Vedanta, Light photons Electrons ejected from the surface ‘Sodium metal According 10 Maxwell's Theory the ejection of electrons should depend on intensity of radiation that is if electrons are not being ejected, then on inereasing the intensity they can be ejected, ont \Vacium chamber Hib oar Tie following observations re ade: @ The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the surface, i.c., there is no time lag, See ESSE eT ection of ieee emeeeenToe 0) TE Ree eererttcn! 1 to iment or bighmes of lib 6) Forcach mel therein characteris minimum Fequne ¥, also Known as threshold frequeney) below which phovoel oct See SST SRae eT eRe sey 7 vp te ocd eae a ae cnery The kinetic energie of th clon increase with the meen of equney ofthe ight ae Thus thes dings were coneditory othe Maxwells theo Th tub floorons std and Wine cnrgy tisolated wth them shuld depend on the intensity of Hit Tt has boen observed tha though the number of lection jected door depend upon th rightnes a i the Hino energy ofthe ected clerons dos not ‘To justify these findings Max Von Plane gave his Quantum theory. Parr a ened ‘The main points of this theory are: (The energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously in the form of small discrete packets of energy. Each such packet of energy is called a ‘quantum’, In case of light this quantum of energy is called a photon, 4 According to Planck's quantum theory Gi) Atatime only one photon can be supplied to one electron or any other particle. i) One quantum cannot be divided or distributed (iv) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of radiation he Y ExvorE=hv h=Planck’s constant = 6,626 * 10"Is, (W) The total energy emitted or absorbed by a body will be in whole number quanta. Hence B= ahv="" Thisis also called “Quantisation of energy”.8.1 Explanation of Black body radiation {As the temperature is inereased the energy emitted increases thereby increasing the frequency of the emitted radiations. As the frequency increases the wavelength shifts to lower values, 8.2 Explanation of Photoelectric effect @ When light of some particular frequency fallson the surface of metal, the photon gives its entire energy tothe electron of the metal atom, The electron will be ejected from the metal only if the energy of the photon is sufficient to overcome the force of attraction of the electron by the nucleus. So, photoelectrons are ejected only when the incident light has a certain minimum frequency (threshold frequency V,). The Threshold energy required for emission is called “Work Function” that is “hy,”. (ifthe frequency of the incident light (¥) is more than the threshold frequency (V,), the excess energy is imparted to the electron as kinetic energy. Hence, Energy of one quantum = ‘Threshold Energy + Kinetic Energy hy=hy, +(1/2)m, Gi) When v > v,, then on inereasing the intensity the number ‘of quanta incident inereases thereby inereasing the number ‘of photoelectrons ejected. (iv) When v> vy then on further inereasing the frequeney, the energy of each photon inereases and thus kinetic energy of each ejected electron increases Kinetic Energy increase lineatly with increasing frequency - Kinetie Energy of io emitted electron f a Frequency of ight shown on metal tafe Energy can also be expressed in Electron Volt(cV).. ‘The energy acquired by an clectron when itis accelerated ‘through a potential difference of one Volt. TeV= 1.602 «10% CONCLUSION: Light has both the Wave nature (shows the phenomena of diffraction and interference) and Particle nature (could explain the black body radiation and photoelectric effect) Thus, light has dual nature Bohir's Model is based on “Atomic Spectra”, therefore before moving further we will study Paice A spectrum is a group or band of wavelengths/colours and the study of emission or absorption spectra is known as spectroscopy. ‘9.1 Types of spectrum There are two types of spectrum: 1) Emission Spectrum 2) Absorption Spectrum 9.2 Emission Spectrum ‘When radiations emitted from a source are incident on a prism and are separated into different wavelengths and obtained on a photographic plate. (a) Continuous Emission Spectra: There are no gaps between various wavelengths, one wavelength merges into another. White Light n,): (ny =n, +1), —m)) 2 10.7 Limitations of Bohr’s Model 1) Inability to explain line spectra of multi-clectron atoms. 2) It fails to account for the finer details (doublet-two closely spaced lines) of the hydrogen spectra, 3) Inability to explain splitting of lines in the magnetic field (Zeeman Effect) and inthe electric field (Stark Effet) Ifthe source emitting the radiation is placed in magnetic or electric field, itis observed that each spectral line splits up into @ number of lines. Splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field js known as Zeeman Effect while splitting of spectral lines inelectri field is known as Stark Effect. 4) Itcould not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by covalent bonds, 5) He ignores dual behaviour of matter and also contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle Prorat Uh oust ues This model was based on two concepts: (1) de Broglie Concept of dual nature of matter @) Heisenberg uncertainty Principle 11.1 Dual behaviour of matter de Broglie proposed that matter should also exhibit dual behaviour i.e. both particle and wave like properties. __h h © Q2m(KE) Jf2mqV Where p is linear momentum of particle, According to de Broglie, every object in motion has a wave character, The wavelengths associated with ordinary objects are so short (because of their large masses) that their wave properties cannot be detected. The wavelengths associated with electrons and other subatomic particles (with very small mass) can however be detected experimentally. It is impossible to measure simultaneously the position and ‘momentum of a small particle with absolute accuracy. Ifan attempt is made to measure any ofthese two quantities with higher accuracy, the other becomes less accurate. The produet of the uncertainty in the position (Ax) and the uncertainty in momentum (Ap) is always a constant and is equal to or greater than hid. (Ax). (Ap)> hae Or (Ax). (mAv) 2h’ (Or (Ax).(Ax)>hidnmChange of momentum and position of clectron on impact with a photon Suppose we attempt to measure both the position and ‘momentum of an electron, To pin point the position of the electron we have to use light so that the photon of light strikes the electron and the reflected photon is seen in the microscope. As a result ofthe hitting, the position as well as the velocity of the electron are disturbed. 11.222 Significance of Uncertainity Principle: Irules out the existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons as stated in Bohr’s Model Jaf ‘The effect of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is significant only for motion of microscopic objects, and is negligible for that of macroscopic objects. Pee OU ese en Quantum mechanics isa theoretical science that deals with the study of the motion of microscopic objects which have both particle like and wave like properties. The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics was developed by Schrodinger. This equation describes a function called electron wave funetion (\y ). This wave function stores all the information about an electron like energy, position, orbital ete. As such it does not have any physical significance. The information stored in Y about an electron can be extracted in terms of ‘Quantum Numbers. Vedanitin 12.1 Probability Density LY F is the probability of finding the electron at a point ‘within an atom, 12.2. Concept of Orbital It is a three dimensional space around the nucleus within which the probability of finding an electron of given energy js maximum (say upto 90%). 123 Quantum Numbers They may be defined as a set of four numbers with the help of which we can get complete information about all the electrons in an atom i.e. location, energy, type of orbital ‘occupied, shape and orientation of that orbital te. ‘The three quantum numbers called as Prineipal, Azimuthal and Magnetic quantum number are derived from Schrodinger wave equation. The fourth quantum number i.e. the Spin quantum number was proposed later on. Pris It tells about the shell to which an electron belongs. 3.4.5.0. and so on, ‘This number helps to explain the main lines of the spectrum ‘on the basis of electronic jumps between these shells, pal Quantum Number (n): (a) It gives the average distance of the electron from the nucleus. Larger the value of n, larger is the distance from the nucleus. (b) It completely determines the energy in hydrogen atom or hydrogen like species, The energy of H-atom or H-like species depends only on the value of n Order ofenergy: 1<2<3<4 magnetic quantum number determines the number of orbitals presen in any subshel a 4 Vo fr i" 5 ’ flue of mranges from — [to + including ero 4 8 I 5 7 Sub-shell Orbitals(m) Number of orbitals {represent the initial letters of the word | | *Stbshell ( u sharp, principal diffused and fundamental, In continuation | | p-subsbel 3 {= 4iscalled gsubshelland/=$ scaled h subshellandso | | 4 subshetl 2) - a Fsubshell (=3) | m=-3,-2,—1,0, 1,2,3] 7 Principal shell ‘Subshells T*shell (0 (s-subshel!) Orbital Paneer 2 shell 10,1 (sp subshell) 3" shell 1 = 0,1,2 (s,p & d_ subshell) P 4 shell 1.2.3 (s,p.d & fsubshell) is PB Ka ern ‘The number of subshells present in any principal shell is a ‘equal to the number of the principal shell. Energies of various subshell present within the same shell iss, (Li)>E, (Na)>E,(K) “The total possible values of min a given subshell = 21+ 1 ‘Total no. of orbitals in a given shel 4) Spin Quantum Number(s): ‘The electron in an atom not only moves around the nucleus but also spins about its own axis, Since the electron in an ‘orbital can spin either in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. Thus s can have only two values stor! 22 This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic properties of substances. 12.4 Shapes of atomic orbital (1) Shape of s-orbital (@) They are non-rectional and spherically symmetric ie. probability of finding the electron ata given distance is qual mall directions. (0) Is orbital and 2s orbital have same shape but size of 2s is larger. (©) Taereis aspherical shell within 2s orbital where electron Alensity is zero and is called a node, (@)_ The value of azimuthal quantum number() is zero (1-0) ‘and magnetic quantum number can have only one value iem=0 @)_Shapeotp-orbitals: (@) It consists of two lobes present on cither side of the plane that passes through the nucleus, The p-orbital is ‘dumb-bell shaped. (b)_ There are three possible orientations of electron cloud in prorbitals. Therefore, the lobes of p-orbital may be ‘considered to be along x.y and z axis. Hence they are designated as ppp, The three p-orbitals are oriented at right angles to one another. (©). First main energy level( Principal quantum number n= 1) does not contain any p-orbita. (@) The three p-orbitals ofa particular energy level have same ‘energy in absence of an external electric and magnetic ficld and are called degenerate orbitals. (©). Likes orbitals, porbitals increase in size with inerease in ‘the energy of main shell of an atom. Thus, value of ‘azimuthal quantum number is one (I=1) and magnetic ‘quantum number has three values (m=—1,0, +1) ~~ . 3 s 2, , 2, y 2p,Vedariti, @) Shapes of d-orbitals: (@) ‘They are designated as d,..d,.d,, and d., 2. They have a shape like a four leaf clover. The filth d orbital designated as 4,> looks like a doughnut, (©) All five d orbitals have same energy in the absence of ‘magnetic field 1=2and ( ‘magnetic quantum number values —2,—1,0,+ 15+ 2. (@ For principal shell number 1 and 2, there are no d orbitals. ry bed We have drawn boundary surface diagrams i.e the surface is ‘drawn in space for an orbital on which probability density (YY is constant, It encloses the region where probability of finding the electron is very high. We do not draw a boundary surface diagram that encloses 100% probability of finding the electron because probability density has some value, howsoever small it may be, at any finite distance from the nucleus. Thus it is not possible to draw a boundary surface diagram ofa rigid size in which the probability of finding the electron is 100%, 12.5 Nodes and nodal planes Node: It isa region of zero probability. There are two types of nodes: Radial or Spherical nodes: Three dimensional regions in an orbital where probability of finding the electron becomes zero, Number of radial/ spherical nodes = n—!—1 Nodes Node Is 2s 3s a) @ Planar or Angular Nodes: They are the planes cutting, ‘through the nucleus on which probability of finding the electron is zero, Number of Planar/Angular Nodes: / Total Number of nodes: n= 1 yenodal plane @ vs oda plane @ modal plane @”, @ pee @! ae aw 126 Aufbau Principle: In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies. In other words, electrons first oceupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and ‘enter into higher energy orbitals only when the lower energy orbitals are filled Unlike H-atom where energy of orbitals depend only on n, ‘energy of orbitals of multi-clectron orbitals depend on both rand |, Their order of energy can be determined using (n+) rule, According to this rule, lower the value of (nt) for an orbital, Tower is its energy. If two different types of orbitals have the same value of (n+, the orbital with lower value of has lower energy. Is:2s!2p'3s"3p"4s°3d""4p"Ss'4d"Sp'65?. seeVedanta, @) Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can have maximum | (3) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: Electron pairing in two electrons and these must have opposite spin. psd and f orbitals cannot occur until each orbital of a given subshell contains one electron each. Also all the singly ‘occupied orbitals will have parallel spi come: To FF @ ww Incorrect: 4] or Gi) @) Electronic configurations of elements in the ground state Atomic No. Element Electronic Config, 1 u 1s! 2 He Ist 3 u [He}2s! 4 Be ([He]2 10 Ne [He] 2s? 2p® u Na Ines! 2 Mg [Ne]3s? B Al [Ne]32? 3p! 4 s [Ne]3:? 3p? Is P [Ne] 3s? 3p? 16 s [Ne] 3s? 3p? 0 a [Ne]39? 3p° 8 Ar [Ne]3073p° 9 kK [aqas! » ca [ag as? 21 Se [Arad as? 2 W [ar] 3d? 4s? B v tar] 3a° 4s?Vedantu Ey 25 26 Fe a © 28 » 2 cu 0 Zn [arse°4s! [Ar] 345 43? [ar 3d as [arn3a7 4s? [Ar] 348 4s? farsa! gs! [ar}3d! 4s The completely filled and completely half filled sub- shells are stable due to the following reasons: ‘Symmetrical distribution of electrons: It is well known that symmetry leads to stability. The completely filled or half filled subshells have symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and are therefore more stable. Electrons in the same subshell (here 3d) have equal energy but different spatial distribution. Consequently thei shielding ‘of one another is relatively small and the electrons are more strongly attracted by the nucleus. Exchange Energy : The stabilizing effect arises whenever two or more electrons with the same spin are present in the degenerate orbitals of a subshell. These electrons tend to exchange their positions and the energy released due to this exchange is called exchange energy. The number of exchanges that can take place is maximum when the subshell is either haf filled or completely filled. As a result the exchange energy is maximum and so is the stability. eg. for Cr: [Ar] 4s! 3d ‘Stexchange by electron 2 t [t Léa 2 exchange by electron 3 ttt] tT 1 exchange by electron 4 Thus, total number of exchanges=10 Eleetronic Configuration of Tons. 12.8.1 Cations: They are formed when outermost electrons are removed from an atom. While removing the electrons, we must remove the electrons from the highest principal quantum umber. 128.2 Anions: ‘They are formed when electrons are added to the innermost empty shell 8.3 Magnetic moment inn +2) BM. BM. > Bohr Magneton ‘Where n is number of unpaired electrons. Species with unpaired electrons are called paramagnetic ‘and the species with no unpaired electrons are called diamagneticVedantu PEN ei u une) 1 f1_1) ryibegeanin: 1=Rs(/1-1) (R,,= 109678 em and n, >n,) Axvand¥ E=hvor="* d Bohr's Model 2.178102? 2 eV Jatom J/atom =— Velocity of electron, v, =~ ae Zale 0.529n* Radius of orbit = A " Zz 12 effect= hv=hy, +! mv? feet 5 (vy, = Threshold frequency) aot de-Broglie equation: =—— Heisenberg’s uncetainty principle : Ax xAp> 14, MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF BOHR’s Crate Consider an ion of atomic number (Z) containing single electron revolving its nucleus at a distance of ‘t" as shown in the figure. tafe Atomic number = Number of protons on the nucleus =Z <2 Charge om the nucleus = | Ze Electrostatic force of attraction (F) between the nucleus of charge + Ze and electron (-e) is given by p=Klailla: =9%10°Nm'c x iz2-2 Kze' a) The centrifugal forces actingonthe electrons"... (i) This centrifugal force must be provided by the electrostatic force of attraction (F). => From (i) and (i), we have KZe"_ mV" «i Angular momentum of electron about the nucteus ah mve= ot (i) where ‘n’ is a positive integer 0-122) Solve (ii) and (iv) to get InkZe? og, nh 4 Kme'Z, putK=9 10° NaC, €= 1.6% 10-"Candh= 6.63 10%" Jin the above expressions to get Velocity of an electron in n"* Bohr orbi Zz 2.165% 10° ms! and Radius of the n® Bohr orbit= Now, the Total Energy of the electron moving in n® orbit = KE+EPE, K(Ze\-2) TB, =}mv3+ jvepp Kage amr rBrocton or atone 1 Ke) Ke g, =-2.178%10" 2 giatom eb, 6 eva 5 o Be leV =1.6x10J Itcan be shown om the above expresions hat gles 516x107] 2.178 « 10° © x 6.02 * 10° J/mole or KB, =-E,and ERE, =2E, 1312 2 taimote Using te vale of, inte expression of E, we get " 5, =e Rine'2? 7h PEEP nun Ue Is » wo veo ‘ Nove 1s a ; so) | ove vo vo ‘ 2 ' >| t 5 e] 4 Fs | 2 oa Sh a ae *