Bulletin on Design of Flat Plate Structures API BULLETIN 2V (BUL 2V) FIRST EDITION, MAY 1, 1987 ‘American National Standard q ANSVAPI BUL 2V-87 ; Approved: July 12, 1993 , © American Petroleum Institute 1220 L Street, Northwest Washington, DC 20005 pi 21S ina Issued by AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE Production Department FOR INFORMATION CONCERNING TECHNICAL CONTENTS OF THIS PUBLICATION CONTACT THE API PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT. 211 N, ERVAY, SUITE 1700, DALLAS, TX 75201 — (214) 220-9114 SEE SACK SIDE FOR INFORMATION CONCERNING HOW TO OOTAIN ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION, Users of this publication should become familiar with ts scope and content. This publication is intended to supplement rather than replace individual enginsering judgment ‘OFrciaL PUBLICATION Ly ‘Copyright © 1987 American Petroleum Institute "TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD Set. : NOMENCL 11 Nomenclature 12 Glossary Sect. 2: GENERAL 21 Scope 22 References 2.3 Range of Validity and Limitations 24 Limit States 255 Verification of Structural Adequacy 26 Structural Component Loads and Load Combinations 2.7 General Approach to Structural Analysis 28 General Approach to Structural Design Sect, 2: PLATES 31 | 52 Uniaxial Compression 33 Edge Shear 84 Uniform Lateral Pressure 35 Biaxial Compression 38 Biaxial Compression and Bdge Shear. 37 Design Considerations Sect, 4: STIPFENERS A General... 42 Column Buiekling: 43 Beam-Column Buckling ‘44 Torsional/Flexural Buckling 45 Plastic Bending 46 Design Considerations Sect. 5: STIFFENED PANELS 5.1 General... 52 Uniaxially Stiffened Panels in End Compression 53 Orthogonally Stiffened Panels 5.4 Stffener Proportions 55 Tripping Brackets 56 Effective Flange 5.7 Stiffener Requirements for In-Plane Shear 58 Design Considerations Sect, &: DEEP PLATE GIRDERS. 61 General 62 Limit States 0s, 6.3 Design Considerations APPENDIX: COMMENTARY TURE AND GLOSSARY American Petroleum Institute 4‘This Bulletin provides guidance for the design of steel flat plate structures. Used in conjunction with APL RP BT o other applicable codes and standards, this Bul- Tetin will be helptul to engineers involved in the design of offshore structures which include flat plate struc tural components. ‘The buckling formulations and design considerations contained herein are based on the latest available information, As experience with the use of the Bulletin develops, and additional research results become avail able, itis anticipated that the Bulletin will be updated periodically o reflect the latest technology. This Bulletin ie wnder jvisdiction of the APL Committee om Standardization of Offshore Structures end wax authorized for yublication at the 1948 Standardization Conference NOTE: This is a first edition Bul 2V: Design of lat Plate Structures 2 FOREWORD ‘This Bulletin may be used by anyone desiring to do so and every effort has been made by the APL to assure the accuracy and reliability of the information con tained herein. However, the Institute makes no repre sentation, warranty or guarantee in connection with the publication of this Bulletin and hereby expressly dis claims any liability or responsibility for loss or damage resulting from its use, for a violation of any federal. state or municipal regulations with which this informa tion may conflict, or forthe infringement of any patent resulting from the use ofthis publication. Requests for permission to reproduce or translate all of any port of the material published herein should be addressed to the Director. American Petrolenm Institue, Production Department, 211 N. Evvay, Suite 1700, Dailas TX 7504 A aAmerican Petroleum fnstiate SECTION 1 NOMENCLATURE AND GLOSSARY 1.1 NOMENCLATURE Note: The terms not defined here are uniquely defined in the sections in which they are used. Material Properties mls of elasticity, ks Shear model sh Pouson's ratio. Iininor speiied yield stress of material kt. yd yield ere in she, rporvosl iit ste ompresion, ksi = BLP; sess catio defining the beginning of tor- Uea effet in compresion. Plate Geometry and Related Parameters weruee plate length or larger dimension, in plate width or shorter dimension in Ev/[12(1-2)] plate flexural rigieity. kips in, plate thickness, in ‘Ub 2 1 aspect ratio ff, slenderness ratio Stiffener Geometry and Related Parameters A Aw b br Ce OF epee os perce cross sectional area, in? web area, in? spacing between stiffeners, in. effective width of attached plating, in, flange total width, in warping constant (see formulas in Table 4 web depth, ‘minimum moment of inertia, in polar moment af inertia about centroid, in polar moment of inertia about shear center, in. moment of inertia of symmetric [section in the plane of minimum stiffness, in. ‘moment of inertia of symmetric [section in the plane of maximum stiffness, int torsion constant (se formulas in Table 4-1), in effective length ratio, normally taken as unity unsupported length, in braving distance, in length at which there isa transition between elastic and plastic limit state moments for eral buckling, in ATA radius of gyration, in. section modulus for bending of symmetric I section in the plane of maximum stiffness in.? spacing between tripping brackets, in. attached plate thickness, in flange thickness. in web thickness, in = (K/rnifF, 8 stitfener slenderness ratio Stiffened Panel Geometry and Related Parameters entire panel length, in aren of flange in stiffened plating (zero in the case of flat bar stiffeners), in? stiffener area, in ‘entire stiffened panel width in the ease ofa stiff= ened panel (see Figure 5-1), or distance between webs for effective flange breadth caleulations (see Figure 5 plate breadth, or distance between webs, in by effective breadth, in, a h spacing between stiffeners = 2b, in one half web depth, in. ‘moment of inertia of ane stiffener ebout an axis parallel to the plate surfece at the base of the iffener, ins length. in. cl distance between points of zero bending moment, number of sub-panels (individual plates). plate thickness, in. flange thickness, i web thickness, in aspect ratio of whole panel = Bev) Litt A C (8/0) /FBO-FYE=K, moditiod slenderness ratio for uniaxially stiffened panels, where kis ‘the buckling coefficient Tuly moment of inertia of the stiffeners with effective plating extending in the x- or y-direction, respectively, in. Tpelyy Moment of inertia of the effective plating alone associated with stiffeners extending in the x- or y-direction, respectively, about the neutral axis ofthe entire section, in. S.8, _spaving of the stiffeners extending in the y-or x direction, respectively in, tot equivalent thickness ofthe pate and the stiffen fused) extending in the x-direction or y- direction, respectively. in, MyMy moment:per unit length that produces a stress fy or fy, respectively, kips. rath bending lever arm associated with f, oF f. respectively, ie, distance from the neutral axis ofthe stiffener with the effective breadth of plate to the outer fiber ofthe flange (forthe flange stress) or of the plate (for the pl stress). in,‘ul 2V: Design of Pt Pate Structures 5 Deep Plate Girder Geometry and Related Parameters Ay flange cross-sectional area. in a spacing between transverse web in & web opening height. in. By width of unstffened flange ina beam with only one web, or half the distance between successive longitudinal stiffeners or webs, together with any adjacent outstand, in b spacing between longitudinal web stiffeners, in b, effective plate flange width attached to web stiffeners, in by web opening length, in 6) spacing between web longitudinal stiffeners. in, | ey web depth, in, Ry flange radius of curvature in 5 distance along the longitudinal direction betoreen web openings. in ty flange thickness, in th web thickness, in. 9° slope of web to horizontal Stresses Normal Stresses: normal stress, ksi fuly normal strese directed slong the x and y axis zg elastic serviceability Limit state stras, ksi fp plastie serviceability limit state stress, i. fy ultimate limit state stress, ksi fue stress fe in the x direction when the plate is compressed in the x and y directions, ks ye tress fn tho y direction when the plate is ‘compressed in the y and x directions, ksi fap Str@5S fy when the plate is compressed in the x Girection alone, ksi stress jpuhen the plate is compressed in the y direction alone, ksi fy stress f, when the plate is compressed in the x direction alone, ksi fa stress f, when the plate is compressed in the y Girection alone, kal frp Shear Stresses: fy isplane shear stress, si feye elastic serviceability limit state stress, ks fgnp laste serviceability limit state stress ki Sige ultimate limit state strass, ksi Plate Lateral Defleetions Wy maximum allowable deflection, in We maximum elastic defection, in, ‘W, plastic set (maximum permanent plastic deflec- tion). in Plate Lateral Pressures uniform lateral pressure, ka P, ultimate limit state pressure, ki Stiffener Axial Loads P applied axial oree,kips. By fully plastie axial force = A Fy, kips Pee column elastic ultimate state axial force, kips Pep column plastic ultimate state axial foree,kips. Pre column torsional elastic ultimate state axial foree. kins Pre column torsional plastie ultimate state axial fore, Kips. Pree column torsfonal/flexural elastic ultimate state axial force, kps Prep column torsionai/tlexural plastic ultimate state axial fore, ips Stiffener Lateral Distributed Loads q uniform lateral load per unit length, kips per in Gq load q per unit length on stiffener of length a kips per in. 1 load q per unit lengeh on stiffener of length b, kips per in ultimate load, kip per in fener Bending Moments, applied bending moment, in-kips My fully plastic bending moment, in-kips, smaller end moment inthe plane of bending, invkips M, larger end moment in the plane of bending, nekips. My moment at which the flanges are fully plastic, inckips. M, moment at which yield first occurs in the ‘anges, in-kips My ultimate limit state M, in-kips. Mge elastic ultimate limit state M, in-kips Mgy plastic ultimate limit state M, in-kips. SI Metric Conversion Factors inx254 ksi « 8894757 MPa 12 GLOSSARY Chord, Deep plate girder flange Deep Plate Girder. Deep plate girder with the web stiffened in both the longitudinal and transverse diree- tions and satisfying the requirements of Par, 6.1.1. See also Par. 8.1.2. Design Variables. Quantities that define for the pur- pose of structural design or analysis a structural com ponent and material, its state of stress, and the applied leads. Distortion Energy Theory. Failure theory defined by the following equation, where the applied stresses are positive for tension and negative for compression. fy 49 = FY6 American Petrol Institute Effective Flange Breadth. The reduced breadth of @ plate subjected to bending and/or tensile load. which, With an assumed uniform stress distribution, produces the same effect on the behavior of a structural member as the actual breadth of the plate with its nonuniform stress distribution, While the effective flange swidth ‘applies to a member under compression. the effective flange breadth applies to a member under bending. and/or tensile loading, and is assoviated with shear lag. effects. See Par. 5.6, Effective Flange Width. The reduced width of a plate subjected to compressive load. which, with an assumed uniform stress distribution produces the same effect on the behavior of a structural member as the aetwal width of the plate with its nontniform stress distribution. See Par. 4.12 Panel. See stiffened panel Plate, In Bulletin 2V this term refers toa flat thin ree tangular plate, see Par. 8.1.2. Global Steesses. Stresses resulting {rom global frame action. Proportional Limit Stress (F,). Stress above which the stress-strain curve ig no longer linear and which represents the onset of plastie behavior. If no specif value for the steel being used is available F, can be taken as 0.60 Fy, where F, isthe yield stress Residual Stresses. The stresses that remain in an anlosded member after it has been formed and installed in a structure, Some typical causes are forming, weld- ing and corrections for misalignment during installa ton in the structure. Panel Stresses. Stresses on from local applied pressures or transvers ffened panels resulting loads, Serviceability Limit State. Fun¢ ‘bles which defines a eondition at which a member no longer satisfies functional requirements, although it is still capable of earrying additional loads before reach: ing an wltimate limit state. See Par. 2.4.3 jon of design varia- Shear Lag. Shear effects on beams which cause a non uniform distribution of longitudinal bending. stresses across the flange. Stiffened Panel. Structural component comprising one or two sets of equally spaced uniform stiffeners of equal teraes Section supporting a thin plate If there is only one Set of stiffeners the panel is uniarially stiffened, and if there are two the panel is orthogonally stiffened. See Par. 5.12. Stitfener. Straight and slender thin walled member of luniform erose section containing at least one plane of symmetry, whieh serves as a stiffening element for a flat plate structure. See Par. 4.1.2. Plate Stresses. Stresses on a thin rectangular plate resulting from lateral pressure. ‘Tripping. Torsional buckling of stiffener. Ultimate Limit State. Punction of design variables which defines the resistance of a member to failure (ie its maximum load carrying capacity at failure), see Par. 2.42 Yield Stress. The yield stress of che material deter ‘mined in aeeordance with ASTM A307.B _8u12¥: Design of Flat Plate Stevetres SECTION 2 GENERAL 21 SCOPE Bulletin 2V provides guidance for the design of steel flat plate structures. These often constitute main com: ponents of offshore strucsures. When applied to Tension eg Platforms (TLP's) this Bulletin should be viewed as complement to Section 5 API RP 27. The Bulletin combines good practice considerations with specific design guidelines and information on structural behav- ior, AS such it provides a basis for taking a ‘design by analysis! approach to structural design of offshore structures Flat plate structures inelude thin plates, stiffened pan- ls and deep plate girders, and they can constitute the sain component of decks, bulkheads, web frames and las. The external shell of pontoons oF columns ean also bbe mado of flat stifened panels if their cross section is, for example, square or rectangular, rather than Bulletin 2V is nota comprehensive document, and users have to recognize the need to exercise engineering judgment in actual applications. particularly in the areas that are not specifically covered, Plates are discussed in Sect. 3, stiffeners in Sect. « stiffened panels in Sect. § and deep plate girders in Sect, 6. Limit states are given for each relevant load and load combination, and design requirements are also defined, Figure 2-1 summarizes the structural compo- nents and the limit states covered in Bulletin 2V 2.2 REFERENCES Background and references on the contents of Bulletin 2V are included in a Commentary given in the Appen- dix. Reference is made to API RP 2T, Recommended Practice or Derign of Tension Leg Platforms, and API RP 2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Design- ing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, American Petroleum Institute, and to the American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Stee jor Buildings latest edition. 2.3 RANGE OF VALIDITY AND LIMITATIONS The formulations given apply only to members made of structural steel used for offshore structures, as defined in Section 11, API RP 27. Structural components must comply with the dimen- sional tolerance limits defined in Section 10, API RP 27. Members not complying with these requirements should be given special consideration, given the poten: tial negative impact dimensional imperfect hhave on structural performance. ‘The formulations for the limit states given may be replaced by more refined analyses, or model tess, tak ee eee ing into account the reel boundary conditions, the actual load distribution, geometrical imperfections, ‘material properties, and residual streses, Ultimate limit states associated with failure due to material fracture are not considered. Provisions have to bbe made to ensure that this type of failure is properly addressed in the design, Uitimate limit states associated with accidental loa such as collisions. dropped objects, fire, explosion, or Hooding are not considered, Design criteria for these loads have to be estadlished, and provisions have to be made to ensure structural adequaey under such conditions 24 LIMIT STATES 2.4.1 Working Stress Design. The design basis adopted in this Bulletin is the working strese design method, whereby stresses in all components of the structure cannot exceed specified allowable values. Allowable stresses are associated with two basie struc tural requirements: resistance to failure (ultimate limit states); and stiffness and strength criteria (service: ability Limit states). In addition to specifying allowable stress values, certain limits on nondimensional parameters can be defined Examples are upper limits on web depth to thiekness ratio, or flange width to thickness ratio for I-sestion stiffening elements, which aro in general defined to limit the possibility of buckling of the web or flange. ‘These limits on eross sectional proportions are normally associated with good design practice. 2.4.2 Ultimate Limit States, Ultimate limit states cor- respond to the maximum load carrying capacity of a member at failure. Thus, if an ultimate limit state is reached, the structure collapses and loses its load earry- ing capacity. Failure may be due to: 1. Material plastic fow; - 2, Material fracture, 8, Collapse due to local or general instability: ‘The ultimate limit states considered here include only failure due to material plasticity, and collapse due local or general instability. In identifying material plastic failure as an ultimate limit state it is necessary to distinguish those cases where the material yields, but there is no plastie mech- anism and as such no collapse, and those eases where a plastic mechanism leads to structural instability. If material yielding does not lead to collapse, failure isnot an ultimate limit state but a serviceability limit state This distinetion is important, sinee by designing for limited and controlled material yield a more weight efficient design can possibly be achieved. The designerAmerican Poraloum tntitute ‘ites dia bhdscsiidinal ita cist iia ee lS must use eritieal judgment in identifying those areas and components where plastie desig can be adopted. Local instability refers to the type of failure wher only a localized portion or sub-component ture fails. In a rectangular panel stiffened by two sets Of stiffeners interseeting at right angles, such as a transverse bulkhead or flat, the buckling of a single rectangular plate spanning Between consecutive stiffen- ers is an example of local instability. The tripping of a single stiffener over a single span is another example of local instability. 1f the complete panel buckles a8 a whole, the mode of failure is general instability 2.4.3 Serviceability Limit States. Serviceability limit states correspond to loads at which a member no longer satisfies functional requirements, although it is eapable of carrying additional loads before reaching an ulti mate limit state. Serviceability limit states include: L. Material yield 2. Local instability: 38, Deformation 4 Vibration Material plastic flow should not adversely affect structure's appearance or efficieney, and should not lead to excessive deformations. The’ same applies t= local instability, such a8 the buckling of an individual plate, or the local tripping of a secondary stiffener in a stiffened panel ‘The deformation of the structure or any of its parts resulting from the normal operating conditions or from damage should not adversely affect its appearance or efficiency, such a3 violate minimum specified clear ances, or cause drainage difficulties. Damage oceurring in specific parts of the structure which might entail excessive maintenance or Jeed to excessive deformation or corrosion, and hence adversely affect the strueture’s appearance or effieieney, should be limited. Where there isa likelihood of the structure being sub- jected &> vibration from causes such as wind forces, equipment or other transient loads, measures should be taken to prevent discomfort or alarm, or impairment of 8 proper function Serviceability limit states associated with local damage or vibration are not considered in Bulletin 2V, Provi= sions have to be made by the designer to ensure that these are properly accounted for in the design process 2.5 VERIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL ADEQUACY 2.8.1 Factors of Safety. A design is considered satis- factory ifthe structure has an adequate margin against failure, or reserve strength. for all applicable limit states. The margin against failure to be adopted in the Gesign is defined in terms of allowable values for the stresses, or other relevant design variables (e.g, pres sure, axial load, ete. The allowables are obtained by dividing limit state values by factors of safety, as de seribed in more detail in Par. 2.5.2. The factors of salety recommended for design are defined in API RP 2 and areas follows 51 for serviceability limit states 2.00 for ultimate limit states increase in allowable stresses may be used where appropriate. The structure should be designed so that I components are proportioned for basic allowable stresses specified by API RP 2A. API RP 2T, or by the AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, latest edition, ‘Where the structural element or type is not covered by he above. a rational analysis should be used to deter- the basic allowable stresses, with factors of safety equivalent to those defined. Alternative methods for verifying structural adequacy may also be acceptable, as defined in Par. 2.5.6 In determining structural adequacy two types of load conditions have to be considered: a single load acting an the structure and multiple loads (or load combinations). 2.5.2 Single Load Limit States, Each limit is defined in terms of s design variable Q:. Depending on the par- ticular limit state, this design variable can be, for example, a stress component, a pressure, or a deflee- tion, When a limit state is satisfied a where: Q = actual value ofthe relevant design variable (stress, pressure, deflection, ete) = limit state value of Q, as defined by the formulas inthis Bulletin, ee Be where FS. isthe appropriate factor of safety 3 Combined Load Limit States. When n loads Qt. Q set or a structure a limit state is defined in this Bulletin in terms ofan interaction equation @) yy where QP, is the limit state value of Q, when Q, is the only load acting on the structure. Interaction equations are in most cases of an empirical nature, with the expo- nents my, being determined on the bans ofa best fit of experimental data Given a particular limit state, a design is considered satisfactory if the relevant design variables donot exceed allowable values given by Q/FS., Q/PS.Bul 2V: Design of Flat Plate Structures 9 Qu/F-S. where Q, ... Qy are the limit state design var iables satisfying the interaction equation above. and F'S.is the appropriate factor of safety ‘The interaction equations and the formulations for the limit state vales of the relevant design variables given in this Bulletin reflect serviceability and ultimate limit states, In using them for specifle applications the designer must ensure that the appropriate factors of safety (F.S.s) are adopted, as prescribed in Par. 2.5.1, 252 and 2 25.4 Governing Limit State. In general both serv icesbility and ultimate limit states are defined for each mode of failure. Either of these limit states ean govern the design by imposing a lower allowable value on the design variable Q,. However, the allowable values for Q resulting from serviceability and ultimate limit state considerations should be close for an efficient design. A design is considered satisfactory if the design variables do not exceed their allowable values for all the applic bie limit states, Note that the formulations given in this Bulletin for the ultimate limit state sometimes yield lower values than the serviceability limit state, This is 4 function of the plate geometry and material prop erties, 5 Other Limit States. In order to ensure that a structure is adequate it is necessary to consider other modes of failure not treated in Bulletin 2V. These include failure due to material Fracture or fatigue, and failure eaused by accidental loads. 2.5.6 Alternative Methods for Verifying Structural Adequacy 2.5.6.a General, The formulations for the limit states included in Bulletin 2 may be replaced by more refined analyses, ar madel tests, taking into account the real boundary conditions, the actual load distribu tion, geometrical imperfections, material properties and residual stresses. In adopting these alternative methods it is necessary to ensure that the structure is correctly modeled, end that all relevant limit states fare considered, In particular if weight savings and inereased structural efficiency are necessary, more ‘refined methods of analysis should be explored. 2.5.6:b Methods of Analysis. The methods of analy- sis that are adequate for considering the ultimate limit states include elastic methods, and plastic or yleld-Iine methods. Elastic methods are acceptable as lower bound eollapse solutions, and they will also lead to solutions less likely to violate serviceability erite ria, Elastic methods imply that a valid yield criterion is adopted to ensure, together with equilibrium, the statie admissibility ofthe solution Plastic or yieldline methods may be adopted when appropriate to the structural configuration, Plastic ‘methods or other procedures for permitting redist': bution of moments and shears may be used only whe (a) the structural configuration and the materials have an adequate plateau of resistance under the appropriate ultimate conditions, and are not prone to deterioration of strength due to shake: down under repeated leading: (b) the development of bending plasticity does not cause an indeterminate deterioration in. shear. torsional or axial strength, when relevant () the supports or supporting structures are capable of withstanding reactions clelatl by elatie ‘The methods of analysis that are adequate for consid: ering the serviceability limit states are in general elastic methods. Linear methods may be used when changes in geometry do not significantly influence the structure's performance. Nonlinear methods may bbe adopted with appropriate allowances for loss of stiffness, and should be used where geometric changes significantly modify the strueture's perform- ance. The method used should at all times satisfy equilibrium requirements and compatibility of de formations ‘The mathematical idealization of the structure should reflect the nature of its response, The boundaries assumed in such an idealization should either ealeu- te accurately the stiffness of adjacent parts, or be sufficiently remove from the part under considera: tion, for the stresses to be insensitive to the boundary assumptions 2.5.6. Model Analysis and Testing. Model analysis and testing may be used either to define the load effects in a structure, or to verily a proposed theoret: iat analysis. The models used should be capable of simulating, the response of the structure appro- priately. and the interpretation of the results should be carried out by engineers having the relevant expe rience. Model tests are particularly important in those cases where the geometzy being. proposed is novel or not proven for the speifie application under ‘The reliability of the test results depends upon the accuracy or knowledge of several factors such as: {a) material properties (model and prototpe}: (b) methods of messurements (c) methods used to derive load effects from measurements (2) loading and réactions In interpreting results, the load effects to be used in design should exceed those derived from the test data by a margin dependent upon (e) number of tests: (0) method of testing: (5) an assessment of (a), (b) and (e) above, In all eases the interpreted results should satisfy equilibrium and compatibility, Where prototype testing is adopted as @ basis for proving the resistance of a component, the test load ing should adequately reproduce the range of stressietidie iia asinsedrsaaindncehibn tails ast tte abt Saal Sita marina we oO _ American Ptroloum Institute combinations to be sustained in serviee. A sufficient umber of prototypes should be tested to enable a ‘mean value and standard deviation of resistance to be caleulated for each critical stress condition, A partic ular aspect of structural behavior which may not be modeled earreetiy in small seale testing is residual stresses It is important that this factor be accounted for in interpreting results, and in extrapolating t0 full seal. ‘The material strengths to be specified for construe- tion of the model should have mean values and coeff. cients of variation compatible with those in the proto types. Tolerances and dimensions should be similarly prescribed so that the models are compatible with the prototypes 2.6 STRUCTURAL COMPONENT LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS 2.6.1 General. The loads and load combinations that are to serve as a basis of TLP design are defined in appropriate Sections of API RP 27. 62 PHimary Loads. Primary loads and load combi- nations for structural component design, such as stiff ened panels or deep girders, result in general from glo bal platform analysis, to be discussed in Par. 2.7. These primary loads ean typically be classified a follows: — axial tension or compression; = bending: = ewisting lateral loading (distributed or concentrated) ‘Typical load combinations that are relevant for design include, for example: — axial compression and shear; axial compression and bending: biaxial bending: = bending and torsion ‘The most relevant loads and load combinations for structural component analysis are treated in Bulletin 2V. The structural components considered are thin rec angular plates, stiffeners, stiffened panels and deop plate girders, However, the treatment is not compre: hensive. and the designer should use other methods to ensure structural adequacy for those loads or load cot binations not treated in the Bulletin. In particular, no consideration is piven to concentrated loads on plates 2.6.8 Secondary Loads. Por most commonly encour: tered load cases, secondary loads do not directly affect the limit states, but the designer should ensure that they are included, when appropriate Examples of secondary loads include: = shrinkage forces due to welding: = stresses due to construction tolerances = thermal loads. In eases controled by fire considerations. thermal leads should be treated as primary loads, 2.64 Accidental Loads. As indicated in Par. 23, accidental loads, such as those caused by collisions, dropped objects, fire, explosion, oF flooding, are not considered. Some of these loads can lead to the rapid loss of strength of the primary structure and bring about en ultimate limit seate. The designer should use acceptable methods to assess the adequacy of the struc: ture to withstand such loads, 2.7 GENERAL APPROACH TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2.7.1 General. General principles regarding analysis methods, modeling, stress analysis and fatigue analysis for TLP structures are covered in Par. 5.4 of API RP. ar, 2.7.2 Global, Panel and Plate Stresses. The structural analysis of a TLP requires the consideration of several models. Global behavior can be represented by a space frame model describing the whole structure. A more precise definition of stress distribution requires the eonsideration of smaller models, representing main Structural components, or more localized areas of the structure, such as stiffened panels. Finally, main strue tural components can be further subdivided into the most basie elements, which are thin plates and stiffeners, ‘The space frame model leads to stress distributions over gross crass sections of the structure, such as the columns or pontoons. These stresses resulting fram glo bal frame action are global stresses. In the case of @ pontoon of rectangular erass section, for example, the slobal stresses result from axial load, shear, bisxial Dending and torsion. Assuring that the members in the space frame model aro slender the global stresses can be obtained from simple bear theory, with corrections for shear, if necessary ‘The next main structural component is the stiffened panel. The main stresses are generally due to bending and transverse shear, and are a resié of local applied pressures or transverse loads. hese stresses can be called panel stresses, and can be derived on the basis of orthotropic plate ar grillage theory. AA single rectangular plate is the most basic component of flat plate structures. If the plate behavior between stiffeners under lateral pressure is considered, the resulting stresses are the plate stresses. These can be Gerived on the basis of thin plate theory. ‘Typical global longitudinal bending stress distributions for a pontoon cross section are sketehed in Figure 2-2 ‘They vary linearly across the depth of the cross section. ‘Typical panel stresses for the pontoon bottom are also shown. They vary linearly across the depth of the stiff ened panel, reaching maximum values at the extreme fiber of the stiffener flange, or at the shell plate, PlateBul 2V: Design of Flt ate Structures u bending stresses vary linearly across the plate thickness and are zero at its middle surface. Given this breakdown of stresses into the three main categories, global. panel and plate, it becomes possible to use linear superposition to aseess the resulting stress in different components of the structure, assuming elas. tie material properties and small deformations ‘This classification of stresses is practical in those areas where the structure ean easily be subdivided into global (space frame), panel (stiffened panel), and plate (plate) functions. In areas such as the nodes (where the columns and pontoons intersect), more refined stress analysis methods become necessary, such as the finite element method 2.7.8 Dimensional Imperfections. Dimensional impee: fections, such as out-of-straightness of stiffeners or out offlatness of plates, can have a strong impact on strac- tural performance. Scructural analysis has to account 9) for dimensional imperfections in case these are beyond the tolerances established in Par. 10.2.9 of API RP 27, Numerical methods, such as the finite element method are usually required to study the implications of imper= fections on performance. 2.7.4 Residual Stresses and Weld Shrinkage Forces. Residual stresses can have some impact on structural performance, There are no simple.analytical ways of ‘determining how hey affect the structure, Weld shrink- age forces can only be estimated on the basis of empiri cal equations, But they depend on many factors that ‘cannot be controlled by the designer, Examples of factors that can affect residual stresses and weld shrinkage forces are the assembly sequence, the welding procedure and the use of temporary bracing. ‘The designer should use engineering judgment in eciding how relevant residual stresses and weld shrink age forces can be for a partieular application 2.8 GENERAL APPROACH TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN 2.8.1 General, Structural design is an iterative process through which the layout and seantlings for a structure are determined, such that it meets all the requirements of structural adequacy. The overall configuration results from a synthesis of all design requiroments, which are in general dictated by.non-steuctural consi erations, such as volume and space requirements, glo bal stability, safety, ete, Thus, structural design is assumed here to concentrate on the choice of an ‘appropriate structural layout and seantlings, or eross- sectional dimensions, of structural components, 282 Major Structural Design Steps. There is no unique wey of designing a structure, but in general terms the major steps that are involved can be sur marized as follows . Identify loads and load combinations acting on the structure as a whole, or on its main sub- components, b, Select initial structural layaut and seanthings. In seneral this is based on past experience with sim ilar structures. In those cases where some limits on proportions are specified, these should be respected in the initial configuration, Examples are stiffener proportions, such as maximum web depth to thickness ratio, Absolute minimum oF ‘maximum scantlings result in general from prac: cal considerations related to constructability, weldability, ete. Tdentity structure's main components, and deter- ‘mine through structural analysis the loads and load combinations acting on each component. Structural analysis wovld normally start with a slobal space frame analysis and would then move into specific components, such as stiffened panels and single plates. For selected areas of the struc ture, global, panel and plate stresses ean be com puted and combined using linear superposition. [n those areas where the structural arrangement is complex, a numerical method of analysis, such as the finite element method, may have to be adopted in order to obtain an accurate picture ofthe stress distributions 4. Identify relevant limit states and associated tors of safety ¢ Check structural adequacy. If any limit state is violated, adjust seantlings and repeat the analysis and the structural checks. Perform the iterations required to converge to a structurally adequate design. Exercise engineering judgment in those cases where the design is governed by serviceabil- ity, see Par. 2.5.4. Investigate structural adequacy With alternative acceptaile methods, in ease limit State checks are perceived to lead to structural inefficiency. heck other limit states, such as fatigue, which raquires the selection of main structural detail configurations. Also check the adequacy of the Aesign against accidental loads. If the structure is found to be inadequate, then new design iterations have tobe conducted, . ‘Optimize’ structural design. Once an adequate design has been achieved it is in general possible to ‘optimize’ it for a given objective. The objective depends on the structure's intended use. and can be, for example, the structural weight or the cast of fabrication and installation. Thus, once a newGopal 4 Frame Action | \ ome | \ | Stiffened Single Rectangular - Plate Plate Stresses Figure 2-2: Global, Panel and Plate Stresses‘Bu 2¥: Des of Fat Plate Seructures 1s SECTION 3 PLATES 3.1 GENERAL BLL Scope. Flat thin rectangular plates, where the thickness is very small as compared to the other plate dimensions, are considered, It is assumed that normal stress in the direction transverse to the plate surface ccan be disregarded, ‘The provisions in this Bulletin are not valid when the plate thickness is not small, in which case more refined Analyses have to be conducted. 3.1.2 Definitions. Thin rectangular plates are the implest component of flat stiffened plate structures, Each plate is usually supported around the four edges by stiffeners. When considering an individual rectangu- lar plate the edge stiffeners are assumed to be suff ciently strong to remain essentially straight under ‘pading. {f the plate slope at the edges is fixed, as happens with plating under uniform lateral pressure over continuous supports, the edges can be taken as perfectly clamped, If the edges rotate freely about the supports simply supported conditions govern the plate behavior, The plate edges should in general be assumed simply sup- ported, unless it can be shown that other conditions apply. In particular partial fixity (degree of restraint between fully clamped and simply supported) should be examined, if engineering judgment indicates it is a bet- ter representation ofthe actual structural arrangement. In the ease of plate deflections that are not small in comparison with the thickness itis necessary to distin: suish between immovable edges and edges free to move in the plane of the plate. This distinction can have a considerable impact on the, magnitude of deflections and stresses. Ifthe plate edges are fully prevented from moving in the plane of the plate, membrane effects ean significantly affect its carrying eapacity, and could be included provided the deflection limits are not exceeded following nomenclature will be adopted here: ‘The long plate dimension or length ig parallel to the x. axis or longitudinal direstion and is labeled a, The } small plate dimension or width is parallel to the y-axis or transverse direction and is labeled b. Thus the plate’ aspect ratio, = a/b, ig always equal to or larger then unity. The plate thickness ist 8.1.3 Loads and Load Combinations. A rectangular plate can be subjected to a variety of primary. and secondary loads and load combinations ‘The following loads ean be classified a primary loads, as shown in Figure 3-1, In-plane longitudinal tension or compression: = Transverse tension or compression: In-plane longitudinal bending — Invplane transverse bending: — Invplane shear: — Twisting: = Lateral pressure In addition to these primary loads the plate can also be subjected to secondary loads a5 follows: Shrinkage forces due to welding; — Stresses due to construetion tolerances: — Loads due to thermal effects ‘The following loads and load combinations are consid= ered in Bulletin 2V: ~ Uniaxial (ongitudinal or transverse) compression: = Inplane edge shear: — Uniform lateral pressure; = Biaxial compression: — Biaxial compression and edge shear. If other load types or load combinations are known to be acting on the plate, special consideration will have to be given to their treatment, sinee they are not covered by the provisions in this Bulletin, This applies in par ticular tothe case of concentrated loads, BLA Stress Analysis. The stresses in a thin plate ean be calculated on the assumption that plane. sections remain plane, following the approach adopted in classi: cal thin plate theory. Finite element or other type of numerical analysis ean be used in those eases where the applied loads andor boundary conditions require a more refined treatment, or when the thin plate assumptions are no longer acceptable. 3.15 Stress Distributions. For an implane load P ap- plied uniformly across the plates edges the correspond ing stress is {= P/Ag, where Ae is the edge trea. Sim- larly, for an in-plane shear load V the average shear stress is fy = V/A Im the case of lateral loads the bending stresses are zero at the mid-surface and vary linearly across the thiek: ness of the plate, with a maximum at the surface given by Semas a Some = where M, is the bending moment per unit length for bending ‘about the y axis, and M, is the bending moment per unit length for bending’ about the x-axis ‘The shear stress resulting ftom a twisting moment per unit length May Is also 2ero at the plate's mid-surfaceAmerican Ptroloum Intute and varies lineaely across the thickness, with a mas mum at the surface given by: BM. farms ‘The shear stresses fo: and fy, can be determined by assuming that they are distributed across the plate thickness according to a parabolic law, as in simple beam theory, Thus the maximum values are: where Q, and Q, are the transverse shear foree per unit length along the edges parallel to the y and x axis, respectively. 42 UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION 3.2.1 Definitions. Two types of plates are considered, nal compression, where the load is applied to 2 or edges. Figure 23 shows wide plates, or plates under transverse compression, where the lad is applied to the larger edges. ‘The serviceability limit state ie reached when the ap- plied in-plane compressive stress { equals fof fy. The limit Ge applies in the elastic range, while fy applies in the inelastic or plastic range. The ultimate limit state is reached when f equals ,. The allowable stress is obtained by dividing the limit state stress (fe, fp OF f) by the appropriate factor of safety F.S. The wide plate Formulas should be used for square plates, 3.2.2 Serviceability Limit State &, Long Plates (Figure 22) —aE 20-4) ( ‘The expression abave is based on the assumption that the plate edges are simply supported, If other ‘boundary conditions apply the buckling coefficient can be determined from Figure 3. kaa Blastie range (f< F,) feat Plastic range (f=, Bt BR Pp) +f b, Wide Plates (Figure 8-3) = aaa (3) fp = ea ae Ma os Se RE eee EA Sen nO Blast range (f< F,): le = ey Plastic range f= Fy 5, fy = Fy - fe 3.2.8 Ultimate Limit State 4 Long Plates (Figure 3.2) a-n(2 1) gr AF = Fest ‘These apply when the plate edge stress reaches yield before the stiffener fails. Otherwise, the following formulas should be used: QF Lipe1 5 =F eet b. Wide Plates (Figure 2) 4, =F, |Lc+o08a-a+lyjer, haz c=1 vei 33 EDGE SHEAR 3.3.1 Definitions. The servieesblity limit state is ached when the applied edge shear stress fy equals OF fap: The limit faq applios in the elastic range, while fyop applies in the plastic range. The ultimate limit state is reached when fy eavals fy. The allows: ble stress is obtained by diving the Limit sate stress ype yup 0F fu) BY the appropriate factor of safety FS. 8.8.2 Serviceability Limit State ty sk 2B (2) vow ( k 565 ‘The result given is based on the assumption that the plate edges are simply supported. Ifthe plate edges can bbe considered clamped the buckling coefficient k takes the form: 5.60 og + 560 kjisabuiezecs i nniis aban aie iaie dit is wie Nes libs ia Bul 2V: Design of Flat Pate Structures 7 Blastic range (hy < Fy fB fone = fy Plastic range (ly 2 Fyl/B 31, Cine F(R) Fol 8 fe 3.3.8 Ultimate Limit State 4 where fy is the serviceability limit state shear stress efined tn Par. 38.2. In the elastic range fy, = fone while in the plastie ran 34 UNIFORM LATERAL PRESSURE 84.1 Definitions a Servieeability Limit State. The serviceability limit state is based on a deflection eriterion and & stress criterion. b. Deflection Criterion. The deflection criterion is associated with 2 maximum allowable deflection Wi, Two cases have to be considered: (1) no per manent plastic deformations allowed, so that W, is an elastic deflection; (2) permanent plastic defor ‘mation or plastie set allowed, so that W, isa plas tie deformation. No specific guidelines can be given on the allowable deflection, and whether it should remain purely elastic or become a perma: nent plastie set, sineo it depends on the type of service intended for the structure, In general the eflection should not be such as to adversely affect the structure's appearance or its performance requirements, In those cases where in-plane com= pressive loads are not present, and where specific operational requirements do not rule against it, a permanent plastic set W, can be allowed. If as a result of a permanent set membrane effects are induced in the plate its eapacity to carry in-plane tensile loads and structural efficiency are im proved The designer has to use engineering judgment in establishing a maximum allowable deflection, and deciding if a permanent plastie set is aeceptable. If an absolute value cannot be specified, a crite: rion based on the maximum span and/or thiekness ean be adopted, such as the minimum of Wy =C, * (span) and W, = C, * (thickness), where C, and C; are nondimensional parameters (such as C, = 1/360 and C, = 1). If a permanent plastic set is allowed a criterion for determining its magnitude is given in Par. 3.4.2 Expressions for estimating the maximum elastic deflection in a rectangular plate subjected to uni form lateral pressure are given in Par. 3.4.2. ¢, Stross Criterion. The serviceability limit state stress criterion implies that the plate’s material ‘must remain in the elastic range, and it is expressed in the form of a yield eriterion, defined in Par. 3.42. In cases where a permanent plastic set is allowed this stress eriterion does not apply 4, Ultimate Limit State. The ultimate limit state is reached when the lateral pressure equals pj. as Gefined in Par. 3.4.3, 8.4.2 Servieeability Limit State a, Deflection eriterion. If no permanent plastic set is allowed a maximum allowable elastie deflection W, must be selected by the designer, given the particular application being considered (cee dis cussion in Par, 8.4.1). The computed maximum laste deflection W, must satisfy Wes Wy W, can be estimated from the following ex: pressions We = k, SPB simply supported edges 84D clamped edges where D is the plate’ flecu Be Bo) and the coefficients k, and ky can be found from the graphs in Pigure 25, al rigidity If & permanent plastic set is allowed (again, the designer has to take into consideration all aspects of performance requirements, as diseussed in Par, 3.4.1), Itshoula be limited to W, <02b /F, Vs b, Stress criterion, If no permanent plastic set is allowed the plate’s material must remain in the elastic regime, so that the maxim stresses fy and f, must satisfy the following relation: Q +h 05,565 where tensile stresses are taken as positive and compressive stresses as negative ‘The maximum stresses f, and f, can be estimated from the following exprestion (orf) = k oy T where the coefficient k can be found from the graphs in Figure 3-6 for simply supported and clamped edge conditionsthy ‘ asta asl cs 8 America Petroleum netate {a permanent plastic set is allowed the stress cti- terion isnot applicable 3.4.8 Ultimate Limit State (ee eS) where W, is the permanent set (see Par. 8.4.2). If no Permanent set is allowed Wy = 0. These formulas are restricted to plates with aspect ratio 1 <= 5, The allowable pressure is obtained by dividing the limit state pressure p, by the appropriate factor of safety Fs, ‘5 BIAXIAL COMPRESSION 3.5.1 Definitions. Figure 9-7 defines the geometry and applied loads In the elastic range the servieeability limit state is reached if fy = foe and f, = fe. In the inelastic range the serviceability Timit state i resched when f. and Satisfy the interaction formula in Par. 252. The ule mate Limit state is reached when f, and f satisfy the action formula in Par. 35. Serviceability Limit State fam? +f, ntat = ED (me + niga? at {ff is known, the value of f can be determined from the above expression by finding the integer values of m and n that make { a minimum. Alternatively, if is known, f can be computed by finding m and n values that make f, a minimum. A trial procedure can be used to determine the appropriate values of m and a (which represent the integer number of half waves in which the plate buckles in the x and y directions respectively) Elastic range: The serviceability limit state is elastic if the stresses f, and f} obtained from the expression above satisty the following eriterion ff 05 +88 Fy If this criterion is satisffed the stresses f, and f, are the slastic serviceability limit state stressed ine and Gee respectively. The allowable'stresses are obtained by a widing foe and fe BY the appropriate factor of safety Fs. Plastic range tthe 2A BY. (ey fas. fosp, where fay i given In Par. 322n and fy a given in Par 3258 ‘The allowable stresses are obtained by dividing the limit state stresses f, and f, by the appropriate factor of safety FS. 8.5.3 Ultimate Limit State f C+ VE). Ae 9 = 025. for A=2 Fe 82092 tory = 1 For &) wer sian Pa. 32.28 fy nen in Par 3225 ard fois ven n Bar 38 The tates formula is valid in the elastie range when the siresses satisty the following eriterion: ty egese, opt ‘The allowable stresses are obtained by dividing the limit state stresses f,f, and f, by the appropriate fac. tor of safety FS, Plastic range: When ~ A -gG +5 sae, ort the interaction formul where fisp is given in Par, 32.28, fp is given in Par. 8.2.2, and fay is given in Par. 33.2 The allowable stresses are obtained by dividing the limit state stresses ff, and fyy by the appropriate fac tor ofsafety FS. 36.3 Ultimate Limit State O-@-@ + fey_ Bul 2V: Design of Flat Plate Structures where fu is given in Par. 32a, fy is given in Par, 8.2.30, and fyyy is given in Par. 3.3.3 ‘The allowable stresses are obtained by dividing the limit state stresses ff, and f,, by the appropriate face tor of safety FS 3.7 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS When @ thin rectangular plate of a given material is subjected to compressive stresses it ean fail by instabil ity, and the strength depends primarily on the type of loads and/or load combinations, the boundary condi- ‘ons and the geometry (dimensions, aspect ratio) The plate is in general part of a stitfened panel, such as in deck or bulkhead, and itis supported by stiffeners, The stiffener spacing should be selected so as to limit the plate geometry and aspect ratio to dimensions and roportions that can provide the necessary strength ‘The designer must change the plate proportions and thickness until all applieable limit states are satisfied If necessary additional stiffeners might have to be introduced in the desfgn. The minimum stiffener spac, ing should be based on fabrication considerations. When the plate is primarily subjected to lateral load ing, the tensile membrane effeets substantially impeove its carrying capacity. In designing the supports full in plane fixity should be provided whenever possible in order to take advantage of membrane effects, Mae ‘Vsin-plane shear pr lateral pressure Figure 9-1: Primary Loads A on a Rectangular Plate Figure 3-2: Long Rectangular Plate £ Figure 2-8: Wide Rectangular Platenf ef soe? O68 wo fee § os st 0.50 ‘ fancy : a os Ti>==- ‘ ‘an cages camped // Al edges simply supported oa Figure 3-4: Buckling Coefficients for + Plates in Uniaxial Compression ne'3.6 Sse in Paes Under Figure 2-5: Coefficients for Computing Plate Deflections! Uniform Lateral Pressure Figure 3-1: Rectangular Plate Under Biaxial Compression \from D. 0. Brush and B. 0. Almroth, “Buckling of Bars, Plates and Shells,” MeGraw-Hil, 1975 “rom 0. Hughes, “Ship Structural Design: A Rationally Based Computer-Aided, Optimization Approach,” WileyLhe, _ _Bul 20: Design of Fiat Plate Structures a SECTION 4 STIFFENERS 4.1 GENERAL bbe given to their treatment, since they are not covered 4.1.1 Seope. Straight and slender thin-walled members of uniform eross section containing at least one plane of symmetry and which serve as stiffening elements for flat plate structures are considered 4.1.2 Definitions, Stiffenors are used to strengthen slates and to increase their load carrying capacity. In ‘most cases they are made of a thin-walled web welded to the plate and a flange. Thus, when determining: the ross sectional properties, account should be given to the attached plating acting with the stiffener as an effective flange. When the stiffeners are subjected 1 axial compressive loads the effective plate flange width by, when the maximum edge stress reaches the yield bead fe 5 where f, is determined from Par. $2.3. When the stiff ners are subjected to lateral or tensile loading alone the effective plate flange is governed by shear lag effects and should be detarmined from Par. 5.6. ‘The following ultimate limit states willbe considered: = column buckling: = bear-coluran bueldin — torsional/flexural buckling: = plastic bending. 4.1.8 Loads and Load Combinations. A plate stiffener can be subjected to a variety of primary and secondary loads and load combinations ‘The following loads can be elassitied as primary loads — bending about the axis of maximum moment of inertis: — bending about the axis of minimum moment of — lateral distributed toad; — lateral concentrated loads In addition to these primary loads the plate can also be subjected to secondary loads a follows: — shrinkage forees due to welding: = stresses due to construction tolerances; = loads due to thermal effects ‘The following loads and load combinations are consid- cred here = axial compression; = axial compression and lateral load; — lateral load, If other load types or load combinations are known to be acting on the plate special consideration will have to by the provisions of this Bulletin, 4.1.4 Stress Analysis. The stresses in a slender thin walled stiffener can be calculated on the assumption that plane sections remain plane, following the approach adopted in classical beam theory Finite element or other type of numerical analysis ean be used in those cases where the applied loads and/or boundary conditions require a more refined treatment, or when the classies! beam theory assumptions are no longer acceptable, 4.1.5 Stress Distributions. As a result of conventional ‘beam theory, the longitudinal bending stresses in a stiffener vary linearly across the dapth, If the section is subjected to both compression and bending, the stress distribution is given by: Pug where P is the compressive load, A is the eross sectional ares, M is the applied bending moment, 7 is the dis tance to the neutral axis and Ig i the effective moment, of inertia about the neutral axis. In computing Ty the effective flange should be used, as preseribed in’ Par. 41.2 If the stiffener is subjected to lateral or tensile load alone, the effective flange is governed by shear lag effects and should be determined from Par. 5.6 The shear stress distribution can be obtained from where V is the shear force, Q is the moment of the area above the point. where shear stress is being determined about the neutral axis, I is the moment of inertia about the neutral axis, and t is the thickness at the point under investigation. ~ For webs with constant thickness thé 3 be approximated by wear stress can fy 2X x where A, isthe web area 4.2 COLUMN BUCKLING 42.1 Definitions. The ultimate limit state is reached when the applied axial load P equals Pg ot Ppp. The limit Pes applies in the elastic range, while Pep applies in the plastic range. The allowable axial load is obtained by dividing the limit state axial load (Pre or Pp) by the appropriate factor of safety F.S, 42.2 Ultimate Limit State Be ¥American Potzoloum Institue Elastic range (P + o, = MB Eh pa er es! &{) Bu! 2V: Design of Flat Plate Structures 25 SECTION 5 STIFFENED PANELS 5.1 GENERAL, 5.11 Seope. Flat stiffened panels. comprising one or two sets of equally spaced uniform stiffeners of equal ross seotion. supporting a thin plate, are considered (see Figure 5-1). If there are two sets, they intersect each other at right angles. 5.1.2 Definitions. [f there is only one set of stiffening elements the panel is uniaxially stiffened, while if thers ate two the panel is orthogonally stiffened. All the stiffeners in each set are slender, straight, and of uni. form cross section, and they all have the same cross sec tional dimensions. The entire panel length is A. and the entire panel width is B The ultimate limit state is defined for the case of uniex- ially stiffened panels under end compression, ana orthogonally stiffened panels under uniaxial compres, sion, biaxial compression and uniform lateral load. The serviceability limit state is also defined for orthogonally stiffened panels under uniform lateral load. Guidelines for avoiding local instabilities and stiffener tripping are included in Par. 5.4 and 6.5. Design charts for deter mining the effective flange breadth ere given in Par 5.6 The minimum stiffener inertia required for panels to reach their ultimate shear strength is given in Par 57. In determining the eross sectional properties of stitfen- rs account should be taken of the attached plating act: ing with the stiffener as an effective flange, ts defined in Par. 4.1 and 5.6, 5.18 Loads and Load Combinations. A stiffened panel can be subjected to a variety of primary aed Secondary loads and load combinations. These can be classified in the same basic categories adopted for a thin rectangular plate, see Par. 3.1.3, The following loads and load combinations are consid ered in Bulletin 2V: ~ wiaxialy stiffened panels under end compression; ~ orthogonally stiffened panels under uniaxial and biaxial compression, and uniform lateral pressure 1 other load types or load combinations are known to be acting on the plate, special consideration should be sven to their treatment, since they are not covered by the provision inthis Bulletin, S.L.4 Stress Analysis. The stresces in a stiffened panel ean be calculated on the assumption that plane sections remain plane. Individual stiffeners with attached effes tive breadth or width of plating ean be analyzed on the basis of the principies established for stiffeners in Par 4:12 and 36, Single thin rectangular plates supported by stitfeners can be analyzed on the basis of thin plate theory, as indicated in Par. 3.1.4 A more refined approach to stitfened panel analysis, where the orthotropic nature of the structure is retained, can be provided by thin orthotropic plate the: ory. Grillage analysis can also be used. Neither one of these two methods is in general conducive to simple hand ealewlations, and in those cases where the applied loads and/or boundary conditions require « more refined treatment, numerical methods. such as the finite ele ment method. might he preferred. 5.1.8 Stress Distributions. The stress distributions across the stiffener and thin rectangular plate eross see tions ean be derived on the basis of the same general ‘methods proposed in Par. 4.1.5 and 2.1.5, respectively. 52 UNIAXIALLY STIFFENED PANELS IN END COMPRESSION 521 Definitions. A uniaxially stiffened panel sub- ected to an applied in-plane compressive stress acting in the same direction as the stiffeners is considered here, see Figure 5-2. Tho ultimate limit state is reached when the applied in-plane compressive stress f eauals 4, a5 defined in Par. 5.2.2. The allowable in-plane com Pressive stress is obtained by dividing the limit state stress f, by the appropriate factor of safety 7S. 52.2 Ultimate f= F,(5-Toss fo =F, (05/M, S10 ke = min. (kp, kp) eg = nt ke = GaP E OY ci ony lene) 20-/FH).020 env Tay ke 5.3 ORTHOGONALLY STIFFENED PANELS 5.3.1 Definitions. Litnit states for the entive stiffened panel including both longitudinal and transverse sift ‘eners are considered, ‘The serviceability limit state for a panel subjected to tuniaxial compression is reached when the axial sess ? reaches the value fp or fp defined in Par, 5.22. The limit fe applies in the elaste range, while the limi fe applies in the plastic range. ‘The serviesability limit state for a panel subjected to biaxial compression is Teached when the equations in Par. 5.3.8 are satistied, ‘The case of lateral pressure is defined in Par. 5.3.4«lic ids asbunbudaiciesidaashalaaiRi Md aok ise, 2% American Petroleum initute niaatinainShsidistb ie iscnend achat iaeBie ist, 5.32 Uniaxial Compression 211D:Dp t For /BE LK For /B< LK Elastic range (f 009807 1 REESbe Figure 5-1; Flat Stiffened Panel | o@sh2d) Bo where fy Is the design in-plane shear stress in the Plate, ayy is given in Par. 3.3.3, and the plate’s geome: try js shown in Figure 5-10. I is the moment of inertia of the stifener's web plus flange about an axis coincide ing with the surface of the plate at the plate/web 5.8 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ‘The most relevant step in the design ofa stiffened panel involves a proper choice of the stiffening system, to pro vide an adequate overall strength, and to limit the plate limensions and proportions to values that will prevent plate failure by instability. Many choices for the stiffen ing systom are available, and no specific guidelines can be given, since the optimum configuration depends on dimensions, loads and boundary conditions, ‘Typically, a stitfened pane! would be orthogonally ened, with the set of primary stiffeners or girders pro viding the main support structure for the whole pane and the set of secondary stiffeners providing local pla ing support. The large number of stiffener intersections sustiies @ careful detail design of the stiffener crossings In general a weight efficient structure would make use of & high density of stiffeners in both directions, but the cost implications could be adverse, Since. stiffened plates are important components of TLP structures, and contribute to a large share ofthe structural weight, the designer should perform several iterations with alterna. tive stiffener arrangements in order #0 reach an effi cient design. Important aspects of stiffened panel design are the selection of stiffener cross sectional dimensions. and the rectangular plate aspect ratio, discussed in Par. 47 and 3.7, respectively. f SP--— + =p -- {= Figure 5-2: Uniaxially Stiffened Panel in End Compression