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MILLER’S REVIEW OF
ORTHOPAEDICS
EIGHTH EDITION
MARK D. MILLER, MD
S. Ward Casscells Professor
Head, Division of Sports Division
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
University of Virginia Health System
Charlottesville, Virginia
Team Physician
James Madison University
Harrisonburg, Virginia
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notice
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. Because of rapid
advances in the medical sciences in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages
should be made. To the fullest extent of the law, no responsibility is assumed by Elsevier, authors, editors,
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contained in the material herein.
Previous editions copyrighted 2016 by Elsevier and 2012, 2004, 2004, 2000, 1996, 1992 by Saunders,
an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Printed in Canada
Sanjeev Kakar, MD
George Keith Gill, MD
Professor
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Department of Orthopedic Surgery
University of Virginia Health System
College of Medicine
Charlottesville, Virginia
Mayo Clinic
Rochester, Minnesota
vi
Contributors vii
viii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
BASIC SCIENCES
Jeremy K. Rush, Dustin Lybeck, Jessica Rivera, and Matthew R. Schmitz
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 ORTHOPAEDIC TISSUES, 1 SECTION 3 PERIOPERATIVE AND ORTHOPAEDIC
Bone, 1 MEDICINE, 78
Cartilage and Joint, 34 Thromboprophylaxis, 78
Muscle, 52 Perioperative Disease and Comorbidities, 84
Tendon, 57 SECTION 4 OTHER BASIC PRINCIPLES, 89
Ligament, 58 Imaging and Special Studies, 89
Neural Tissue and Intervertebral Disc, 59 Biomaterials and Biomechanics, 93
SECTION 2 ORTHOPAEDIC BIOLOGY, 61 TESTABLE CONCEPTS, 107
Cellular and Molecular Biology and Immunology, 61
Infection and Microbiology, 70
1
2 Basic Sciences
Cortical Immature
Cancellous Pathologic
(giant cell tumor)
Haversian
canal
Canaliculi
Osteocyte
Modified from Brinker MR, Miller MD: Fundamentals of orthopaedics, Philadelphia, 1999, Saunders, p 1.
Stem cell
Myeloid
progenitor
Hematopoietic
progenitor
Pre-osteocytes
Monocyte
Myocyte
Cell-cell fusion
Adipocyte
Macrophage
Fibroblast
Chondroblast/
chondrocyte Multi-nuclear
osteoclast
Osteoblast/osteocyte
Osteocytes Chondroblasts
Perichondrium
Osteoblasts
Lacuna
Chondrocyte
Isogenic group
Extracellular
matrix
Myoblast Adipocyte
Stem cell
Haversian
canal
Liberated Proliferation
matrix-bound
Osteoprogenitor cells
growth factors
Inhibition of
osteoblast activity
Mechanical factors BMP
hormones Proliferation Sclerostin
Osteoclast cytokines and maturation
precursor
Osteocyte
Microdamage
FIG. 1.3 Paracrine crosstalk between osteoblasts and osteoclasts. (From Kumar V et al, editors: Bones, joints, and soft tissue tumors. In Robbins and Cotran
pathologic basis of disease, ed 9, Philadelphia, 2014, Saunders, Fig. 26-5.)
• D irectly stimulated by calcitonin, inhibited by PTH • B order consists of plasma membrane enfoldings
• Sclerostin secreted by osteocytes helps negative that increase surface area
feedback on osteoblasts’ bone deposition (Fig. 1.3). • Bind to bone surfaces through cell
• Differentially regulated according to mechanical attachment (anchoring) proteins
loading, with decreased sclerostin in areas of • Integrin (αvβ3 or vitronectin receptor)
concentrated strain • Bone resorption occurs in depressions: Howship
• Downregulation is associated with increased bone lacunae.
formation (via sclerostin antibody). • Effectively seal the space below the osteoclast
• Potential for use in fracture healing, bone loss, • Synthesize tartrate-resistant acid phosphate
osseous integration of implants, and genetic bone • Produce hydrogen ions through carbonic
diseases via upregulation of sclerostin anhydrase
• Osteoclasts • Lower pH
• Multinucleated irregular giant cells • Increase solubility of hydroxyapatite crystals
• Derived from hematopoietic cells in macrophage • Organic matrix then removed by proteolytic
lineage digestion through activity of the lysosomal
• Monocyte progenitors form giant cells by fusion enzyme cathepsin K
• Function • Signaling
• Bone resorption • Have calcitonin receptors, which inhibit
• Bone formation and resorption are linked osteoclastic resorption
• Stimulated primarily by RANKL binding to • Interleukin-1 (IL-1): potent stimulator of
RANK receptor on cell surface osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption
• Osteoblasts (and tumor cells) express • Found in membranes surrounding loose total
RANKL (Fig. 1.4): joint implants
• Binds to receptors on osteoclasts • In contrast, IL-10 suppresses osteoclasts.
• Stimulates differentiation into mature n Matrix (Table 1.3)
osteoclasts • Organic components: 40% of dry weight of bone
• Inhibited by osteoprotegerin (OPG) • Collagen (90% of organic components)
binding to RANKL • Primarily type I (mnemonic: bone contains the
• Occurs both normally and in certain conditions, word one)
including multiple myeloma and metastatic • Type I collagen provides tensile strength of
bone disease bone
• Denosumab is a monoclonal antibody that • Hole zones (gaps) exist within the collagen fibril
targets and inhibits RANKL binding to the between the ends of molecules.
RANK receptor • Pores exist between the sides of parallel
• Resorption mechanism molecules.
• Osteoclasts possess a ruffled (brush) border and • Mineral deposition (calcification) occurs within the
surrounding clear zone hole zones and pores.
Basic Sciences 5
Endosteal
vessels
Epiphysis
Metaphysis
Diaphysis
Periosteal vessels
Tendon
Muscular vessels
FIG. 1.6 Blood supply to bone. (From Standring S et al, editors: Functional anatomy of the musculoskeletal system. In Gray’s anatomy, ed 40, London, 2008, Elsevier,
Fig. 5-20.)
Basic Sciences 7
A1 B1 C1 D1
A B C D E F
Epiphysis
Diaphysis
Epiphysis
G H I J
FIG. 1.7 Enchondral ossification of long bones. Note that phases F through J often occur after birth. (From Moore KL: The developing human, Philadel-
phia, 1982, Saunders, p 346.)
• R eserve zone: cells store lipids, glycogen, and • N ormal matrix mineralization occurs in the
proteoglycan aggregates; decreased oxygen tension lower hypertrophic zone: chondrocytes increase
occurs in this zone. five times in size, accumulate calcium in their
• Lysosomal storage diseases (e.g., Gaucher mitochondria, die, and release calcium from
disease) can affect this zone. matrix vesicles.
• Proliferative zone: growth is longitudinal, with • Chondrocyte maturation is regulated by systemic
stacking of chondrocytes (the top cell is the hormones and local growth factors (PTH-related
dividing “mother” cell), cellular proliferation, and peptide inhibits chondrocyte maturation; Indian
matrix production; increases in oxygen tension hedgehog protein is produced by chondrocytes
and proteoglycans inhibit calcification. and regulates the expression of PTH-related
• Achondroplasia causes defects in this zone peptide).
(see Fig. 1.11). • Osteoblasts migrate from sinusoidal vessels and
• Growth hormone exerts its effect in the use cartilage as a scaffolding for bone formation.
proliferative zone. • Low oxygen tension and decreased proteoglycan
• Hypertrophic zone: aggregates aid in this process.
• Divided into three zones: maturation, • This zone widens in rickets (see Fig. 1.11), with
degeneration, and provisional calcification little or no provisional calcification.
Basic Sciences 9
Proliferating
Perichondrium hyaline cartilage
At 8 weeks
At 9 weeks
Epiphyseal capillaries
Calcified
cartilage
Epiphyseal
(secondary)
ossification center
Cancellous endochondral
bone laid down on spicules Outer part of periosteal bone
of calcified cartilage transforming into compact bone
FIG. 1.8 Development of a typical long bone: formation of the growth plate and secondary centers of ossification. (From Netter FH: CIBA collection of
medical illustrations, vol 8: Musculoskeletal system, part I: Anatomy, physiology and developmental disorders, Basel, Switzerland, 1987, CIBA, p 136.)
10 Basic Sciences
Articular cartilage
Secondary (epiphyseal)
ossification center
Epiphyseal artery
Reserve zone
Metaphyseal artery
Periosteum
Diaphysis
Cartilage
Bone
FIG. 1.9 Structure and blood supply of a typical growth plate. (From Netter FH: CIBA collection of medical illustrations, vol 8: Musculoskeletal system, part I:
Anatomy, physiology and developmental disorders, Basel, Switzerland, 1987, CIBA, p 166.)
Basic Sciences 11
FIG. 1.10 Zone structure, function, and physiologic features of the growth plate. (From Netter FH: CIBA collection of medical illustrations, vol 8: Musculo-
skeletal system, part I: Anatomy, physiology and developmental disorders, Basel, Switzerland, 1987, CIBA, p 164.)
12 Basic Sciences
Zones
Histology Functions Exemplary diseases Defect (if known)
Structures
Secondary bony
epiphysis
Epiphyseal
artery
Maturation
zone
Preparation
of matrix for Mucopolysaccharidosis................ Deficiencies of specific
calcification (Morquio syndrome, lysosomal acid hydrolases,
Hypertrophic zone
spongiosa
reticuloendothelial deficiency
FIG. 1.11 Zone structure and pathologic defects of cellular metabolism. (From Netter FH: CIBA collection of medical illustrations, vol 8: Musculoskeletal
system, part I: Anatomy, physiology and developmental disorders, Basel, Switzerland, 1987, CIBA, p 165.)
Basic Sciences 13
Osteoclasts
Lining cells
Osteocytes Osteocytes
Apoptotic osteoclasts
Osteoclasts
Osteoblasts
Preosteoblasts Osteoid
Osteocytes Osteocytes
FIG. 1.13 Bone remodeling. Osteoclasts dissolve the mineral from the bone matrix. Osteoblasts produce new bone (osteoid) that fills in the
resorption pit. Some osteoblasts are left within the bone matrix as osteocytes. (From Firestein GS et al, editors: Kelley’s textbook of rheumatology, ed 8,
Philadelphia, 2008, Saunders.)
Basic Sciences 15
• E
lectricity and fracture healing • S treaming potentials: occur when
• Definitions electrically charged fluid is forced over a cell
• Stress-generated potentials membrane that has a fixed charge
• Piezoelectric effect: tissue charges are • Transmembrane potentials: generated by
displaced secondary to mechanical forces. cellular metabolism
Developing
resorption
Time cavity
Cutting
cone
Osteoclast
Resorption
cavity
Reversal
zone
Fibroblast
Osteoblast
Closing Forming
cone osteon
Quiescent
osteoblast
Completed
osteon
Blood vessel
B C
FIG. 1.14 Cortical bone remodeling. (A) Longitudinal and cross sections of a time line illustrating formation of an osteon. Osteoclasts cut a
cylindrical channel through bone. Osteoblasts follow, laying down bone on the surface of the channel until matrix surrounds the central blood
vessel of the newly formed osteon (closing cone of a new osteon). (B) Photomicrograph of a cutting cone. (C) Higher-magnification photomi-
crograph; osteoclastic resorption can be more clearly appreciated. (A from Standring S et al, editors: Functional anatomy of the musculoskeletal system. In
Gray’s anatomy, ed 40, London, 2008, Elsevier, Fig. 5-19.)
16 Basic Sciences
OSTEOGENIC
GRAFT OSTEOCONDUCTION OSTEOINDUCTION CELLS STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OTHER PROPERTIES
Autograft
Cancellous Excellent Good Excellent Poor Rapid incorporation
Cortical Fair Fair Fair Excellent Slow incorporation
Allograft Fair Fair None Good Fresh has the highest
immunogenicity
Freeze dried is the least
immunogenic but has the
least structural integrity
(weakest)
Fresh frozen preserves BMP
Ceramics Fair None None Fair
Demineralized Good Fair None Poor
bone matrix
Bone marrow Poor Poor Good Poor
Modified from Brinker MR, Miller MD: Fundamentals of orthopaedics, Philadelphia, 1999, Saunders, p 7.
18 Basic Sciences
• A luminum oxide: alumina ceramic bonds to bone • O ptimal therapy: single preoperative or postoperative
in response to stress and strain between implant and dose of 600–800 rad/cGy (6-8 Gy)
bone • Prevents proliferation and differentiation of primordial
n Five stages of graft healing (Urist) are listed in Table 1.11. mesenchymal cells into osteoprogenitor cells
n Distraction osteogenesis • Preoperative radiation (600–800 rad/cGy) may be
• Definition: distraction-stimulated formation of bone given in a single fraction up to 24 hours prior to
• Clinical applications: surgery.
• Limb lengthening • Helps prevent heterotopic ossification after THA in
• Deformity correction (via differential lengthening) patients at high risk for this development
• Segmental bone loss (via bone transport) • Incidence of heterotopic ossification after THA
• Biologic features: among patients with Paget disease is approximately
• Under optimal stability, intramembranous 50%.
ossification occurs. n Normal bone metabolism
• Under instability, bone forms through enchondral n Calcium
ossification. • I mportant in muscle and nerve function, clotting, and
• Under extreme instability, pseudarthrosis may many other areas
occur. • More than 99% of the body’s calcium is stored in bones.
• Three histologic phases: • Plasma calcium is about equally free and bound
• Latency phase (5–7 days) (usually to albumin).
• Distraction phase (1 mm/day [≈1 inch/mo]) • Approximately 400 mg of calcium is released from
• Consolidation phase (typically twice as long as bone daily.
distraction phase) • Absorbed in the duodenum by active transport
• Optimal conditions during distraction osteogenesis: • Requires ATP and calcium-binding protein
• Low-energy corticotomy/osteotomy • Regulated by 1,25(OH)2D3
• Minimal soft tissue stripping at corticotomy site • Absorbed in the jejunum by passive diffusion
(preserves blood supply) • Kidney reabsorbs 98% of calcium (60% in proximal
• Stable external fixation and elimination of torsion, tubule)
shear, and bending moments • Calcium may be excreted in stool.
• Latency period (no lengthening) 5–7 days • Primary homeostatic regulators of serum calcium
• Distraction: 0.25 mm three or four times per day are PTH and 1,25(OH)2D3
(0.75–1.0 mm/day) • Dietary requirement for elemental calcium:
• Neutral fixation interval (no distraction) during • Approximately 600 mg/day for children
consolidation • Approximately 1300 mg/day for adolescents and
• Normal physiologic use of the extremity, including young adults (ages 10–25 years)
weight bearing • 750 mg/day for adults ages 25–50 years
n Heterotopic ossification • 1200–1500 for adults over age 50 years
• Ectopic bone forms in soft tissues. • 1500 mg/day for pregnant women
• Most commonly in response to injury or surgical • 2000 mg/day for lactating women
dissection • 1500 mg/day for postmenopausal women and for the
• Myositis ossificans: heterotopic ossification in muscle patient with a healing fracture in a long bone
• Increased risk with traumatic brain injury • Calcium balance is usually positive in the first three
• Recurrence after resection is likely if neurologic decades of life and negative after the fourth decade.
compromise is severe. n Phosphate
• Timing of surgery for heterotopic ossification after • A key component of bone mineral
traumatic brain injury is important: • Approximately 85% of the body’s phosphate stores
• Time since injury (3–6 months) are in bone.
• Evidence of bone maturation on radiographs • Plasma phosphate is mostly unbound.
(sharp demarcation, trabecular pattern) • Also important in enzyme systems and molecular
• Heterotopic ossification may be resected after total hip interactions as a metabolite and buffer
arthroplasty (THA). • Dietary intake of phosphate is usually adequate.
• Resection should be delayed for 6 months or longer • Daily requirement is 1000–1500 mg.
after THA. n Reabsorbed by the kidney (proximal tubule)
• Adjuvant radiation therapy may prevent recurrence n Phosphate may be excreted in urine.
of heterotopic ossification. n Parathyroid hormone
• An 84–amino acid peptide
• Synthesized in and secreted from chief cells of the
Table 1.11 Stages of Graft Healing (four) parathyroid glands
STAGE ACTIVITY • N-terminal fragment 1-34 is the active portion.
Inflammation Chemotaxis stimulated by necrotic • Teriparatide, the synthetic form of recombinant
debris human PTH, contains this active sequence.
Osteoblast differentiation From precursors • Used to treat some forms of osteoporosis
Osteoinduction Osteoblast and osteoclast function
Osteoconduction New bone forming over scaffold
• Increased risk of osteosarcoma
Remodeling Process continues for years • Effect of PTH mediated by the cAMP second-
messenger mechanism downstream in osteocytes
Basic Sciences 19
Adapted from Netter FH: CIBA collection of medical illustrations, vol 8: Musculoskeletal system, part I: Anatomy, physiology and developmental
disorders, Basel, Switzerland, 1987, CIBA, p 179.
Vitamin D
25-OHase Liver
+ –
24-OHase
1,25(OH)2-vitamin D 1-OHase 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D Calcitroic
acid
Kidney
Osteoblast
Urine
PTH –
RANKL
RANK
Preosteoclast PTH Intestine
Parathyroid
glands
Mature
osteoclast
Calcium and
Bone phosphorus
Ca2+ and HPO4 2– Ca2+ and HPO42–
release absorption
FIG. 1.15 Vitamin D metabolism. DBP, vitamin D–binding protein; OHase, 1α-hydroxylase; Pi, inorganic phosphate. (From Kumar V et al, editors:
Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders.)
• C ortical bone becomes thinner and intracortical • I ncreased osteoclastic resorption and failure of
porosities increase. repair attempts (poor mineralization as a result of
• Cortical bone becomes more brittle, less strong, low phosphate level)
and less stiff. • Diagnosis:
• Long bones have greater inner and outer • Laboratory findings
diameters. • Increased serum calcium, PTH, and urinary
n Bone loss phosphate
• Occurs at the onset of menopause when both bone • Decreased serum phosphate
formation and resorption are accelerated • Bony changes
• A net negative change in calcium balance: • Osteopenia
menopause decreases intestinal absorption and • Osteitis fibrosa cystica (fibrous replacement of
increases urinary excretion of calcium. marrow)
• Both urinary hydroxyproline and pyridinoline cross- • Brown tumors: increased giant cells,
links are elevated when bone resorption occurs. extravasation of RBCs, hemosiderin staining,
• Serum alkaline phosphatase level is elevated when fibrous tissue hemosiderin
bone formation is increased. • Chondrocalcinosis
n Conditions of bone mineralization (Tables 1.13 through 1.17) • Radiographic findings
n Hypercalcemia • Deformed, osteopenic bones
• C an manifest in a number of ways • Fractures
• Polyuria, polydipsia, and nephrolithiasis • Shaggy trabeculae
• Excessive bony resorption with or without fibrotic • Radiolucent areas (phalanges, distal clavicle,
tissue replacement (osteitis fibrosa cystica) skull)
• CNS effects (confusion, stupor, weakness) • Destructive metaphyseal lesions
• GI effects (constipation) • Calcification of soft tissues
• Can also cause anorexia, nausea, vomiting, dehydration, • Histologic changes
and muscle weakness • Osteoblasts and osteoclasts active on both sides
• Primary hyperparathyroidism of the trabeculae (as in Paget disease)
• Overproduction of PTH usually a result of a parathyroid • Areas of destruction
adenoma (surgical parathyroidectomy is curative) • Wide osteoid seams
• Generally affects only one parathyroid gland • Other causes of hypercalcemia
• Reflected in a net increase in plasma calcium and • Familial syndromes
a decrease in plasma phosphate (as a result of • Pituitary adenomas associated with multiple
enhanced urinary excretion) endocrine neoplasia (MEN) types I and II
Table 1.13 Overview of Clinical and Radiographic Aspects of Metabolic Bone Diseases
DISEASE CAUSE CLINICAL FINDINGS RADIOGRAPHIC FINDINGS
Hypercalcemia
Hyperparathyroidism PTH overproduction: adenoma Kidney stone, hyperreflexia Osteopenia, osteitis fibrosa
cystica
Familial syndromes PTH overproduction: MEN/renal Endocrine and renal Osteopenia
abnormalities
Hypocalcemia
Hypoparathyroidism PTH underproduction: idiopathic Neuromuscular irritability, Calcified basal ganglia
cataracts
PHP/Albright syndrome PTH receptor abnormality Short MC/MT, obesity Brachydactyly, exostosis
Renal osteodystrophy Chronic renal failure: ↓ phosphate Renal abnormalities Rugger jersey spine
excretion
Rickets (osteomalacia)
Vitamin D–deficiency rickets ↓ Vitamin D diet; malabsorption Bone deformities, hypotonia Rachitic rosary, wide growth
plates, fractures
Vitamin D–dependent (types I See Table 1.16 Total baldness Poor mineralization
and II) rickets
Vitamin D–resistant (hypo- ↓ Renal tubular phosphate Bone deformities, hypotonia Poor mineralization
phosphatemic) rickets resorption
Hypophosphatasia ↓ Alkaline phosphatase Bone deformities, hypotonia Poor mineralization
Osteopenia
Osteoporosis ↓ Estrogen: ↓ bone mass Kyphosis, fractures Compression vertebral fractures,
hip fractures
Scurvy Vitamin C deficiency: defective Fatigue, bleeding, effusions Thin cortices, corner sign
collagen
Osteodensity
Paget disease of bone Osteoclastic abnormality: ↑ bone Deformities, pain, CHF, fractures Coarse trabeculae, picture-
turnover frame vertebrae
Osteopetrosis Osteoclastic abnormality: unclear Hepatosplenomegaly, anemia Bone within bone
↓, Decreased; ↑, increased.
Table 1.14 Laboratory Findings and Clinical Data Regarding Patients With Metabolic Bone Diseases Causing Hypercalcemia
CHANGES IN LEVEL OR CONCENTRATION
↓, Decreased; ↑, increased.
Table 1.15 Laboratory Findings and Clinical Data Regarding Patients With Metabolic Bone Diseases Causing Hypocalcemia
CHANGES IN LEVEL OR CONCENTRATION
↓, Decreased; ↑, increased.
Table 1.16 Laboratory Findings and Clinical Data Regarding Patients With Rickets and Related Diseases
24
CHANGES IN LEVEL OR CONCENTRATION
Basic Sciences
DISORDER CALCIUM PHOS PHOS PTH 25(OH)D 1,25(OH)2D CALCIUM POSSIBLE FINDINGS TREATMENT COMMENTS
Nutritional rick- ↓ or none ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ Osteomalacia, Oral vitamin D With ↓ vitamin D intake, intestinal calcium
ets: vitamin D hypotonia (1000–6000 IU/day) and phosphate absorption is reduced,
deficiency Muscle weakness, leading to hypocalcemia
tetany ↓ Serum calcium stimulates ↑ PTH
Bowing deformities (secondary hyperparathyroidism),
of the long bones leading to bone resorption and ↑
Rachitic rosary serum calcium (toward or to normal
levels)
Sources of vitamin D include sunlight,
fish-liver foods, and fortified milk
Nutritional rick- ↓ or none ↓ ↑ ↑ None ↑ or none ↓ Clinical findings Oral calcium (1000 mg/ Hypocalcemia leads to secondary
ets: calcium similar to those day) hyperparathyroidism
deficiency for vitamin D ↑ PTH leads to enhanced renal
deficiency conversion of 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D
Nutritional rick- None ↓ ↑ None None ↑↑↑ None No changes of Oral supplementation Neither secondary hyperparathyroidism
ets: phosphate secondary hyper- of phosphate nor vitamin D deficiency is present
deficiency parathyroidism are ↓ Serum phosphate leads to ↑ renal
observed production of 1,25(OH)2D
Hereditary vita- ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ None or ↑ ↓↓↓ ↓ Osteomalacia Oral physiologic There is a defect in renal 25(OH)D
min D–depen- Clinical findings doses (1–2 μg/day) of 1α-hydroxylase. This enzymatic defect
dent rickets similar to (but more 1,25(OH)2D inhibits conversion from the inactive
type I (pseu- severe than) those form [25(OH)D] to the active form
do–vitamin D of nutritional rick- [1,25(OH)2D] of vitamin D in the kidney
deficiency) ets due to vitamin
D deficiency
Hereditary ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ None or ↑ ↑↑↑ ↓ Osteomalacia Long-term (3–6 mo) There is an intracellular receptor defect
vitamin D– Alopecia daily administration for 1,25(OH)2D
dependent Clinical findings of high-dose Patients with this disorder have the
rickets type similar to (but vitamin D analogue highest 1,25(OH)2D levels observed
II [hereditary more severe than) [1,25(OH)2D or (OH)D in humans; this ↑↑↑ level of 1,25(OH)2D
resistance to nutritional rickets 1α-hydroxylase] plus distinguishes hereditary vitamin D–
1,25(OH)2D] caused by vitamin 3 g/day of elemental dependent rickets type II from type I,
D deficiency calcium in which the level of 1,25(OH)2D is ↓↓↓
Hypophospha- None ↓↓↓ ↑ None None None None or ↑ Osteomalacia First line treatment with There is an inborn error in phosphate
temic rickets No changes of burosumab (anti- transport (probably located in the
(also known secondary hyper- FGF23 monoclonal proximal nephron); this leads to failure
as vitamin parathyroidism antibody), second line of reabsorption of phosphate in the
D–resistant Classic triad: elemental phosphate kidney and “spilling” of phosphate
rickets and 1. Hypophos- (1–2g/day plus vita- (phosphate diabetes) in the urine
phosphate dia- phatemia min D 0.5–1 µg/day) Although the absolute levels of
betes; Albright 2. Lower limb Vitamin D administra- 1,25(OH)2D are normal, they are
syndrome is deformities tion is needed to inappropriately low with regard to the
an example 3. Stunted growth counterbalance degree of phosphaturia; production of
of a hypo- rate the hypocalcemic 1,25(OH)2D is normally stimulated by ↓
phosphatemic effect of phosphate serum phosphorous (see Table 1.12)
syndrome) administration, which This is the most commonly encountered
otherwise could lead form of rickets
to severe secondary
hyperparathyroidism
Hypophospha- ↑ ↑ ↓↓↓ None None None Osteomalacia There is no established There is an inborn error in the tissue-
tasia Early loss of teeth medical therapy nonspecific (kidney, bone, liver) isoen-
zyme of alkaline phosphatase
↑ Urinary phosphoethanolamine is diag-
nostic
Basic Sciences
25
26 Basic Sciences