DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

- Breaks down food into nutrients.

Digestion
- Process of reducing food into smaller molecules that the body can absorb.
Ingestion
- The first activity of the digestive system is to take in food through the mouth.
Mechanical Digestion
- Takes within the mouth and the stomach
- The process of physically breaking down large pieces of food that are digested into smaller particles. It
begins the mouth with chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing actions in the
stomach.
Chemical Digestion
- The process of transforming complex molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller
molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells.
Peristalsis
- Wavelike contraction that moves food in the digestive system.
MOVEMENTS
Mouth
- Food enters the mouth, and large pieces of food are chewed into smaller pieces by teeth.
 First, the Incisors helps in biting down the food.
 The Canines help in tearing and pulling apart food into smaller pieces.
 Then, the Premolars and Molars exerts force on the food, crushing and grinding it.
During the mastication, the mucus moistens and saliva lubricates food forming bolus. The salivary glands also
exert enzyme in saliva (amylase/ptyalin) that breaks down starches in your food. This bolus is then pushed back
by the tongue to the throat to initiate swallowing.
Pharynx - Place where food is swallowed. It carries food to the esophagus and larynx respectively.
Epiglottis – closes over the trachea to prevent food from entering the respiratory system.
Esophagus - After you swallow the food, peristalsis pushes the food down your esophagus and muscular
contractions of it massage the food down into the stomach.
*Mucosa – cell that secretes mucus.
Stomach - The stomach receives and hold the food down and mixed it with gastric juices. The stomach is a
muscular bag and it churns the food to help it break down mechanically as well as chemically. These leads to
the creation of semi-liquid substance called chyme (partially digested food that is retained in the stomach).
*Hydrochloric acid, mucus and enzyme secretion form gastric juices.
Gastric juices and Enzymes
 Hydrochloric acid – provide the acidic pH
 Pepsinogen (proenzyme) – converted into Pepsin by HCl
 Pepsin (main protease) – converts proteins into polypeptides
 Prorenin (proenzyme) – converted to Renin by HCl
 Casein (milk protein)- converted to Peptides by Renin
Small Intestine – final digestion and absorption of food takes place.
- It absorbs nutrients through its walls into the blood stream. The mechanical digestion continues as the
chyme are further mixed and churned here by peristalsis. It consist of duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
Once in the duodenum, the food is mixed with more digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile
from the liver, which help breakdown and absorb food into the blood. Food is then squeezed into the
lower parts of small intestine, called jejunum and ileum. Nutrients are absorbed from the ileum.
Digestive juices and enzyme
 Peptidases – glycerol
 Maltese - maltose
 Sucrase – sucrose
 Lactase – lactose
 Pancreatic juice – converts carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
 Bile – converts fat globules into fat droplets by emulsification
 Pancreatic lipase – converts triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol
Large Intestine/ Colon - Once all the nutrients are absorbed, the waste is moved into the large intestine or
colon. It secretes mucus that helps in lubrication and holding up waste particles. Large intestine absorbs water
and changes the waste from liquid into stool. Peristalsis helps move the stool to the rectum that stores stool until
it pushes stool out of anus during a bowel movement.
Nonenergy Nutrients
1. Minerals
2. Vitamins
3. Water
  Carbohydrates = glucose/sugar/ monosaccharides
 Proteins = amino acids
 Fats = fatty acids and glycerol
Vitamin C- water-soluble vitamin.
Mumps – disease occurs in the mouth.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- Transport system of the body
- Delivers food and oxygen to the cells and to pick up carbon dioxide and waste materials.
- Kardia = Heart ; Vast = Vesicle
Parts of Circulatory System
1. Heart- sends blood throughout our bodies.
2. Bloods vessels- distribute blood throughout the body.
a. Arteries – from the heart to the organs/ different parts of the body; elastic, strong tubes.
b. Veins – from organs to the heart; thinner
c. Capillaries – smallest unit of circulatory system; thin and delicate blood vessels; smallest blood
vessels.
3. Blood- bloody fluid that delivers necessary substances to the cells.
*Plasma – liquid component of blood where cells float.
*blood cells – cellular components.
* WBC – leukocytes; RBC – erythrocytes; Platelets – thrombocytes
4. Right ventricle - pumps blood low in oxygen to the lungs.
5. Left ventricle- pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
6. Right atrium- receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle.
7. Left atrium- receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.
8. Tricuspid valve - separates the right atrium from the right ventricle.
9. Mitral valve- separates the left atrium from the left ventricle.
10. Pulmonic valve - carries blood to the lungs.
11. Aortic valve - carries blood to the body.
12. Aorta- transport oxygen rich blood from your heart to the rest of your body.
13. Pulmonary artery- carry oxygen-poor blood from your heart to your lungs.
14. Superior vena cava- carries oxygen-poor blood from the upper parts of the body, including the head,
chest, arms, and neck.
15. Inferior vena cava - carries oxygen-poor blood from the lower parts of the body.
Outer Layer- connective tissues (allows the blood vessels to stretch; elastic fiber).
Middle Layer- smooth muscle (arrange in a circular manner; allows body to regulate blood flow by
constricting.)
Inner Layer- epithelial tissues

Systematic Circulation – Heart-Body-Heart

- Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle – arteries - capillaries in the tissues of the body.
- deoxygenated blood to the vein-back to the heart through the right atrium.
Pulmonary Circulation – Heart-Lungs-Heart
- transports oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle – lungs - returns the oxygen-rich blood to the left
atrium.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- Body’s outer layer.
- It’s made up of skin, nails, hair and the glands and nerves on your skin.
Skin
- Organ that covers and protects the body from the external environment.
- Function as protection organ, sense organ, excretory organ, and heat regulator.
Major Layers of Skin
- Epidermis
- Outer layer; composed of both living and dead tissues.
- Dermis
- Lies beneath the epidermis; contains most of living part of the skin- connective tissues, blood vessels,
lymph vessels, nerves, sweat glands, hair follicles, and oil glands.
- Hypodermis - the bottom layer of the skin. It’s the fatty layer of the skin that helps insulate the body.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
- The framework (endoskeleton) of a human body.
a. Supports the body
b. Protects the delicate internal organs
 c. Supports body movement
d. Stores and releases important minerals for the body
e. Produces blood cells
Osteology
- Study of the bones.
Bones
- Most complex body tissues.
- Consist of 2/3 inorganic mineral matter (calcium phosphate) and 1/3 organic matter (collagen).
- Parts that make up bones – periosteum, compact bone, haversian canal, & marrow cavity.
*Bone cells = osteocytes
Ossification
- Process by which cartilage cells are replaced by bone cells, resulting in the growth and development of
bones.
Skeletal System
a. Axial Skeleton
 Skull
 Hyoid Bone
 Vertebral column
 Sternum
 Ribs
b. Appendicular Skeleton
 Upper and Lower appendages
Parts of Skeletal System
a. Bone= provides shape and support for the body, as well as protection for some organs.
b. Cartilage
- enable bones to move without friction.
- soft connective tissue found in nose, ear and larynx.
c. Joints= Place where two bones meet; Maybe fixed, semi-fixed, or free moving.
d. Ligaments= hold bones together.
e. Tendons= connects the ends of a muscle to your bone; fibrous connective tissue that fastened/ attached
muscle to bone.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- Permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body.
*Muscle tissues are composed of bundles of muscle cells.
Muscle cells maybe:
a. Skeletal= move your skeleton; striated; voluntary movements
b. Smooth= not striated; involuntary
- contains longer, thinner and more tapered muscle cells.
- Found mostly in internal organs and walls of blood vessels.
- Can also be found in the digestive tract.
c. Cardiac= found in the heart; striated; involuntary
*Most of the muscle in the body works in pairs- as flexors (bends or lifts), biceps; and extensors (straightens or
extends), triceps

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- Gas exchange.
- move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.
Respiration
- Exchange of gases between living matter and its surrounding.
a. External respiration
b. Internal respiration
Breathing
- Mechanical process; entrance and exit of air in a human body.
Respiratory Organs
1. Nose – structure where external air enters
2. Pharynx – passageway for both air and food
3. Trachea – person’s windpipe; tough muscular tube
4. Bronchi – right and left smaller pipes that branch from the trachea
5. Lungs – occupies twin cavities in the chest; spongy structure covered by a double pleural membrane.
6. Alveoli – tiny air sacs
7. Bronchioles – smaller tubes within the lungs
 8. Nostrils – lined with cilia to trap germs from the air
9. Sinuses- Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the temperature and humidity
of the air you inhale.

EXCRETORY/URINARY SYSTEM
- Removes excess and waste product from the body to maintain homeostasis.
Excretory Organs
1. Kidneys – bean-shaped organ; responsible for urine formation
2. Liver – forms urea and bile
3. Lungs- excrete carbon dioxide and water (by product of respiration) through exhalation.
4. Skin – excretes water and salt; expel sweat through the sweat glands
Urinary System
1. Kidneys
- Most important organ of excretion.
- Responsible for the removal of all water, mineral acids and salts.
- Urine is formed through two important phases: filtration and reabsorption
*Nephrons
- Basic unit of the kidney
2. Ureters - carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
3. Urinary Bladder- store urine
4. Urethra- carries urine by peristalsis from the bladder to the outside of the body.
5. Aorta - carries blood from the heart to the kidney for purification.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The control system of the body.
- Body's command center that controls other body systems and processes.
Neurons
- the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve
cells, muscle, or gland cells.
Types of Neurons
 Sensory Neurons - the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment
 Motor Neurons – transmit information to the central nervous system
 Interneuron - the ones in between - they connect and transfer signals between spinal motor and
sensory neurons.
 Afferent Neurons - motor neurons responsible for carrying signals from the brain to the peripheral
nervous system.
a. Central Nervous System
- Receives, process, and responds to sensory information.
1. Brain – controls thought, memory, emotion, motor function and every process that
regulates our body.
2. Spinal Cord - send motor commands from the brain to the body, send sensory
information from the body to the brain, and coordinate reflexes.
b. Peripheral Nervous System
- Responsible for sending information from different areas of your body back to your brain, as well as
carrying out commands from your brain to various parts of your body.
1. Nerves - carry electrical impulses between the brain and the rest of the body.
2. Ganglia - form connections and circuits with different parts of your brain, allowing them to send signals
back and forth.
Peripheral Nervous System is divided into two:
1. Autonomic nervous system (ANS): Controls involuntary bodily functions and regulates glands.
- regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion,
and sexual arousal.
2. Somatic nervous system (SNS): Controls muscle movement and relays information from ears, eyes and
skin to the central nervous system.
- associated with the voluntary control of the body movements via the use of skeletal muscles.
Parts Of the Brain
a. Cerebellum – carried out coordination and balance
b. Cerebrum - The largest part of the brain
c. Brain Stem - connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum; Composed of:
midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
Synapse
- Gap between neurons that connect an organ to the brain.
Dendrites
- Special sensory structures where terminal branches of sensory neurons end in your skin.
Parts of the Eye
 Sclera- white part of the eye, protects the eyeball.
 Pupil - opening through which light can enter the eye.
 Iris - colored part of the eye; controls how much light enters the eye.
 Cornea - covers the iris and the pupil.
 Lens - acts like a camera lens by focusing light onto the retina
 Retina is a light- gathers and detect light and turn it into electrical impulses.

3 Smallest Bones in the Ear

 Hammer (Malleus)
 Anvil (Incus)
 Stirrup (Stapes)

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Helps defend the body against infection by supplying disease-fighting cells called lymphocytes.
The lymphatic system is composed of:
 Primary lymphoid organs: create special immune system cells called lymphocytes.
a. Bone marrow- forms a specialized stem cell connective tissue that fills the cavities of most
bones. Its major function is the formation of blood cells (hematopoiesis).
b. Thymus- responsible for the production and maturation of immune cells; including small
lymphocytes that protect the body against foreign antigens.
 Secondary lymphoid organs: organs where the cells of the immune system do their actual job of
fighting off germs and foreign substances.
a. Lymph nodes- filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid, and they contain
lymphocytes that help the body fight infection and disease.
b. Spleen- It stores various immune system cells; it breaks down red blood cells (erythrocytes); It
stores and breaks down platelets (thrombocytes).
c. Tonsils- stop germs entering the body through the mouth or the nose.
d. Mucous membranes- provides a barrier against foreign particles, captures them in its sticky
mucus and clears them out.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Body’s regulator; regulates all processes in the body
- Glands- create and secrete (release) hormones.
a. Hypothalamus: It controls your endocrine system.
b. Pituitary Gland: It makes hormones that control several other glands; master gland
c. Thyroid: regulates body metabolism.
d. Parathyroid Glands: They control the level of calcium in your body; four tiny glands attached in the
thyroid; produces calcitonin.
e. Adrenal Gland: located at top of each kidney; they control your metabolism, blood pressure, sexual
development and response to stress.
 Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
f. Pineal Gland: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you
to feel sleepy.
g. Pancreas: It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar in your blood.
- Storage and break down of sugar.
- Affect the onset of diabetes.
h. Gonads – main source of sex hormones
 Ovaries: makes eggs, secrete estrogen and progesterone.
 Testes: make sperm, secrete androgens and release the hormone testosterone.
i. Thymus: prominent early in life then later degenerates.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive system is the biological system made up of all the anatomical organs involved in sexual
reproduction.
Male
• Penis — Delivers sperm into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
• Scrotum — The scrotum is the sac-like organ hanging behind and below the penis. It contains the testicles
(also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels.
• Testicles (testes) — Responsible for testosterone and sperm production.
• Epididymis — transports and stores sperm cells that are produced in the testes. The epididymis also brings the
sperm to maturity.
• Ductus (vas) deferens — transports mature sperm to the urethra.
• Viper ducts — empty into the urethra.
• Urethra — carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body. In males, it has the additional function of
ejaculating semen when the man reaches sexual climax.
• Corpus Cavernosum - help make an erection.
• Erectile tissue- allows for penetration during sex.
• Glans Penis- allowing a person to expel urine and semen.
• Prostate gland- secretes prostrate fluid which is a component of semen.
• Seminal vesicles- secretes a significant proportion of prostrate fluid that ultimately becomes semen.

Female
• Ovaries — home to the female sex cells, called eggs, and they also produce estrogen.
• Fallopian tubes — The fallopian tubes are narrow tunnels for a fertilized egg to make its way down to the
uterus.
• Uterus — holds the fetus during pregnancy.
• Cervix — lets menstrual blood out and semen into the uterus.
• Vagina — The vagina, also known as the birth canal, joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside
of the body.
• Vulva — This is the external portion of the female genital organs.
• Cervical Canal- allows a baby (fetus) to pass from the womb into the vagina.
• Endometrium- prepare the optimal environment for the implantation of the embryo.
• Ovarian Ligament- connects the uterus to the ovary in the female body.
• Fimbriae- allows the ovaries and fallopian tubes to work in sync.

Muscular Dystrophy
- Genetic disorder characterized by the slow weakening and wasting away of the muscle tissues.
a. Duchenne – more severe; there is a total absence of dystrophin protein.
b. Becker Muscular Dystrophy – shortened dystrophin protein that is partially functional.