Human Musculoskeletal System
Skeleton
• Functions:
• Support: Provides a framework for the body, supporting softer tissues.
• Protection: Shields vital organs (e.g., the skull protects the brain, the
ribcage protects the heart and lungs).
• Movement: Serves as a point of attachment for muscles, allowing
movement.
• Mineral Storage: Stores minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
• Blood Cell Production: Contains bone marrow, which produces blood
cells.
• Structure:
• Composed of bones connected by joints and supported by cartilage and
ligaments.
• Key parts include the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, ribcage) and
the appendicular skeleton (limbs and girdles).
Joints
• Types of Joints:
• Fixed Joints (Immovable): Bones are fused together (e.g., skull sutures).
• Slightly Movable Joints: Allow limited movement (e.g., between
vertebrae).
• Freely Movable Joints (Synovial Joints): Allow a wide range of movement
(e.g., shoulder, hip, knee, elbow).
• Synovial Joints:
• Structure:
• Synovial Membrane: Produces synovial fluid for lubrication.
• Cartilage: Covers bone ends, reducing friction and absorbing
shock.
• Ligaments: Connect bones, providing stability.
• Types:
• Ball and Socket Joints: Allow rotational movement (e.g., shoulder,
hip).
• Hinge Joints: Allow bending and straightening (e.g., knee, elbow).
• Pivot Joints: Allow rotational movement around a single axis (e.g.,
neck).
• Gliding Joints: Allow bones to glide past each other (e.g., wrist).
Muscles
• Types of Muscles:
• Skeletal Muscles: Attached to bones, responsible for voluntary
movements.
• Smooth Muscles: Found in walls of internal organs, responsible for
involuntary movements.
• Cardiac Muscle: Found in the heart, responsible for pumping blood.
• Mechanism of Muscle Action:
• Muscles work in antagonistic pairs (e.g., biceps and triceps). When one
muscle contracts, the other relaxes to produce movement.
• Muscle Contraction: Involves the sliding filament theory, where actin and
myosin filaments slide past each other, shortening the muscle fiber.
Plant Movement
Types of Plant Movement
• Tropisms: Growth responses towards or away from stimuli.
• Phototropism: Response to light (e.g., stems grow towards light).
• Geotropism (Gravitropism): Response to gravity (e.g., roots grow
downward).
• Hydrotropism: Response to water (e.g., roots grow towards moisture).
• Thigmotropism: Response to touch (e.g., tendrils of climbing plants).
• Nastic Movements: Non-directional responses to stimuli (e.g., the opening and
closing of flowers, or the rapid movement of the Venus flytrap).
• Mechanisms of Movement:
• Cell Elongation: Hormones like auxins stimulate cells to elongate, causing
bending towards or away from stimuli.
• Turgor Changes: Changes in cell turgor pressure (e.g., in leaf movements
of the Mimosa plant).
Summary
The movement unit in IGCSE Biology encompasses understanding how both animals
and plants achieve movement. In animals, particularly humans, this involves the
coordinated efforts of the skeletal system, joints, and muscles. In plants, movement is
typically growth-related (tropisms) or involves changes in cell turgor pressure (nastic
movements). This unit highlights the complexity and adaptability of biological systems
in response to their environments.
