Body systems

Definition: Body systems are arrangements of 2 or more organs that work together to perform a
specific job.

This is the process of cells turning into body systems

Epithelial Tissue
• Cells that form surfaces (cover) over other organs.
Skin has a lot of epithelial cells (epidermis).
Lines inside of the mouth and digestive system.
Muscle Tissue
• Tissue that can contract (smaller and fatter).
• Assist in movement.
Connective tissue
• Supports and hold together other tissues in the body
•Examples: Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments and tendons
Nerve tissue
• Sends electrical signals around the body. This managed by nerve tissues in the brain
•Electrical impulses help you feel and move muscles
•Thousands of nerve cells are grouped together to form your nerves

Organ systems
Respiratory System: Takes up oxygen from the air for us to breathe
Skeletal System: Gives body shape, allows movement and makes blood cells
Excretory System: Gets rid of waste products inside the body
Nervous System: Helps different parts of the body communicate with each other
Reproductive System: Helps produce, sustain and transport egg and sperm cells
Digestive System: Breaks down food we eat into its simplest form to digest

Digestive systems
Definition: digestive systems makes energy available from food

Function:
- Provides the body with all its building materials and energy that we need for everyday activities
- Unlocks the energy in food so that it can be used by our body

Type of digestion:
Mechanical Digestion:
- Where the food is sliced, torn, crushed and broken down by the teeth.
- Broken down into smaller pieces.
- Mechanical digestion is a physical change, which means no new substances are made.
- Can also happen in the oesophagus, stomach and intestines.
Chemical Digestion:
- Large, complex substances in the food are broken down into simple chemicals by saliva in your
mouth and gastric juices (acid) in your stomach.
- This produces new, smaller chemicals that the body can absorb.
-New substances are made = chemical change

The structure :

The functions :

The Mouth:
- Biting and chewing are forms of mechanical digestion, so the process of digestion starts with
your teeth.
- Chemical digestion also starts in the mouth. As we chew, our food mixes with saliva.
- Saliva is a watery mixture that converts starch to glucose.
The Oesophagus:
- A long muscular tube that stabs at your mouth and ends at your stomach.
- Peristalsis is the muscles of our oesophagus expanding and contracting to push the food
toward our stomach

The Stomach:
- Shaped like a bag
- Food is stored for one to six hours, and begins to change while there
- Muscles contract and expand to church the food
- This mechanically breaks the food down, while also mixing it with gastric juices
 - Gastric juices are produced by cells in the stomach lining, and are designed to kill germs and
digest certain foods
The Small intestine:
- The small intestine is the longest part of our digestive tract, it’s up to 6m long. It gets its name
from its diameter, as it is only 3cm wide.
The Duodenum:
- The duodenum is the first part of our small intestine. It carries important chemicals from the
pancreas and liver.
The ileum:
- The ileum is the lower part of the small intestines, it is where digested food is absorbed by the
body
- By the time the food reaches the ileum, it has been broken down into tiny, simple particles
that can be absorbed by the blood. waiting in line at the ileum where to assist with food
absorption.
The Pancreas:
- The pancreas is not part of the digestive tract but is an organ connected to it. It produces pancreatic
juices which help to digest fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
The Livers:
- The liver is the body's largest internal organ and cannot survive without it. It performs over 500
chemical processes. One of these is removing toxins from the blood. Blood carries nutrients from the
digestive system to the liver, before going anywhere else.
- While the blood passes through the liver, it removes toxins, such as alcohol.
The Large intestines:

- The large intestine is 1.5 metres long, and 6-7 cm wide, making it shorter but wider than the small
intestine.
- In the large intestine, water is reabsorbed into the body from what is left of the food, as well as any
remaining nutrients.
- The waste of food forms lumps of faeces known as stools.
- Stool is then expelled from the body through the anus.
-
Breathing/Respiratory system:
Definition: The system that takes air into your body to make oxygen available for cells is called the
respiratory system
What do our cells need:
Cells need energy to function and they get their energy from respiration.
• A series of chemical changes in a cell that release energy.
• Requires glucose and oxygen.
Respiration
• Above chemical reaction can be written as the following word equation:
Oxygen + glucose ——-> Carbon dioxide + water + energy

The Structures:

The Trachea:
• A thick garden-hose-like structure with walls made of cartilage rings - elastic in nature.
• The trachea divides into two bronchi. Each bronchus then further divides into smaller tubes called
bronchioles.
• Bronchioles end in the lungs in a cluster of sacs called alveoli.
The bronchus: ?
The bronchioles: ?
The Cilia:
Wave back and forth 14-15 × per second and push mucus to the back of the nose and into the
pharynx. The Pharynx connects the mouth and nose to the oesophagus where the mucus is then
swallowed.
The alveoli:
● Alveoli are microscopic in size and about 600 million make up your lungs.
● Alveoli provide a large surface area for gas exchange.

Gas exchange steps :

1. Oxygen dissolves in moist alveoli surface and moves into the blood through a process called
diffusion
2. Cells use oxygen to release energy from glucose
3. As energy is released carbon dioxide is produced
4. Carbon dioxide will then go from cell, to blood and then into the alveoli
5. Carbon dioxide then leaves the body the next time you exhale (breathe out).

Circulatory system
Functions:
- Carries nutrients and oxygen to cells for respiration
- Removes carbon dioxide from cells. Takes to lungs to be exhaled
- Transport other waste products to where they can be disposed of
- Distributes heat around the body since it is the byproduct of respiration

Definitions: The circulatory system is the body’s transport system

Blood vessels:

Arteries: Arteries carry blood away from the heart.

● When the heart beats, it pumps blood through the arteries under pressure.
● Walls are tough and elastic, so it can bounce back into shape after each beat.
● If an artery is cut, high pressure in the artery causes blood to squirt out quickly.
● Major arteries are protected deep in the body.
● In a few places, expansion and contraction of arteries in response to heartbeat can be felt.
● The above point is your pulse. Most easily felt in the neck and wrist.

Veins: Veins carry blood back to the heart.

● Heartbeat lost in the narrow capillaries before blood flows into veins.
● Do not have / need thick muscular walls.
● Muscles contract and squeeze the veins pushing the blood in them towards the heart.
Capillaries: Arteries branch off into smaller and smaller blood vessels. Eventually, so small and fine
that they reach nearly every cell of the body. These finest blood vessels are capillaries.

● Capillary walls are only one cell thick.

● The thin wall allows dissolved materials to pass through them.
● Materials needed by cells pass out of the capillaries and into the cells.
● In reverse, waste materials from the cells pass into the capillary.
Relationship between capillaries and gas exchange in the lungs:
● Capillaries are blood vessels in the walls of the alveoli. Blood passes through the capillaries,
entering through your pulmonary artery and leaving via your pulmonary vein. While in the
capillaries, blood gives off carbon dioxide through the capillary wall into the alveoli and takes
up oxygen from air in the alveoli.
● lets oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse, or move freely, between the respiratory system and
the bloodstream
The heart:
About the size of your first. Located in the middle of the chest.
Made up of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle.
Cardiac muscle:
• Doesn’t get tired.
• Continuously responds to the heart's pacemaker
The heart is divided into two thick walls called the septum.
● One half of the heart collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it around the body.
● Other half collects deoxygenated blood and pumps it to the lungs.
Each half is split into two chambers. So, the heart has four chambers in total.
In each side blood enters the atrium and exits the ventricle.

Circuit 2
Circuit 1

Blood flows from heart to the Blood flows from heart to the lungs and back again.
body.

Blood arriving at lungs is called deoxygenated blood

Blood flows to head, trunk, legs, (commonly drawn in blue)
arms and back to heart.
 Blood in this circuit has little oxygen but lots carbon
dioxide waste from cells.
Carries nutrients and oxygen to
the cells and carbon dioxide
and waste away from the cells.
Inside the lungs, carbon dioxide is replaced with oxygen.
This blood is called oxygenated blood (shown in red).

Blood:
Is the only organ in the body that exists as a liquid.
Average sized adult has 5 litres of blood.
Blood consists of:
• Red blood cells:
Made in bone marrow of long bones such as femur (thigh bone) and ribs.
01 Contain chemical haemoglobin. This gives red blood cells their colour.
02 Haemoglobin contains iron.
03 When haemoglobin carries oxygen it Is bright red.
04 Haemoglobin also carries oxygen around the body.
• White blood cells
White blood cells are bigger than red cells.
● White blood cells are a part of the immune system that helps fight disease.
• Platelets
Platelets are broken up bits of cells produced in bone marrow.
● Helps blood to clot.
● If there were not platelets you would likely bleed excessively.
Too many platelets can lead to a clot in the blood vessel, causing:
● Angina or heart attack - if clot is in heart.
● Stroke if the clot is in the brain.
• Plasma
Plasma is a clear yellowish liquid that is 90% water.
● The remaining 10% is dissolved materials such as nutrients and wastes.

NOTE: Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are suspended in plasma.

Excretory system

Function of the excretory system:

The function of the excretory system to remove wastes from the body

Difference between excretion and defecation:

Our digestive system absorbs any nutrients that the body will use. Anything that can't be used is
passed from the anus as faces - this process is called defecation.
Excretion is also a process of getting rid of wastes, however, these are ones that our body has
produced itself. The lungs, liver, skin and kidneys are involved in excretion, so they all belong in the
excretory system.

The job of the organs with regards to waste removal:

Liver:

● The liver breaks down amino acids, removes poisonous substances and breaks down
old red blood cells.
● Amino acids are the end products of protein digestion, they are used by our body to
make proteins and for growth and repair.
● When we have too many, the body breaks them down into a substance called urea.
● Poisonous substances can enter the body from the digestive tract. The liver breaks
them down into harmless substances. These are then returned to the blood and passed
to the kidneys for urination.

Kidney:
● The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs the size of a fist, they act as filters that process
about 50 litres of blood every hour.
● Three main functions of the kidney:
1: Excrete Urea - a waste product from the digestion of proteins.
2: Control salt levels in the blood. Excess salt is removed by the kidneys and excreted in urine. This is
important as too much salt stops cells from working properly.
3: Control the level of water in the body. You can tell if you are drinking enough water by the colour
of your urine.
Skin:

● Heat is a by-product of chemical reactions that take place in our body.

● Some of this heat is used to keep our internal temperature at 37 C, but we usually
produce more than we need.
● If we do not get rid of excess heat, that could be fatal.
● We lose most of our excess heat through our skin by sweating.
● We also excrete a very small amount of urea and other salts.

Lungs:

The lungs are part of two body systems - the excretory system and the respiratory system.
Respiration produces carbon dioxide and water as waste products. These are carried back to
the lungs and breathed out.

Urinary Tract Structure:

Urine (what is its purpose? What kind things do we get rid of?)

● Waste material that has been filtered out of the blood by the kidneys.
● On average, it is 95% water and 5% Urea, with small amounts of salts.
● Urine passes from kidneys to the bladder through tubes called ureters, where it is stored.
● The urethra is the tube that carries urine outside the body.
Together, the kidneys, bladder, ureters and urethra are called the urinary tract.

Skeletal and muscle systems:

Main roles of the skeletal system

Protect
This is the main role of our axial skeleton, which consists of 80 bones.
Our axial skeleton consists of our skull (protecting our brain), vertebrae (protecting our spinal cord)
and our ribs and sternum (which protect our lungs and heart.
Structure
Supporting Soft Tissue:
Without a skeleton, our skin and organs would collapse and resemble a jellyfish stranded on a beach.
Jellyfish don't have the support of a skeleton, water is what provides them with a distinctive shape and
structure.

Movement
Supportin Our appendicular skeleton is responsible for movement, it consists of 126 bones and
includes
● Pelvis
● Shoulder blades
● Collar bones (clavicle)
● Arms
● Legs

How are Axial and appendicular skeletons different and what are their purposes?
Your axial skeleton is made up of the bones in your head, neck, back and chest. Your appendicular
skeleton is made up of everything else the bones that attach (append) to your axial skeleton. Your
appendicular skeleton includes the bones in your shoulders, pelvis and limbs, including your arms,
hands, legs and feet.

Special features of bones

● Bones need to be strong so they don't snap or crumble during normal activities.
● Bones undergo compression forces (squashing) and tension forces (stretching).

Types of bone (compact and spongy)

Bones also need to be slightly "elastic" so they can undergo some flex and twisting when needed.
Compact bone: makes up the outer layer of the bone - it is dense and heavy and gives the bone much
of its strength.
Spongy bone: resembles honeycomb, it is lighter, yet gives a strong inner structure to the bone Gaps
between the spongy bone are filled with fatty, jelly-like material called bone marrow. Bone marrow is
where red blood cells and some white blood cells are made.
Memorise Names and location of main bones and muscle in the diagram below

Bones

Muscles

What does the term "antagonistic muscle pairs" mean?

Our muscles are arranged in antagonistic pairs.
Antagonistic means they work in opposition to each other.
E.g: Flexing our arm/biceps.
- Your bicep contracts when activated, pulling your forearm upwards.
- To lower the forearm, the bicep relaxes, and the triceps contract.

Ligaments
● Ligaments are bands of very tough, but flexible tissue that hold the bones of a joint together.
● Ligaments prevent the bones of a joint from moving too far apart. They connect bones to
bones, holding joints together.

Tendons

A tendon is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. Tendons may also attach muscles
to structures such as the eyeball. A tendon serves to move the bone or structure