre: categories of artistic subject Hue: general classification of a color; the from a printing press
matter, often with strongly influential distinctive characteristicsof a color as Impressionism: a late nineteenth-
histories and traditions seen inthe visible spectrum, such as green century painting style conveying the
Gestalt: complete order andindivisible or red impression ofthe effects oflight
unity of all aspects ofan artwork's design Humanism: the study of such subjects Incised: Cut
Glazing: in oil painting, adding a as history-, philosophy,languages, and Inlay: substance embedded in another,
transparent layer of paint to achieve a literature, particularly in relation to those contrasting material
richness in texture, volume, and form of ancient Greece and Rome Installation: an artwork created by the
Golden Section: a unique ratio of a line Hypostyle hall: a large room with a roof assembling and arrangement of objects
divided into two parts so that a + b is to a supportedby a forest of columns within a specific location
as a is to b. The result is 1:1.618 Intaglio: any print process where the
Gothic: Western European architectural Icon: a small, often portable, religious inked image is lower than the surface of
style of the twelfth to sixteenth centuries, image venerated by Christian believers; the printing plate; from the Italian for
characterized by the use of pointed arches first used by the Eastern Orthodox "cut into"
and ornate decoration Church Intarsia: the art of setting pieces of wood
Graphic design: the use of images, Iconic: a sign, the form of which directly into a surface to create a pattern
typography, and technology to suggests its meaning Intensity: the relative clarity of color in
communicate ideas for a client or to Iconoclast: someone who destroys its purest raw form, demonstrated
a particular audience imagery, often out of religiousbelief through luminous or mutedvariations
Grid: a network of horizontal and Ideal: more beautiful, harmonious, or Inth e ro imd: a freestanding sculpted
vertical lines; inan artwork's perfect than reality work that can be viewed from all sides
composition, the lines are implied Idealism: elevating depictions of nature Isometric perspective: a system using
Ground: the surface or background onto to achieve morebeautiful, harmonious, diagonal parallel lines to communicate
which an artist paints or draws and perfect depictions depth
Guilds: medieval associations of artists, Idealized: represented as perfect in form Ivory: hard,creamy-coloredmaterial
craftsmen, or tradesmen or character, corresponding to an ideal from the tusks of such mammals
Gypsum: finegrained, powdery mineral Ideogram: a symbol that expresses an as elephants
often used to make a smooth plaster idea or a thing without representing the
sounds inits name (for example, "8") Kachina: carved wooden doll madeby
Happening: impromptu art actions, Illuminatedcharacters: highly- the Native American Hopi, representing
initiatedand planned by an artist, decorated letters, usually found at the a supernatural being in human form
the outcome of which is not known beginning of a page or paragraph as a masked dancer
in advance Illuminated manuscript: a hand- Kinetic art: a work that contains moving
Hatching: the use of non-overlapping lettered text with hand-drawn pictures parts
parallel lines to convey darkness or Illuminations: illustrationsand Kinetic sculpture: three-dimensional art
lightness decorations in a manuscript that moves, impelled by air currents,
Hellenistic: Greek art from c. 323— Illusionism (adjective illusionistic): the motors, or people
100BCE artistic skill or trick of making something Kouros: sculpture of a nude Greekyouth
Hierarchicalscale: the use of size to lookreal
denote the relative importance of subjects IMAX: a format for film presentation Lapis lazuli: bright-blue semiprecious
in an artwork that records at such high resolution that it stone containing sodiumaluminum
Hieroglyph: written languageinvolving allows presentation of films at far larger silicate and sulphur
sacred characters that maybe pictures as sizes than the conventional one Latitude: a point on the earth's
well as letters Impasto: paint applied in thick layers circumference measured to the east
Highlight: an area oflightest value in Implied line: a line not actually drawn or west
a work but suggested by elements in the work Levering: to moveor raise an object
GLOSSARY 593
using a leverlike action Metope: a square space between images
Line: a mark,or implied mark,between triglyphs, often decorated with sculpture Nave: the central space of a cathedral or
twoendpoints Mezzotint: an intaglio printmaking basilica
Linear outline: a line that clearly processbased on roughening the entire Necropolis: cemetery or burial place
separates a figure from its surroundings printing plate to accept ink; the artist Negative: a reversed image, in which
Linear perspective: a system using smoothes non-image areas light areas are dark, anddark areas are
imaginary sight lines to create the illusion Middle groimd: the part of a work light (opposite ofa positive)
of depth between the foreground and background Negative space: an empty space given
Lintel: the horizontal beam over the Mihrab: a niche in a mosque that is in shapeby its surround, for example the
doorway of a portal a wall orientedtowards Mecca right-pointing arrow between the E andx
Low relief: carving in which the design Mime: a silent performance work; actors in FedEx
stands out only slightly from the use only body movements and facial Neutral: colors ( such as blacks, whites,
background surface expressions grays, and dull gray-browns) made by
Luminosity: a bright,glowing quality Minaret: a tall slender tower, part icularly mixing complementary- hues
Lyre: a stringed instrument that is played ona mosque, from which the faithful are Non-objective: art that does not depict
bybeing plucked; the strings hang from a called to prayer a recognizable subject
crossbar that is supported by two arms Minimalist: a mid-twentieth-centurv Nude: an artistic representation of the
connected to a hollow box, which artistic style characterized by its simple, nakedhuman figure
amplifies the sound unified,and impersonal look,and often
employinggeometrical or massive forms Oculus: a round opening at the center of
Mandala: a sacred diagram of the Mobile: suspended moving sculptures, a dome
universe, often involving a square and usually impelledby natural air currents Octagonal: eight-sided
a circle Modeling: the r epr esentat iono f three- Oilpaint: paint made of pigment
Mannerism: from Italian dimaniera, dimensional objects in two dimensions so floating in oil
meaning charm, grace, playfulness; mid- that they appear solid One-point perspective: a perspective
to late sixteenth-century style of painting, Modernist: a radically new twentieth- system with a single vanishing point on
usually with elongated human figures century architectural movement that the horizon
elevating grace as an ideal embraced modern industrial materials Opaque: not transparent
Mantle: sleeveless item of clothing—a and a machine aesthetic Op art: a style of art exploiting the
cloak or cape Monochromatic: having one or more physiolog)- of seeing to create illusory
Manuscripts: handwritten texts values of one color optical effects
Mask: a barrier, inspray painting or Monolith: a monument or sculpture Optical mixture: when the eye blends
silkscreen printing, the shape of which made from a single piece of stone two colors that are placed near one
blocks the paint or ink from passing Monumental: having massive or another, creating a new color
through impressive scale Organic: having forms and shapes
Masquerade: performance in which Mosaic: a picture or pattern created by- derived from living organisms
participants wear masks and costumes for fixing together small pieces of stone, glass, Origami: the Japanese art of
a ritual or cultural purpose tile, etc. paperfolding
Mass: a volume that has, or gives the Motif: a distinctive visual element, the Orthogonals: in perspective systems,
illusion of having,weight,density, and recurrenceofwhich is often characteristic imaginary- sightlines extending from
bulk of an artist's work forms to the vanishing point
Medieval: relating to the Middle Ages; Motion: the effect of changing placement Outline: the outermost line of an object
roughly, between the fall of the Roman in time or figure, by which it is defined or
Empire andthe Renaissance Mural: a painting executed directly on to bounded
Medium (plural media): the material on a v\ÿall
or from which an artist chooses to make Paisley: teardrop-shaped motif of
a work of art, for example canvas and Narrative: an artwork that tells a Story- Iranianorigin, popular on European
oil paint, marble, engraving, video, or Naturalism (adjective naturalistic): a textiles since the nineteenth century-
architecture very realistic or lifelike style of making Paleolithic: prehistoric period,
594 GLOSSARY
c
extending from 2.5 million to 12,000 for crossing horizontalelements inpost- who rejected the academic rules ofart,
years ago and-lintel construction; also used for and often painted medieval subjects in a
Palette: (1) the range of colors usedby decoration naive style
an artist; (2) a smoothslab or board used Plane: a flat surface Primary colors: threebasic colors from
for mixing paints or cosmetics Planography: a printprocess— which allothers are derived
Passion: the arrest, trial, and execution lithography and silkscreen printing— Principles: the "grammar" applied to the
of Jesus Christ, and his sufferings during where the inked image area and non- elements of art— contrast, balance, unity,
them inked areas are at the same height variety, rhythm, emphasis, pattern, scale,
Patina: surface color or texture on a Plastic: referring to materials that are proportion, and focal point
metal caused by aging soft and can be manipulated Print: a picture reproduced on paper,
Patron: an organization or individual Pointedarches: arches with two curved often inmultiplecopies
who sponsors the creation of works of art sides that meet to form a point at the apex Profile: the outline of an object,
Pattern: an arrangement of predictably- Pointillism: a late nineteenth- cen tun- especially a face or head, represented from
repeated elements painting style using short strokes or the side
Pectoral: alargeornamentwornon the points of differing colors that optically Propaganda: art that promotes an
chest combine to form new perceived colors ideology or a cause
Pediment: the triangular space, situated Pop art: mid-twentieth- cen tury artistic Proportion: the relationship in size
above the row of columns, at the end of movement inspiredby commercial art between a work's individual parts and
a building in the Classical style forms and popular culture thewhole
Pendentive: a curving triangular surlace Portico: a roof supportedby columns at Provenance: the record of all known
that links a dome to a square spacebelow the entrance to a building previous owners andlocations of a work
Performance art: a work involving the Portrait: image of a person or animal, of art
humanbod)-, usually including the artist, usually focusing on the face Psychoanalysis: a method of treating
in front of an audience Positive: an image in which light areas mental illness by making conscious the
Performance artist: an artist whose are light and dark areas are dark (opposite patient's subconscious fears or fantasies
work involves the human body (often of a negative) Psychology: a sciencethat studies the
including his or her own) Positive-negative: the relationship nature, development, and operation of
Perspective: the creation of the illusion between contrastingopposites the humanmind
of depth in a two- dimensional image by Positive shape: a shape definedby its Pueblos: word meani ng "town"that
using mathematical principles surrounding empty space refers to Anasazi settlements throughout
Photomontage: a single photographic Post-and-lintelconstruction: a the Four Corners area of Utah,Colorado,
image that combines (digitally or using horizontalbeam (the lintel) supported by New Mexico, and Arizona; also the name
multiple film exposures) several separate a post at either end of groups descending from the Anasazi
images Post-Impres sio nist s: a rtists either fr om Putto (plural putti): a representation of
Physiology: a science that studies the orlivingin France, c. 1885-1905,who a nude or scantily clad infant angel or boy,
workings of the body and its organs moved away from the Impressionist style common in Renaissance and Baroque art
Pictograph: picture used as a symbol in -notably Cezanne, Gauguin, Seurat, and Pyramid: ancient structure, usually-
writing Van Gogh massive in scale, consisting of a square
Picture plane: the surface of a painting Postmodernism: alate twentieth- base with four sides that meet at a point
or drawing century style of architecture playfully or apex with each side forming a
Piece mold casting: a process for casting a do pting features of earlier styles triangular shape
metal objects inwhich a mold isbroken Predella: an artwork designed as a
into several pieces that are then companion piece to a more important Qibla: the directionMuslims face when
reassembled into a final sculpture work praying
Pigment: the colored material used in Prehistoric: dating from the period of
paints. Often made from finely ground human existence before the invention Raku: handmade and fired ceramic,
minerals ot writing made for a tea ceremony
Pilaster: a vertical element, square in Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: English Readymade: an everyday object
shape, that provides architectural support art movement formed in 1848 by painters presented as a work ofart
GLOSSARY 595
Realism: nineteenth-century a rtistic Sand painting: also known as dry Stained glass: colored glass used for
style that aimed to depict nature and painting,a labor-intensive method of windows or decorative applications
everyday subjects in anunidealized manne r paintingusinggrains of sand as the Stela: upright stone slab decorated with
Realistic: artistic style that aims to medium inscriptions or pictorial reliefcarvings
represent appearances as accurately Sarcophagus (plural sarcophagi): a Stencil: a perforated template allowing
as possible coffin (usually made of stone or bakedclay) ink or paint to pass through to print
Register: one of two or more horizontal Sarsen: a type of hard, gray sandstone a design
sections into which a space is divided in Satire: a work of art that exposes the Stepped pyramid: a pyramid consisting
order to depict the episodes of a story weaknesses andmistakes of its subjects of several rectangular structures placed
Relief: ( 1) a raised form on a largely flat to ridicule on top of one another
background. For example, the design on Saturation: the degree of purity of Stereotypes: oversimplifiednotions,
a coin is"in relief'; ( 2) a print process a color especially about marginalized groups,
where the inked image is higher than the Scale: the size of an obi ect or a n artwork that can lead to prejudicedjudgments
non- printing areas; (3) a sculpture that relative to another object or artwork, or to Still life: a scene of inanimate objects,
projects from a flat surface a system of measurement such as fruits, flowers, or motionless
Renaissance: a period of cultural and Secondary color: a color mixed from animals
artistic change in Europe from the two primary colors Stucco: a coarse plaster designed to give
fourteenth to the seventeenth century Sfiimato: in painting,the application of the appearance of stone
Repousse: a technique of hammering layers of translucent paint to create a hazy Style: a characteristic way inwhich an
metal from theback or smoky appearance and unify the artist or group of artists uses visual
Representation: the depiction of composition language to give a work an identifiable
recognizable figures and objects Shade: a color darker invalue than its form of visual expression
Representational: art that depicts purest state Stylized: art that represents objects in an
figures and objects so that we recognize Shading: the use of gradatedlight and exaggeratedway to emphasize certain
what is represented dark tones to represent a three- aspects of the object
Rhythm: the regular or ordered dimensional object in two dimensions Styiobate: the uppermost platform on
repetition of elements in the work Shaft: the main vertical part of a column a Classical temple, onwhich the
Ribvault: an archlike structure Shaman: a priest or priestess regarded as columns stand
supporting a ceiling or roof,with a web having the ability to communicate Subject: the person,object, orspace
of protrudingstonework directly with the spiritual world depicted in a work of art
Romanesque: an early medieval Shape: a two-dimensional area, the Sublime: feeling of awe or terror,
European style of architecture based on boundaries ofwhich are defined bylines provcked by the experience of limitless
Roman-style roundedarches and heavy or suggested by changes incolor or value nature andthe awareness of the smallness
construction Silhouette: a portrait or figure represented of an individual
Romanticism: movement in nineteenth- in outline and solidly colored in Subordination: the opposite of
century European culture, concerned Silueta: series of images by Ana emphasis; it draws our attention away
with the power of the imagination and Mendieta in which the artist's body is from particular areas of a work
grea fly valuing intense feel ing situated in outdoor environments Simken relief: a carved panel where the
Rosin: a dry powdered resin that melts Silkscreen: method of printmaking figures are cut deeper into the stone than
when heated, used in the aquatint process using a stencil and paint pushed through the background
a screen Support: the material on which painting
Salon: (1) official annual exhibition of Sketch: a rough preliminary version of a is done
French painting,first held in 1667; (2) a work or part of a work Surreal: reminiscent of the Surrealist
French term for an exhibition ofwork by Slip: day mixed with water used to movement in the 1920s and later, whose
multiple artists; (3) the routine gathering decorate potterv art was inspiredby dreams andthe
of a circle of notable people— often Space: the distance between identifiable subconscious
figures from the worlds of ar t, literature, points or planes Surrealism: an artistic movement inthe
and politics— at the home of one member Span: the distance bridgedbet ween two 1920s and later, the art of which was
of the group supports, such as columns or walls inspiredby dreams and the subconscious
596 GLOSSARY
c
Surrealist: an artist be lording to the width, and depth Value: the lightness or darkness of a
Surrealist movement in the 1920s and Th ree - dimens ionality: the co ndit iono f plane or area
later, whose art was inspired by dreams havingheight, width, and depth Vanishing point: the point in a work of
and the subconscious Three-point perspective: a perspectiv e art at which imaginary sight lines appear
Symbolism: movement in European system with two vanishing points on the to converge, suggesting depth
art and literature, c. 1885-1910, that horizon and one not on the horizon Vanitas: an artw-ork in which the objects
conveyed meaningbytheuse of powerful Throwing: the process of making a remind the viewer of the transience of life
yet ambiguous symbols ceramic object on a potter'swheel Variety: the diversity ofdifferent ideas,
Symmetry-: the correspondence in size, Tint: a color lighter in value than its media, andelements ina work
form, and arrangement of items on purest state Vault: an archlike structure supporting a
opposite sides of a plane, line, or point Tipi or teepee: portable dwelling used by ceiling or roof
that creates direct visual balance Plains groups Vaulted: arched
Synesthesia: when one of the five senses Tracery: a complexbut delicate pattern Visionary art: art made by self- taught
perceives something that was stimulated o f interwoven lines artists following a personal vision
by a trigger from one of the other senses Transept: structure crossing the main Void: an area in an artwork that seems
body of a cruciform church empty
Tableau: a stationary scene arranged for Triglyph: a projectingblock carved with Volume: the space filled or enclosed by a
artistic impact three raised bands, which alternates with three-dimensional figure or object
Tapestry: hand-woven fabric— usually figurative reliefs in a frieze Voodoo: a religion based on Roman
silk or wool— with a non-repeating, Triptych: an artwork comprising three Catholic andtraditional African rituals,
usually figurative, design woven into it painted or carved panels, normallyjoined practicedin the West Indiesand southern
Tattoos: designs markedon thebodv by- together and sharing a common theme U.S.
injecting dye under the skin Trompe Voeil: an extreme kind of
Temperature: a description of color illusion meant to deceive theviewer Water co lor: transparent paint made
based on our associations with warmth Tlunbling: the use o f lever s to ro11 heavy from pigment and a binder dissolved
or coolness objects over short distances in water
Tenebrism: dramatic use of intense Twisted perspective, also known as White space: in typography, the empty-
darkness and light to heighten the impact composite view: a representation of a space around type or other features in
of a painting figure, part in profile and part frontally a layout
Terracotta: iron-rich clay, fired at a low Two-dimensional: having height and Woodblock: a relief print process w-here
temperature,which is traditionafly width the image is carved into a block of wood
browmish-orang? in color Tympanum: an arched recess above a Woodcut: a print created from an incised
Tesserae: small pieces of stone or glass doorway, often decorated with carvings piece of wood
or other materials used to make a mosaic Typography: the art of designing,
Texture: the surface quality of a work, arranging, and choosing type Ziggurat: Mesopotamian stepped tower,
for example fine/coarse, detailed/ lacking roughly py-ramid- shaped, that diminishes
in detail Unity: the imposition of order and in size tow-ard a platform summit
Three-dimensional: havingheight, harmony on a design
GLOSSARY 597
Further Reading Burlington, ma (Focal Press [Elsevier])
2008.
University Press; distributed exclusively
in the USA by Palgrave) 2006.
Stewart, Man*, Launching the Imagination,
3rd edn. New York (McGraw-Hill) 2007. PART 2
PARTI Chapter 1.6 Unit}*,Variety, and Balance Chapter 2.1 Drawing
Chapter 1.1 Art in Two Dimensions: Line, Bevlin,Marjorie Elliott, Design Through Faber, David L., and Daniel M. Mendelowitz,
Shape, and the Principle of Contrast Discovery: An Introduction, 6th edn. A Guide to Drawing, 8th edn. Boston, ma
Orlando, FL (Harcourt Brace & (Wadsworth Publishing) 2011.
de Zegher, Catherine, and Cornelia Butler, Co./Wadsworth Publishing) 1993. Sale, Teel and Claudia Betti, Drawing:
On Line: Drawing Th ro ugh the'Twen ti eth Lauer, David A., and Stephen Pentak, A ContemporaryApproach, 6th edn.
Century'. New York (The Museum of Design Basics, 8th edn. Boston, ma Boston, ma (Wadsworth Publishing)
ModernArt) 2010. (Wadsworth Publishing) 2011. 2007.
Ocvirk, Otto, Robert Stinson, Philip Wigg,
and Robert Bone, Art Fundamentals: Chapterl.7 Scale and Proportion Chapter 2.2 Painting
Theory and Practice, 11th edn. New York
(McGraw-Hill) 2008. Bridgman, George B., Bridgmans Life Gottsegen, Mark David, Painter's
Drawing. Mineola, NT (Dover Handbook:Revisedand Expanded. New
Chapter 1.2 Three-DimensionalArt: Publications) 1971. York (Watson-Gup till) 2006.
Foim,Volume, Mass, and Texture Elam, Kimberly, Geometry of Design: Robertson, Jean, and Craig McDaniel,
Studies in Proportion and Composition, Paintingas a Language: Material,
Ching, Francis D. K.,Architecture: Form, 1st edn. New York (Princeton Technique, Form, Content, 1st edn.
Space, and Order, 3rd edn. Hoboken, NJ Architectural Press) 200 1. Boston, ma (Wadsworth Publishing)
(Wiley) 2007. 1999.
Wong, Wucius, Principles of Three- Chapter 1.8 Emphasis and FocalPoint
Dimensional Design. New York (Van Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
NostrandReinhold) 1977. Lauer, David A., and Stephen Pentak,
Design Basics, 8th edn. Boston, MA Hunter, Dard, Papermaking Mineola, NT
Chapter 1.3 ImpliedDepth: Value and (Wadsworth Publishing) 2011. (Dover Publications) 20 11.
Space Stewart, Man*, Launching the Imagination, Ross, John, Complete Printmaker, revised
3rd edn. New York (McGraw-Hill) 2007. expanded edn. New York (Free Press)
Auvil, Kenneth W., Perspective Drawing, 1991.
2nd edn. New York (McGraw-Hill) 1996. Chapter 1.9 Patternand Rhythm
Curtis, Brian, Drawingfrom Observation, Chapter 2.4 Visual Communication
2nd edn. New York (McGraw-Hill) 2009. Ocvirk, Otto, Robert Stinson, Philip Wigg, Design
andRobert Bone, Art Fundamentals:
Chapter 1.4 Color Theory and Practice, 11th edn. New York Craig, James, "William Bevington, and
(McGraw-Hill) 2008. Irene Korol Scala, Designingwith Type,
Albers, Josef and Nicholas Fox Weber, Wong, Wucius, Principles of Tiw- 5th Edition: The Essential Guide to
Interaction of Color: Revisedand Dimensional Design, 1st edn. New York Typography. New York ( Watson -Guptill)
Expanded Edition. New Haven, CT (Yale (Wiley) 1972. 2006.
University Press) 2006. Meggs, Philip B. andAlston W. Purvis,
Bleicher, Steven, Contemporary Color. Chapter 1.10 Content and Analysis Meggs ' History of Graph ic Design, 4th
Theory and Use, 2nd edn. Clifton Park, edn. Hoboken, N'j (Wiley) 2005.
NT (DelmarCengageLearning) 2011. Barnet, Sylvan, Short Guide to Writing
About Art. Harlow, UK (Pearson Chapter 2.5 Photography
Chapter 1.5 Time and Motion Education) 2010.
Hatt, Michael, and Charlotte Klonk, Art Hirsch, Robert, Light and Lens:
Krasner, Jon, Motion Graphic Design: History:A Critical Introduction to Its Photography in the DigitalAge. London
Applied History andAesthetics, 2nd edn. Methods. New York (Manchester (Elsevier) 2007.
598 FURTHER READING
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Jeffrey, Ian, How to Read a Photograph Chapter 2.8 The Tradition of Craft New York (Thames & Hudson) 2002.
New York (Abrams) 2010. Camille, Michael, Gothic Art Glorious
London, Barbara, John Upton, and Jim Speight, Charlotte, and John Toki, Hands Visions. NewYork (Abrams) 1996.
Stone, Photography, 10th edn. Upper in Clay :An Introduction to Ceramics, 5th Lowden, John, Early Christian & Byzantine
Saddle River, NJ (Pearson) 2010. edn. New York (McGraw-Hill) 2003. Art London (Phaidon) 1997.
Marien, Mary Warner, Photography: A Wight, Karol, Molten Color: Glassmaking in
Cultural History, 3rd edn. Upper Saddle Antiquity. Los Angeles, CA (J. Paul Getty Chapter3.3 Art of India, China, and Japan
River, NJ (Prentice Hall) 2010. Museum) 2011.
Rosenblum, Naomi, A World History of Craven, Roy, IndianArt. NewYork
Ph otography, 4th edn. New York Chapter 2.9 Sculpture (Thames & Hudson) 1997.
(AbbevillePress) 2008. Lee, Sherman, History of Far Eastern Art.
Trachtenberg, Man, ed., Classic Essays on Rich, Jack C., The MaterialsandMethods of NewYork (Abrams) 1994.
Photography New York (Leete's Island Sculpture, 10th edn. Mineola, NT (Dover Stanley-Baker, Joan, Japanese Art New
Books) 1980. Publications) 1988. York (Thames & Hudson) 2000.
Tucker, William, The Language of Tregear, Mar}-, Chinese Art NewYork
Chapter 2.6 Film/Video and Digital Art Sculpture. London (Thames & Hudson) (Thames & Hudson) 1997.
1985.
Cook, David A., A History of Narrative Chapter3.4 Art of the Americas
Film, 4th edn. New York (W. W. Norton) Chapter 2. 10 Architecture
2004. Berlo, Janet Catherine, and Ruth B.
Cor rigan, Timothy, and PatriciaWhite, Ching, Francis D. K., Architecture: Form, Phillips, NativeNorthAmerican Art. New
The Film Experience, 2nd edn. New York Space, and Order, 3rd edn. Hoboken,NJ York (Oxford University Press) 1998.
(Bedford/St. Martin's) 2008. (Wiley) 2007. Coe, Michael D.,and Rex Koontz,Mexico:
Monaco, James, How to Read a Film: Glance}-, Jonathan, Story of Architecture. From the Olmecs to the Aztecs, 6th edn.
Movies, Media, and Beyond. New York New York (Dorling Kindersley/Prentice New York (Thames & Hudson) 2008.
(Oxford University Press) 2009. Hall) 2006. Miller,Man- Ellen, The Art ofAncient
Wands, Bruce, Art of the DigitalAge. New Mesoamerica, 4th edn. NewYork
York (Thames & Hudson) 2007. PART 3 (Thames & Hudson) 2006.
Rushing, Jackson III, NativeAmerican Art
Chapter2.7 Alternative Media and Chapter 3.1 The Prehistoric andAncient in the Twentieth Century: Makers,
Processes Mediterranean Meanings, Histories. NewYork (Taylor
and Francis) 1999.
Alberro, Alexander, and Black Stimson, Alfred, Cyril, EgyptianArt. NewYork Stone-Miller, Rebecca, Art of the Andes:
ConceptualArt: A CriticalAnthology. (Oxford University Press) 1980. From Chavin tolnca, 2nd edn. NewYork
Cambridge,MA (MIT Press) 2000. Aruz, Joan, Art of the First Cities: The Third (Thames & Hudson) 2002.
Bishop, Claire, InstallationArt, 2nd edn. Millennium B.C. from the Mediterra nean
London (Tate Publishing) 2010. to theIndus. NewYork (The Chapter3.5 Art of Africa and the Pacific
Goldberg, Rosalee, PerformanceArt: From Metropolitan Museum of Art); New Islands
Futurism to the Present, 2nd edn. New Haven, CT (Yale University Press) 2003.
York (Thames & Hudson) 2001. Boardman, John, TheWrorld of Ancient Art. Bacquart, Jean-Baptiste, The Tribal Arts
Lippard , Lucy, Six Years: The NewYork (Thames & Hudson) 2006. of Africa. NewYork (Thames & Hudson)
Demateriaiization of the Art Objectfrom Pedley, John Griffiths, Greek Art and 2002.
1966 to 1972. Berkeley, ca (University Archeology, 5th edn. Upper Saddle River, Berlo, Janet Catherine, and Lee Anne
ofCalifornia Press) 1997. NJ (Pearson/Prentice Hall) 2007. Wilson, Arts ofAfrica Oceania and the
Osborne, Peter, Conceptual Art ' Themes "Wheeler,Mortimer, RomanArt and Americas. Upper Saddle River, NJ
and Movements). New York and London Architecture. NewYork (Thames & (Prentice Hall) 1992.
(Phaidon) 201 1. Hudson) 1985. D'Alleva, Anne, Arts of the Pacific Islands.
Rosenthal, Mark, Understanding New Haven, CT (Yale University Press)
InstallationArt: From Duchamp to Chapter 3.2 Art of the MiddleAges 2010.
Holzer. New York (Prestel) 2003. Willet, Frank, African Art, 3rd edn. New
Benton, Janetta, Art of the MiddleAges. York (Thames & Hudson) 2003.
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Baroque E urope ( 1400-1750) Stiles, Kristine, and Peter Selz, Theories Germer, Renate, Fiona Elliot, and Artwig
and Documents of ContemporaryArt: Altenmuller, Mummies: Lifeafter Death
Bazin, Germain, and Jonathan Griffin, A Sourcebook of Artists' IWritings, inAncient Egypt. New York (Prestel)
Baroque and Rococo. New York (Thames 2nd edn, revised and expanded. 1997.
& Hudson) 1985. Berkeley, ca (University of California Miller, Mary Ellen, and Karl Taube, An
Garrard, Mary,.Artemisia Gentileschi. Press) 2011. I iIus tra ted Dictionary of the Gods a nd
Princeton, NJ (Princeton University Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the
Press) 1991. PART 4 Maya. New York (Thames & Hudson)
Hartt, Frederick, History' of Italian 1997.
RenaissanceArt, 7th edn. Upper Saddle Chapter4.1 Art and Community Ravenal, John B., Vanitas: Meditations on
River,NJ (Pearson) 2010. I ife andDeath in Contemporary Art.
Welch, Evelyn,Art in Renaissance Italy: Art inAction: Nature, Creativity, and Our Richmond, VA (Virginia Museum of
1350-1500. New York (Oxford Collective Future. San Rafael, ca (Earth Fine Arts) 2000.
University Press) 2001. Aware Editions) 2007. Steinberg, Leo, Tie Sexuality of Christ in
Iosifidis, Kiriakos, MuralArt Murals on RenaissanceArt and in Modern Oblivion.
Chapter 3.7 Art of Europe and America Huge Public Surfaces Around the World Chicago, IL (University of Chicago Press)
1700-1900 from Graffiti to Trompe I'oeil.Vancouver, 1996.
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Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate, Nineteenth Kwon, Miwon, One PlaceAfter Another: Chapter 4.4 Art and Science
Century EuropeanArt New Y ork Site-Specific Art and Location Identity.
(Abrams) 2003. Cambridge, ma (MIT Press) 2004. Bordin, Giorgio, Medicine inArt. Los
Denvir, Bernard, Post-Impressionism. New Witlev, David S., Cave Paintings and the Angeles ( J. Paul Getty Museum) 2010.
York (Thames & Hudson) 1992. Human Spirit. Amherst, NY (Prometheus Brouger, Kerry, et.al., Visual Music:
Irwin,David, Neoclassicism. London Books) 2009. Synaesthesia inArt and Music Since
(Phaidon) 1997. 1900. London (Thames & Hudson);
Levev, Michael, Rococo to Revolution: Chapter4.2 Spirituality and Art Washington, D.C. (Hirshhorn Museum);
MajorTrends inEigh teenth- Centu ry Los Angeles, ca (Museum of
Painting. New York (Thames & Hudson) Azara, Nana- J., Spirit Taking From: Contemporary Art) 2005.
1985. Making a Spiritual Practice ofMaking Gamwell, Lynn, and Neil deGrasse Tyson,
Thomson, Belinda, Impressionism: Origins, Art. Boston, NLA (RedWheel) 2002. Exploring the Invisible: Art, Science, and
Practice, Reception. New York (Thames & Bloom,Jonathan, and Sheila S. Blair, the Spiritual Princeton, NJ (Princeton
Hudson) 2000. IslamicArts. London (Phaidon) 1997. University Press) 2004.
Vaughan, William, Romanticism andArt Fisher, Robert E., BuddhistArt and Milbrath, Susan, Star Gods of the Maya:
London (Thames & Hudson) 1994. Architecture, New York (Thames & Astronomy inArt, Folklore, and
Hudson) 1993. Calendars. Austin, TX (University of
Chapter 3.8 Twentieth and Twenty- First Guo, Xi, Essay on Landscape Painting. Texas Press) 2000.
Centuries: The Age of Global Art London (John Murray) 1959. Pietrangeli, Carlo et al., Tie Sistine Chapel:
Lyle, Emily, SacredArchitecture in the A Glorious Restoration. NewYork
Arnason, H. H., and Elizabeth C. Traditions of India, China, Judaism, and (Abrams) 1999.
Mansfield,History ofModern A rt, 6th Islam. Edinburgh (Edinburgh Rhodes, Colin, Outsider Art: Spontaneous
edn. Upper Saddle River,NJ (Pearson) University Press) 1992. Altemati ves. New York ( Thames &
2009. Williamson, Beth, ChristianArt:AVery Hudson) 2000.
Barrett,Terry, Why is that Art?: Aesthetics Short Introduction. New Y ork (Oxford
and Criticism of Contempo rary Art. New University Press) 2004. Chapter 4.5 Art andIllusion
York (Oxford University Press) 2007.
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London2012: 1.8 Xational Gallery of Art,
Metropolitan MuseumofArt/Art Resource/Scala,
Florence 2012; 1.61Ralph Larmann: 1.62 The Sims
Washington, D.C., Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Paul ©2012 Electronic Arts Inc.The Sims andThe Sims
Mellon, 1983.1.81: 1.9 Ralph Larmann; 1.10 1.11 plumbob design are trademarks or registered
BritishLibrary,London; 1.12 ©Sauerkids; 1.1 3 trademarks of Electronic Arts Inc. in theL'S and/or
MuseoXacionaldel Prado, Madrid; 1.14 British other countries. All Rights Reserved.Usedwith
p. 16 (above) Stanzadella Segriatur a. Vatican Museum,London: 1.15 Private Collection; 1.16 permission; 1.63 Private Collection; 1.64 Ralph
Museums,Rome; (center) Library ofCongress, Ralph Larmann; 1.17 © Xike; 1.18 Art Institute of Larmann; 1.65 Santa Maria Xovella, Florence;
\ Washington, D.C. Prints & Photographs Divisi on, H. Chicago, HelenBirchBartlett Memorial Collection, 1.66a. 1.66b Stanzadella Segnatura, Vatican
IrvingOlds collection, LC-DIG-jpd-0201S;(below) 1926.417; 1.19 Ralph Larmann; 1.20 Courtesy Museums. Rome; 1.67 Ralph Larmann; 1.68 ©2012
PhotoIrmgardGroth-Kimbail ©Thames &Hudson Flomenhaft Gallery, Xew York; 1.21 Ralph The M.C. Escher Company-Holland. All rights
Ltd London: p . 18 iStockphoto.com: p . 19 Photo Larmann; 1.22 Courtesy AT&T Archives and reserved www.mcescher.com; 1.69 Graphische
Irmgard Groth-Kimball © Thames & Hudson Ltd, History Center; 1.23a © 1996 Shepard SammlungAlbenina,Vienna* 1.70Pinacotecadi
London; p. 20 Stanza della Segnatura, Vaican Fairey.ObeyGiant.com; 1.23b © 1996 Shepard Brera,Milan; 1.71. 1.72 Ralph Larmann; 1.73 Fine
Museums, Rome: p. 21 GalleriadegliUffizi, Florence; Fairey'ObeyGiant.com. Photo© ElizabethDaniels, Arts Museum ofSan Francisco, Gift of Vivian Burns,
p. 22MuseoXacional del Prado,Madrid; p. 23 www.elizabethdanielsphotography.com; 1.24 Inc., 74.8; 1.74 Ralph Larmann; 1.75 © MarkTansey*.
Libraryof Congress, Washington, D.C..Prints & © Georgia O'Keeffe MuseumDACS 2012; Courtesy Gagosian Gallery, XewYork; 1.76 Ralph
Photographs Division, H. IrvingOlds collection, 1.25© BigTen Conference; 1.26 ©2012TheM.C. Larmann; 1.77 Museum ofModern Art, XewYork,
LC-DIG-jpd-02018: p. 24 Library or'Congress, EscherCompany-Holland All rights reserved. Gift of Mr. and Mrs.Ben Heller, Acc. no. 240.1969.
Washington, D.C.. Prints & Photographs Division, www.mcescher.com; 1.27 Monasterio de las Huelgas, Photo 2012, Museum ofModern Art. Xew York/Scala,
FSA/OWI Collection, LC-DIG-fsa-Sb29516; p. 25 Museo de Telas Medievales, Burgos; 1.28 Ralph Florence. ©ARS, XY" and DACS, London, 2012; 1.78
Teriade Editeur, Paris, 1947. Printer EdmondYairel, Larmann; 1.29. 1.30 PhotoHeidi Grassley© The Museumof Fine Arts, Houston, Giftof Audrey-
Paris.Edition 250. Museum ofModern Art, Xew Thames & Hudson Ltd, London: 1.31 Photo courtesy* Jones Beck. ©ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2012;
York, The Louis E. Stern Collection, 930. 1964.8. theMarlboroughGallery* Inc., XewYork.© Estate of 1.79 Ralph Larmann: 1.80 Teriade Editeur, Paris,
Digitalimage 2012, Museum of ModernArt, Xewr David Smith'DACS, London.1VAGA, XewYork 2012; 1947. Printer EdmondVairel, Paris. Edition 250.
York/Scala. Florence. © Succession H. Matisse'DACS 1.32Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn; 1.33 Photo Museum ofModernArt, XewYork, The Louis E.
2012: 0.1 Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Russell Johnson. CourtesyLino Tagliapietra Inc.; Stern Collection, 930. 1964.8. Photo 2 012, Museumof
Cambridge/Bridgeman Art Library*; 0.2 Spencer 1.34 Museo dell'Ara Pacis, Rome; 1.35 Fine Arts Modem Art, Xew York/Scala, Rorence. © Succession
Collection, Xew York Public Library*, Astor, Lenox and Museumof San Francisco, Museum Purchase, Gift of H. Mahsse'DACS 2012; 1.81 Cleveland Museum of
Tilden Foundations: 0.3 SolomonR. Guggenheim Mrs Paul Wattis 1999, 42 a-k 1.36 Ralph Lamiann; Art. Mr. and Mrs.William H. Marlatt Fund, 1965.233;
Museum,Xew York, Gift, Mr. and Mrs. JamesJ. 1.37a, 1.37b Photo dements/Howcroft, MA,USA. 1.82 Xational Gallery* of Art, Washington, D.C.,
Shapiro, 85.5266 Photo DavidHeald© Solomon R. Courtesy the artists: 1.38 Photo Xationalmuseum, Chester Dale Collection, 1963.10.94; 1.83 ©Howard
Guggenheim Foundation. ©ARS, XY and DACS, Stockholm; 1.39 PhotoAndrew Hawthorne. Hodgkin; 1.84 BritishMuseum,London; 1.85 Ralph
London 2012; 0.4 ©Xik Wheeler Corbis; 0.5© Ian Courtesy the artists; 1.40 PhotoIrmgardGroth- Larmann; 1.86. 1.87 Musee d'Orsay, Paris; 1.88
DagnallAlamy; 0.6 © JeffKoons; 0.7 Indianapolis Kimball© Thames & Hudson Ltd,London; 1.41 Ralph Larmann; 1.89 Private Collection (color
Museum of Art, Gift of Charles L. Freer/Bridgeman Photo SueOrmerod. © RachelWhiteread. Courtesy artwork by Ralph Larmann); 1.90. 1.91Ralph
Art Library; 0.8 Musee du Louvre,Paris; Gagosian Gallery, London; 1.42 © Marisol, DACS, Larmann; 1.92 Courtesy Charles Csuri; 1.93 Yale
0.9 Kunsthistorischrs Museum,Vienna; London/VAGA, XewYork 2012; 1.43 Stedelijk University Art Gallery*, XewHaven, Bequestof
0.10 Private Collection: 0.11Photo ©Erik MuseumAmsterdam; 1.44 Museum ofModern Art, StephenCariton Clark, B.A.1903, 1961.18.34; 1.94
Cornelius.'Xationalmuseum,Stockholm: 0.12 © Ian XewYork. Purchase,Acc. no. 130.1946.a-c. Photo Albright-Knox Art Gallery-, Buffalo, Xew York,
DagnallAlamy; 0.13 Mauritshuis,The Hague: 0.14 2012, Museum ofModern Art, Xew York Scaia, General Purchase Funds, 1946; 1.95 Xational Gallery
PhotoMarc Quinn Studio. Courtesy\ White Cube. Florence. © DACS 2012; 1.45 © Romain ofArt, Washington, D.C., Samuel H.Kress Collection,
© the artist: 0.15 Publisher Heinar Schilling, Cintract/Hemis/Corbis; 1.46 © Louise Bourgeois 1939.1.293; 1.96 Photo Universityof South Florida.
Dresden. Printerunknown.Edition 15. Museumof Trust'DACS, London/VAGA, XewYork 2012: 1.47 © Xancy Holt/ DACS, London/VAGA, Xew York 2012;
ModernArt, Xew Yc«k, Purchase,Acc. no. 480.1949. Los Angeles County* Museum of Art (LACMA). 1.97 Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.. Prints &
Photo 2012, Museum of Modern Art, Xew York/Scala, Purchasedwith funds providedbythe Mr. and Mrs. Photographs Division, LC-L"SZ62-536; 1.98Galleria
Rorence. ©DACS 2012; 0.16 MetropolitanMuseum William Preston Harrison Collection, 78.7. © ADAGP, Borghese.Rome; 1.99Albright-Knox Art Gallery,
of Art, Gift of Mrs.Frank B. Porter, 1922, Acc. no. ParisandDACS,London2012; 1.48 Special Buffalo, Xew York, Bequestof A. Conger Goodyear
22.207. Photo Metropolitan Museumof ArtArt Collections & Archives, Eric V. Hauser Memorial and Gift of George F. Goodyear, 1964. © DACS 2012;
Resource/Scala,Florence: 0.17 Musee du Louvre, Library-, ReedCollege, Portland, Oregon; 1.49. 1.50 1.100 Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, Xew York,
Paris; 0.18 Andre Held/akg-images; p. 44 (above) Ralph Larmann; 1.51Sterling &Francine Q ark Art Partial gift of the artist, 1989, 89.3626. PhotoDavid
PhotoAndrew Hawthorne. Courtesythe artists; Institute,Williamstown; 1.52 Contarelli Chapel, Heald © Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, Xew¬
(center) ©2012 The M.C. EscherCompany-Hdland. Church ofS an Luigi deiFrancesci, Rome; 1.53 Ralph York © ARS, XT and DACS, London 2012; 1.101
All rights reserved, www.mcescher.com; (below) Larmann; 1.54 Musee du Louvre, Paris; 1.55 Library* Copyright Bridget Riley*, 201 2. .All rights reserved
MuseoXaci on al del Prado, Madrid:. 1.1 Photo Jamo ofCongr ess, Washington, D.C. Prints ÿPhotographs 1.102 Courtesy- the Bill Douglas Centre tor the
Gonzalez Zarraonandia/ iStockphoto.com; 1.2a Slow- Division, H. Irving Olds collection, LC-DIG-jpd- History of Cinema and Popular Culture, University of
Image s/ Getty* Images; 1.2b Xational G allery of A rt, 02018; 1.56 Xational Palace Museum. Taipei; Exeter; 1.1 03 DisneyEnterprises/Album/akg-images;
Washington. D.C., Wolfgang Ratjen Collection, Paul 1.57 © T. H. Benton and R. P. Benton Testamentary* 1.104 Double Indemnity, © Paramount Pictures;
MellonFund, 2007.111.55: 1.3 ©CLAMP/Kodansha Trusts/DACS, LondonVAGA, XewYork2012; 1.58 1.105 ©Blaine Harrington III/Alamy; 1.106Photo
Ltd; 1.4 Image courtesy* Peter Freeman,Inc., Ralph Larmann; 1.59 Crystal Bridges Museum of © B. O'Kane/Alamy*. ©2012 Calder Foundation, Xew
XewYork; 1.5 © Bowness, Hepworth Estate; 1.6 American Art, Arkansas: 1.60 MetropolitanMuseum Y'orfcDACS, London; 1.107a Library of Congress,
©ADAGP, Parisand DACS, London 2012; 1.7 of An, Purchase, The Dillon Fund Gift, 1988. Photo Washington, D.C. Prints & Photographs Division,
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS 605
FSA/OWICollection, LC-USZ62- 58355; 1.107b &Albert Museum,London; 1.167 Musee du Louvre, Museum(Yincent VanGogh Foundation),
© The Dorothea Lange Collection, Oakland Museum Paris; 1.168 JamesA. Michener Collection, Honolulu Amsterdam; 2.15 Xational Palace Museum, Taipei;
of California.. City of Oakland. Girt of Paul S. Taylor; Academy ofArts; 1.169 Ralph Larmann; 1.150 2.16 British Museum,London; 2.17 from Wakoku
1.107c Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.Prints Musee Xational d'ArtModerne, Centre Georges Shoshoku Edzukushi. 1681; 2.18 Ralph Larmann;
& Photographs Division, FSA/OWI Collection, Pompidou, Paris; 1.151 Metropolitan Museum of 2.19 Musee des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. ©Succession
LC-USF34-9097-C;1.107d Library ofCongress. Art, Louis E. and Theresa S. Seley Purchase Fund H Marisse>'DACS 2012: 2.20Teriade Editeur, Paris,
Washington, D.C.Prints & Photographs Division, forlslamic Art, andRogersFund, 1984. Photo 1947. Printer Edmond Vairel, Paris. Edition 250.
FSA/OWICollection,LC-USF34-9093-C; 1.107e Metropolitan Museumof Art/Art Resource.' Scala. Museum of ModemArt ,XewYork,The Louis E.
Libraryof Congress, Washington, D.C Prints & Florence; 1.152 AshmoleanMuseum, Oxford. Stern Collection, 930. 1964.8. Photo 20 12, Museum of
Photographs Division, FSA/ OWI Collection, 1.153a,1.153b. 1.153c MuseumofModern Art, Modern Art, Xew York/ Scala Florence. © Succession
LC-L"SF34-9095; 1.1 07f Library- ofCongress, XewYork, Gift of Agnes Gund. Jo Carole and Ronald H MarisseOACS 2012; 2.21 MuseumofModern
Washington, D.C.Prints & Photographs Division, S. Lauder, DonaldL. Bryant, Jr., Leon Black, Michael Art, Xew York, Purchase, 330.1949. Photo 2012,
FSA/OWIC olle ction, LC-DIG-fsa-Sb29516; 1.108 and Judy Ovitz,Anna Marie and Robert F. Shapiro, Museumof ModernArt, X ewYork/Scala, Florence;
Courtesy the artists; 1.109 © the artist. Courtesy Leila and Melville Straus, Doris and Donald Fisher, 2.22 Ralph Larmann: 2.23 Metropolitan Museum of
Catherine Person Gallery-, Seattle, WA; 1.110 Ralph and purchase, Acc. no. 215.2000. Photo Ellen Page Art, Gift of Ed%%-ard S. Harkness, 1918, 18.9.2. Photo
Larmann; 1.111Libraryof Congress, Washington, Wilson, courtesy The Pace Gallery © Chuck Qose, Metropolitan Museum ofArt/Art Resource/Scala,
D.C.. Prints & Photographs Division, H. Irving Olds The Pace Gallery; 1.156 ©DACS 2012; 1.155 Rorence: 2.26 Xational Gallery- of Scotland,
collection, LC-DIG-jpd-02018; 1.1121. Michael Kunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna; 1.156 Edinburgh; 2.25 Metropolitan Museumof Art,
Interior Design; 1.113 Ralph Larmann; 1.116 iStockphoto.com;! .1 57 Collection Center for Purchase, Francis M.Weld Gift, 1950, Inv. 50.164.
Courtesy Galerie Beres, Paris. © AD AGP, Paris and Creative Photography © 198 1ArizonaBoard of Photo Metropolitan Museum ofArt/Art
DACS, London 2012; 1.115GalleriaXazionaledelle Regents; 1.158 © WaterFrame/Alamy, 1.159 Resource/Scala Florence; 2.26 Museumof Modern
Marche, Urbino; 1.116 Museum of ModernArt, MuseoXacional del Prado, Madrid; 1.160a Musee .Art, Xew York, Purchase, 16.1949. Photo 2012,
XewYork, Blanchette Flooker Rockefeller Fund, Acc. d'Orsay, Paris; 1.160b Ralph Larmann; 1.161 Museum ofModern .Art, Xew York/Scala, Rorence.
no. 377.1971. Photo 2012, MuseumofModern Art, iStockphoto.com;1.1 62 ©Andia 'Alamy; 1.163 © Andrew Wyeth: 2.27 Vatican Museums, Rome;
XewYork/Scala, Rorence. © Romare Bearden Allan Houser archives© Cliinde LLC; 1.166 2.28 Philadelphia Museumof Art, Gift of Mr. and
Foundation.' DACS, London/VAGA,XewYork2012; Collection University of Ariz ona Museumof Art, Mrs.Herbert Cameron Morris, 1943. © 201 2 Banco
1.117 ©The Joseph and Robert Com ell Memorial Tucson, Museumpurchase with funds presided by de Mexico Diego RiveraFridaKahloMuseums Trust,
Foundation' DACS,London/VAGA,XewYork 2012; the EdwardJ. Gallagher, Jr MemorialFund 19S2.35. 1. Mexico, D.F./DACS: 2.29 Photo Steven Ochs;
1.118 Photo John Freeman; 1.119 Ralph Larmann; © the artist; 1.165 The Art Institute of Chicago, Gift 2.30 Musee du Louvre,Paris; 2.31 Los .Angeles
1.120 © Estate of Robert Rauschenberg. DACS, ofArthur Keating and Mr. and Mrs.EdwardMorris CountyMuseumof Art, Gift of Mr. and Mrs.Robert
London/YAGA, Xew Y ork 2012; 1.121 Private by exchange, April 19SS. © The Estate of Eva Hesse. H.G inte r, M.64.49. Digital Image Mus eum
Collection; 1.122 The University of Hong Kong Hauser& Wirth. Photo Susan Einstein, courtesy The As soci ate s/ LAC ALA/Art Re source XY/ Scala, Florenc e.
Museum; 1.123 Photo ShimizuKohgeishaCo., Ltd. Art Institute of Chicago; 1.166 Musee du Louvre, Courtesy Gallery Paule An glim; 2.32 Kemper
P er missi on Ryoko- inManage ment; 1.12 6 pi.XIII, Paris; 1.167 CourtesyArchivLRP; 1.168 The Art Museum ofContemporaiy-Art, Kansas City. Bebe
Book II from Wade, I. (ed.) Paiiadio:FourBooks oj Institute of Chicago, Friends of American Art and Crosby Kemper Collection, Gift ofthe William
Architecture 1738; 1.1 25 CourtesyDrepungLoseling Collection, 1942.51; 1.169 Museo Xacional del T. Kemper Charitable Trust, UMB Bank, n.a, Trustee
Monastery-, Inc.; 1.126 PhotoAttilio Maranzano. Prado, Madrid: 1.170 MuseoXacional del Prado, 2006. 7. Photo Ben Blackwell © the artist; 2.33
Photo courtesy- the Oldenburg van Brugge n Madrid; 1.171 © Succession Picasso/DACS. London Galleria degli Ufrizi, Florence: 2.36 The Royal
Foundation. Copyright 1992 Qaes Oldenburg and 2012; 1.172 ©2012Thomas Struth; p. 166 (above) Collection © Her MajestyThe Queen; 2.35 Kemper
CoosjevanBruggen; 1.127 Courtesy the artist; Xational Palace Museum,Taipei; (center) Printed by Museum ofContemporary-Art, Kansas City. Bebe and
1.128 Werner Forman Archi\e, line artwork Ralph permissionofthe Xorman Rockwell Family Agency. CrosbyKemper Collection,Kansas City,Missouri.
Larmann; 1.129Gemaldegalerie, StaadicheMuseen, Book Rights Copyright © 1943 The Xorman Museum Purchase, Enidand Crosby Kemper and
Berlin; 1.130Purchasedwith assistance from the Art Rockwell Family Entities; (below) © Free Agents William T. Kemper Acquisition Fund 2000.13. © the
Fundand the American Fund forthe Tate Gallery- Limited/Corbis; 2.1 BibliotecaAmbrosiana,Milan; artist; 2.36 PhotoAustrianArchives-' Scala Florence;
1997 ©Tate, London, 2012. ©ADAGP, Paris and 2.2 The Royal Collection © Her Majesty'The Queen; 2.37 Photo Tate, London 2012. ©L&M Services B.V.
DACS, London 2012; 1.131, 1.132 Ralph Larmann; 2.3a BibliotecaAmbrosiana. Milan: 2 .3b Stanza della The Hague 20110512. © Miriam Cendrars; 2.38
1.133 Xational Museum, Ife, Xigeria; 1.136 Stanza Segnatura,YaticanMuseums, Rome; 2.6 Ralph Qark Family Collection .Image courtesy The Qark
della Se gn atura, Yaric an Museums ,Rome ; 1.135 Larmann; 2.5 ©DACS 2012; 2.6 Museum ofModern Center for Japanese Art & Culture; 2.39 Courtesy Art
Ralph Larmann; 1.136 XationalArchaeological Art, Xew York, The Judith RothschildFoundation Link International, Florida, ©the artist; 2.60 Photo
Museum,Athens; 1.137 Ralph Larmann; 1.1 38a Contemporary Drawings Collection Gift. Courtesy SybilleProu; 2.61 Ralph Larmann; 2.63 British
George Eastman House, XewYork; 1.138b Ralph Daniel Reich Gallery-, X ew York; 2.7 BritishMuseum, Museum,London: 2.66 Museum ofModern Art,
Larmann; 1.139iStockphoto.com; 1.160 Ralph London; 2.8 ©DACS 2012; 2.9 Photo Peter Xahum New York. Given anonymously (by exchange), Acc.
Larmann; 1.161 Metropolitan Museumof Art, Gift at The Leic ester Galle ries ,LondonSridge man A rt no. 1 19.1956. Photo2012,MuseumofModernArt,
ofXathan Cummings, 1966, 66.50.2. Photo Library; 2.10 Metropolitan Museumof Art, XewYork' Scala, Florence. ©Xolde StiftungSeebull;
Metropolitan Museum ofArt.Art Resource/Scala, Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1924,Acc. no. 2.65 Libraryof Congress, Washington, D.C. Prints &
Florence; 1.162 Photo ©Museum of Fine Arts, 24. 197.2. Photo Metropolitan Museim ofArt/Art Photographs Division, H. Irving Olds collection, LC-
Boston. CourtesyJules Olitski Warehouse LLC. Re source /Scala.Florence; 2.11 Musee d'Orsay, Paris; DIG-jpd-02018; 2.66 Ralph Larmann: 2.67Victoria
© Estate of Jules Olitski, DACS, London/VAGA,Xew 2.12TheArtInstituteof Chicago, Helen Regenstein &Albert Museum,London; 2.68 © DACS2012;
York 2012; 1.163© Estate of Mark Tobey, ARS, Collection, 1966.184; 2.13 San FranciscoMuseum of 2.69 Kupferstichkabinett, MuseenPreussiches
XY/DACS, London20 12. CourtesySotheby's; 1.166 Modem Art, Purchased through a gift of Phyllis Kulturbesitz,Berlin: 2.50 MetropolitanMus eum
Musees Royauxdes Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels; Wattis. © Estate of Robert Rauschenberg. DACS, of Art, Harris Brisbane DickFund, 1935,Acc. no.
1.165 Galleriadegli Ufflzi, Florence; 1.166 Victoria London/VAGA,XewYork 2012; 2.1 6 Van Gogh 35.42 .Photo Metropolitan MuseumofArt/Art
606 ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
Resouree/Scala,Florence; 2.51a MuseoXadonaldd Flowers, London &Xicholas Metivier,Toronto; Banerjee,Associate Editor of the Victorian1.\'eb
Prado,Madrid; 2.51 b Private Collection: 2.52Print 2.9 5 Ralph Larmann: 2.96 Library of Congress, www.victorianweb.org: 2.146a. 2.1 46b © David
and Picture Collection, Free Library of Philadelphia. Washington, D.C. Prints & Photographs Division, Hilbert/Alamy 2.1 47 Photo Scala, Florence, courtesy
Courtesy Fine Arts Program. Public Buildings LC-USZ62-43683; 2.97 Star Film Company; Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali; 2.1 48 Vatican
Service, U.S.General ServicesAdministration. 2.98 akg-images: 2.99. 2.100 British Film Museums, Rome; 2.149 Photo Scala.. Florence,
Commission ed through the X ew Deal art projects; Institute (BH): 2.101 M.G.M/Album/akg- images; courtesy Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali; 2.150
2.53 Ralph Larmann: 2.54 Private Collection; 2.55 2.1 02 British Film Institute (BFI); 2.103 BritishMuseum,London; 2.1 51 MuseoXazionale
©The Andy Warhol Foundation for theVisual Disnev Ente rpris es /Album' ak g-i mage s; 2.106 diVilla Guilia, Rome; 2.1 52 Xational Museum,
Arts:Artists Rights Society (ARS), XewYcrk/DACS Luc asfilm/20 th Century FoxThe Kobal C ollection; Reggio Calabria. Italy: 2.15 3 Ralph Larmann; 2.1 54
London 2012; 2.56 FoggArtMuseum, HarvardArt 2.1 05 2.1 06 2.107. 2.108 British Film Institute ©Richard A. Cooke/Corbis; 2.155 PhotoTom Smart;
Museums,Margaret Fisher Fund,. M252 76. Photo (BH): 2.109 Image copyright of the artist, courtesy 2.156 Photo Tate, London 2012. The works ofXaum
Imaging Department © President & Fellows of Video Data Bank, wwnv.vdb.org; 2.110 Courtesy Gabo © Xina Williams; 2.157 Photo Prudence
Flarvard College. ©ARS,XY and DACS, London Electronic Arts Intermix (EAl),XewYork; 2.111 Cuming Associates/© Hirst Hoidings Limitedand
2012: 2.57 ©Kathy Strauss 2007; 2.58British Image courtesy Dia Art Foundation. Courtesy Tony DamienHirst.All rights reserved, D.ACS 201 2; 2.1 58
Museum,London; 2.59 Tokyo Xational Museum; Oursler, Stephen Vitidlo and Constance de.Iong; ©Succession Picasso/DACS,London 2012; 2.159
2.60 Koninklijke Bibliotheek. The Flague, Folio Sr., 2.112 Courtesy exonemo: 2.113a PhotoMathias Philadd phia Museum of Art, The Louise and Walter
shelf no. 69B 10; 2.61V&A Images/Victoria &Albert Schormann© BillViola; 2.11 3b. 2.113c PhotoKira Arensberg Collection. ©ADAGP, Paris and DACS,
Museum: 2.62 Ralph Larmann; 2.63CourtesyFord Perov © BiU Viola; 2.114© DACS 2012; 2.115 Photo London 2012: 2.160 HarvardArt Museums,Busch-
Motor Canpany; 2.66 General Motors Corp. Used Betsy Jackson. Courtesy the artist; 2.116 ©Marina Reisinger Museum, Hildegardvon Gontard Bequest
with permission, GMMediaArchives: 2.65 from Abramovid. Courte sy MarinaAbr amovi c and Fund,2007.105. Photo Junius Beebe, Presidentÿ:
Works of GeoffreyChaucer, Kelmscott Press, 1S96: Sean Kelly Gallery, XewYork. DACS 2012; 2.117 Fellows of Harvard College © DACS 20 12; 2.161
2.66 Printedby permission of the Xorman Rockwell © Barbara Kruger. Courtesy MaryBoone Gallery, Photo Jens Ziehe 2004 ©• 2002 OlafurEliasson; 2.162
FamilyAgency Book Rights Copyright © 1943The XewYork; 2.118 ©ARS,XYand DACS. London Photo Mark Pollock/Estate ofGeorge Rickey © Estate
Xorman Rockwell Family Entities; 2.67 Courtesy 2012; 2.119 Photo Karla Merrifidd© Yoko Ono; of George Rickey/DACS, London.VAGA, XewYork
KokCheowYeoh; 2.68 The Art Institute of Chicago, 2.1 20 2.1 21 Courtesy The FundredDollar Bill 2012; 2.163aPhotograph by Zhang Haier; 2.163b
Mr. and Mrs. Carter H. Harrison Collection, Project; 2.122 Photo courtesy the Oldenburg Photo DaiWei, Shanghai ©the artist; 2.16 4 Courtesy
1934.1193; 2.69Taesam Do'FoodPix'Gctty. Image van Bruggen Foundation.Photo © Robert the artistsand Sprovieri Gallery, London; 2.1 65Maki
courtesyHill Holiday; 2.70 School ofjournalism McElroy/Licensedby VAGA, Xew York, XT; 2.123 andAssociates. Courtesy Silverstein Properties;
and Mass Communication, University of Xorth © Fred Wilson, courtesy PaceWildenstein, XewYork. 2.166. 2.1 67 iStockphoto.com: 2.1 68DeAgostini
Carolina at Chapel Hill. Photo Eileen Mignon i; 2.71 Photo courtesy PaceWildenstein, XewYork; 2.126 PictureLibrary/Scala, Florence; 2.169a Ralph
Gernsheim Collection, London: 2.72 Image appears Courtesy Sikkema Jenkins & Co.,XY; 2.125 (above) Larmann; 2.169biStockphoto,com;2.170 Ralph
courtesyAbelardo Mordl; 2.73 BritishLibrary, Courtesy TrudyLabell Fine Art, Florida, ©the artist; Larmann; 2.171 Bridgeman Art Library, 2.172
London: 2 .74 Metropolitan Museumof Art, The 2.1 25 (below) Photo Trudy Labell; 2.1 26 Photos IndexBridgeman Art Libray; 2.173 Ralph
Rubel Coliecti on ,P urc has e. An n Tenenb aum and Ralph Larmann; 2.1 27 ClevelandMuseum Larmann; 2.174 © Christophe Boisvieux'Corbis:
Thomas H. Lee and Anonymous Gifts, 1997,Acc. no. ofArt, Giftof theHannaFund, 1934.857; 2.128a 2.175 Ralph Larmann: 2.176 Photo Scala, Florence;
1997.382. 1.Photo The Metropolitan Museumof MetropolitanMuseum of Art, XewYork. TheMichad 2.177 Gianni Dagli Ortiz Basi lique Saint Denis
Art 'Art Re source/Scala, Florence; 2.75 Ralph C. RockefellerMemorial Collection, Bequest of Paris/TheArt Archive; 2.1 78a. 2.178b Ralph
Larman n; 2 .76 B ibliotheque nati on ale ,Paris; 2 .77 Xdson A. Rockefeller, 1979,Acc. no. 1979.206.1134. Larmann, 2.1 79 © Robert Harding Picture Library
Library7 of Congress, Washington, D.C..Prints & Photo SchecterLee. Photo Metropolitan Museum of Ltd'Alamy; 2.1 80. 2.1 81 Ralph Larmann; 2.182
Photographs Division, FSA/OWI Collection, LC- Art/ Art Resource/Scala Florence 2.1 28b Photo © Photo Japan/Alamy; 2.183 Photo Shannon Kyles,
DIG-fsa-Sb29516; 2.78 ©Ansel Adams Publishing IrmgardGroth-Kimball© Thames & Hudson Ltd, ontarioarchitecture.com; 2.185 Photo Sandak Inc,
Rights Trust'Corbis 2.79 Collection of the Societe London; 2.1 29 Palace Museum, Beijing: 2.130 Stamford, CT: 2.186 © IXTERFOTO/Alamy; 2.187
Francaise de Photographie. Paris: 2.80 Collection CourtesyArizona State UniversityArt Museum, © Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd' Al amy;
Center for Creative Photography © 1981Arizona photoAnthonyCunha: 2.131 Courtesv the Youlkos 2.188© Bildarchiv Monheim GmbH'Alamy, 2.189
Board of Regents: 2.81 Library of Congress, &Co. C atalogue P roj ect, www.voul kos.com; ©RichardA. Cooke/Corbis; 2.190 ©Free A gents
WashLngton, D.C.. Prints & Photographs Division, 2.1 32 British Museum, London: 2.133 © Angelo Limited/Corbis; 2.1 91 Photo courtesy Michael
LC-DIG-nclc-01535: 2.82a. 2.82 b Copyright Steve HornakCorbis; 2.1 34 PhotoTeresa Xouri Rishel Graves & Associates: 2.192 © Chuck Eckert/Alamy;
McCurry/MagnumPhotos; 2.83 ©Hiroko © DaleChihuly, 2.135XationalArchaeological 2.193a Courtesv- Zaha HadidArchitects; 2.193b
Masuike:Xew York Times/Eyevine; 2.84 Copyright Museum,Athens; 2.136Kunsthistorisches Museum, © Roland Halbe/artur: 2.194 Courtesv- CMPBS;
Steve McCurry/MagnumPhotos; 2 .85 Royal Vienna; 2.137 © the artist www.tillekeschwarz.com; p. 292 (above) Egyptian Museum, Cairo; (center)
Photographic Society, Bath; 2.86 Courtesy Yossi Milo 2.1 38 The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, iStockphoto.com; (bdow) Musee d'Orsay, Paris; 3.1
Gallery,XewYork. ©DACS2012; 2.87 The Art XewYork, SS.3620 ; 2.139 © Christie's Drazen Tomic; 3.2 Photo Jean Clottes; 3.3 Images
Institute of Chicago,A lfredStieglitz Collection, Images/Coibis: 2.140 Metropolitan Museumof Art, courtesy the Mdlaarts/ Catal hoyukResearchProject;
1949.705 © Georgia O'Keeffe Museum/DACS, 2012; Rogers Fund 1939, Acc. no. 39.153. Photo 3.4 The J. Paul Getty Museum,VilaCollection,
2.88 ©Estateof Garry'Winogrand, courtesy Fraenkel MetropolitanMuseum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Malibu, California; 3.5 Photo JeffMorgan
Gallery,San Francisco; 2.89 Xationalgalerie, Florence: 2.161 Seattle Art Museum, GiftofJohnH. Travd'Alamv-; 3.6 ArchaeologicalMuseum,
Staatliche Muse en, Berlin. © DACS 2012; 2.90 Haubergandjohnand Grace Putnam, 86.278. Photo Heraklion; 3.7 BritishMuseum,London; 3.8
© Stephen Marc; 2.91 Gernsheim Collection,Harry PaulMacapia: 2.162 Museum ofFine Arts, Boston, IraqMuseum, Baghdad; 3.9 Metropolitan Museum
RansomHumanities Research Centre,University of Massachusetts/Harvard University- Museum ofFine of Art, Gift of John D. Rockefeller Jr., 1932, Acc. no.
Texas at Austin: 2.92 Courtesy Gagosi an Gallery © Aits Expedition .'Bridge man Art Library, 2.163a. 32.143.2. Photo Metropolitan Museum ofArt/ Art
Sally Mann; 2 .93 Sandy Skoglund, Radioactive Cats .
2.1 43 b Photo Sc ala, Florenee ; 2 166 British Resource'Scala. Rorence; 3.10 Photo Scala.
© 1980; 2.94 Photo © Edward Burtynsky, courtesy Museum,London: 2.145 PhotographJacqudine Florence/BPK, Bildagentur fur Kunst, Kultur und
Geschichte, Berlin: 3.11 iStockphoco.com: 3.12 © Ken Welsh'Alamy, 3.90 © Gianni Dagli Classic Image/Alamy; 3.151 Musee du Louvre,Paris;
Gianni Dagli Orti/ Egypt ian Museum. Cairo/The Art Orti/Corbis: 3.91 Dallas Museum of Art, Gift of 3.15 2Virginia Museumof Fine Arts, Richmond.
Archive; 3.13. 3.1A Egyptian Museum, Cairo; 3.1 5 Patsy R. and Raymond D. Xasher, 1983.148; 3.92 The Adolf D. and WilkinsC. Williams Fund 3.153
British Museum, London; 3.16 PeterConnolly/akg- Peabody Museum. Harvard University, Cambridge, iStockphoto.com; 3.156 Musee du Louvre,Paris;
images; 3.17 Ximatallah/akg- images; 3.18 Ralph 48-63-20/17361; 3.93 BibliotecaXazionaleCentrale 3.155. 3.156 Museo XacionaldelPrado, Madrid;
Larmann; 3.19 BritishMuseum, London; 3.20. 3.21 di Firenze; 3.96 MuseoXacionalde Antropologia, 3.157 ©Tate, London 2012; 3.15 8 Metropolitan
Museum ofFine Arts, Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Mexico City: 3.95 Museo del Templo Mayor, Mexico Museum ofArt, Gift of Mrs.Russell Sage, 1908,Acc.
Fund; 3.22 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher City: 3.96 Drazen Tomic; 3.97 ©Chris Howes/Wild no. 08.228. Photo Metropolitan Museum ofArt/Ar t
Fund,. 1932, Acc. no. 32.11.1. Photo Metropolitan Places Photography/Alamy, 3.98a. 3.98b Peabody Res ource/Scala Florence: 3.159 White Images /'Scala,
Museumof Art.Art Re source /Scala, Florence; Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, 99-12- Florence: 3.161HamptonUniversityMuseum,
3.23 Minneapolis Institute of Arts; 3.26 Vatican 10/53 121; 3.99 MissouriHistorical Society, St. Louis, Virginia; 3.162Musee d'Orsay, Paris: 3.163 ©Tate,
Museums, Rome; 3.25 © Altair4 Multimedia Roma, 1882.IS.32; 3.100 American Museum of Xatural London2012: 3.166 Musee Marmottan, Paris: 3.165
www.altair.it; 3.26 Palazzo Torlonia Rome: 3.27 History',XewYork; 3.101 Drazen Tomic; 3.1 02 Musee d'Orsay, Paris: 3.166 Art Institute of Chicago,
Giovanni C as ell i: 3.28 Image Source PinkAlamy; X ational Museum,Lagos; 3.103 Linden Museum, Charles H. and Mary F. S. Worcester Collection,
3.29 ©Atlantide Phototravel/Corbis: 3.30 Stuttgart; 3.106 DallasMuseum of Art, Foundation 1964336; 3.167 Whitelmages/'Scala. Florence: 3.168
iStockphoto.com; 3.31 Drazen Tomic; 3.32. 3.33 for the Arts Collection, Gift of the McDermott BI,ADAGP, Paris'Scala, Florence. ©ADAGP, Paris
Zev Radovan'www.BibleLandPictures.com: 3.36 Foundations 996. 1S4.FA; 3.105 XationalMuseum and DACS, London 2012; 3.1 69 Musee d'Orsay,
CanaliPhotobank, Milan, Italy: 3.35 Photo Scala.. ofAfrican Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, Paris; 3.170 Courtauld Gallery, London; 3.171
Florence: 3.36 Monastery of St. Catherine, D.C.; 3.1 06 Musle Barbier- Mueller, Geneva: 3.1 07 Xational Gallery of Scodand, Edinburgh; 3.1 72
Sinai, Egypt; 3.37 Photo Scala, Florence; 3.38 © JTB Photo Communications,Inc./Alamy; 3.108 Museumof ModernArt, XewYork.Acquired through
Cameraphoto/Scala,Rorence: 3.39. 3.60. 3.61 © Chris HowesAMld PIac es P hotography/Alamy; the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest. Acc. no. 472.1941. Photo
British Library, London; 3.62 BibliotecaGovemativa, 3.109 Photo BarneyWayne; 3.110 Drazen Tomic; 2012, Museum of Modem Art, XewYork/Scala,
Lucca; 3.63BritishLibrary/akg-images; 3.66Musees 3.111pi. XVI from Parkinson, S., A Journal of a Florence; 3.173 Private Collection; 3.176 Musee
Royaux d'Art et dTIistoire,Brussels: 3.65 © Hanan Voyage to the South Seas, 1784; 3.112 Photo Paul S. C. Carnavalet, Paris; 3.175 Private Collection'
Isachar/Corbis; 3.66MohamedAmin/Robert Tacon;3.113 Bishop Museum. Honolulu, Hawaii; ©Ackermann Kunstverlag/BridgemanArt Library,
Harding; 3.67 Metropolitan Museumof Art, Harris 3.116 iStockphoto.com: 3.11 5 Musee Barbier- 3.17 6 0ste rre ichisc he G ale rie Belvedere,Vie nna;
Brisbane Dick Fund, 1939, Acc. no. 39.20. Photo Mueller, Geneva; 3.116 Collected byG.F.X. Gerrits, 3.177MarkEdward Smith/photolibrary.com; 3.178
Metropolitan Museum ofArt'Art Re source .'Scala, Vb 284 18- 2847 1( 19 72) .P hoto Pete r Horner 198 1 Photo Spectrum/ Heritage Images/Scala, Florence;
Florence: 3.68 © Matthew Lambley/Alamy; 3.69 © Museum der Kulturen,Basel, Switzerland:. 3.117 3.179 Metropolitan Museum ofArt, Harris Brisbane
Ralph Larmann: 3.50 © RolfRichardsonAlamy; Drazen Tomic; 3.11 8from Vasari, G., Lives of Dick Fund, 1966, 66. 244.1-2 5. Photo Metropolitan
3.51 Ralph Larmann: 3.52 HerveChampollion/akg- theGreat Artists, 1568; 3.119 © Michael S. Museum of Art/Art Re source /'Scala Florence; 3.180
images; 3.53 SoniaHalliday Photographs: 3.56. 3.55 Yamashita/Corbis: 3.120 Libreriadello Stato, Rome; The Barnes Foundation,Merion, PA. © Succession
G all eriadegliUffizi, Florence: 3.56 Drazen Tomic; 3.1 21 Brancacci Chapel, Church of Santa Mariadel H MatisseD ACS 2012; 3.181 Museum of Modem
3.57 rStockphoto.com: 3.58 © Tom Hanley/Alamy; Carmine,Florence; 3.1 22 Refectory of Sta Maria Art, XewYork, Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund,
3.59 © Susanna BennettAlamy; 3.60 © Frederic delleGrazie, Milan; 3.123 3.126Vatican Museums, 8.1949. Photo 2012, Museum of Modern Art,
Soltan'Sygma/Corbis: 3.61 ©PepRoigAlamy; Rome; 3.125 Stanzadella Segnarura,Vatican XewYork/Scala. Florence. © Succession H.
3.62 Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Museums, Rome; 3.126 Vatican Museums, Rome; Matisse/DACS 2012; 3.182Tehade Editeur, Paris,
Washington, D.C., Purchase Fl942.15a 3.63 3.1 27a. 3.1 27b XationalGallery,London/Scala, 1947. Printer Edmond Vairel, Paris. Edition 250.
iStockphoto.com: 3.66. 3.65. 3.66 Palace Museum, Florence: 3.128 3.1 29a. 3.1 29b 3.129c Museum of ModemArt, XewYork, TheLouis E.
Beijing: 3.67 Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Mr. & Gemaldegalerie, Staatliche Museen,Berlin; 3.130 Stern Collection, 930. 1964.S. Photo 20 12, Museum of
Mrs.Alastair B. Martin, the Guennol Collection, MuseedU'nterlindemColmar; 3.131 British Modern Art, Xew York'Scala, Florence. © Succession
72.163a-b: 3.6 8 Hunan Museum, Changsha; 3.69 Museum, London: 3.132 Museum Xarodowe, H Matisse/DACS 2012; 3.183 Photographby Hele.ne
Courtesy the artist: 3.70Photo Shunji Ohkura: 3.71 Poznari.'Bridge man Art Library, 3.133 Galleria Adant/RAPHO/ GAMMA, CameraPress, London;
TRIP photographic library,photographer F. dell'Accademia, Venice; 3.136 Cameraphoto/Scala. 3.186 Museum of Modern Art, XewYork, acquired
G oo dArt Directors: 3.72 Sakai Collection, Tokyo: Florence; 3.135 Capponi Chapel, Church of through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest, 333.1939. Photo
3.73Horyu-ji Treasure House, Ikaruga Xara Santa Felicita. Florence; 3.136 Xational Gallery 2012, Museum of Modem Art, XewYork/Scala,
Prefecture,Japan: 3.76 The Tokugawa Art Museum, ofArt,Washington,D.C., Samuel H. Kress Florence. © Succession Picasso/DACS, London 2012;
Xagoya: 3.75 VSA Images/Alarm*: 3.76The Art Collection, 1946. 18 .1; 3.137 Photo Scala,. Florence, 3.185 Kunstmuseum,Bern; 3.186 MildredLane
Institute of Chicago, Robe rtA.Waller Fund, 1910.2; courtesy Ministero Benie Att. Culturali; 3.138 KemperArt Museum, St. Louis,University purchase,
3.77 Libraryof Congress, Washington, D.C. Prints & © nagelestock.com/Alamy; 3.139 Photo Scala,. Kende Sale Fund, 1946. © Succession Picasso/DACS,
Photographs Division, H. Irving Olds collection, LC- Florence, courtesy Ministero Benie Att. Culturali; London 2012: 3.187 Metropolitan Museum of Art,
DIG-jpd-02018; 3.78 iStockphoto.com: 3.79 Drazen 3.1 60 The Earl of Plymouth. On loan to theXational Bequest of Gertrude Stein, 1946,Acc. no. 47. 106.
Tomic; 3.80 Anton, F.Anden t Peruvian Textiles, Museum of Wales, Cardiff; 3.161 Royal Institute for Photo Metropolitan Museum ofArt/Art
Thames &HudsonLtd, London, 19S7; 3.81 Museo the Studyand Conservation of Belgium's Artistic Res ource/Scala Florence.© Succession
Arqueologia. Lima. Peru BridgemanArt Library; Heritage: 3.162 Galleria Xazionaled'ArteAntica, Picasso/DACS,London 2012; 3.188Museum
3.82 Royal Tombs of Sipan Museum, Lambayeque; Rome; 3.163 Galleria degliUffizi, Florence; Folkwang, Essen: 3.189 Art Institute of Chicago,
3.83 iStockphoto.com: 3.86 American Museum of 3.1 66 Rijksmuseum,Amsterdam: 3.165 Arthur Jerome Eddy Me morial Collection, 1931.31 1.
Xatural History, XewYork: 3.85 Dumbarton Oaks © Bertrand Rieger.Hemis/Cortis; 3.166 © Florian © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2012; 3. 190
ResearchLibrary and Collections,Washington, .
NIon heim/Arcaid/C orbis;3 16 7 Gi ann iDagli Museum of Modern Art, Xew York, Purchase,
D.C.; 3.86 DrazenTomic; 3.87 RichardHewitt Orti/Musee du Chateau de Versailles/ The Art Archive; 274.1939. Photo 2012, Museumof ModernArt, Xew
StewartXational Geographic Stock; 3.88a Drazen 3.168 The Wallace Collection, London; 3.169 YorkÿScala, Florence; 3.192 Museum of ModernArt,
Tomic; 3.88b© aerialarchives.com/Alamv; 3.89 Xational Gallery,London'Sc al a, F lorenee; 3.150 XewYork, The Sidney and Harriet Janis Collection,
595.196, a-b. Photo 2012, Museum of Modem Art, 3.2 18a. 3.218b Courtesy Gladstone Galley,X ew 4.35 Courtesy Jin gu Administration Office; 4.36
Xew York/Scala, Florenc e. © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, York. © Shirin Xeshat; 3.219 Museum ofModern PhotoHickey-Robertson © 199S Kate RothkoPrizd
London 2012; 3.193 © The Heartfidd Community Art, Xew York, Fractional gift offeredby Donald L. & Christopher Rothko ARS, XY and DACS, London;
of Heirs./VG Bild-kunst, Bonn and DACS. London Bryant, Jr., Acc. no. 241.2000.b. Photo 2012, Museum 4.37 RainerHackenberg/akg-images.© Succession
2012; 3.194 ©DACS 2012; 3.195 Photo Hickey- of Modem Art, Xew York/Scala, Florence. © 1997 H. MatisseOACS 2012; 4.38Teriade Editeur, Paris,
Robertson, Houston.The Menil Collection, Houston. Pipilotti Rist. Image courtesy the artist, Luhring 1947. Printer EdmondVaird, Paris. Edition 250.
© ADAGP, Pahsand DACS, London 2012; 3.196 Augustine, XewYork and Hauser&Wirth; 3.220 Museum ofModern Art, XewYork, The Louis E.
Museum of Modem Art Xew York, Gift of Mr. and Courtesy Gladstone Galley, Xew York. Photo Stern Collection, 950.1964.8. Photo 2 012, Museumof
Mrs.Pierre Matisse, 940.1965.a-c. Photo 20 12, Michael JamesO'Brien. © 1997 Matthew Barney; Modem Art, Xew York/Scala, Horence. © Succession
Museum of Modem Art, Xew York/Scala, Rorence. 3.221 ContemporaryArts Museum, Houston.Photo H. Matisse.DACS 2012; 4.39 UniversityArt Museum,
© Succession MiroZADAGP, Paris and DACS, London Hester + Hardaway Courtesy Andrea Rosen Galley, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife; 4.40 Dumbarton
2012; 3.197 Photo FrancisCarr ©Thames &Hudson XY; p. 452 (above) Photo DavidHeald.The Solomon Oaks Museum, Washington, D.C.; 4.41 Courtesythe
Ltd, London; 3.198 PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art, R. Guggenheim Foundation, Xew York. FLWW- 10; artist and Marian Goodman Galley,XewYork/Paris;
The Louise and Walter ArensbergCollection. (center) Courtauld Galley, London; (below) Victor 4.42 © Tiemey Gearon, Courtesy Yossi Milo Gallery,
©ADAGP, Parisand DACS, London 2012; 3.199 C have z.Wirel mage /Getty: 4.1 Musee du Louvre, X*ew York; 4.43 MetropolitanMuseum of Art,
3.200 StedelijkMuseum,Amsterdam; 3.201 Paris; 4.2 © guichaoua'Alamy; 4.3 Martin The Michad C.Rockefeller MemorialCollection,
©ADAGP, Pahsand DACS, London 2012; Gray/Xational Geographic Stock; 4.4 Keith Bequest of Xelson A. Rockefeller, 1979, Acc. no.
3.202 ©ÿ Romare Bearden Foundation1' DACS. Bedford'epa/Corbis; 4.5 iStockphoto.com; 4.6 1979.206.1611. Photo Metropolitan Museumof
London'VAGA, XewYork2012; 3.203 Courtesy* Photo DavidHeald.The Solomon R. Guggenheim Art/Art Resource/Scala. Florence: 4.44 Dallas
Center for Creative Photography,Universityof Foundation,Xew York. FLWW- 10; 4.7 Silvio Museum of Art, The Clark and Frances Stillman
Arizona© 1991 HansXamuth Estate; 3.2 04 The Fiore/photolibraycom:4.8 iStockphoto.com;4.9a, Colleaion of Congo Sculpture, Gift of Eugene
Universityof Iowa Museum of Art, Iowa Cit}', Gift of 4.9b 4.9 c- 4.9 d © 1991Ancient Egypt Research andMargaretMcDermott, 1969.S.22; 4.45 The
Peggy Guggenheim, OT 102. © The Pollock-Krasner Associates ("AERA"). Photographs MarkLehner; Qevdand Museumof Art, Purchase from the
FoundationARS, XT* and DACS, London 2012; 4.10 © Taisei Corporation'XHK; 4.11© Bob J. H. Wade Fund 1950.551: 4.46 © Loren
3.20 5 Xational Gallery of .Art,Washington, D.C., Gift Krist/Corbis; 4.1 2 Cahokia Mounds State Historic .
NIc Intyre/ lore nmdntyre.com;4 47 Pinote ca di
of the MarkRothko Foundation,Inc., 19S6.45.15. Site, paintingby'William R. Iseminger; 4.13 Brera,Milan; 4.48 ©Andres Serrano. Courtesythe
© 1998 Kate Rothko Prizel & Christopher Rothko David Hiser'Xational Geographic Stock; 4.14 artist andYvon Lambert Paris, Xew York; 4.49
ARS, XY and DACS, London, 2012; 3.206 Erich Le ss ing/akg- images; 4.15 Universityof Copyright Merle Greene Robertson, 1976; 4.50
©The Andy Warhol Foundation for theVisual Pennsylvania Museum ofArchaeologyand Courtesy Xational Museumof the A me rican Indian ,
Arts/ Artists Rights Societv (ARS),Xe wYork/DACS, A nthropology. Philadelphia B17694; 4.16 © Peter Smithsonian Institution (18/2023). Photo by Photo
London 2012; 3.207 © The Estate ofRoy Arnold.. Inc/Alamy, 4.17 HenyJohn Dre%\~al and Sendees; 4.51 Museo delTemplo Mayor, Mexico City,
Lichtenstein/DACS 2012; 3.208 (above) Photo Margaret Thompson Drewal Colieaion, EEPA COXACULTA-IXAH, 10-220302; 4.52 Dallas
Smithsonian American Art Museum/Art D0065 9. E liot Elis ofon Photogr aphi c Archives , Museum of Art, Foundation for the Arts Collection,
Resource/Scala.Florence; 3.208 (below) Ralph Xational Museum ofAfrican Art, Smithsonian Mrs John B. O'HaraFund; 4.53 BritishMuseum,
Larmann; 3.209 Colleaion of the ModernArt Institution,Washington, D.C., courtesyHenyJohn London; 4.54 Photo Heidi Grassley © Thames &
Museum of Fort Worth, Museum purchase. The Drewal; 4.1 8 Photo Anne Chauvet; 4.19 Photo Art Hudson Ltd, London; 4.55 Ralph Larmann; 4.56 ©
Benjamin J. Tillar MemorialTrust. Acquired in 1970. Resource/Bob Schalkwijk/ Scala. Florence. ©2012 IvanVdovinAlamy, 4.5 7 Herve Champollion ,/akg-
© Judd Foundation. Licensed byVAGA, Xew Banco de Mexico Diego Rivera Frida Kahlo Museums images; 4 .58 Xational Galley of Art, Washington,
York/DACS, London 2012: 3.2 10 Photo Hickey- Trust, Mexico, D.F./DACS; 4.20 Precita Valley Vision D.C.,WdenerColleaion, 1942.9.97; 4.59
Robertson, Houston.The Menil Collection, Houston. © 1996 Susan Ke lk Cervantes. Courtesy Precita Eyes Photograph K2S22 ©Justin Kerr; 4.60 Xational
© ARS, XY and DACS, London 2012; 3 .211Museum Muralists,www.precitaeyes.org; 4.21 JohnHios'akg- Museum ofAnthropology, Mexico City; 4.61
of ModernArt, XewYcrk, LarryAldrich Foundation images; 4.22a. 4.22b Dom-MuseumHildesheim: Xational Maritime Museum,Gre enwich, London;
Fund, 595.1970.a-c. Photo 2012, Museum of Modern 4.22c Ralph Larmann; 4.23 IndiaMuseum, 4.62 XationalGalley,London/Scala, Rorence; 4.63
Art, Xew York/Scala, Florence. © ARS, XY and DACS, Calcutta; 4.24The Cleveland Museum of Art, James Giftof theAl umniA ss ociation to Je rfe rson Medical
London 2012; 3.212 © The Estate of.AnaMendieta Albert and May Gardiner FordMemorial Fund, Collegein 1878, purchased by the Pennsylvania
Courtesy Galerie Leion g, Xew York; 3.2 13 Photo 1961.198; 4.25 Xational MuseumofAfrican Art, Academy of the Fine Arts and the PhQaddphia
courtesyJohn MichaelKohler Arts Center © the Smithsonian Institution,Washington, D.C., Museum Museum ofArt in 2007 with the generous support
artist and Stefan Stux Gallery, XY; 3.214 © purchase 90-4-1. Photograph Franko Khouy; 4.26 ofmore than 3,600 donors, 2007, 2007- 1-1; 4.64
Egglmages/Alamy: 3.21 5 Photo courtesyMichael Smith College Museumof Art, Xorthampton, Courtesy the David Lloyd Galley; 4.65 Courtesy
Graves & Associates; 3.2 16 (left) Museum of Modern Massachusetts.? urc hased with the proce eds fr omthe Institute for Plastination, Heiddberg, Germany;
Art, X ew Yo rk, Gi ft onbe half of The Friends of saleofworks donated by Mr. and Mrs.Alexander 4.66 Art Institute of Chicago, HdenBirch Bartlett
Education ofThe Museumof ModernArt, Acc. no. Rittmaster (Sylvian Goodkind, class of 1957) in 1958, Memorial Colleaion, 1926.224; 4.67 © Jasper
70.1997.2. Photo 2012, Museum of ModernArt, Xew andAdeline Flint Wing, dassof 1898, and Caroline Johns.1VAGA, Xew YorkDACS, London 2012; 4.68
York/Scala, Florence. Courtesy the artist and Jack Roberta Wing, dassof 1896, in 1961. Courtesy Courtesy Marc ia Smilack; 4.69 Museum ofModern
Shainman Gallery, Xew York; 3.21 6 (right) Museum Michad Rosenfeld LLC,Xew York, XY; 4.27 Musee Art, Xew York. Benjamin Scharps and DavidScharps
of Modern Art, Xew York, Gift on behalfof The du Louvre,Paris; 4.28 State Tretyakov Galley Fund,2 88.1956. Photo 2012, MuseumofModern Art,
Friends ofEducation ofThe Museum of ModernArt, Moscow: 4.29 Photo Scala, Florence/FondoEdifid Xew York/Seal a Florence .© ADAGP, Paris and DACS,
Acc. no. 70.1997.5. Photo 2012, Museum of Modern di Culto -Min. dellTnterno; 4.30 Gianni Dagli London 201 2; 4.7 0 Museum ofModern Art, Xew
Art, XewYork'Scala Florence. Courtesythe artist and OrtiTheArt Archive: 4.31 XorbertAujoulat; 4.32a York. Given anonymously, 162.1954. Photo 2012,
Jack ShaLnman Galley, Xew York; 3.21 7 William Sr. Ralph Larniann; 4.32b ColorphotoHansHinz, Museum ofModern Art. Xew York/Scala, Rorence.
and Dorothy Harmsen Collection, by exchange, Allschwil, Switzerland; 4.33a Ralph Larmann: 4.33b © SalvadorDali, FundacioGala-SalvadorDali, DACS,
2007.47. Denver Art Museum.All Rights Reserved; © Araldo de Luca/Corbis: 4.34 © B. O'Kane/Alamv; 2012; 4.71 HighMuseum of Art, Atlanta. 1999.93.
Purchase with T. Marshall HahnFolkArt Acquisition Courtesy the artist; 4.115 © Anselm Kiefer: 4.116 ModernArt, New York'Scala. Rorence. © ADAGP,
Fundforthe T. MarshallHahn Collection; 4.72 Musee du Louvre, Paris; 4.117 Photo courtesy the Parisand DACS, London 2012; 4.1 48 Courtesy
Victor R. Boswell, Jr./National Geographic Stock; artist and Jonathan Ferrara Gallery; 4.118 Museum Chrisrie's/Wemer Fomian Archive; 4.1 49 Records of
4.73 PhotoVatican Museums. Rome; 4.74 of Fine Arts, Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund BJ385; theWork P rojects A dministration, U.S. National
Metropolitan Museum of Art Rogers Fund, 1903. Inv. 4.119 © Succession Pic as so.'DACS, London 201 2; Archives and Records Administration; 4.1 50 © The
03.14. 13a-g.Photo Metropolitan Museumof Art/Art 4.1 20 Lions Gate/The Kobal Collection: 4.121 John Coplans Trust: 4.151 Library of Congress,
Resource-'Scda, Florence: 4.75 Photo Scala, Florence; Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Prints & Washington, D.C. Prints & Photographs Division,
4.76 Photo Scala, Florence, courtesyMinisteroBeni Photographs Division, FSA'OWI Collection, LC- FSA'OWI Collection, LC-DIG-fsa-Sb29516; 4.152
e Att. Culturali; 4.77 Kunsthistorisdies Museum, DIG-fsa-Sb29516: 4.122a NationalGallery, Courtesy the artist and Metro Pictures: 4.153
Vienna: 4.78 National Gallery of Art, Washington, London-'Scala,Florence; 4.123 Courtesy MaryBoone Brooklyn Museum, Giftofthe ElizabethA. Sackler
D.C. Gift of Mr. & Mrs. RichardMellon Scaifein Gallery,NewTbrk; 4.124a ©Reuters/Corbis; Foundation, 2002 .10. Photo © DonaldWoodman.
honour ofPaul Mellon, 1993.15.1; 4.79 Courtesy 4.1 24b © Ton Koene/ZUMA Press/Corbis; 4.125 ©Judy Chicago, 1979. ©ARS, NY and DACS, London
Miran Fukuda: 4.80 Photo Anthony d'Offay, Monaster.- of St. Catherine, Sinai, Egypt; 4.1 26 2012; 4.1 54 Galleriadegli Uffizi, Rorence; 4.1 55
London::4.81a James Green.' Robert Harding; 4.81b Musees Royaux des Beaux -Arts de Belgique, Brussels; Copyright ©by Guerrilla Girls, Inc. Courtesy
4.81 c 4.81d Ralph Larmann; 4.82 Gianni Dagli 4.1 27 ©Maurice Savage.'Alamy: 4.128 Courtesy the www.guerrillagirls.com; 4.156 Courtesy the artist;
Orti/Palazzo delTe Mantua1' The Art Archive; 4.83 artist; 4.129 Naturhistorisches Museum,Vienna; 4. 15 7 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund,
Pietro Baguzzi.'akg-images; 4.84a. 4.84b Courtesy 4.1 30 Museum of Modem Art, NewYork. Purchase, 1931, Acc. no. 313.166. Photo Metropolitan Museum
the artist: 4.85 National Gallery of Art. Washington, 47S.1953. Photo 2012, Museum of Modern Art. New of Art-Art Re source .'Scala Florence: 4.158 Copyright
D.C., Gift ofLilaAcheson Wallace, 19S7.2.1. Photo York'Scala, Florence. © ARS, NY and DACS, London © 1972 The Estate of Diane Arbus; 4.1 59 © copyright
EllenPage Wilson, courtesyThe Pace Gallery. 2012; 4.131a Ralph Larmann; 4.131bErich The Robert Mapplethorpe Foundation.CourtesyArt
© Chuck Close, The Pace G alien-; 4.86 Courtauld Lessing'akg-images; 4.132 Museo delle Terme, +Commerce; 4.160 Courtesy Regen Projects, Los
Gallery,London; 4.87 fromKirbyJ., Dr Brook Rome: 4.133 Uffizi Gallery, Rorence: 4.134Kimbell Angeles;4.161 Private Collection: 4.162Museo de
Taylor's Methodof PerspectiveMade Easy, 1754; 4.88 Art Museum. Fort Worth. Texas/Art Resource, Arte Moderno, Mexico City. © 20 12 Banco de Mexico
National Galley of Art, Washington, D.C., Gift of the NY Scala, Florence; 4.1 35 Metropolitan Museum of Diego Rivera Frida Kahlo Museums Trust, Mexico,
Collectors Committee, 1987.55.1. ©ADAGP, Paris Art, The HarryG. C. Packard Collection of Asian Art, D.F..'DACS;4.163 GemaldegalerieAlte Meister,
and DACS, London 2012; 4.89 Photo Scala Florence; Gift of Harry G. C. Packard,andPurchase, Fletcher, Dresden: 4.1 64 Copyright DuaneMichals. Courtesy
4.90 The Palace Museum. Beijing; 4.9 1a Photo Rogers, Harris Brisbane Dick, and LouisV. Bell Pace'MacGill Galler)-, NewYork; 4.1 65 © Jenny
Irmgard Groth-Kimball © Thame s &: Hudson Ltd, Funds, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, andTheAnnenberg Saville; 4.166a PhotoYladimirSicnov.Sipa-Press.
London;4 .91b © WorldPictures/Alamy; 4.92 Fund Inc. gift, 1975, 1975.268.125. Photo Courtesy the artist and galerie Michel Rein, Paris.
British Museum, London; 4.93 Musee du Louvre, Metropolitan Museumof Art.'Art Resource.' Scala. © ORLAN: 4.166 b Courtesy ORLAN. © ORLAN;
Paris; 4.94 Musee Nationalde Chateau deVersailles; Florence: 4.136 Photo Scala, Florence, courtesy 4. 16 7 Galleriadegli Uffizi, Florence; 4. 168 Detroit
4.95 Agyptisches Museum, Staadiche Muse en, Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali; 4.1 37 Musee d'Orsay, Institute of Arts, Gift ofMr. Leslie H. Green: 4.169
Berlin; 4.96a. 4.96 b Egyptian Museum, Cairo: 4.97 Paris;4.1 38 Courtesy the artist and Luhring Detroit Institute of Arts, Founders Society Purchase
Photo Scala, Florence: 4.98 MetropolitanMuseum of Augustine, New York; 4.139a. 4.1 39 b ©ADAGP, with funds from Mr. and Mrs. BertL. Smokier and
Art, Giftof Mr. and Mrs. Klaus G. Perls, 1990, Acc. no. Parisand DACS, London 2012; 4.140 Courtesy Mr. andMrs. Laurence A. Reischman; 4.170 Detroit
1990.332. Photo Metropolitan MuseumofArt/ Art the artist andLuhringAugusti.ne, New York; Institute of Arts, Gift ofDexter M.Ferry,Jr.; 4.171
Resource-'Scda, Florence; 4.99 Musee du Louvre, 4.1 41 © Vanes saBeecroft: 4. 142aVictor Photo Herbert Lotz © the artist. Courtesy White
Paris; 4.100 ©Hubert Stadler/Corbis; 4.101 © Peter Chavez/Wirel mage' Getty; 4.142b Ales sandro della Cube; 4.172 ©Munch Museum/Munch-Ellingsen
Guttman' Corbis;4.102 Library of Congress, Valle/epa/Corbis; 4.143 Museum of Modem Art, Group, BONO, OsloDACS, London 2012: 4.173
Washington, D.C. Prints & Photographs Division, NewYork. Fractionaland promised gift of Malcom Philadelphia Museumof Art, Gift of Mr. and Mrs.
LC-B 8 184-7964-A; 4.1 03 Photo Scala, Florence; Wiener in me mot)- of John Rewald.Acc. no. 1S3. 1994. H Gates Lloyd, 1974. © The Pollock-Krasner
4.104 4.105 MuseoNacionaldelPrado, Madrid: Photo 2012, Museum of Modem .Art,NewYork/Scala, FoundationARS, NY and DACS, London 2012;
4.1 06 NickUt/AP/PressAssociation Images; 4.1 07 Florence; 4.1 44Teriade Editeur, Paris, 1947. Printer 4. 174 Courtesy Bis chofberger Collection,
Dallas Museum of Art, purchased with funds donated EdmondVairel, Paris. Edition 250. Museum of Switzerland © 2012 Julian Schnabel ARS, New
by the J olesch Acquisition Fund, The 500, Inc., the ModernAtt, NewYork,The LouisE. Stem Collection, York'DACS: 4.1 75 © Sherrie Levine. Courtesy Simon
NationalEndowment forthe Arts, Bradbury Dyer, III, 930.1964.8. Photo2012,MuseumofModern Lee Galler)-, London; 4.1 76 © The Andy Warhol
Mr. and Mrs. Bryant M. Hanley,Jr.,Mr. and Mrs Art, New York/Scala Florence. © Succession Foundation/Corbis. ©The Andy WarhoiFoundation
Michael C. Mewhinney, Deedie and Rust)- Rose, and H. Matisse' DACS 2012; 4.145 MuseeNational ror the Visual Arts/Artists Rights Society (ARS),New
Mr. and Mrs. William T. Solomon. Courtesy Gagosi an d'ArtModerne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Pahs. Yorfc'DACS, London 2012; 4.1 77 The Museum of
Gallery: 4.1 08 PhotographLuidger: 4.1 09 National © Succession H.Matisse/DACS2012; 4.1 46 ©Tate. Contemporary Art, Los .Angeles. Purchasedwith
Archaeological Museum.Naples; 4.11 0 Centre London, 201 2. Reproducedby permission of The funds providedby the National Endowment for the
GuillaumeleConquerant.Bayeux; 4.111Museum of Henry Moore Foundation; 4.147 Museum Arts, a Federal Agency, and Councilman Joel Wachs.
FineArts, Boston,Fenollosa-WeldCollection: 4.112 of Modern Art, NewYork, Gift of Mrs.John D. © Richard Princ e; 4. 17 8 C ourte sy the artist an d
Courtesy the artist: 4.113 © DACS 2012: 4.11 4 Rockefeller III, 67S.1954. Photo 2012, Museum of Sikkema Jen kins & C o.
Image Numbering Chapter 1.8: 1.141-1.148
Chapter 1.9: 1.149-1.160(a) and(b)
Chapter 3.4: 3.79-3.100
Chapter3.5: 3.101-3.116
Chapter 1.10: 1.161-1.172 Chapter3.6: 3.117-3.144
by Part and Chapter Chapter3.7: 3.145-3.179
Part 2 Chapter3.8: 3.180-3.221
Chapter 2.1: 2.1-2.21 inclusive
The following list shows inwhich chapters Chapter 2.2: 2.22-2.40 Part 4
images appear, cited by figure number Chapter 2.3: 2.41-2.57 Chapter4.1: 4.1 -4.20 inclusive
Chapter 2.4: 2.58-2.70 Chapter4.2: 4.21-4.38
Introduction Chapter 2.5: 2.71-2.94 Chapter4.3: 4.39-4.58
0.1-0.18 inclusive Chapter 2.6: 2.95-2.113(a) and (b) Chapter4.4: 4.59-4.73
Chapter 2.7: 2.114-2.124 Chapter4.5: 4.74-4.88
Part 1 Chapter 2.8: 2.125-2.141 Chapter4.6: 4.89-4.101
Chapter 1.1: 1.1-1.27 inclusive Chapter 2.9: 2.142-2.164 Chapter4.7: 4.102-4.115
Chapter 1.2: 1.28-1.46 Chapter 2. 10: 2.165-2.194 Chapter4.8: 4.116-4.128
Chapter 1.3: 1.47-1.70 Chapter4.9: 4.129-4.147
Chapter 1.4: 1.71-1.94 Part 3 Chapter 4. 10: 4.148-4.160
Chapter 1.5: 1.95-1.109 Chapter 3.1: 3.1-3.30 inclusive Chapter4.11: 4.161-4.178
Chapter 1.6: 1.110-1.125 Chapter 3.2: 3.31-3.55
Chapter 1.7: 1.128-1.140 Chapter 3.3: 3.56-3.78
Acknowledgments University", Dennis Sears, Gadsden State

Community* College; Suzanne Thomas, Rose
Institute; Beth Wright, University* of Texas
at Arlington; and her warmest thanks go to
State College; Li-Lin Tseng, Pittsburg State her family: Bill Gibney, Jaclyn Jean Gibnev,
University", Cathie Trier, Paris Community* and Connie DeWitte.
College; Kathy Windrow, Eastfield College;
The publisher would like to thank the KathvWindrow, Eastfield College; Linda Ra.ph M. Larmann
following for theirgenerous adrice and Woodward, Lone Star Community* College would like to thank the following for their
feedback during the preparation of Gateways Montgomery, Susan Zucker, Louisiana scholarly assistance and support: Ella
to Art Special gratitude goes to: John State University. Combs -Larmann, independent scholar and
Adelman, Lone Star College Cy-Fair, Fred The publisher also gratefully acknowledges artist, Dr. Gordon Kingsley, Harlaxton
C. Albertson, University of Memphis; Dan the following contributors: Wafaa Bilal, Tracy College; Steven Ochs, Southern Arkansas
Borian, Trine University; Andrea Donovan, Chevalier, Mel Chin, Michael Fay,Antony University*; Dr. Heidi Strobel, University of
Minot State University; Kara English, Tarrant Gormlev, David Grove, Zaha Hadid, Zahi Evansville;University of Evansville, Office
County Community College; T rina Felty, Hawass, Mona Hatoum, Hyo-In Kim, Steve of Academic Affairs, Office of Alumni
Pima Community College; Ferdinanda McCurry, Melchor Peredo, Martin Ramirez, Relations, University Library, Department
Florence, Solano Community College; Colin Rhodes, Howard Risatti, Sonoko of Art; andfor their patience and
Rebecca Hendrick, University of Texas at Sasaki, Richard Serra, Cindy Sherman, Paul understanding: Ella,Allison, and Tip.
El Paso; Bonnie Holt, Contra Costa College; Tacon, Dan Tague, Spencer Tunick, BillViola,
Kathv Holt, Arapahoe Community College; andRobert Wittman. M. Kathryn Shie.ds
Frank Latimer, Pulaski Technical College; would like to thank the following: Laura M.
Bridget Lynch, Simmons College; Patrick Debfa J. DeWitte Amrhein, University of Arkansas Little Rock
McNalh*, Community- College of Aurora; would like to thank the following for their Damon Akins, Guilford College; Maria
Ken Magri, American River College; Erin scholarly assistance Melissa Bowden, Bobrotf, Guilford College; Ingrid Furniss,
Morris, South Mountain Community" University of Texas at Arlington; Richard Lafayette College; Rita Lasater, University
College; Carola Naumer, Truckee Meadows Brettell, University" of Texas at Dallas; of Texas at Arlington; Claire Black McCoy,
Community* College; Kristin Powers Nowlin, Annemarie Carr, Southern Methodist Columbus State University; Jenny Ramirez,
Southeast Missouri State University;Elaine University", Juilee Decker, Georgetown Virginia Military Institute; and express love
O'Brien, Sacramento State University", College; Rita Lasater, University of Texas at and gratitude to herfamilv: Barn" Bell,
Margee Bright Ragland, Georgia Perimeter Arlington; John McQuillen, University" of Gillian Denise Shields Bell, Aden Emmerich
College; Mollie Rushing, Delta State Toronto; Jenny Ramirez, Virginia Military Shields Bell, and Nancy Shields.
IMAGE NUMBERING/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 61 1
alternative media 240—47 artifacts 270
Index Amataerasu Omikami (god) 480
ambulator)- 326,326
artist's books 189
Artist's Studio, Tfce( Daguerre) 218,215
Amilie Qeu.net) 234, 234 artivists 191
American Civil War 42, 530,530, 533 Ascending and Descending(Ixhet) 90, 50
Amitayas mandala (Tibetan Buddhist monks. 126-27j 27 Ascent ofthe Prophet Muhammad on his Steed..., The
Figunrsin ifalic re ft rto p ages on whi ch Ulustration s amphora, Greek 307, 307, 309 (miniature) 322,322
appear analogous colors 96, 97, 98-99 Ash oka, Emperor of India 333
analysis of artworks 154;biographical 154, 156-57, 161; Ashurnasi rpal II,of Assyria 299; palace299,299-300
A-frame construction 4S1 contextual 154, 158—59,161;feminist 154,157-58; .4sian Field(Gormley) 272,272
Abe, Shuya 237 formal 154,159-61, 163;iconographic 154-56, 161; Asmat ancestor p'oles (NovGuinea) 486-87,4S7
Abclarn, the (Papua New Guinea) 373, 374; cult house 364, psychological 154, 159 assemblages 121, 121, 430,430-31,433,433
374, 374; yammask 373, 373 anamorphosis 515 Association Mensuelle, L' 200
Aboriginal rock art 37 1,371 Anasai.the 359, 360; Cliff Palace, MesaVerde, Colorado Assyrians 298, 299-300
Abraham (biblical figure; 316, 324 359, 359-60 astrolabes 496, 498; Safavid 49 S, 495
Abramovic, Marina 242—43;77re House wth The Ocean ancestor figures, M:ai (Easter Island) 372-73 J73 astronomy 353, 358, 393, 496-97
View 242, 243 ancestor poles,Asmat (New Guinea. 486-87,487 asymmetry 125-26, 127, 445
absolute monarchy 39S, 523, 524 Ancestral SpiritChair (Saar) 473, 473 Athens 454-55; Acropolis 304-5,305, 455; Panathcnaic
abstract 59, 66, 113,136, 137, 163,203,205,218,219,259, Andean artworks 34S-50, 352; silver llama 352,352; Festival 4 5 4 ;Temple of Athena Nike (Kallikrates) 278,
338, 366-67, 415, 557, 572, 587 textiles 352, 352; set- also ChavLn, Inca,Moche,Na2ca,aid 278; see also Parthenon
Abstract Expressionism/Expressionists 437-38, 441,481 Paracas cultures .Atkins, Anna 214; Halydrys Si!iquosa2 14, 214
abstraction 153-54,422,435-36,450 Andokides Painter: Achilles andAjax PlayingDice atmospheric perspective S3, S3— S4, 379, 416
Academies 34, 35; French 96, 39S— 99, 400, 410; Roval ( amphora) 307, 307, 309 atrium 459
Academy, London 404, 411 Anguissola, Sotonisba 388—89;Pomrair of theArtists Sisters AT &T logo ( Bass.; 58, 55
Acconci.Vito 242; FollowingPiece 240, 242, 242 PlayingChess 389, 3S9 attacks on artworks 546, 547,548-51
Achilles andAjax PlayingDice (Andokidcs Painter) 307, animation (movies) 111,232-33, 234 .Augustus,Emperor 527;.Ai<gÿsrÿs ofPr.maporta 527, 527
307, 309 Anthropometries.. (Klein) 562,562 .Australia 370; Aboriginal rock art 371,371
acropolis 304, 3C6; see also Athens; Parthenon Afltoni, Janine: Loving Care 563,563 automatic 51, 146
acrylic paints 137, 188, 155, 191 Anubis (god) 492,494 Autom aricDrawKg (Masson) 51, 51
a ctio n pai ntings 24 1, -6 7 Apollo and Daphne (Bemini) 108, J09 Autun, France: Cathedral of Saint -La2are 30,494, 494-95
Adam andEve (Beckmann) 196, 196 appropriation 270, 58S-S9 avant-garde 427, 567
Adam andEve (Dilrer) 196, I9o apses 31S Awakening Slave (Michelangelo) 264,264
Adam andEve (Rembrandt) 197, 197 aquatints 27, 27-28, 197, 197, 199, 203 axis 69, 126,282, 326
Adams,Ansel: Said Dunes, Sunrise— Death Valley National aqueducts, Ranan 279,279 A2tecs 353,356, 357, 484; calendar stone (Sun Stonc)497,
Monument California 217, 2 17 Ara PacisAugustae, Rome 67,67 497-98; The DismembermentofCoyolxuahqui 35S, 355,
additive colors 92, 93 arabesques 320, 336 human sacrifice 357, 357-5S; The Mother Goddess 35S,
adobe buildings 275,275 Arabic calligraphy 6 1,61, 2 11, 3 16, 324 355; pictographs 353; pyramids 357, 463,463; Tlaloc
advertisements 103, 210,2J£*seira'sologos;postcrs Arbus, Diane 575\ Hermaphrodite m'4 a Dog575,575 mask vessel 491, 491-92; Tla2olteotl sculpture 485, 455
Aeroplanel (Matos) 190, 191 arch construction: corbeled 279; pointed 280, 2S 1,326,
aesthetic 237,254,285 455,4S0;roundcd 279,279, 2 SO, 281; triumphal 312, 3 J2 Baalbek Bird Cage (Hatoum) 585, 5S5
Afghan Girl a!Nasar Bagh Refugee Camp, Peshawar; Archaic period 307,308,309 3abur, Mughal emperor 140, 140
Pakistan (McCurry) 219,219, 221 archetypal images 554 Baby Blocks (Schapiro) 57, 57
Africa 364-65; arch itecture36S,368-69, 369, Beninplaque architectural orders, Classical 306,306, 309 Baby- Figure,Olmec 251,251
527,527; kente367,367;map 365; masks 37, 43, 43, 367, architecture 29-30,274-75, 291; basic construction Babylon'Babylonians 279, 300; Ishtar Gate 300300
—
367; notions ofbeauty 558 59; sculpture 132, 132, 365,
365-66,366, 369, 369, 472, 472, 457, 4S7-SS, 568-69,569,
methods 276, 2 78; cast-iron 2 S4— 85; Classical*:t- Greece,
ancient, and Roman Empire; and engineering 276, 277;
background 55, 119, 147,161, 169, 1S2, 223, 232, 2 5 3, 262,
320
spiritual beliefs 472; status symbols 472-73 Gothic 130, 254, 281,251,285, 315, 327, 454, 455; and Bacon, Henry 37
African Americans 224-25; art 119-20J2O, 436, 436-37, illusionism 513-14; Islamic 148,324-25, 335-36, 368-69, Bag): dad, Iraq: National Museum 299
445, 445-46, 473, 473 4S0;Mannerist5!4;Modernist2S5-S9, 291, 444—45, Bai-ra-Irrai, Belau 149, 149
afterimage effect 501 45S-59; Neoclassical 30,404-5; Postmodernist 289, 444, 3ailcy, Xenofcta 445;Mothership I:Sistah Paradise's Great
Agra, India: Taj Mahal 332,335,335-36 44 5 ;reinforccd concrctc 288-89;Ro coco 3 99; Walls ofFire Reviva!445, 445-46
aisles 2SO Romanesque 280, 28 1,3 15, 325-26; sacred 480-8 1,483, balance 124-25, 127,161, 391; asymmetrical/dynamic
ahu'ula cloaks (Hawaiian) 372,372 see also Gothic style; steel-frame 285, 2S7;wooden 282- 125-26; radial 126-27; symmetrical 125
Ajanta caves, India: Ibdhisattva Padmapani 333,533 84;see also arch construction; domes;vaults; and specif.c 3all, Hugo 430, 430
Akhenaten, pharaoh 525;Akhenaten, Nefertiti,and Three countr.es Balla, Giacomo: Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash 109, 109
daughters (relief; 525, 525 architraves 306,513,514, 515 ballgames, \fcsoamerican 356,356
Akkadians 298,299,474; head of ruler299,299 Aries, France: St. Trophimc 325,325 balloon framing 253, 283-84
Alberti, LconBattista: On Painting 86, 87, 379, 509 armatures 265-66,267 Baltimore album quilts 124, 124
Alexander, St.: reliquary of the Headof 322, 322-23 Amolfini Portrait, The (van Eyck) 384, 385, 385 balustrade 510
Alexander Mosaic (Battle oflssus) 535, 535 Amolfo diCambio: Florence Cathedral 378 Bamberg,Germany: Basilica ofYicr zehnh eiligc.n
Alha2cn S6 Arp, Hans 146; Trousse d'un.Da 146, J 46 (Neumann) 399, 399
All the Submarines of the United States ofA merica'(Burden art definition ot 26—29; creators ot 30—34; reasons tor bamboo drawings (Wu Zh.cn) 176, J 76
533, 533-34 studying4l—13;value of34-37 Bamiyan,Afghanistan Buddhas 549,549, 551
Allen,James: The Connectors 53, 55, 55 Art Brut 503 Banjo Lesson, The (Tanner) 409, 409
Along the River during the Qingm ing PestivaI( Zhang ArtDome see Geodesic Dome Bank of China, Hong Kong (Pei) 287, 287-SS
Zeduan) 337-38, 33S "Ail for Art's Sake" 5 S4 banner from tomb of Lady Dai (Han Dynasty) 339, 339-40
Altar ot Peace, Rome see Ara Pacis Augustae Art Nouveau 419-20 Banner ofLas Navas de To!osa( Islamic tapestry) 61, 61
altar pieces 387 A rtichokeHalved(Weston) 148, 14S-49 Bar at the Polies-Bergere, A (Manet) 517, 517-19
altars 318 articulate 288 Barnev, Matthew: Cremastercyde 449,449
612 INDEX
Baroque st>ie 186,377, 393, 39S, 477; architecture 289; Boating Party, The (Cassatt) 9S, 9S-99 Calling of St.Matthew, Tlre(Caravaggio) 79, 79
painting 393, 395, 395, 395-96, 495,495, see also Boccioni,LJmbcrto: Muscular Dynamism 179, 179, L'xiane camera obscura S6, 212— 13,2 13
Caravaggio and Gcntileschi, Artemisia; sculpture 261, Forms ofContinuity m Space 434, 434 Camera Obscura Imageofthe Pantheon m the Hoteldes
261-62,392-93, 393, 475, 475-76 Bochner, Mel: Vertig? 49-50, 50 Grands Ho mmes ( N lorell) 213, 213
Barricade, rue dela Mortellerie,June 1848, 27re(Meissonier) bodhisattvas 333; BodhisattvaPadmapani,.Ajanta,India Camera Wo rk (journal) 223
531,531,5 33 333, 333 Cameraman's Revenge, The (Starcwicz) 232— 33,233
base 285 Body Worlds exhibition (Hagens) 500-501 cameras 212, 214; digital 212, 214-15; video 22S, 238
basilica 529 bohemians 431 Canalctto (Antonio Canal); The Maundy Thursday Festival
Basketball Player (Hagens) 500, 50 1 boldfr.ee 206,207 before the DucalPalace in Venice 45, 49
Bass, Saul; AT&T logo 5S,5S Bonarnpak murals, Mexico 356-57,357 Cannons (Kandinsky) 428,425
Batman (Tagliapietra) 66,66 Bonhcur, Rosa: Plowing in the Nivemais: The Dressing of the canon of proportions 556, 556, 557
Battle ofIssus (mosaic) 535, 535 Vines 150-51, 151 canopic jars, Egyptian 302,302, 494, 495
Battle Scene Hide Painting(Plains Indians) 560, 360-61 Book of the Dead(Egyptian papyrus) 492,492, 494 capitals 285,306,307
Baudelaire, Charles 128 Boscoreale, Italy Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor 508, capstones 461
Bauhaus 40, 41 508-9 Caravaggio, Mich.cla.ngcb Mcrisi da 394, 587',The Calling
Bayrux Tapestry 536,536, 537 Botticelli,Sandro 558; The Birthof Venus 558, 558 ofSt. Matthen- 79, 79; Judith Decapitating Holofemes394,
Bearden, Pornarc 436; The Dove 119-20,128 Three Folk Bourgeois,Louise: Maman 75,75 394
Musician s436 436—3. Brancusi, Cons tantin 436; Birdin Space 436, 436 Carolina Photojournalism Workshop 2 11,211
Beautiful Woman (Dohan) 559, 559 Branded(Saville) 5SI, 5S1-82 Carpenter, Captain Richard- bent-comer chest 259,259
beauty,notions of 557-59 Braque, Georges 94, 424-25, 426;Heÿses at L'Estaque426, Carter, Howard 303
Bcckmann, Max: Adam and Eve 196, JSC 426 cartoonists 128
Bedroom, The (van Gogh) 56, 56 Breaking Column (Rickey) 271,271 cartoons (designs) 168, 165, 183
Beecrott, Vanessa: VB35 5 63, 563, 565 Breaking ofthe Vessels (Kicfcr) 541, 54J cartoons (movies) 111,111
Beever, Julian: Woman in Pool 515 515—16 "Bridge, The"(movement) 429 carving 263, 265
Bellows, George: Woodstock Road, Woodstock, Netv York, Brillo Box (Warhol) 5S8,588 Cassatt, Mary 99; The Boating Party 98, 9S— 99; The Child's
1924 51,51-52 Brockville, Ontario: s tick- style house 283,283 Bath 345, 345
Benin,Vest Africa 43; brass placue 527,527; ivory mask bron2e(s) 266-67, 267; .Akkadian299, 299, Chinese vessels casting 263, 266; lost-wax 266-67,267;piece mold 338, 339
43,43 125, 125, 339,339 contemporary 71, 71-72, 154, 154 casts 132, 177,2 18, 219
Benning Sadie 236; Flatis Beautiful 236-37, 237 54S, 54S—49, 5S8, 588, Futurist 434, 434; Greek statues catacombs 479; ancient Rome 3 17,317, 478-79,479
Benton, Thomas Hart The Wreck of the Ole '9782-83, S3 134, 134, 266,266; Hildeshcim doors 471, 471-72; Indian CatalhOyilk, Turkev 296; wall painting 296,296
Berlin,Germany. XeucXationalgalcrie(Miesvan dcr 4SS, 4SS-, ItalianBaroque 3 92, 392-93; Roman 152, 153 Cataract 3 (Riley) 110, J J 0
Rohe) 287', Pcrgarnon Museum 300 3rookh-n Museum. New York City 39-10 cathedrals: Autun, France 30, 394, 394-95; Chartres, France
Bernhardt, Sarah: portrait (badar) 217,217 Brown,Joan 186; G irlin Ch cdr 186 254, 254-55, 327,527; Florence, Italy 378, 378, Xotre
Bernini, Gianlorcnzo 595',Apollo and Daphne 108, 109, Brucke, Die ("The Bridge") 429 Dame, Paris 455,455
Da\id 3 92, 393, 393; The Ecstasy of St. Teresa 475, 475-76 Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder 3S6; Hunters in the Snow 146—47, Catholic Church 317, 377, 381, 390, 393, 401, 476
Bcrrlward,Bishop 471 147; Landscapewith the FallofIcarus 13S, 138; cave paintings 204; Cbsquer Cave, France 295,295;
Bcuys,Joseph H3, 241\ Coyote, ILike America andAmerica Netherlandish Froverbs3S6,386 Lascaux, France 190,477,477,478, 475
Likes Me 241, 241-42 Bruggen, Coosjcvan see Oldenburg, Claes Cellini, Benvenuto SaltCellar ofFrancis I256, 256
Bible, the 315,316,470,471 Brunelleschi, Filippo 87, 379; Florence Cathedral 378,375 Cello Music (Smilack) 502, 503
Bichitr:Jahang.r Preferring a Sufi Shavkh to Kings 335, 335 brush and ink drawings 175—76, 176 eels 233
Bicycle IVkeei(Duchamp) 430,430-31 Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) 103, 331, 332-33, 340, 343, Ccndrars, 3laise 189
Bidri ware huec a base 143, 143 472; Bamiyan statues 549, 549, 551; Life ofBuddha censorship of art 39-41
Big Ten logo (Grivetti) 60,60 (Gupta periodstela. 472, 472; see also 3uddhism Center for Maximum Potential 3uilding Systems: model
bijinga 344,344 Buddhism 331, 334, 340; inChina 336; in Indianart 332- village, Longju, China 291,291
Bilal, Wafra 540; Domestic Tension 540, 540 33, 472, 472; inJapan 282-83, 253, 343, 343, 346 Central Park Zoo, New York C:ry(WLnogrand) 224, 224
3ilbao, Spain:GuggenheimMuseum(Gehry) 74,74-75 Bull-leapers (Minoan fresco) 297,297 ceramics 33, 248,250,250, 259, 5 72;Aztec 491, 491-92;
binder 172, 180,191 Bull's Head(Picasso) 270,270 Chinese 252, 252, coil method 250, 252;l2nik 100,100;
Bingham, Hiram 353 Burden, Chris: All the Submar.nes ofthe United States of Japanese tea bowls 32, 32, 37, 342, 342; slab method 252—
"bioart" 115 America 533,533-34 53; throwing (onwheel) 252; Yoruba454, 484-85
biographical analysis 154, 156-57,161 burins 195 ceramists 24S
Bird in Space ( Brancusi ) 436, 436 Bume-Jones, Edward 208; Works ofGeoffrey Chaucer (with Cervantes, Susan 454, 46S;Precita Valley Vision 46S, 469
Birren, Faber 103 Morris) 208,205 -
Cezanne, Paid 426,428; Mont Saiirt V'iaor-f 415—16, 416
Birth ofa Nation (Griffith) 230, 230 Burtynsky,Edward 227;.Vf anufacturing =17 227, 227 Chaan Muan, Lord of Bonarnpak 356-57
Birth of Venus, The (Botticelli) 55S, 55S busts 262, 310, 311 chairs: Congo 472—73,473\ Ancestral Spirit Chair {Sa.ai)
bis poles, Asmat 486-87,457 Byzantine Empire 314, 318, 520,570; art and architecture 473, 473
black-figure vases 309 3 1S-20, 3 19, 520-2 1, 52 J; iconoclasm 550 chalk 172; drawings 75, 7S— 79, 172, 172, 5J5, 515-16
3lack Letter style 206, 206, 211 Byzantium 314, see Istanbul Champollion, Jean-Francois 302
3lack MountainCollege, bbrth Carolina 241 charcoal 171; drawings50, 171,171-72
3lakc, William 166, 405, 407 \Elohim CreatingAdam 407, Cabinet ofDr. Caligari, The (Wlcnc) 235, 235 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 388
407 Cage, John 241; Theater Piece No. 1 241 Charlottesville,Virginia: Monticdlo(Jctfcrson) 404, 404-5
Blek le Rat (Xavier Proa) 19 1;Davidwith the Machine Gun Cahokia, Illinois: Monks Mound 462-63,463 Chartres Calliedral, Ranee 327,327; stainedglass 254,
191, 191 Cai Lun 177 254-55
Bloch- Bauer,Adele, II: portrait (Klimt) 34-35, 35 Caillcbotte, Gustavc 4\3;Paris Street:Rainy Day413, 415 Chaucer,Geoffrey 248; Works (Morris and Bume-Jones)
Blom, Frans 354 Calatrava, Santiago: Quadracci ?avil: on, Milwaukee Art 208,205
Blue Dancers (Degas. 415, 415 Museum 2 S9, 259 Chavin culture 348, 349, 350; Rairnondi Stcla349, 349-50
BIk e Interior (Jobey) 137, 137 Caldcr,.Alexander 113; LxhrJedl 13, 113 Chfirel, Jules: poster 418, 415
Blue ManGroup J 12, 113 calendars 496; Aztec calendar stone 497, 497-9S Chevalier, Tracy Girlwith a Pearl Earring 38
BlueNude II(Matisse) 566, 566 calligraphy 205; Arabic61,61, 21 1,316,324; Chinese32, Chevrolet lo or 207,207
BlueRcom , The(Valadon) 142-43 ,143 33,205,205,336,337 chevron 473
INDEX 613
c
chiaroscuro 75, 7S-79, 91, 379, 5S4 445; inprint 101-2; psychology of 103, 104; Cosby Show 445
Chibinda Ilunga (Chokwc sculpture) 5 6S—69, 569 revolutionary useof422; RG3 102,102, 105; and Cosquer Cave, France 295; Black horse 295,295
Chicago, USA 285 saturation 95, 95-96, 100; secondary92, 97; shades of 94; CountYour Blessings (Schwar2) 256, 257
Chicago, Judy 572;The Dinner Party572, 572-73 subtractivc 92-93; symbolic values 103;and temperature Counter- Composition V'(van Doesburg) 435,435
Chihuly, Dale 255; Fiori d: Como 255, 255 99, 100; tertiary 97; andvalue 93-95, 94 vibrating Counter- Reformation,the 377,390
Child's Bark, 77:e(Cassatt) 345,345 boundaries 97,97, 110, J Jft and see below Courbct, Gustave 408; Fox in the Snow492, 492,
childbirth: and art 4S4-S6 color field 136, 137 Ston ebreakers 40S, 409
Chin, Mel 245; Operation Paydirt 245,245 color pencils, drawing with 170, 170 courses,brick 461
China 227, 330, 33 1; ancestor worship 338; bronie vessels color theory 501 Cow with the Subtle Xose (Dubuffct) 503, 503
125, 125, 339,559; calligraphy- 32, 33, 205,205, 336, 337; color wheels 92, 93, 96; CMYK J 02; RGB 102 Cowboys scries (Prince) 5S9, 559
chrorno therapy 104; Confucianism 331, 336;Daoism Colossal Heads, Olms: 70,70, 75, 251,251, 263, 263, 354, Coyote, iLikeAmerica andAmerica LikesMe (Bciays) 241,
331,336; ink painting 125-26,126;landscapes 82, 82, S4, 354,522,522 241-12
55, 336-37, 33?, literati 337; Mao Zedong portraits 529, Colosseum, Rome 310, 312, 45S, 455 crafts 248,249,259
529, map 350 painted banner 559, 339—40, porcelain 252, columns 2S5, 513,513; shafts 285, 306,307 crayon 172; drawings 51-52,51, 55, 55, 172-73, 173
252, scroll paintings 82, 52, 84,55, 336-38, 537, 335, 521, communicative line 55-56,56 creation myths 122, 352, 4S4-S5 496
521; "Terracotta Army" 462, 462; tombs 338, 339 Communism/Communists 69, 273,529 Creadon ofAdam (Michelangelo) 381,351
China Monument: Temple ofHeaven (Gu) 552-53, 553 community art 454 Crear.on ofthe Sun and Moon (Michelangelo) 264, 264
Chirico, Giorgio de 43 1— 32; The Melancholy and Mystery of Company ofFrans BanningCocq and Willem van Cremasteric (Barney) 449,449
the Street432, 432 Ruytenburch, The( The Xigit Watch) (Rembrandt) 396, cropping (of images! 415
choir (of church) 326,326 396 "Cross and Carpct"pagc 320-21,321
Chokwepcople: Chibinda Ilunga 568-69,569 complementarycolors 96-9S, 95, 503 cross-hatching 80,50, 172-73, 175
Chola period: Shiva Xataraja 488, 4SS composite view 304, 305,426 Crow, the (group of the Sioux dan) 360
Christ see Jesus Christ composition 67, 109, 116 138, 142, 173, 199, 223,275, 32S, Crystal Palace, London(Paxton) 254, 284-S5
Christ in the House of lev:(Veronese 359, 3S9-90 344, 38S, 425, 530, 544; and placement of elements 140- Csun, Charles 102—3; WondrousSpring 102, 103, 103
Christian Church/Christianity 103, 130,316-18,470, 471- 41; and unity 116, 116, 117; see also balance; focal point CubiXIX (Smith) 64—65, 65
72, 474; see also Catholic Church; Eastern Orthodox computer games 85,56, 87 Cubism' Cubists 94, 118,275,425,426,427, 429,433-34,
Church; Protestants computer -generated art 102-3,103, 209 436
Christina's World (W'yeth) 152, 183 concentric shapes 61 cuneiform writing 29S
Christo andJeanne- Claude: The Cares Central Park, New conceptual art 49, 174,240, 243-44, 431, 442-43 curators,museum 246—47
YorkCity 456, 457,457 conceptual statements 57S cutouts 4 S2,566
chromotherapy 104 conceptual unity 120-21 Cut withthe Kitchen Knife through the Last'Weimar
Church, Frederic Edwin 408; .Niagara40S, 405; Twlight in concrete 458, 459; reinto reed 2 8S-S9 Beer-Belly Cultu ralEpoch ofC erm any ( H6ch) 224, 225
theWildemess9S,95 cone of vision 90,90 Cvdadic sculpture 296,296
church design 251; aisles 2S0; altars 3 18, 3 19 ambulatorv Confucius/Confucianism 103, 331,336
326,326; apse 318; central plan 319; choir 326,326; nave Congo, Democratic Republic 0*:kneeling tcrnale tigure Dada 146, 224,243,429-31
280,250 457, 4S7-SS;Ngombe chair472-73,473 Daguerrc, Louis -Jacques- MandS 214; TheA rtist'sStudio
Cimabue: Virgin andChild Enthroned 328, 325 Connectors, The (Allen) 53, 55, 55 218,215
Cincinnati, Ohio: Contemporary Arts Center (Hadid) 290, Concucs, France: Saintc-Foy 2S0, 250 daguerreotypes 214,215
290 Constantinc, Emperor 312, 314, 5 28; statue of525, 528-29 Dali, Sahador 504; Persistence ofMemory 504, 504
Circus, The (Seurat) 100, 100-1, 101 Constantinople 314; sf also Istanbul Daoism 331, 336
Citizen Kane (W:ella) 231,231 Constructed HeadXo. 2(Gabo) 269,269 darkrooms, photcgraphic 215,215
CLAMP: TsKhasa RESEPVoir CHPo.ViCLE 49,49 Constr uctivis nVConstr ucti\ists 69,69, 268—69, 269, 270, Daurnicr, Honors 200; Rue Transnonarn 200, 200-201
Classical (art andarchitecture) 132, 305,309, 401,433 271 David(Bernini) 392,393 J93
Claude Lorrain:Die Tiberfrom MonteMono Looking South ContS crayon 172; drawings 172-73,173 David (Donatello) 392, 392, 393
176,176 Contemporary art 422, 443, 44S, 449 David (Michdangdo) 392, 393,393
Claudcl, Carnille 414; The Waltz 414, 414 content 152-54 Davidwirh!fceAfadii?:eG«?i(Blekle Rat) 191, 191
clay 24S, 250; modeling 265-66 contextual analysis 154, 15S— 59, Iffl David, Jaccucs-Louis 403; Death ofMarat55 1, 55 1—52; The
Clement VII, Pop: 3SS.510 continuousnarrative 316,342, 343,379 Oath ofthe Horatii400, 403, 403-4
clerestory windows 282 contour drawing 179 Davidson, Carolyn: Nike Company-logo 56,56
Close, Chuck 516; Fan ny/Fingerpainting5I6,5 16-17;Self contour lines' contours 55, 177, 17S, 179,37Q567 Dead Christ (Mantegna) 489, 459
Portr ait 144-45, 145 contour rivalry 350, 351 death 484, 487,489-90;see alsohuman sacrifice;
Clovis spear poLnts 34S contrapposto 308, 309 sarcophagi
CMYK color 102,102, 105 contrast 46, 58-61, 140, 142,172,203,207,254 Death ofMarat (David) 551, 551-52
Coatlicue 358, 355 conventions 557 De Chirico, Giorgio see Chirico, Giorgio de
Codex Magh abcchi ano 357, 357 convex 510 Defense Worker (Thrash) 199, 199
coffered 312 Copernicus, Nicolaus 393 Degas, Edgar 345,415;131ueDBHcers4l5, 415; TheTub 172,
Coffin ir. the Shape of aCocoa Poi(Kwei) 93,93 Coplans, John 570; Self-portrait SidewaysXo. 3570,570 173
co~ins: Egyptian 26, 26—27, 302; see also sarcophagi Cor- ten steel 467 Degenerate Art Exhibition(1937) 40, 41
coil(ing) method(ceramics; 250, 365 corbeled arches 279 Deir d-Maiina, Egypt 30
Cole, Thomas 407, 408; Die Oxbow 407, 407-S Corbusier, Le (Charles-rdouardjeanneret) 2S6, 287; Villa deities 470,472,474
collages 57, 94, 119-20,224, 237, 426,436-37 Savoye, Poissy, France 2S6, 2S6-87 Dejeuner surl'herbe, Le(Luncheonon the Crass) (Manet)
colophons 336, 337 Corday, Charlotte 551, 552 410, 410
color (s) 56, 66, 92, 136, 142, 160, 171, ISO, 194,207, 212, Cbrdoba, Spain: Great Nfasque 148,J 45 Dcjong,Constance, Oursler, Tony, and Yitiello, Stephen:
231, 250, 393,422; additive 92,93; analogous 96,97, 98- Corinthian order 306, 306, 309, 3 11 FantasecPrayers237, 239, 239
99; CMYK 102, 102, 105; complementary 96-9S,95, 503; Com BlueRoom (Rickard) 446-47,447 de Kooning,Willem 174; Woman 1554, 555, 555-56
in electronic displays 102-3, 110,110, and emotions 99, Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her Treasures DclacroLx, EugSne: LibertyLeading the People 405,405; The
103, 104, 105; hies 93; intensity of S2-S3; and light92, (Kauffmann) 404,474, 570 Massacre at Chios 42, 43
92-93; and luminosity 186, 191; neutral 43, 94 160-61; Cornell, Joseph 121; Untitled(The HotelEden) 121, J21 Ddaunay,Sonia 189; Prose of the Trans-Sier.an Railway
optical 100-101, 105; and pigments 92; primary 92,97, cornices 285 and ofLittleJehanne of PrancelS9, 159
614 INDEX
c
Demoiselles d'Avignon, Les( Picasso, 425, 425—26, 427 Durand,Asher Brown KindredSpirits S4,S4 Exodus and Crossingofthe Red Sea (Dura Europos fresco)
Dcnon,Vivant: Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt 62 Durant, Susan 262; Memorialto KingLeopold ofthe 316,317
deposition 391 Belgians 262, 262 exonerno: The Road Movie 239, 239
Deposit:on (Pontormo) 390,391 Durcr, Albrecht Adam and Eve 196, 196; Course in the Art Experiment ona Birdin theAir Pump,AnJj. Wright) 49S,
depth 160, 270; implied77, 78, 80, 82, 83, S4£5, 86, 9! ofMeasurement... 206, 206; Draftsman Drawinga 499
Derain,Andre: The Turning Road, L'Estaque 96, 96 Recumbent 'Woman 91, 91; Pour Horsemen ofthe experimental films 236-37
Dercn, Maya, and Harnmid, .Alexander:Meshes of the Apocalypse 193, 193-94; The Last Supper387-$&, 385, Expressionism/Expressionists 196,235,253, 427-29, 5S6
Afternoon 236, 236 391; The Painter's Manual... 206;A roKng Hare IS9, 159 expressionÿ tic 393
De Stijl ("The Style") movemtfit 435-36 DustStorm. 'Women Take Shelter from StrongDust-Laden expressive 171, 186 211,227, 267, 2S8
Destitute Pea Pickers :n California Mother of Sever. Winds... (McCurry) 220,220 Eyck,Jan van 1S5, 3S5; TheAmolf.ni Portrait 354, 3S5, 355;
Children... (Lange) 114, J 14 Dutch History> ft We (copied byvan Deventer. 205 Madonna inaChurch 130, 130; TheMadonnaof
developing alms 215,215 Dying Lioness (Assvnan relief) 262,262 Chan cellorRolin 155
Deventer, Gherard Wessels van: Dutch History- Bible 205 Dynamism ofa Dogon a Leash (Balla) 109, 109
DevilMade Me Do St Tfce(Sauerkids) 53,53 facades 49,67,126,149,289,311
diagonal lines 344 Eagle Transformation Mask (Kvakiutl) 362,362 FadingAway (Robinson) 135,135
Dia2, Porfirio 184 Eakins,Thomas: PortraitofDr. Samuel D. Gross 'The Gross Faircy, Shcpard: Obey 55, 59
Dickson, W. K 5it- Edison, Thomas Clinic) 499, 499-500 Fallofthe G:anrs(Giulio Romano) 5 14, 514
didactic 315 earthenware 250 Palling Woman (Fischl) 545, 548—49
digital illustration 209 earthworks 268, 26S, 273; see also mounds, manmade Fallingwater, E>ear Pun, Pcnnsyhani a (F. Wright) 286, 286,
digital media, interactive 237-38 Easter Island 372; Moai ancestor figures 372-73p73 287
Dijkstra,Rinckc: Mothers series 455, 4S5-S6 Eastern Orthodox Church: icons 318, 474-75 False Perspective (Hogarth) 5 18, 515
Dinner Party-, The (Chicago) 572, 572-73 Ecstasy of St. Teresa , The (Bernini) 475, 475-76 Family of Charles A", The (Goya) 406, 406
directional line 19S, 199 Edison,Thomas, and Dickson, W.K:PredQtt's Sneeze 108, FanKuan: Travelers omongMountains and Streams 82, 82
Disasterso/ War (Goya) 198 108 Fanny/Fingirpainting(Clox) 516 516—17
Discus Thrower(Discokolos) (Myron) 557,557 editions (prints) 192, 202 FantasticPrayers (Dejong, Oursler, andYitiello) 237,239,
Dismemberment ofCoyolxauhqui, Goddess ofthe Moon Egypt, ancient 26-27, 30, 132, 300,526; architecture 278, 239
(A2tec) 35S, 35S 27ft books ofthe dead 492,492, canopic jars 302, 302, Father Damien (Marisol) 71,71—72
Disney (Walt) Pictures: FindingXemo 111, 111 494, 495; chro mo therapy 104; coffin painting26, 26-27; Faulkner,William 108
Disputa (Raphael) 509 Great Sphinx 63, 63-64, 301,301, 302; hieroglyphs 204, Fauvcs, die 96, 97
dissonance 38S 204, 302, 302 Palette of Narmer 526, 526-2 7;pharaohs Fay, Michael 53 8; Sto rm and Stcr. e 535, 53 S— 39
Dix, Otto 40; The War 53 S, 539, 541; War Cripples 301, 302, 525; pyramids 64, 64, 276, 277,277, 301, 301, Fayum portraits 181
(Kriegeskrueppet) 40, 40 302, 460, 460-61,493, 493; sculpture 130, 130, 302,302, readier cloaks (ahu-ula), Havaiian 372,372
DicnnS, Mali 368; Great Mosque 368, 368-69 308, 556, 556-57, 575,575; tomb paintings 183,304,304; female figurines, prehistoric 554-55
Do the Right Thing (S. Lee) 445 Tutankharnun's funerary mask 303, 303 feminism1feminists 568, 572-74;analysis of artworks 154,
Do Women Have ro be Xaked to get into the Met. Museum' Eiffel, Gustave 285 157-5S
(Guerrilla Girls) 574, 574 Eiffel Tower, Par is 417-18 ,415 fengshui 2SS
documentary movies 235-36, 219 Eine Kleme Xachtmusik (Tanning) 131, 131 Fcnton, Roger 226; Vdley of the Shadow ofDeath 226, 226
documentary photography 219, 530-31, 533, 569;see also Einstein,.Albert 76, 484, 501 Fertile Crescent 298
lange,Dorothea Elderly Peasant, An (Lhcrmittc) 171, 171-72 fiber art 256-58, 259
Docsbiurg, Theo van 435—36, 439;Counter-ComposilionV elements of art 46, 62, 116, 128,136, 142, 152,422,588 Fifth Vision ofHildegard of Bingen, The (illuminated
435, 435 "Elgin Marbles" 307 frontispiece) 321,321-22
Dogon, die: Kanaga mask 367,367 Eliasson, Olafur: Remagme 271,271 figuration 450
Dohan, Kaigetsud6: Beautiful Woman 559, 559 Elohim CreatingAdam (Blake) 407, 407 figurative 365, 557
domes 2S2, 378,37ft coffered 312, 312, geodesic 77, 77; embroidery 350, 350, 351 figure-ground reversal 61
pendentive 282, 252 Emperor Babur Overseeing his Gardeners, The (Mughal film n.oir 77, 112
Domestic 'Tension (Bilal) 540, 540 painting) 140, 140 films see movies
Donan, Stanley see Kelly, Gene emphasis 79, 136, 140, 141, 150, 159, 169, 207, 2S0;and fin de siesle 417-19
Donatcllo 391; Davrd 392, 392, 393 subordination 136-3S;see also local point FindingXemo (Disney cartoon) 111, II1
Doric order 306,306 encaustic 180-81, 186,191; icon3 IS, 318-19;portraits Fior.diComo( Ch ihuly) 2 5 5,255
Doryphoros see Spear Bearer 181,151 Fireflies at Lyi River (ShOncn) 190, 190
Double Elvis (Warhol) 201,201-2 Encore (Fukuda) 512,512 firing (ceramics) 365
Double Indemnity (Wilder) 111-12, 112 engineering: and architecture 276, 277 Fischl,Eric: Falling Woman 545, 54S-49
Dove, The i Beardcn) 119—20, 120 cngraving(s) 195, 196, 196 203, 401-2,402,515 Fisk, Pliny, III 291
Doyle, Tom 157 Enlightenment, Buddins t 332-33, 340 tixativcs 174
Draftsman Drawinga Recumbent Woman (Diirer) 91, 91 Enlightenment,the 498 fixing (photography) 212, 213-14,215
drawing 166-67, 177, 179; brush and ink 175-76; chalk entablatures 306, 307 Flack,Audrey. Marilyn Monroe 155, 155-56
172; charcoal 171-72; color pencil 170; Conte crayon entasis 512, 513 Flag(Johns)' 502,502
172-73; contour 179; gesture 179; ink 174; pastel 172; pen Erased de KooningDrawing (Raus chcnberg) 174, 174 Flagellation, The ( Piero dclla Francesca) 119,119
and ink 174-75; pencil 169; silverpoint 170 erasers 174 Platis Beautiful (Bcnning) 236-37, 237
Drawingfor Sculpture (with color) (Hepworth) 50, 50-51 Emst, Max 432— 33; Surrealism and Painting 432, 433 Flavin, Dan 441—42; Untitled442, 442
"Dreaming," die 371 Escher, M. C. :Ascending and Descending 90,90, Sky and Fleming,Victor: The Wizard ofOz 231, 231-32
dry painting see sand painting Water 160, 60-61 flint objects 496
dry-point 40,40, 196, 196,203 Este, Isabella d1 34; portrait (Titian) 31,34 Florence, Italy 262, 3 79, 3 92; Brancacci Chapel (Santa
Dubuffct, fean 503-4; Cow with the Subtle.\'ose 503, 503; ctching(s) 53, 55,55, 197,197,203 Mariadcl Carmine) frescoes ( Masaccio) 379,379-80;
Suite with 7 Characters (Suite avec 7 Personnages) 51, 51 Etruscan sarcophagus (from Cerveteri) 266,266 Cathedral 378, 37ft 392
Ducharnp, Marcel 113, 146,243, 430, 431, 443, 5SS;23i:y:Ie Eucharist, die 320 Flower Contcdner (Karnes) 252,252
Wfceel 430, 430—3 1;Poun rait 243, 270,270; Xude Evans, Mary: alburn quilt 124, 124 flying buttresses 280, 251, 327
Descending a Staircase, Xo. 2 434, 434 Ever Is Over.4Jj(Rist) 448, 445, 450 focal point 69, 136, 138, 139,140, 141, 147, 161, 173,379
Dura Europos, Syr.a: synagogue 315, 315— 16,317 exile, The (Schnabel) 587,557 FollowingPece (Acconci) 240, 242,242
INDEX 615
fonts 206, 206-7 Geodesic Dome (Art Dome) (Fuller) 77,// Greece, ancient 304; Archaic period 3 07, 308, 3 09;
Ford Motor Companylogo 207,207 geodesic sphere 77,77, 78 architecture 83, 53, 135, 135, ISO, 278, 304-6, 454, 513,
foreground 67, 119, 146,161, 173, 183,217, 395 geometric shapes 57,57 513; philosophers 92; sculpture 132,134,134, 304, 305,
foreshortening 91,4S8, 5 15 George, Tern": HotelRwanda 546, 546 307, 307, 308, 305, 470, 470-71, 557, 557-58; vases 131,
form(s) 62-64, 113, 154, 166,218-19, 235, 252,263, 275, GSricault, Theodore: Reftof the Medusa 542, 543-44 131-32, 307, 307, 309
328, 422, 512, 557; geometric 64-65, 74; in reliefsÿ? relief gestalt unity 116, 121-22,127 Greek OrthodoxChurch 316
sculpture; inthe round66; organic 65-66, 74 gesture drawing 179 grid 116
formal analysis 154, 159-61 Ghana: kente 367, 367 Griffith, D.W.: Birth ofa Nation 230,230
format 132 Ghostwriter (Helmick and Schechter) 6S,65 Grivctti, At Big Ten logo 60, 60
Fort Edward(Wall) 27, 27-2S Giacometti, Alberto 565, 567;Mai Pointing 567,567 Gross Clinic, The (Eakins) 499, 499-500
found images 243 Giarnbologna (Giovanni Bologna;:Rape of a Sabine 261, ground 100,171,417,435
found objects 121,270, 431,584, 585 261-62 Grove, David 354
F:>:<•?«:rt(Duchamp) 243, 2X1,270 Giant (Goia) 197,197 Griinewald,Matthias :IsenheimAItarpiece 387, 357
Fountain (After Marcel Duchamp:A.P.) (Levine) 588, 5BS Giotto di 3codone 378; Virgin and Child Enthroned 328, Gu, Wenda 552; Uniteducations— Chin a Monument
Four Horsemen ofthe Apocalypse (Dilrer ) 193, 193-94 325 Temple of Heaven 552-53,553
Fox inthe Snow (Courbrt) 492,492 Girl in Chair (Brown) 1S6, 156 Gubbio Ducal Palace, Italy,studiolo (Francesco di Giorgio
F ragonard,Jean- Honor6: The Sv,~. ng 401, 40J Girl with a Pearl Earring(.Vermea) 38, 3S Martini) 255,259
Francesco di Giorgio Martini:srudiolft Ducal Palace, Girl with Af;>70'(Iichtenstein) 439, 439 Guerin, Jules: Lincoln Memorial murals 37
Gubbio 255, 259 Gislebcrtus 30; lastjudgnent 494, 494-95 Guernica (Picasso) 545, 545-46
Franco, General Francisco 545,546 Giuliani, Rudolph 39 Guerrilla Girls 573—74; Do Women Haveto beNaked to Get
Fred Ott's Sneeze (Edison and Dickson) 10S, JOS Giulio Romano: Fallofthe Giants 5 14,514; Palazzo del Ts, into the Met. Museums 574, 574
French, Daniel Chests: Lincoln Memorial 37,37 Mantua 514,514 Guggenheim, David:An Inconvenient Truth 235—36,236
F rcnch Academy of Painting and Sculpture (of F Lie Arts) GiZa, Egypt Great Pyramids 64, 64, 276, 277, 277, 301, 301, Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao (Gehry) 74, 74-75, 444
96, 39S-99, 400, 410 460, 460-61,493, 493; Great Sphinx 63, 63-64, 301,301, Guggenheim Museum, NewYork (F.Wright) 110,455,
frescoes 167, 1S3, 1S5, 191, 295, 535; Dura Europos 302 458-59
svnagcguc315,3i5, 316,317; Minoan 297, 297; Glass and Bottle ofSuze{ Picasso) 426, 426 guilds, medieval 34, 35
restorationof 506, 506-7; Rornan310,3JJ,479, 479, SOS, glassmakmg'glassware 66,66, 253, 253, 255; see also stained Gula, Sharbat: portraits (McCurry) 219,219, 221
508-9; see also Masaccio; Michelangelo; murals; Raphael glass Gutenberg, Johannes 206
Freud, Sigmund 431, 504 glazes/glazing (in oil painting) 186, 385 gypsum 460, 461
friezes 306, 306, 307, 514, 515 Global Groove(Paik and Godfrey) 237,237
Fuji, Mount 346 Godfrey, John J. see Paik Nam June Hadid, Zaha 290; Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati,
Fukuda, Shigco 511-12;£R»re512, 5J2 Gogh, Vincent van 34, 56, 104, 105,416;37ie Bedroom 56, Ohio 290, 290
Fuller, Loic4l8, 4J5 56s The Nght Cafe 104, 104-5; Self-portraitwith Hadrian, Emperor 311
Fuller, Richard Buckminstcr: Geodesic Dome (Art Dome) Bandaged Ear and Pipe 5 7S— 79,579, Sower with Setting Hagcns,Gunthcrvon: Basketball Player 50Q 50 1;Bed)
——
iJ |// Sun 175, 175; Starry Nigh14 16-17, 417 Wo rids cxhibi tio n5 00-5 0 1
Fundred Dollar Bill Project 245,245 Going Forth by Day (Viola) 235 HagiaSoph ia, Istanbul 2 S2,252, 3 1S
FuneralofPhodon, Tke(?oussin) 393, 395,395 Goju-no-To (Five-story Pagoda;,Japan 283 Halydrys Siliquosa (Atkins) 2 14, 2J 4
FuneralofSt. Bonaventure The (Zurbarin) 140, 141 gold artworks: Cellini 256, 256; Egyptian 303, 303; Moche Hammid,Alexander see DerenMaya
Fuseli, Henri 5S4; The Nightmare 5S4, 554 350, 350; Mycenaean 255,255—56 Hammurabi, Steh of 52S,525
F uturism'Futurists 109, 433-34 "Golden Rectangles" 134-35 Hampton, femes 441; The Throne of the Third Heaen of
Golden Section, the 134, 134, 135, 135 the Nations'Millennium General Assembly 44Q 441
Gabo, Naum (>aurn Pevsner, 269-,Constructed HeadNo. 2 Good Shepherd(mosaic) 318, 315 Han Dynasty-: banner from tomb of Lady Dai 339, 339-40
269,269 Gore.Al 235-36 Hang- L'p( Hesse. 156, 156-57
gall ink 174 Gormlcy, Antony 272, 272;Asia?: Field272, 272 happenings 241
G alias Rock (Voulkos) 253, 253 Gothic style: architecture 130,254,254, 2S1, 251, 2S5, 315, Hardouin-Mansart,Jules: Hall o" Mirrors, Palace ot
G ores, The (Central Park,NewYork City) (Chris to and 327, 327i 454, 455, 455; staLncd glass 254, 254-55, 455 Versailles 398, 399
Jeanne-Claude) 456,457,457 gouache paint 50, 188, 189 Harlem Renaissance 436
GauguLn, Paul 416, 428, 579 The Vision after theSermon Goulue at the Moulin Rouge, la(Tculouse-Lautrec) 210, Harnett, William M. 511; The Old Violin 51 1,51 1
Jacob Wrestling wf th theA ngel) 4 16, 416; The Yellow 210 Harvest ofDeath, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July 1863
Ghrist 105, 105 Goya, Francesco: "And There Is No Rcmedv" (from (O1Sullivan) 530, 53J, 533
Gautama, Siddhartha see Buddha Disasters of War) 19S,19S; Giant 197, 197; The Family of hatching SO, SO, 91, 171, 172-73, 175
GeZhichuan Moving His Dwe/I:?:g(Wang Meng 336—37, Charles JV406, 406; The SecondofMay, 1808532,532, Hatoum, \fona 585; Untitled(Baalbek BirdGage) 5S5, 555
337 The Thirdof May, 1808 54, 54, 150, 150, 19S, 195, 405, Hatshepsut 575; Sphinx of 575,575
Gearon, Heme)- 486; MotherProject series 486, 456 406, 406,532,532 HaveNo Fear, He's a Vegetarian (Heartfield) 431, 431
Gcdti, Ilka: Self-portrait 169, J69 graffiti artists 191 Hawaii 72, 372; feather cloak 372572, war god 265, 265
Gehry, Frank: Guggenheim Museum,Bilbao 74, 74-75, 444 Grande Odalisque (Itigtzs, 157, 157-5S Hawass,Za hi 303
geishas 559 graphic design/designers 55, 60, 204,206, 588 Hayilar,Edith 87;A Summer Shower 86, S7
Gstedfi rituals 465, 465 Graves, Michael 445; Humana Building Louisville, Headofa Satyr (Michelangelo ) 80, SO
Gcmma-Frisius, Raincr: camera obscura 213 Kentucky 2S9, 259, PortlandPublic Services 3uilding Heads, Olmec see Colossal Heads,Olmec
gender 568; and art 568-72, 575-77;sre abo 444, 445 Heads ofthe Virgin and Child( Raphael) 170, 170
feminism/feminists Great Depression, the 199,216 Hearst, William Randolph 231
General Services Administration (GSA) 467 Great Exhibition (London, 1851) 2S4-S5 Heartfield, bhn 431; Have No Fear, He's a Vegetarian 431,
Genghis Khan 335 Great Serpent Mound, Ohio 267, 267-68 431
genres 215,235,395,401 "Great Have offShore at Kanagawa,Thc"(frorn Thirty -six Hciltsuk tribe: bent-comer chst 259,259
Gentileschi, Artemisia 1S7, 3 94, 572, 573, SSxJudith and views of Mount Fuji) (Hokusai) 81,51, 117, 117, 195,195, Hellenistic sculpture 308, 309,309
Her Maidservant with the Head ofHolofem.es 5 83, 553; 346,346 Helmick,Ralph, and Schechter Stuart: GhoswriterSS, 68
Judith Decaprating Holofem.es 139, 139, 187, 157, 394, Great Zimbabwe 369,369 Helvetica font 206
394, 573, 573, 5S3, 5S3; Self-portrait as the Allegory of Greco, El (Domcnikos Theotokopoulos) 39 IjIooloo?: 391 , Hennings, Emmy 430
Painting IS7, 157 391, 393 Hepworth,Barbara 50; Drawingfor Sculpture 'with color/
616 INDEX
c
50, 50-51 Hussein, King cf Jordan 323 Isejingu (Grand Shrine of Ise),Japan 4S0,452
Herculaneum 310 Hutu snocide 546 Isenheim.A.ltarpiece ( Gr ilnewald) 387, 357
Here IsNewYorksA Dem ocracy ofPhoTographs (exhibition) hypostyle halls 278, 279 Isfahan, Iran: Madrasalmami mihrab 324, 324-25;
221,221 Masjid-i- Shah portal 480, 450
Hermaphrodite with a Dag (Arb us) 575, 575 ILikeAmerica andAmerica LikesMe(Bcuys) seeCoyote, I Ishtar Gate, Babylon 300,300
Haschel, John 214 L ike Amer.ca an dAmerica Likes Me Islam.' Muslims 61, 103,316, 331, 335;see also Koran, the;
Hose, Eva 157; Hang- Up 156, 155-57 Icarus (Matisse) 97,97, 178, 275,424, 424-25, 482, 4S3 Muhammad,Prophet
hierarchical scale 130, 150, 29S, 299, 304, 324, 325, 526 iconic 554 islamic art and architecture 316; Banner ofLas Navas do
hieroglyphics/'hieroghphs: Egyptian 204,204, 302, 302; iconodasm 550 To!osa61,6T, calligraphy 61, 61,316,324; hucca base 243,
Maya 353 iconographic analysis 154—56, 161 143-44;kufic script 320, 325; manuscripts 320,320, 322,
highlights 5S, 7S, 172 icons 3 2 5, 3 18-19, 474-75, 475, 550, 550, 55 1 322; mihrabs 324, 324-25; miniature 335,335; mosque
Hildegard of 3ingen 321; The Fifth Vision ofHildegard of ideal, the 377 lamp 100, 1CO; mosques 148, 148, 324, 365, 36S-69; Taj
Singer. 321, 321-22; Sc'vias (Know The Ways) 321 ideali2ed471, 557 Mahal335, 335-36
Hildesheim, Germany Church of St. Michael's doors 47J, identity, in art 571, 573, 5S5 isometric perspective 84, 55 S6, 537
471-72 ideograms 552, 553 Istanbul: Hagia Sophia 2S2,252, 3 IS
Hill, John 28 Ife, Nigeria: Oni sculpture 132, 232; ritualvessel 454, 4S4- ivory 43
Hill,Holliday,Connors, Cosmopulos agenor Tvco 85; terracotta head 558-59,559 irnik pottery 100, 100
advertising campaign 210,210 Iktinos and Kallikratcs: Parthaion 135,235, 305, 505, 513,
Hinduism 331, 332; inIndian art 122,334, 4SS 513 Jahangir, Niighal cmp eror 335iJahctr.gr Preferring a Sufi
Hine, Lewis AVickes 219; Power House Mechanic Working on illuminatedcharacters' illuminations 208,205, 320, 321; see Shay kh to Kings ( Bichi tr )) 33 5 ,335
Steam Pump 569, 569', Ten Year Old Spinner, Whitr.el also manuscripts, illuminated Japan 330, 331-32, 340; architecture 282-S3 ,253, 342, 342,
Conor. Mill2 19,219, Work Portraits 569 illusionism 182, 259,408, 508; in architecture 51 1-12, 513- 4S0, 451; geishas 559; illusionistic artwork 51 1-12,512;
Hip Hop Project (Lee) 5S9, 5S9 14; Ln paintings and drawings 508-11, 514-19; in literature 343; manga 49, 49; map 330; religions 33 1,340,
Hiroshige,Ando: "Ri-.-erside3a.mboo Market, KyObashi" sculpture 512 343,346; scrolls 343, 343-14, 536-37,537, 559, 559;
141, 14! Imager, de Yagul (Mendiet a) 443, 443 shrine panel 343, 343; tea ceremony 32,32, 37, 340, 342,
Hirst, Damicn: The Physical Impossibility ofDeath in the INLAX 228,229 342; textiles 340, 341;afciyo-eprints 194,344,344, 345; see
MindofSomeone Living 269,269 imitation 162—63; see also appropriation also Hokusai, Katsushika
Hitler, Adolf 40, 41, 158, 431 ImmediateFamily (Mann) 226 japonisme 343
HOch, Hannah 224;Cu? wirfc the Kitchen Knife thro ugh the impasto 186,417,503 jatakas 333
Last Weimar Beer -Belly Cultural Epoch ofGermany 224, impliedline 52-53, 54, 86, 109, 141, 160,395 Jazz (Matisse) 97
225 impliedtexture 136, 199 Jeanne-Claude seeChristo
Hodgkin, Howard- Interior with Figures 99, 99 impression (printmakmg 192 Jefferson, Thomas 404; Monticcllo 404 404-5; Virginia
Hogarth,William 40 1;False Perspectives18, 525; Marriage Impression Sunr.se (Monet) 422, 4 12—13 State Capitol 30,30
a- la-Mode ser.es 402, 402-3 Impressionism' Impress ioni sts 99, 234, 344, 345, 41 1-13, Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock 322,323, 323-1; mosque
Hokusai, Katsushika 31; "The Great A\"avc off Shore at 415,427,429 lamp 100, 100
Kanagawa"(from Thirty-six Views of MountFuji) SI,52, Improvisaho *30 (Cannons) (Kandinsky) 428,425 Jesus Christ 105, 105, 316, 317,318, 318-19, 325, 4S9, 459
117, 117, 195, 195, 346, 346-, Maple Leaves ona River26,
*
In the Slue 'Crest) (Mickctt and Stackhousc) 69, 69 JeunetJean-Pierre: Am£ie 234,234
28 in the round 66, 74, 260,393 Jewish culture103,315, 316, 317; and Catacombs, Rome
Holocaust, the 541
Holt, Nancy 107;Solar Rotary 107, 107
Inca, the 34S, 351,488; MachuPicchu 351,351, 353;
mummified children 455, 4SS-S9; tunic 352, 352 Johns, hs per 502; Flag502,502
—
478 ,479; Dura Europossynagogue 32 5,3 15 16, 317
Holy Virgin Mary, 27re(Ofili) 39 incise, incised (decorative technique) 309 Jonah 317
Holler, Jenny 109—10, UntitledSelectionsfom Truisms...) Inconvenient Truth, Ax (Guggenheim) 235-3 6,236 Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas,A (Parkinson) 370
110.JJO India 330, 331, 332; architecture 332 J32, 333, 334,334, Journey of the Sun Cod Re, 77:e( Egyptian coffin painting.
Homer, Wlnslow: Prisonersfrom the Front 41, 41-43 335, 335-36; Bidri ware hucca base 243, 143-14; cave 26, 26-27
homosexuality 568, 576,577 paintings333,333; Hinduism 331, 334; map33ft Joy ofLife (Matisse) 423, 423-24
Hong Kong: 3ank of China (Pei) 257, 287-88 painting 335, 335; sculpture 334, 334-35, 488, 455 Judaism 316
Hopi, the 360; kachinas 490-9 1,492 Infinity (J. de Rivera) 153, 253 Judd, Donald 441; L"xriried441, 441
Hopkins, Roger 460 Ingres,Jean-Auguste-DominicueiGraxiie Odalisque 157, Judith and Her Maidservant with the Head ofHolofen.es
Hopper, Edward: Xigktkawks 159, 259 157-58 (Gentilcschi) 5S3, 5S3
Horse in Motion, The (Muybridge) 229, 229-30 inks 174; brush and ink drawing 175-76 paintings 125-26, Judith Decepitating Holofem.es (Caravaggi o) 394,394
Ho&lRwanda (George) 546,545 225, 189-90 see also pen and ink drawings Judith Deapitaring Holofem es (Gentilcschi) 139, 239, 187,
HiKJt-(\Vhitcrcad) 71,72 inlay 4S7 257,394,394,573,573
He use with the Ocean View, 77ie(Abramovic) 242, 243 Inquisition, the 390 /ulie(Dijkstra) 455, 4S5-S6
Houser, .Allan:Reverie 154, 154 insanity and art 104,416,503-4,505 Julius II, Pope 381, 388; tomb (Michelangelo) 264-65265
Houses at LrEstcaue (Braque) 426, 426 installations 110, 110, 111,240,246,246—47, 533,533-34, Jurisprudence (Raphael) 509
Houston, Texas: Rothko Chapel 481, 452 ,483 584; humanbodies as 562,564, 564-65,565; and identity Justinian I,Byzantine Emperor 318, 319, 320, 520;
Hudson RiverSchool 407 446, 446—17, 447, mLxcd-mcdia 450, 450; and Justinian mosaic 520-21,521
hues 92, 93 multiculturalism 445, 445-46; in public spaces 457,457;
human body: and notions ct beauty 557-59; and sculptural 273, 273, 585, 555;video 44S, 445, 450 Kaaba, Mica 324,324
performance art andinstallations 562—65;see also nudes Insurrection! (Our Tools Wee Rudimentary, Yet We Pressed Kabakov, Ilya and Emilia:The Man Who Flewinto Space
Human Condition, Tfce(Magritte) 519, 529 On) (Walker) 247,247 from HisA.patment 273, 273
human sacrifices 357, 357-5S, 463,455, 4S8-S9 intaglio printmaking 192, 195-97, 199, 203 kachina dolls, Hopi 490-91,492, 5S7
Humana Building, Louisville, Kentucky (Graves. 2S9,259 intarsia 259 Kahlo,F nda 579; The Two Fr.das 579, 579
humanism 376-7, 509 intensity,color S3 Kallikrates: Parth Sion (with Iktinos) 135,235,305, 305,
Hummingbirds, The (Lostutter 129, 229 interior design 118, 1IS 513, 523; Temple of Athena Nike 278, 275
Huncfer (scribe) 492, 494 Interior with Figures ( Hodgkin) 99, 99 Kamcharncha, King ct Hawaii 372
Hung Liu 186; Interregnum 186, 255, 1S8 Interregnum (Hung Liu) 1S6, 256, 188 kami 331,340,480
Hungry Tigress (Asuka period) 343, 343 ionic order 306,306 Kandariva Mahadev-a temple, Khajuraho, India 334. 334-
Hunters in the Snow (Bruegel the Elder) 146-47, 2 47 irascibles,the 202-3 35
INDEX 617
Kandinskv,Vasily 92,428;Improvisadon =30 (Cannons) lasrJudgment (Michelangelo) 351, 383, 353, 507, 507 McCurry, Str*e 220; Afghan Girl at Nasar Bagh Refugee
428,425 LastSupper, Tfte(DQrer) 387-88, 355, 391 Camp, Peshawar... 219, 219, 22 1;Dust Storm. Women
kaolin 250, 251 LastSupper, The (Leonardo) 350, 380-81,391 Take Shelter from Strong Dust-Laden Winds... 220, 220,
Karalsuware 32, 32 LastSupper, The (Tintoretto) 390, 390-91 SharbatGula...219, 221
Karnak, Egypt Temple of.Amun-Rc 130,130, 278, 275 latitude 49 S Machu Picchu, Peru 351,351,353
Karnes, Karen: Plover Container 252, 252 La \enta, Mexico 355; altar 476 476-77; see also Olrnccs Madonna m a Church (van Evck) 130, 150
Kauffmann, .Angelica 404; Cornelia Pointing to Her layout design 210 Madonna ofChancellor Rolin, The (van Eyck) 185
Children as HerTreasures4Q4, 404, 570 Lee, Nikki S.: Projects series 589, 559 maghrihi script 320
Kauffmann House see Failing-,vater Lee, Spike: Do the Right Thing 445 Magritte, Reni: TheHumanCondition5\9, 519, The
Kearny, Lawrence 372 LEED (Leadership in Energy andEnvironmental Design) Treachery ofImages "'This is not a pipe'.' 76, 76, 431
Kelly,Gene, and Donan,Stanley. Singm'in the Ray: 232, 291 Maids ofHonor, The (Veli2cue2) see Meninas, Las
232 Leonardo da Vinci 32, 37, 166,380, 383,496;TAeIasr Maki, Fumihiko: NewWorldTrade Center, Nov York Gty
ker. re (WestAfrican textile) 367, 367 Supper 380, 380-81, 391;Afona Lisa 32, 33 studies ofthc 274,2, 4—. 5
Kepler Underneath I(Strauss) 203, 203 foetus inthe womb 166-67,167,wing of a flying machine Male andFemale (Pollock) 5 S6-S7,587
Khafre,pharaoh 302; Pyramid ofseeGiia: Great Pyramids; 166, 166 Malevich, Kahmir 435; Supremacist Painting'EightRed
statuc302, 302, 308 Leopold I,Kingof the Belgians 262 Rectangles) 435, 435
Khajuraho, India: Kandariva Mahadcva temple 334, 334- letterforms 206 Mali,Africa* architecture 365, 36S-69
35 levering blocks 460,461,461 al-Malik, Caliph Adb 323
Khufu, Pyramidof see Gi2a: Great Pyramids Levine, Sterne 5S8; Fountain (After Marcel Duchamp:A.P.) Maman (3ourgeois) 75, 75
Kiddo (Ycoh; 209, 209 5S8, 555 Man, Controller ofthe Universe (Rivera) 468, 468
Kieter,Anselm 541; Breaking ofthe Vessels 541, 541 L£vy-Dhurrncr, Lucie.n: The Wisteria DiningRoom 420, Man Pointing (Giacomelti) 567,567
Kim, Hvo-In 249; To Be Modem =2 249, 249 420 Man 'Who Flewinto Spacefrom HisApartment, Thefi. and
Kindred Spirits (Durand) S4, 54 Lhcrmitte, LeonAngus tin 171;An Elderly Peasant Woman E Kabakov) 273, 273
kinetic art'sculpturc 112, 113, 115,270-71, 2S9, 431 171, 171-72 rna.ndalas 126-27,127,333
Kirchncr, £r nest L udwig 42 S;Street Berlin42S-2 9,429 Libem Leadingthe People (Delacroix) 405, 405 Mandan, the 360, 361; robe360, 360-61
Kiss, The (Klimt) 415,419 Libyan Sib}-!, The (Michelangelo) 1S3, 183; Studiesfor the Manet, Edouard 410;.4 Bar azthePohes-Sergere 517, 517—
Kzss, The (Rodin) 414,414 Libyan Sibyl 172, 172 19; le Dejeuner sur I'Herbe 'Luncheon on the Gross,1410,
Klein, Yves 562',Anthropometries. ..562, 562 Lichtcnstein, Rov- 439; G irlwith Mirror 439, 439 410; Olympia 560-61,561
Klimt, Gustav 35 ,4 19; Ade!e S!ooh -Bauer o 4-35 ,35; The life drawing 177 manga 49,49
Kiss 418, 419 Life Magazine 241 Mann, Sally. Immediate Family 226; The Hew Mothers 226
Knossos, Crete: Bull- leapers fresco 297, 297; Palace 183, Light Prop fo r an Eiecr ric Srage (\1oholv->agy) 27 1,27 1 226
296-97,297 Lin, Maya Vietnam Veterans Memorial 552,552 Mannerism' Mannerists 377; architecture 514,514;
Koetsu, Hon'ami: teabowl 342,342 Lincoln,Abraham Memorial statue (French) 37,37 painting 38S-89, 389, 390, 391, 391, 393
Kollwitz,Kathc: Selfponraitin Profile to Left 171, 171 Lindisfarne Gospds 320-21, 321 Mantcgna, .Andrea 489; ceiling of Camcr a degliSposi 510,
Kooning,Willemde see de Kooning, Willem line(s) 46, 140, 166; actual 53,54, 86, 141; communicative 510; Dead Christ 4S9, 4S9, The Lamentation over the Dead
Koons, Jtff. Rabbit 31, 31 55—56; contour 55, 177, 17S, 179, 3 70, 5 67; definition and Christ91, 91
korai 308 functions 47, 49; diagonal 55, 56,56, 140,344; directional mantles 351; Paracas 350,350
Koran, the 61, 316, 320,320, 321, 324, 325 53-55; horizontal 56,56 implied 52-53, 54, 86, 109, 141, Mantua, Italy Camera dcgli Sposi, Ducal Palace
Kosuth, Joseph 442; Oneand Three Chairs 442, 443 160,395; regular and irregular 49-52;vertical 55, 56,56; (Mantegna) 510,510 PalaziodclTs (Giulio Romano)
kouros 308, 305, 309 see also outline(s) 514,514
Krugcr,Barbara 243; Untitled 'Your Gaze Hits the Side of linocuts 193 Manufacturing ±17 (Burtynsky) 227, 227
My Face) 243, 243 lintels 324, 325,325,494-95, 523,523 manuscripts 35, 320; Franco- German52, 53; illuminated
Ku KkxKlan 230 lithography 192, 199-201,200, 203, 210,210 205, 205, 206, 320-21, 321, 384; Islamic 320,320, 322, 322
kuSc script 320, 325 llama, .Andean silver 352,352 Mao Zedong 1S8;portraits 528, 529,529
Kwakiutl, the 361-62 logos 207, 211; AT&T 58,56 Big Ten 60, 60; Chevrolet 207, Maori, the: Qttoos 370,370, 372
Kwei, Kane Coffin in the Shapeof a Cocoa Pod93, 93 207; Ford207, 207; Nike 56, 56 Maple Leaves on a River (Hokusai) 26, 28
Kyoto Japan: Taian teahouse 342,342 London 403; Crystal Palace (Paxton)2S4,2S4-S5; Great Mapplethorpe, Robert 576; Self-portrait '=385) 576, 576-
Exhibition (1851) 284-85;RoyalAcadcmy404,411 / /
Labbo, Sheikh .Amadou 368 Longju,China: model village (Center for Maximum Marat,Jean-Paul 551,551-52
Lady's Death, The (Hogarth) 402, 402-3 PotentialBuildingSystems) 29 1,291 Marc, Step?:en 224; Untitled— fhssageorc the Underground
La Farge, Oliver 354 Lorrain, Claude see Claude Lorrain Railroad224—25, 225
Lakota,the (group of the Sioux dan) 360 Los Angeles: Watts Towers (Rodia) 29,29 Marcus Aurclius, equestrian statue o* 152, 153
lamassu 299, 299 lost-wax casting 266—67, 267 Marevna, Marie (MarieVcrobieff-Stebelska) 118;.Varnre
Lambert, Ron 115; Sublimate 'Cloud Cover) 115, 115 Lostuttcr, Robert 129; The Hummingbirds 129, 129 morte a la bouteilie 11& 11S— 19
Lamentation over the Dead Christ, Tfce(Mantegna) 91,91 LouisXIV,of France (the "Sun King") 398, 400, 419, 524; Marie Antoinette, Queen 525, 552;Mor ie.Antoinette and
Landscape with the Fall ofleant s ( Bruegel the Elder) 138, portrait (Rigaud) 524, 524 Her Children (VigSe-Lebrun) 524, 525
138 Louis XVI, of France 404, 525 Marilyn Monroe (Flack) 155, 155-56
landscapes: American 9S, 98,407, 407-8,405; Chinese S2, Louisville, Kentucky Humana Building (Graves) 2S9, 2S9 Marinetti, Filippo 434
52, 84, 85, 336— 37, 337; Claude Lorrain 176, 176 Louvre Paris 1S9, 398,405,419,419 Marisol (Maria Sol Escobar) :Father Damien 71, 71—72
photographic 2 17 Lovers in an Upstairs Room ( Utamaro 194, 194 Marriaged-la-Mode s eries ( Hogarth.) 402, 402-3
Lange, Dorothea 114;Desr.tutePea Pickers in California. Loving Care (Antoni) 563,563 Marriage Settlement, The (Hogarth) 402,402
Mother of Seven Children... 114, 114\ MigrantMother 114, Lucas, George: Star Wars 233-34,234 Martini, PietroAntonio: The Salon 400, 400
114,216,216 547, 547,570,570 luminosity 1S6, 191 Masaccio: Brancacci Chapel frescoes 379-80; Tribute
Lao Zi 331 Luncheon ofthe Boating Party (Renoir) 234 Money 379, 379, Trinity S8, SB
laeeod.*: (El Greco) 391, 391, 393 Luncheon on the Gross 'Le Dejeuner sur !'herbe)(Manet; Mask ir(Mueck) 512,512-13
Laocoon and his Sons (Hellenistic sculpture) 309, 309 410, 410 mask(ing) 190, 201
lapis la2uli 29S, 295, 299, 465 Lutherans 38S masks 465; Abdam yam masks 373,373; Benin ivory mask
Lascaux Caves, France:paintings 191, 477,477,478, 475 Lux, Lorctta 222; The V,'airing Girl 222, 222 43, 43; Eagle Transformation Mask (Kwakiutl) 362,362;
osr Ju dgm en.t (Gislebcrtus) 494, 494-95
I lyres 465; Su.merian 464, 464-65 funerary mask of Tutankhamun 303,303; Gcl&de 465,
618 INDEX
4o5; Kanaga mask (Dogon) 367,367; "Maskof Miesvan derRohe, Ludwig 2S7;XcucXationalgalcrie, implied 108-9; and photography228—30; stroboscope
Agamemnon"(Mycenaean) 255, 255-56 Berlin2S7 111-12
masquerades 465 MigrantMother (Lasix;) 114, 114, 216,216 547,547, 570, Moulin de la Galette (Renoir) 4J2, 413
mass 62, 65,70-72,265 570 mounds, manmade 459; Great Serpent Mcund, Ohio267,
Massacre a: Chios, The (Delacroix) 42, 43 mihrabs 324, 324-25 267-68; Monks Mound, Cahokia, Illinois 462-63,463;
Mas son, Andrfi 51;Au»moricDniwiKg51, 5J Milan,Italy: The LastSupper (Leonardo), Santa Maria dcllc tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi 462, 462
Master ofOsservanza, workshop of the: The Meeting ofSt. GraZie 380, 3S0-S1 movies: animated 232-33; black-and-white 230-31; color
Anthony and St. Paul 106 106-7 Millais John Everett: Ophelia 41 1, 41 1, 417 231-32; contemporary 447-48, 449; documentary 235-
Matisse, Henri 97-9S, 179, 422-23, 424, 425, 482, 566B!ue Milwaukee Art Mus cum, W isconsin: Quadr acci Pavili on 36, 239; experimental 236-37; horror 235; IMAX 228,
Nude II566, 566 Chape! of the Rosary 4S2, 482-83; (Calatrava) 289, 289 229; propaganda 15S-59; silent 230; and special effects
Icarus (from/azz) 97, 97, 178, J7S, 424, 424-25, 482, 4S3, mime 113 233-34
566, 566 Joy oflife 423,423-24; The Red Srudio 424, 424; minarets 324,336,368,369 Mozi S6
Worea?: icutfu an Armchair 178, !75, 179 Ming Dynasty (China): porcelain flask 252 £52 Mueck,Ron 5 12; Mask II5 12, 5 12-13
Matos, John(a.ka. "Crash"'} 191;At-.'opIa*:t- J 190 191 Minimalism.' Minimalists 441; installations 441—42 ,442; Mughal Empire 335-36; gardens 140
Maundy Thursday Festival before the Ducal Palace in Venice, sculpturc44l, 442, 466, 466-67 Muhammad, Prophrt 316, 322,322, 323, 324, 331
The (Canaletlo) 46,49 Miningthe Museum (Wilson) 246, 247 multiculturalism 445
Maya, the 353, 356-57, 496-97; ballgame 356556; dint Minoan civilization 296-97 Mumtaz Mahal 335-36
sculptnrc496-97, 497; hieroglyphs 349, 353; pyramids Mirbjoan:Object 433,433 Munch,Edvard The Scream 586, 586
276, 276 sarcophagus 490, 4ÿ?; stela 67, 67; temple lintel Mistos 'Match Cover) (Oldenburg and van Bruggen; 129, muqarnas 480, 4S0
523, 523, 525; vessel 356 129 Muqi:Six Persimmons 125—26, 126
meaning see content MiyaZakiJHayao: Spirited Away 233, 233 Mural (Pollock) 437, 437
Mecca, Saudi Arabia 324, 325, 331,498; Kaaba 324324 Moai ancestor figures (Easter Island) 372-73,373 murals 37; Mayan356-57,357; Mexican iS4, IS4-S5, 467-
medieval 31,314-15 mobiles 113, 113 68, 468; see also frescoes
medium (plural media) 27,80, 102,106,116,169,180,204, Moche culture 348, 350; earspool 350,35] Murasaki Shikibu: Tale of Genji 343, 343-44
22S, 240, 24S, 273, 3S0, 437, 465, 4S3, 517, 537, 546, 572 modeling 265-66,393 Muscular Dynamism (Boccioni) 179, J 79
Meeting ofSt.A nthony and St. Paul, The(workshop ofthc Modernism' Modernist 285, 422, 437; architecture 285-89, Museo delPrado 7(Struth) 163, 163
Master of Osserva.nza) J 06 106-7 444—15; sculpture 565, 567, see also Rodin, Auguste museums 29, 37,74, 74-75; curators 246—47
Megerle, Birgit: Untitled 170, 170 Modeshin-Becker, Paula 428; Self-portrait with Camellia Music—Pink andBlue if (O'Keeftc) 59, 59-60
Meis sonier, Ernest:Remembrance ofCivil War, 1S4S 'The 42 S, 428 Muslims: in Spain 49S; see Islam; Islamic art and
Barricade, rue de la Mortellerie, fit ne 1843} 53 1,53 J ,533 Mogcl Mark see Saucrkids architecture
Melancholy and Mystery ofthe Street, Tke(_dt Chirico) 432, Moholy-Xagy, Ilszlb 270-71; Light Propfor an Electric Muybridgc,Eadweard: The Horse in.Motion 229, 229-30
432 Stage 2, 1,271 Myccnae'Mvccnaeans 279, 297; "Nksk of Agamemnon"
Melanesia 370; see PapuaNewGuinea Mona Lisa (Leonardo) 32,33, 438, 439 255,255-56
Milies, Gecrges 230; A Trip to the Moon.230,230 Mondrian, Pict435 N lyron:Discus Throwe r ( Dir::bolos) 557,557
Melissa & Lake, Durham, North CarolinaÿOpie) 577, 577 Monet,Claude 345 ;Impression Sunrise 4! 2, 412-13
Memorial to King Leopold of the Belgians (Durant) 262 ,262 Monks Mound, Caliokia, Illinois 462-63,463 Xadar (Gaspard-Fdix Tburnachon) 2U\Sarah Bernhardt
memorials 551-53 monochromatic 94, 562 217, 217
Mcndicta, Ana 443; Silueta Worksin Mexico scries 443, 443 Monogram ( Rauschenberg 123, 123 Xamuth, Hans: Polock painting in studio 437
Meninas,Las (Picasso) J62, 162-63 monoliths 295, 369,369 Xara, Japan: Horvu-ji (Horyu Temple) 282-83,253, 343,
Meninas, Las (VeUzqucz) 159-62, 160, 161, 406 monopri Ms/monotypes 192, 202, 202-3,203 343
Mcnkaurc,pharaoh: Menkaure and His Wife, Queen Mont Sainte-Victoix (C&anne) 415-16, 416 Xaram- Sin, Akkadian king 299; Stelaof 474,474
Khame'emehty (Egyptian sculpture.: 556 557;Pvramid Monticello, Charlottesville, Virginia Jefferson) 404, 404-5 Xarmer, Palette of 526,526-27
ot seeGiZa: Great Pyramids Monument to the ThirdIntematonaliTsAiti) 69,69 narrative 227,401,433 341
Mcrwyn, Emily:web design 23 1 monumental scalc'monumentality 128, 267, 276,435 Xational Gallery ofArt, Washington, D.C. 113, J J 3
MesaVerde, Colorado: Anasazi Cliff Palace 359, 359-60 Moore, Henry 565, 567; RecumbentFigure567, 567 Xative Americans 2 16,359; AnasaZi Cliff Palace, Mesa
Meshes of the Afternoon (Dcrcn and Hammid) 236,236 MoreH, Afcelardo: Cam era Obscura Image ofthe Pantheon m Verde, Colorado 359, 359-60; Great Serpent Mound,
Mcsoamerica 353; map353 the Hoteldes Grands Hommes 213,213 Ohio 267, 267-68; Hopi kachinas 490-9 1,491;Kwakiutl
Mcsopotamian civilizations 29S-300 Morgue 'Cur. Murder), The( Serrano) 489, 489-90 masks 36 1-62,362; Monks Mound,Caliokia, Illinois
metal',vork 255; aluminum 113,1 13;brass 436, 436, 527, Monmura, Yas umasa: Portrait 'P utago) 561,56 1 462-63, 463; Xavajo sand paintings 465, 465; Plains
527; casting bronze 266—67, 267, see also bronze(s }; gold Moronobu,Hishikawa Papermakinginjapan 177, 177 Indians Battle Scene Hide Painting360, 360-61;tipis 360;
255, 255-56,256, 303 ,303, 350, 350; stainless steel 31, 3 J, Morris, William 208; Works ofC eoffrey Cha ucer (with Tlingit blanket 2 58, 258; see abo Rickard,Jo lenc
64-65,65, 153, J53, 441, 441 3umc-Jones}208, 20S naturalism' naturalistic 181,189, 190,361,379,422
metopes 306 307, 307 mosaics 318;Alexander Mosaic'Battle ofIssus) 535, 535; nature, in art 490
mezzotints 199,199,203 Byzantine 3 1S,318, 319, 3 19-20, 520-21,521;Roman 307 Nature morte a labouteille (Mar cvna) J IS, 1IS— 19
Michals, Duanc: The Revurn of the Prodigal Son 5S0-S 1, Moser-KatZ Sethi: web design 211,211 Xauman, 3ruce 243-44; The True Artist Helps the World by
581 Moses (biblical prqjhet) 315,316 RevealingMystic Truths...244, 244
Michelangelo Buonarroti 260, 2 Si, 309 377, 380, 3S3; Moses (Michelangelo) 264—65,265 Xavajo sand paintings 465,465
Av.aken.irg Slave 264, 264; Creation ofAdam 381, 3ST, mosque lamp (Iznik pottery) 100, J CO naves 280, 280, 3 IS,454
Creation ofthe Sun and the Moon 264,264; David392, mosques 324, 4S0; Great Mosque, Cbrdoba 148,146; Great XaZca culture: XaZca Lines, Peru 46-47,47
393, 393; Head ofa Satyr SO, SO; The LastJudgment 381, Mosque,Djennfi 36S, 368-69, Madrasalmarni, Isfahan Xazis'Xational Socialism 35, 40—41,J5S, 15S—59, 241, 431,
381, 383, 383, 507, 507; The Libyan S'.bnJ 183, 1S3; Moses 324, 324-25; Masjid-i- Shah, Isfahan4S0,480 541
(from tomb of Julius II) 264-65,265; Studiesfor the Mother Goddess, Coathcue (Aztec) 35S, 358 Xebamum, tomb of (Thebes): fowling scene 304,304
Libyan Sibyl 172, 172; Sis tine Chapel ceiling 172,264,264, Mother Projectsc ries (Gearon) 4S6, 4S6 Xebuchadnczzar II,of Bab>lon 300
3S1, 381, 383, 506 5 06-7 Mothers series (Dijkstra) 485, 4S5-S6 necropolis 351
MicketL Carol,and Stackhouse, Robert In the Blue 'Crest) Mothership I:Sistah Paradise's Great Walls of Fire Revival Xcfertiti 525, 525
69,69 (Bailey) 445, 445-46 negative, film 212
Micronesia 370 motifs 125, 143-45, 339 361, 504ÿee also iconographic negative space 58-61, 136,289
Middle Ages 314-15 analysis Xeodassicism 403; in architecturc30,30, 404 404-5; in
middle ground 146 motion 106, 10S; actual 112-13; ilLsion of 109-10; painting 403, 403-1, 404
INDEX 619
Neshat,Shir in 447; Rapture 44S, 44S Om«yrest-?:ire(ORLAN) 582, 552 Parthenon,Athens ( Iktinos and Kallikrates) 135,135, 305,
Nespawershefi,coffinof (Egyptian) 26 26-27 OnA rchitecture (Vitruvius ) 132 305, 454, 513, 513; relief sculptures 307, 307, 454, 455
Netherlandish Proverbs (Bruegcl the Elder) 3S6, 356 On Painting (Alberti) 86, S7, 379,509 Pashmma carpet 144, 144
Neumann, Johann Bahhasar 399; Basilica of One and Three Chairs (Kosuth. 442, 443 Passion, the 454, 477
Vierzehnheiligen, Bamberg,German;.- 3 99, 399 one-pointperspective 57, 87-8S pastels 172; drawings 172,173
neutral colors/tones 43, 94, 160-6! Oni, the (Ifc sculpture) 132, 132 patina 267
Nevelson,Louise: W 'hire Vertical Water 23,25 Ono, Yoko 244; Wish Trees 240, 244,244 patrons andpatronage 32-33, 34, 3 IS,377, 39S, 400,427,
New Guinea: Asmal ancestor poles 486-87,457 Opart 110,111,115 454,520,582
NewMothers, Tke( Mann} 226,226 opacue 1S9 pattern(s) 57, 127,142, 142—43,141,336;andmotifs 143-
New Orleans: Hurricane Katrina 543 Operation Pavdirt (Chin) 245,245 45; and randomness 145-46
NewYork City American CraftMuseum 259; 3rookl;.-n Ophelia (Millais) 4 11,41 1,417 Paxton, Sir Joseph: Crystal Palace, London 254, 2S4-85
Museum 39-40; Central Park Zoo, New York City Ophelia (Redon) 417,417 pectorals 523, 535
(Winogrand) 224, 224; ThcGares (Christo and Opic, Catherine 577; Melissa c-Lake, Durham,North pediments 2S9, 307,405,470, 470-71
Jeanne-Claude.; 457, 457; Guggenheim Museum (F. Carolina 57/, 577 Pei, I.M: Bankof China, HongKong 257, 2S7-SS
Wright) 110,455, 458-59; Metropolitan Museum of Art Oppenheim,Mfiret: Object 73, 73, 75 penandinkd-awings 45,49,51, SO, 50,166,167, 174-75, 175
574; New WorldTrade Center (Maki) 274, 274-75; SoHo optical mixture 501 pencils 169; color 170;pencil drawings 169,169, 170,361,
lofts 275, 275; World Trade Center attack (9/11) 221 organic 197,252, 287, 398, 419; shapes 5757 361
New Zealand: Maori Qttoos 370,370, 372 One' W.ndow, South Gallery, LacockAbbevr, T!;e(Talbot) pendentives 2S2, 252
Newman,Barnen: VirHeroints Sublimis 95,95-96 214,214 Pentateuch with Prapher.cd Readings and the Five Scrolls
Niagara (Church) 408, 40S origami 239 (Franco-German manuscript) 52,53
nickelodeons 230 ORLAN 582; Omnipresence 5 S2, 552; SuccessfulOperation Pepper No. 30 (Weston) 218, 2 IS— 19
Niepcc,Joseph Niciphore 214 582,552 Peredo, Melchor 184-85; RemembranceFresco 184, 185
NightAttack on rhe Sanjo Palace(frot!i HeijiMonogazari) Orozco, fose Clements 1S5 performance art/artists 112, 112-13, 115, 115, 240, 241,
536-37,537 orthogonals 87 241—13, 246, 246-47,247, 562,562-63, 563, 565, 5S2
Night Cafe, The (van Gogh) J 04, 104-5 Osiris (god) 492,494 Persistence ofMemory (Dali) 504, 504
Nigftt Watch The (Rembrandt) 396, 396 O'Sullivan,Timothy Harvest ofDeath, Gettysburg "persistence of vision" 228
Nighthawks (Hopper) 159,159 Pennsylvania,July 1563 530, 531, 533 perspective 76, S4, 378,517; atmospheric 83, S3-84.379,
Nightmare, The (Fusel;) 584,554 Oursler,Tony see Dejong, Constance 416; isometric84, 55, S6, 537; linear 84, 86-90, 160,378,
Nike Company logo (Davids on) 56,56 outline(s) 47, 141, 179,309,344, 393,411, 425;linear 475 379, 519; muki-point 90; one-point 57, S7-SS;
Nimes, France: Font duGard 279,279 Ovid:on Pygmalicxl 512 three-point90, 90, twisted 304, 305; two-point 8S
Nimrud (Iraq) 299 Oxbmv, The (Cole) 407, 407-S Peruvian art ceramic vessel 136, 136-37;see abolnca, the;
Nineveh (Iraq) 299 NaZca culture
Nixon,Richard 533 Pachacuti, Incaruler 351 Pheidias: Parthenon rnetcpe 307,307
Nizami:Khamsa 322 Pacific cultures 364,370; Belau longhcuse 149,149, see also photocollage 224
nkisiMangaaka 366, 366 Easter Island; Hawaii; PapuaNewGuinea photography 212-15, 223-24, 227; "artistic" 22 1-22; black-
nkisi nkonde 365, 366 Paik, Nam June 237; GlobedG ,'oove(withGodfrey-) 237, and-white v. color 226-27; documentary 219, 530-3 1,
Nocturne in Black and Cold: The Fall:ng Ro:ker(Whistler) 237; TV Buddha 72, 73 533, 569, see also Lange, Dorothea;landscape 217; and
5S4, 554, 586 painting 180; acrylic 1S3; encaustic 180-81; fresco 183-85; moving pictures 228— 30; and proportional ratios 134—35;
Nok, the: terracotta figures 365,365 gouache 1SS, 1S9; ink 189-90; oillS5-S6, 188; spray 190- portraiture 114,215, 217, 219,221; still lifc2 18-19; and
Noldc, Emil: Prophet 194, 194 91;tempera 181-83; watercolor 1SS-89 time and motion 114
non- objective art 153, 429 paisley 5S6 photojournalism 219-21, 226, 530, 533
Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris 455,455 Palazzo del TS, Nfantua (Giulio Romano) 514,514 photomontages 224-25, 225, 43!
Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2(Duchamp) 434,434 Palcncue, Mexico: sarcophagus lid 490 ,490 Physical Impossibility ofDeath in the MindofSomeone
nudes 377; female 157, 157-5S, 560, 560-61,561, 566,566, Paleolithic era 477 Living, The (Hirst) 269,269
551, 58 1-82; as installations 564, 564-65, 565; male 304, palette 94, 160,435, 483, 503, 526 physiology 496
310, 3S3, 391,391, 392, 392-93, 393, 557, 557, 570, 57a in palette knives 181, is 1 Picasso, Pablo 422, 423, 424-25, 426\Bu!Vs Fiead 270, 270,
performance art 5 62, 562 Palette ofNarmcr 526, 526-27 Les Demoiselles <d Avignon 425,425—26, 427;G!ass and
Palladio,Andrea Villa Capra (VillaRotonda),Vicenza 126, Bottle ofSu~e426, 426 Guerr~ca545, 545—46; Ins
OathofzheHoratii The(David) 400,403, 403—4 127 Meninas 162, 162—63;Portraitof Gertrude Stem 427, 427
Obey (Faires-) 55, 59 Panathenaic Festival,Athens 454-55 Picasso and Sraa ue (Tan srv) 94, 94-95
Object (Mir6) 433,433 Pankhurst,Emmeline 548 pictographs 353
Object (Oppcnhcirn) 73,73, 75 Pantheon,Rome 311,311-12, 312 picture plane 82, 146
octagonal 4S1 pap cr.' paper making 176-77,177, 179 Picro dclla Frances ca: The Flagellation 119, J19
oculus 312,405 510 Papua New Guinea 373; Abelam cult house 374,374; pigments 92, 171, 180, 191,377, 526
o ft"set lithogr aphv 199 Abelarn yarn ma sk 373,373 pilasters 45 S, 459
Ofili, Chris: The Holy Virgin Mary 39 papyrus 176 pilgrimages 2 80, 322, 3 2 3, 324, 325, 326
O''Gorman, Juan 185 Paracas culture 34S; textiles 350,350 Pissarro, Carnillc 345
oil paint 42, 43, 1S5-S6 191,385 Paris: Eiffel Tower 4 17— IS,415; The Louvre 189, 398, 405, pixels 214-15
O'Keeffe, Georgia 59,60;Masi:— Pinkand Blue II59, 59- 419, 419; Musecd'Orsay 419,419; Nctrc DamcCathcdral Plains Indians 360-61
60 455, 455; Pantheon 213, 213; TheSalon 400,400, 401, planes 47, 67,77, 95,253,26), 425; picture 82, 146
Old Violin, The (Harnett) 51 1, 51 1 41 1,531; Salon des Refuses 410; see also Saint-Denis, pianographic printmaking'planography 192, 199-202
Oldenburg, Claes 12S-29\Mistos(MatchCover) (withvan Abbey Church of plastic/plasticity 250, 267
Bmggen)129, 129, The Store 246 246 Paris Sfeet: Rainy Day (Caillebotte) 413, 413 plastination 500
Olitski,Jules: Tin Lizzie Green 137, 157 Parkinson, Sydney drawing or traditional Maori tattoo Plinythe Elder: NaturalHistory 50S
Olmccs, the 251, 353; altar 476, 476-77;Baby Figurc251, 370 Plowing in the Nivemais... (Bonheur) 150-5 1,15 J
251; Colossal Heads 70, 70, 75, 251,251, 263,263, 354, Parmigianino (Francesco Mazzola):Self-portraitina pointillism 100-101,438,501-2
354, 522, 522 ConvexMirror 510— 11,511 Poissy, France:Villa Savoye (Le Corbusier) 256 2S6-S7
Olympia (Manet) 560-61,561 Porn assus( Raphael) 509 Pollock, hckson 240-4! ,437,437; Male andFemale 586-
Olympic Games 304, 471 Parrhasius 508, 509 87, 557; Mural437, 437
620 INDEX
c
Polykleilos 132; Spear Bearer (Dorypkoros) 308, 30S Propter(Noli) 194, 194 Rejlander, Oscar Gustav 221-22;Tfce Two Ways ofLife 222,
Polynesia 370; see Easter Island;Hawaii proportion(s) 128, 131, 131-32, 135, 223,305;canon of 222
polytheism 29S 55 6 556, 557; and "Golden Rectangles"134-35; and relics and reliquaries 322, 322-23
Pompei i 3 10-11,403; Villa of the\ lystcries fresco 310,311 Golden Section 134, 134, 135, 135;human 132, 134, 135; relief printmaking 192, 193, 193—94, 203
Pont du Gard, Nimes, France 279,279 ideal 304 relief sculpture 66-67, 130,260,299, 307, 351; Assyrian
Pontcrmo, Jacopo da: Deposition 390, 391 Propoadon Player (Ritchie) 450, 450 262, 262, Aztec 491, 491, 497, 497-98; bas'low67,260,
Pop art/artists 43S-39, 588 Prose ofthe Trans Szhenan Railway aid ofLittle Jehanne of 262,491;Egyptian 130, 130, 525, 525, 526, 526-27; Greek
porcelain 250, 252,252 France (Delaunay) 189, 189 307, 307, 454, 455; Hindu 122, 122, high 67, 260, 262, 526;
portals 324 Protagoras 304 Indian 472,472, Mava490, 490, 523, 523, 525; Roman 67,
porticoes 2S9 protest artworks 540, 542-46 67, Romanesque 325, 325, 494, 494-95; sunken 525;st-c-
Portland,Oregon: Public Services Building (Graves 444, Protestants 377, 390 a!so stele
445 provenance 37 religions: Christianity 3 16-18, see also Catholic Church,
Portland Vase (Roman 253, 253 Prud'hon, Pierre- Paul:Srady far La Sowee 78, 78-79 Protestants; Hinduism 122, 33 1, 332, 334, 488; Islam 61,
portraits 215; Fayum 181;photographic 215,217, 219,221, psychoanalysis 504, 58 6 316,331;Judaism3 16; Shinto 331,340, 48ftser also
seoa'soLange, Dorothea;regal 520—2 1,523;see also below psychological analysis 154,159 Buddhism; Confucius'Confucianism; Daoisrn
and self-portraits psychology 496 Remagin e ( Eliasson) 271, 271
Portrait!Futago) (Morimura) 561, 561 Ptolemy V, of Egypt 302 Rembrandt van Rijn 396; Adam and Eve 197,j 97; The
Portraitofa Boy (encaustic) 1S 1,jflj public artworks 466-68 Xight Watch 396, 396; Self-portrait56, 36 Self-portrait
PortrairofAdele B'.ock -Bauer (Klimt) 34-35,35 pueblos 275,275, 358,359 with Saskiam the Scene ofthe Prodigal Son m the Tavern
PortraitofDr. Samuel D. Gross (Eakins) 499, 499-500 Purpur a-Pononier e ,Aliseo 454 5SO, 580
Portrcdtoflsabdla d'Esze (Titian) 34, 34 putto (plural putti) 510 Remembrance Fresco (Pernio) 184 135
PortraitofLouisOCrv(Rigaud) 524, 524 Pygmalion 512 Remembrance of Civil War, 1848 (The Barricade, ruedela
Portrcdtof MaoZedong 52S, 529, 529 pyramids 459, 492; Azfcc 357, 463,463; Egyptian64, 64, Mortellerie,June 1848) (Mcissonicr) 531, 531,533
PortraitofGertrude Sreini Picasso) 427, 427 276, 277, 277, 301, 301,276, 460, 460-61,493, 493; Maya Renaissance,the 31, 32,132,171,248,309,3 15,376-77,
Po rtrait ofthe Artist's Sisters Playing Chess (Anguis sola) 276, 276; Teotihuacan 355,355-56; also Ziggurats 509,556,570; drawing 170;Early 377-80; frescoes 183;
3S9, 3S9 High3S0-S3; Late 388-91; in NorthernEurope 384-88,
Portraiz ofthe Artist's Wife, Standing, withHands on H:ps Qianlong Emperor's Southern Inspection T our...(XuYang) see alsoDQrer, Albrecht; painting 7S, 119, 132, 133, 180,
(Schielc) 55, 55 S4, 85 181,489,509-10; sculpturc264-65, 392-93;s« abo
Portraits ofCigar Store Owners (Wilson) 246, 247 qibla 369 Leonardo; Masaccio; Michelangelo; Raphael
Portraits ofSkarbatGu!a(SicCurr\-) 219, 219, 221 Qin Shi Huangdi, Emperor of China 336, 337; tomb 462, Renoir, Picrrc-Augustc 56; Luncheon ofthe Boating Party
Poseidon (Greek braize) 134,134 462; "Terracotta .Amy" 462, 462 254; Moulin dela Calette 412 413
positive 212 quilts 124, 124,257,257 Reodica,Julia ;eeZarctsky, Adam
positive-negative relationships 110, 111 Quinn, Marc: Self 39, 39 repousse 323
positive shapes 58-60, 136 representational art 153,367, 422
post-and-bearn construction 2S2, 2S32S3 Rabbit (K:otis) 31,31 restoration or art'.Mrks 506—7
post-and-lintel construction 278,275, 279 Radio Corporation Arts Building, Rockefeller Center, Rerurnof the Prodigal Son, The (Michals) 5S0-S 1,551
posters 101, 418,415, 546,546 Manhattan: mural (Rivera) 468-69 Reverie (Ho user) 154, 154
Pos t- Imp rcssi onis m' Pis t- !np rcssionis ts 415-17 Radioactive Cats (Skoglund) 226, 226-27 RGB colors 102 ,102, 105
Postmodernism/Postmodernists 443, 445; in architecture Raft,The (Viola) 238 rhythm 53, 82, 140, 142,146-47, 151, 161, 179,223, 388,
289,444, 444, 448; in painting 415-17, 416, 417 Raftof the Medusa (G6ricault) 542, 543-44 537;altcrnating 149-50, 151; progressive 14S—49, 151;
Poussin, Nicolas 595;The FuneralofPkocion 393, 395, 395 RaimondiStela (Chavinculture) 349, 349-50 simplcrepetitivc 146-48, 151
Powr HouseMechanicWorkingon Steam Pump (Hine) 569, raingods, Mexican 491-92 rhythmic design structure 150-51
569 Raising ofthe Cross, The (Rubens 395,395-96 Riace Warrior A (Greek braize) 266,266
Preeta Valley Vision (Cervantes) 468, 469 rafcuware 342,342 Richardson, Mary 548
predella 539 Ramirez, Nkrtin 5C6\Untitled(I.aInmaculada)505, 505 Rickard, Jofene 446; Com Blue Room 446—47, 447
prehistoric/prehistory 294, 479,554; cave paintings 191, randomness 145-46 Rickey, George 271; BreakingColumn.27 1,271
204, 295, 295, 477, 477, 47S, 475, map of Europe294; Rape ofa Sabine (Giambologna) 261, 261-62 Riefenstahl,Leni: Triumph of the Will 158, 15S-59
sculpture296, 296, 554, 554-55; \*11 paintings 296,296; Raphael 380, 514; Disputa 509; Heads ofthe Virgin and Rictveld, Gerrit 444; Schrbder House 444, 445
see also Knossos, Crete Child 170, 170; Jurisprudence 509; Parnassus 509; The Rigaud,Hyacinths: IokisXj"' 524, 524
Pre-Raphaelite Motherhood 411 School ofAthensSS, 89, 89, 132, 133, 133, 167, 168, 16S, Rile)-, Bridget Cataract3 lift 110
Presley, Elvis 146; Double Elvis (Warhol) 201, 201-2 381, 382, 3S3, 507, 509,509, Stanza della Segnatura 509, Ringgold,Faith: Tar Beach 257,257
Prince, Richard 5 S3— 9; Cowboys series 589, 5S9 509 Risatti, Profess<r Howard 249
principles of art 46, 116, 12S, 136, 152 Rapture (Neshat) 448, 448 Rist Pipilotti: Ever IsOver All 44S, 445,450
printing 206; in color 101-2,102, see also typography Rauschcnbcrg,Robert: Erased de Kooning Drawing 174, Ritchie,Matthew Proposition Player 450,450
printmaking'prints 192-93; acuatints 27, 27-28, 197, 197, 174; Monogram 123, 123 Rivera, Diego 184, 579;Man, Controller ofthe Universe...
199, 203;drypoint 40, 40, 196, J 96, 203; editions 192,202; Ravenna, Italy. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia mosaic 318, 468, 468; RCA Building mural 467-68; SugarCane 184,
engravings 195, 196, J 96, 203, 401-2, 402, 518;etchings 3I& SanVitale 3 19, 319 San Vitale mosaics 319 3 19-20, 185
53, 55,55, 197, 197, 203; impressions 192; intaglio 192, 520-21,521 Rivera, Jose dc: Infinity 153, J53
195-97, 199,203; lino cuts 193;lithography 192, 199-201, readymades 270, 431, 5SS "Riverside Bambco Market, KyObashi" (Hiroshige) 141,14J
200, 203, 210, 210, mezzotints 199, 199, 203; monotypes Realism 408-11, 493 RiZaAbbasi: Two Lovers 182, 182
and monoprints 192,202,202-3, 203; planographv 192, realistic 479 RoadMovie, The (exonrrno) 239,239
199-202,203; relief 192, 193, 193-94, 203; silkscreen 192, reality 76 Robinson,Henry- Peach: FadingAway 135, 135
201,201-2, 203, 43S, 439, 588; 194, 344,344,345; RecumbentFigure (Moore) 567, 567 rock art, Aboriginal 37 1,371
woodblock printing'woodcuts 31, 60, 60-61, 91, 91, 141, rcd-tigurc vases 309 Rockefeller, Nelson 467, 468
193, 193-95, 194, 195, 344, 3S8, 388 Red Studio, The (Matisse) 424, 424 Rockwell, Norman 209; Ron e the Riveter 209, 209
Fr.sonersfrom the Front<\\'. Homer) 41,41-43 Rcdon, Odilon 417; Ophelia 417, 417 Rococo art and architecture 398-99, 40!
profiles 496 Reformation, the 377, 393 Rodia, Simon: Watts Towers 29, 29
Projects series (X. Lee) 5S9, 5S9 regal portraits 520-21, 523 Rodin, Augusts 410, 414, 565; The Kiss 414, 414 Walking
propaganda 231 register 526 Man 565, 565, 567
INDEX 621
c
Rokeby Venus i\'dizaisi) 343,545 meaning 128-29;monumental 128,267,276,435 Shinto 331,340,346,480
RomanCatholic Church see Catholic Church Schapiro, Miriam:Baby Blocks 57, 57 ShivaXataraja (Cholabronze) 4SS, 4SS
Roman Empire 295, 314, 528; ancestor busts 310; Schechter, Stuart see Helmick,Ralph Shona, the 369
aqueducts 279,279, architecture 132, 147,279,280, 309- Schielc, Egon; Portraitofthe Artist's Wife, Standing, with Shonen, Suzuki: Fireflies at UjiRiver 190, 190
10, 31 J, 311-12,312; encaustic portraits 181, 181; Hands on Hips 55, 55 Shotoku, Prince 282
frescoes3 10, 3 J J; sculpture 310, 3 10, 527, 527; see also Schnabel, Julian 587; The Exile 5S7, 587 sidewalk art 515,515-16
Rome School ofAthens, The (Raphael) 88, 89,59, 132, 133,133, silhouettes 247, 512
Romanesque style: architecture 280,280, 281, 315, 326, 167, 168, 165, 3 SI, 352, 383, 507, 509, 509 silkscrccn printing 192, 201, 201-2, 203, 43 8, 439, 5S8
326; sculpture 325, 325, 494, 494-95 SchrOder House,Utrecht (Rietveld) 444, 445 Siiueta Works in Mexico series (Mendicta) 443,443
Romanticism 405-8 SchvvarZ, Tilleke 257; Co un.t Yo ur Blessings 256 257 silver point 170; drawings 170,170
Rome 309, 310, 314, 3S8; Ara PacisAugustae 67,67; Arch of science: and art 166-67,496-501; of perception 501-3 Simpson, Lcrtla 574; You're Fine 574, 574
Const ant ine 312, 312; Catacombs 3 17, 317, 47 8-79, 479; science-fiction films 233-34, 235 Sims, The (computer game) 84,55, S6
Colosseum 3 10, 312, 45 S, 455; equestrian statue of ScientificA merican (magazine) 230 Singin'in the Rain (Dorian and Kelly) 232 ,232
MarcusAurelius 152, 153; Pantheon 311, 311—12, 312; Snvias {.Know the Ways; (Hildegardof Bingen) 321 Sioux, the 360, 361
statue of Constantine 528, 528-29; set- alsoVatican Gty Scream, The (Munch) 586,556 Sipma, Taco are Sauerkids
Rosetta Stone 302 sculpture 260, 273; abstract 436; additive methods Sicueiros, DavidAltar o 185
Resit- the Riveter (Rockwell) 209, 209 (casting,modeling) 263, 265-67; Akkadian 299, Asmat Sis tine Chapel frescoes, Rome (Michelangelo) 172, 264,
rosin 197 4S6-S7; assemblages 430-31, 433; Assyrian 299-300; 264, 3S 1, 351,3S3; restoration of 506 506-7, 507
Rothko, Mark 438; Rothko Chapel, Houston, Texas 481, Aztec 358, 485; Baroque 261-62,3 92-93, 475-76; SixPersi??smc?:s(Muqi) 125—6, 126
451, 483; Unsit!ed438, 435 Buddhist 549, 549, 551; constructing 26S-69, Cydadic sketches 166, 199, 264,265, 425
RoyalAcademy of Arts, London 404, 411 296; freestanding (inthe round) 260-62; Futurist 434; Skoglund,Sandy Radioactive Cats 226 226-27
rubbings 205, 205 Hellenistic 308,309; in installations 272, 273; kinetic 113, Sky and Water I(Escher) 60, 60-6!
Rubens, Peter Paul 395; The Raising of die Cross 395 395— 270-71,289, 43 1; light 271;Maya 496-97,497; skyscrapers 285, 291
96 medicval(German) 65, 65; Minimalist44l—42; modern slab method (ceramics) 252-53
Rue Transnonain (Daumicr) 200, 200-201 50-51, 410, 414, 436, 565, 567; Popart 588,588, slip 250, 309
rulers inart 520-29 prehistoric 296, 554-56; Renaissance 264-65, 392-93; Smilack, Marcia 503;Cello Music 502, 503
Ruskin, John 215, 5S6 17th-century Italian 108; subtractivc methods (carving) Smith, David: CubiXIX 64-65, 65
Russian art: abstract 428,425; Constructvist 69, 69, 26S- 263,264, 265; Toltec 5 34-35;Yoruba 132, 366; se$ also Smithson, Robert: SpiralJetty 268, 265
69,269, Cubist IIS, 118-19; icons 474-75,475; Olmccs; relief sculpture; and under specific countries "snapshot aesthetic" 224
installation sculpture 273, 273; Suprernatist435, 435 Sculpture ofthe Lady Sennuwy (Egvptian) 261,261 soaps tone sculpture 369, 369
Sea in the Sky (Sasaki) 340, 341 social conscience, as expressed in art 542—553
Saar,Betye 473 ;A ncestraISpint Cha:r 473 ,473 Seated Figure (Zapotec culture) 250, 250, 252 society, in art 528
sacred places 477—S3; sec also church design Second ofMay, 1S0S, The(Goya) 532,532 Sola' R otary (Holt) 107, 107
sacrifice (in art) 4S7-S9 Self (Quinn) 39,39 Song Dynast;.- 337, 338
Safavid Empire: astrolabe 49S,49S self-portraits 427, 57S-S2; Close 144-45,145; Gedti 169, Sone.* with Setting Su n (van Gogh) 175, 175
St.Alexander, Reliquary of the Head of 322, 322-23 169; Rembrandt 36, 36 and see below space 55, 62, 76, SO, 112,142,162,268; negative 58, 69, 75,
St. Catherine Monastery, Mount Sinai, Egypt:icons 318, Self-portrait as the Allegory ofPainti xg(Gentileschi . 1S7, 2S9
31S— 19,550 187 span 276
Saint- Denis,Abbey Church of, nr Paris 280-82ÿ51 Self-portra:r inaConvex Mirror (Parmigiani no. 510-11, Spanish Civil War (1936-37) 545—46
Saints- Fey,Conques, France 280, 250 510 Spanish War of Independence (1808-14.- 532
St. Louis,Missouri:Wainwright Building (Sullivan) 285, Self-portrait in Profile to Jeft(Kolhvitz) 171, 171 Spear Bearer (Doryphoros) (Polykleitos) 308,305
285 Self-portrait ÿ,*385)( Mapplethorpe) 576 576-77 special effects (movies) 233-34
St Sernin, Toulouse, France 326, 326, 327 Self-portrait Sideways Xo. 3 (Coplans) 570, 570 spectrum, the 92, 92, 93
St Trophime, Aries, France 325,325 Self-portrait with Bandaged Ear and Pipe (vanGogh) Sphinx, the (Great Sphinx of Giza 63, 63-64, 301,301, 302
Salon, The, Paris 400,401,411,531 578— 79,579 Sphinx of Hatshepsut 575,575
Salon, The (Martini) 400,403 Self-portrait with Camellia (Modcrsohn- Becker.) 428, 428 SpiralJetty (Smithson) 26S, 265
Salon des Refuses,Paris 410 Self-portrait with Saskia m the Scene of the ProdigalSon in Spirted Away (MiyaZaki) 2 3 3,233
salons 427 the Tavern (Rembrandt) 580, 5S0 spirituality and art 470-77; see also religions; sacred places
SaltCellar ofFrancis I(Cellini) 256, 256 Sen no Rikyu 342; Taian teahouse 342,342 spray p aint (ing) 190-91
San Lorenzo, Mexico: Olmec head 34,354 Senefdder, Alois 199 Stackhouse, Robert see Mickett,Carol
Sanchi, India: Great Stupa 332, 333 Senufo people 472; mother-andchild figure 472,472 stained glass 254, 254-55, 280,251, 321, 454, 455
Sand Dunes,Sunr.se— Death Vdley Xational Monument, serifr 206, 206 Standard of L>(Sumcrian civilization) 298,298
California (Adams) 217, 217 Scrra, Richard 466; Tilted Arc 466, 466-67 Stanza dclla Segnatura (Raphael) 509, 509, 5l4;see also
sand paintings 465; Navajo 465,465;Tibetan 126-27, 127 Serrano, Andres: The Morgue 'Cur. Murder) 489, 4S9-90 School ofAthens, The
sans serif 206, 207 Seurat, Georges 100, 501;The Circus 100, 100-101,101; Star Wars (Lucas) 233-34,234
Santiago dc Compostela, Spain 280 Sunday on LaCrande Jatte 501, 501—2; Trees on the Bank Starr,vicZ, Wladyslav: The Cameraman's Revenge 232—33,
sarcop>hagi (sing, sarcophagus; 301; Etruscan (from of the Seine 172-73, 173 233
Cerveteri) 266,26(5 Maya490, 490 sfiumato 380 Starry Xight (van Gogh) 416-17,417
Sargon,Akkadian King 299 shading 411 Statue of Liberty (W"igan) 500, 500
sarsen stones 456, 457 shafts (of columns). 285, 306,307 Steerage, The (Stieglitz) 223, 223-24
Sasaki, Sonoko 340, 341J42; Sea in the Sky 340 Shah Jahan 335, 336 Stein, Gertrude 427; portrait (Picasso) 427,427
satire 51S, 515,519 shamans 350,465,477 Stein, Leo 427
saturation 95, 95-96 Shang Dynasty 338; ritual container 125,125; ritualwine stele (sing, stela) 348, 473, 529; Buddhist (Guptaperiod)
Saturday EvenmgPost 209 vessel (guang) 339, 339 472, 472, of Hammurabi 52S,52S; Maya67, 67; of
Sauerkids (Mark Mogctand Taco Sipma): The DevilMade shapc(s) 46, 57, 62, 80, 142, 166, 223; concentric 61; Naram- Sin 474, 474; Raimondi (Chavin) 349, 349-50
Me Do It53, 53 geometric 57;implied58; organic 57; position 80, 82; stencils'stcnciling 190,201, 204,425
Savillc, Jenny 581; Branded 551, 581-82 positive and negative 5S-60; size 80 stereotypes 473, 56S
scale 62, 128, 135,163, ISO, 223 379; distorted 131; Sherman, Cindy: UntitledFilm Stills 570-72,571 Sterne, Hedda 202-3; Untitled 'Machine SeresJ 202, 203
hierarchical 130,130, 298, 299, 304, 324,325, 526; and shimomura, Roer iSS; Untitled 1SS, 188 stick- style house(Brockville, Ontario) 2S3, 253
622 INDEX
c
StieglitZ, Alfred 223; Tke Steerage 223, 223-24 Tassi, Agostmo 5 S3 toranas 333
still lifts 119,215,400,401; photographic218-19 Tallin, Vladimir Monumentto the Third International 69, Toulouse, France: St Semin 326,326 327
Stirling, Matthewand Marion 354,354 69 Toulouse- Lautrrc, Henri dc 210, 345; La Goulueatthe
Stonebreakers (Courbct) 40S, 409 tattoo s, N laori
370,370, 372 Moulin R ouge 210,210
Stonchenge, England 456, 436-57 tea bowls,Japanese 32,32, 37 tracery 49S
sto ncwar e 250 tea ceremony, Japanese 32,37,340, 342,342 transept 326, 326
Srore, 77ie (Oldenburg) 246, 246 teepees 360,361 Travelers amongMountains and Streams(Fasi Kuan) S2, 52
Storm and Stone (Fay) 535, 53S-39 tempera 91, 106, 137, 140, 181, 1SI-S3, 162, 191,566 Treachery of Images, The (Magritte) 76, 76 431
St owe, Harriet Beechcr 262 temperature, color 99, 100 Treeson the Bank of the Seine (Seurat) 172-73,173
Strauss, Kathy: Kepler Underneath 1 203, 205 temples 30; Egyptian 130,130,273, 276; Greek S3, 83, 180, Tribute Money (Masaccio) 379,379
Street Berlin (Kirchncr) 42S-29, 429 27S, 276, 470, 470-71;see also Parthenon;Indian334, triglyphs 515
Struth, Thomas: Museo delPrado 163, J 63 334-35; Ro:nan3! I, 31 1-12; Tcnochtitlan 35S, 491; Trinity (Masaccio) SS,SS
stucco 515 Teotihuacan 356, 356; Yaxchilin 523, 523 Trip to the Moon,A (Melies) 230, 230
Studyfor La Source (Prud'ho n) 78, 78-79 Ten Year Old Spinner... (Hine) 219, 219 triptych 53S, 539,539
stupas 333; Great Supa, Sanchi, India332, 333 tenebrism 395, 49S Triumph of the W'ifl (Riefenstahl) 155, 15S-59
style 51,77,95, 111, 11S, 162, 171, 1S6 194,217,231,425 Tenochtitlan, Mexico 35S; Great Terrplc 35S, 491 trompel'oei! 50S, 510-12
stylized 1S2, 267, 2S9, 301, 328, 34S,475 Teotihuacan, Mexico 353, 355; Pyramidof the Sun 355, Trousse d'un Da (Arp) 146, 146
stylobatc 306, 512, 513,513 355, 356; Temple ofthc FcathcredScrpent/of True Artist Helps the World by Reveah ngMystic Truths. ..,
subjects 172, 1S3, 194,212,247, 296, 37S QuctZalcoatl 356, 356 The (Nauman) 244,244
:
Sublimate 'CloudCover ) (Lambert) 115,115 terracottas365; Chinese 'Terracotta Army" 462,462, Ifc Tsub asa RESERVoir CHRoNiCLE (CLAMP) 49, 49
sublime 407 484, 4S4-85, 55S-50,559 Nok 365, 365 tsum ugi-oritextiles 340, 341
subordination 136; and emphasis I36-3S tesserae 3 IS, 535 Tub, The (Degas) 172, 173
subtractive eolers 92-93 Tewa, the 360 Tula, Mexico: Toltec warrior columns 534, 535
Successful Operation (ORLAN) 5S2, 582 textiles 256-57, 257, 259; African 367,367; Andean 350, tumbling (with levers) 460, 461
Suffragettes 54S 352, 352; Chinese hanging scrolls S2, 82, 84, 85, 336-3S, Tunick Sp'encer 564; nude installations564, 564-65,565
Sugar Cane (D. Rivera 164, 1S5 337, 338, 521, 521; Hawaiian372, 372, Snca 352, 352, Turner, Joseph M. W'.: Slave Ship 544, 544-45
Sugcr, Abbot 2S0-S2 Japanesc340, 341; Paracas 350,350;Tlingit25S, 255; see Taming Roaii L'Estaque, The (Derain) 96,96
Suite with 7Characters ( Dubuffet) 51,51 aIso tap>es tries Tutankhamun, King 302; golden mask of 303,503; tomb of
Sullivan, Louis 2S5; Wainwright Building, St Louis 2S5, texture 62, 72-73, 145, 169, 219, 250,275, 342, 3S5, 413; 302, 304
285 alternating S2; implied 136, 199; subversive 73 Tutsis, genocide o* 546
Sumerians 29S-99; h~cs464,464-65; see also Ur Theater Piece No. 1(Cage) 241 TV Buddha (Paik) 72, 73
Sum mer Shower A (Hayllar) 86, S7 Thebes, Egypt:tomb painting 304,304 Twilight in the Wilderness (Church) 9S,98
SunStone (Aztec) 497, 497-9S Theodora andAttendants(ttiDsacc) 319, 319-20 Two Courtesans (Utamara) 344, 344, 345
Sunday on La Grande/arre(Seurat) 501, 501-2 Third ofMay, 1505, The (Goya) 34,54, 150, 150, 19S, 195, two-dimensional art 46,49, 62, 76, 270, 50S
Sung Dynasty: silkscrcen printing 201 405, 406, 406, 532, 532 Two Pr.das, TTre(Kahlo) 579, 579
supports 181, 1S6 Thirty Are Better than One (Warhol) 43S, 439 Tot Lovers (RizaAbfcasi) 1S2, 152
Supre.matism 435 Thirty -Six Views ofMountFuji(Hokusai) 81,51, 117, 117, Two Ways ofLife, The (Rejlander) 222,222
SupremaBstPain ting (Malevich) 435, 435 195, 195, 344,346,346 Tyco advertising campaign (.Hill, Holliday, Connors,
surreal 227 "This is not a pipe'' (Magritte) 76, 76, 431 Cosmopulos agency) 210,210
Surrealism..' Surrealists 73, 76, 12 1,13 1,43 1-33,504, 567, Thrash, Dox: Defense Worker 199, 199 tympana (sing tympanum) 324, 325,325, 494, 495
5S6 thr ee-dimensional/three-dimensionality 62,75, 76,179, typography 206-7, 211
Surrealism andPainting(Emsl) 432, 433 1S6 252, 260, 320, 37S, 413, 425, 50S
Suzuki ShOncn: Fireflies at Uji River 190, 190 Three Polk Musicians (Bear den) 436,436-37 ukiyo-eprintmaking 194, 344,344,345
Swing, The (Fragonard) 401,401 Throne ofthe Third Heaven of the Nations'Millennium ultramarine ISO
Sydney Opera House (UtZon) 288, 2SS-S9 General.Assembly,The (HitttplDti) 440, 441 Unique Forms ofContinuity m Spacr(Boccioni) 434, 434
symbolism, in churches 325-27 throwing (on potters wheel) 252 Un ite NOLA (Tague) 543, 543
Svrrb olisnV Symbolists 4 15,4 17,4 17 Tiberfrom Monte Mario Looking South, TTsefClaude UnitedNations series (Gu) 552-53,553
symmetry 125, 127,391 Lorrain) 176, 176 unity 116, 127, 12S, 142; compositionall!6 116-20;
syncretic religions 331 Tibetan sand painting (mandala) 126-27,127 conceptual 120-21, 122; gestalt 121-22; andvariety 123—
synesthesia 503 Tikal, Guatemala: \faya pyramids 276, 276 24
Tilted Arc (Scrra) 466 466-67 Un titled( Calder) 113,113
tableaux 227, 441 time 106-8; and motion 106, 10S, 112; andnatural Un titled ( Flavin) 442 ,442
Tacon, Paul 371 processes 115; symbols of 155-56 Untitled(Judd) 441, 441
Tagliapietra, Lino:Batman 66, 66 Times NewRoman 206 Un titled(Megerlc) 170,170
Taguc, Dan 543; Unite!VOIA 543, 543 Tin Lizzie Green (Olitski) 137, 137 L7n rifled(Rothko) 43S, 43S
Taj Mahal, .Agra, India 332,335, 335-36 Tintoretto Qacop'oRoobusti): The LastSupper 39Q 390-91 Un titled( Sh imomura) 1S8, 155
Talbot, William Henry Fox: The Oriel Window, South tints 92, 93-94 Untitled 'Baalbek BirdCagey (Hatoum) 585 ,555
Gallery, LacockAbbey 214, 214 tipis 360, 361 Untitled 'The Hotel Eden) (Cornell) 121, 121
Tale ofGenji (Murasaki Shikibu) 343, 343-44 Titian( TizianoVecellio): Isabellad'Este 34, 34; Venus of Untitled(L a Immaoulada) (Ramirez) 505,505
Tale of the Heiji Rebellion (painted scrolls) 536-37,537 Urbino 560, 560 Un titled'Machine SeriesJ (Sterne) 202, 203
Taliban, the 549, 551 Tiwanaku culture 34S Untitled(Selectionsfiom Truisms- )(Holzer) 110, 110
Tanner, Henry Ossawa 40S-9; The Banjo Lesson 409, 409 Tlaloc (Aztec god) 463; maskvessel 491, 491-92 Untitled 'Your Gaze Hits the Side of My Face) (Kruger) 243,
Tanning, Dorcthea- Eine KlemeNachtmusik 131, 131 Tlazolteotl (Aztx goddess) 4S5; sculpture 4S5, 455 243
Tansey, Mark:Picasso andBraque 94, 94-95 Tlingitpcofrte: blanket 25S, 255 UntitledFilm Stills (Sherman) 570-72, 571
r'aot'ieh 125 To Be Modem =2 (Kim) 249,249 Untitled—Passage on the Underground Railroad (Marc)
Taos, the 360 Tobcy, Mark 137-3S; Slue Integer 137, 137 224-25,225
Taos Pueblo,New Mccico 275,275 Toilet of Venus, Tfce(Vd4zcuez) 54S, 545 Ur:bull lyre 464, 464-65; Royal Cemetery 29S-99;
tapestries 537; Bayeux 536, 536, 5 37; Islamic 61, 61 Toltccs, the: warrior columns, Tula 554, 535 Standard of L".'29S, 298, Ziggurat 459, 459
Tar Beach (Ringgold) 257, 257 Torah, the 315, 316 Urbino, Fedcrico da Montefeltro, duke of 259
INDEX 623

Gateways To Art Understanding The Visual Arts Compress

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Understanding the Visual Arts

With 1013 illustrations, 865 in color

Thames & Hudson

GatewaystoAit copyright S2012Thames&Hudson

Text copyrights 2012Debra J.DeWitte, Ralph M.Larmann andM. Kathryn Shields

All Rights Reserved.No part of thispublication maybe reproduced ortransmitted

First published in 2012 in paperbackin the United States of America by

Libra ryof CongressCatalogCard Number201 1922637

Desig ned by Geoff Pen na

Printed and bound in China by C&C Offset Printing Ltd

Above, left to right:

Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Decapitating Holofernesc. 1620. Ufftzi Gallery, Florence

Colossal Head, Olmec, Basalt, 1 500-1300BCE.Museo de Antropologia, Veracruz, Mexico.

How to Use Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts 13

Introduction 26 What Is Art? 26

Chapter 1.2 Form 62

Chapter 1.3 Value 77

Chapter 1.4 Light and Color 92

Chapter 1.5 Time 106

Chapter 1.6 Unity 116

Chapter 1.10 Content 152

Chapter 2.2 Encaustic 180

Chapter 2.3 Context of Printmaking 192

Chapter 2.4 The Early History of Graphic Arts 204

Chapter 2.5 Recording the Image 212

Chapter 2.7 Context of Alternative Media 240

Chapter 2.8 Ceramics 248

Chapter 2.10 The Context of Architecture 274

Chapter 3.1 Prehistoric Art in Europe and the Mediterranean 295

Chapter 3.3 India 332

Chapter 3.4 The Americas: When's the Beginning? 348

Chapter 3.6 The Early Renaissance in Italy 377

Chapter 3.7 Rococo 398

PART 4 THEMES 452

Chapter 4.1 Civic and Ceremonial Places 454

Chapter 4.2 Deities 470

Chapter 4.3 Life's Beginnings and FamilyTies 484

Chapter 4.4 Astronomical Knowledge in Art 496

Chapter 4.5 Artas an lllusionistic Window 508

Chapter 4.7 Documenting War: Unbiased Facts or Biased Judgments? 530

Chapter 4.8 Art as Social Protest 562

Chapter 4.9 Archetypal Images of the Body 556

Chapter 4.10 Gendered Roles 568

Chapter 4.11 Making a Self-portrait 578

How to Use Gateways to Art:

HOW TO USE GATEWAYS TO ART 13

The Authors A/ Gateways to Am

U HOW TO USE GATEWAYS TO ART

20 video presentations that provide

works of world art.

For full details of all instructors' resources urtov r*«t

Resources for fcuOySoictirtii

Our student website offers a wide range of . M I'lUraiUraHin

quizzes; flash cards; chapter summaries; a

art is made. Other content-rich resources ** 04 W • *» »*••!«< OF

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foreign- language terms and artists' names. .kiÿiMikrxx

For full details of our student resources go to

HOW TO USE GATEWAYS TO ART 15

4.6 (p. 522) Examine how the evidence suggests

4.5 (p. 509) Visualize how* the other paintings in

Artemisia Gentileschi, FUNDAMENTALS

art is made. Other content-rich resources ** 04 W • » »••!«< OF