OXYGENATION

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 Oxygenation
• Oxygen is required to breath or sustain life
respiratory and circulatory system are
responsible for oxygenation.
• Oxygenation is a process which occurs in lungs
to the blood which is saturated with oxygen to
for oxyhemoglobin.
• Oxygen consist on the mechanism of,
ventilation
 Respiration /ventilation
• Is a process moving gases into and out of lungs
.
• Inspiration .Is a process to take breath inside .
• Expiration. Is a passive process exhale the
gases outside from lungs depends on the
elastic recoil properties of the lungs.
• Compliance. Is a ability of lungs to expend
distend ,in response to increase alveolar
pressure.
• Respiratory gas exchange. Gases are
exchanged in the alveoli and capillaries level
of the body tissues ,oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged at that level .
• Oxygen transport . Respiratory system and
circulatory system and blood are responsible .
• The respiratory system is the system in the
human body that enables us to breathe.

The act of breathing includes: inhaling and

exhaling air in the body; the absorption of
oxygen from the air in order to produce
energy; the discharge of carbon dioxide, which
is the byproduct of the process.
 The parts of the respiratory system

• The parts of the respiratory system

•
The respiratory system is divided into two parts:

Upper respiratory tract:

This includes the nose, mouth, and the beginning of the trachea (the section that takes air in
and lets it out).

Lower respiratory tract:

This includes the trachea, the bronchi, bronchiole and the lungs (the act of breathing takes
place in this part of the system).

The organs of the lower respiratory tract are located in the chest cavity. They are delineated
and protected by the ribcage, the chest bone (sternum), and the muscles between the ribs and
the diaphragm (that constitute a muscular partition between the chest and the abdominal
cavity).
• The trachea – the tube connecting the throat to the bronchi.
• The bronchi – the trachea divides into two bronchi (tubes). One leads to the left lung,
the other to the right lung. Inside the lungs each of the bronchi divides into smaller
bronchi.
• The bronchiole - the bronchi branches off into smaller tubes called bronchiole which
end in the pulmonary alveolus.
• Pulmonary alveoli – tiny sacs (air sacs) delineated by a single-layer membrane with
blood capillaries at the other end.
• The exchange of gases takes place through the membrane of the pulmonary alveolus,
which always contains air: oxygen (O2) is absorbed from the air into the blood
capillaries and the action of the heart circulates it through all the tissues in the body.
At the same time, carbon dioxide (CO2) is transmitted from the blood capillaries into
the alveoli and then expelled through the bronchi and the upper respiratory tract.
• The inner surface of the lungs where the exchange of gases takes place is very large,
due to the structure of the air sacs of the alveoli.
• The lungs – a pair of organs found in all vertebrates.
• The structure of the lungs includes the bronchial tree – air tubes branching off from
the bronchi into smaller and smaller air tubes, each one ending in a pulmonary
alveolus.
• The act of breathing
•
The act of breathing has two stages – inhalation and exhalation
Inhalation – the intake of air into the lungs through expansion of chest volume.
• Exhalation – the expulsion of air from the lungs through contraction of chest
volume.
•
Inhalation and exhalation involves muscles:
Rib muscles = the muscles between the ribs in the chest.
• Diaphragm muscle
•
Muscle movement – the diaphragm and rib muscles are constantly contracting and
relaxing (approximately 16 times per minute), thus causing the chest cavity to
increase and decrease.

During inhalation – the muscles contract:

Contraction of the diaphragm muscle – causes the diaphragm to flatten, thus

enlarging the chest cavity.
• Contraction of the rib muscles – causes the ribs to rise, thus increasing the chest
volume.

The chest cavity expands, thus reducing air pressure and causing air to be passively
drawn into the lungs. Air passes from the high pressure outside the lungs to the low
pressure inside the lungs.

During exhalation – the muscles relax:

The muscles are no longer contracting, they are relaxed.

The diaphragm curves and rises, the ribs descend – and chest volume decreases.

The chest cavity contracts thus increasing air pressure and causing the air in the lungs to
be expelled through the upper respiratory tract. Exhalation, too, is passive. Air passes
from the high pressure in the lungs to the low pressure in the upper respiratory tract.

Inhalation and exhalation are involuntary and therefore their control requires an effort.
 Heart and Circulatory System

• The heart is a pump, usually beating about 60

to 100 times per minute. With each heartbeat,
the heart sends blood throughout our bodies,
carrying oxygen to every cell. After delivering
the oxygen, the blood returns to the heart.
The heart then sends the blood to the lungs to
pick up more oxygen. This cycle repeats over
and over again.
• The circulatory system is made up of blood vessels that
carry blood away from and towards the heart. Arteries
carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood
back to the heart.
• The heart has four chambers — two on top and two on
bottom:
• The two bottom chambers are the right ventricle and the
left ventricle. These pump blood out of the heart. A wall
called the interventricular septum is between the two
ventricles.
• The two top chambers are the right atrium and the
left atrium. They receive the blood entering the heart. A
wall called the interatrial septum is between the atria.
• The atria are separated from the ventricles by the
atrioventricular valves:
• The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the
right ventricle.
• The mitral valve separates the left atrium from the left
ventricle.
• Two valves also separate the ventricles from the large
blood vessels that carry blood leaving the heart:
• The pulmonic valve is between the right ventricle and
the pulmonary artery, which carries blood to the lungs.
• The aortic valve is between the left ventricle and the
aorta, which carries blood to the body.
• Two pathways come from the heart:
• The pulmonary circulation is a short loop from the heart to the lungs and
back again.
• The systemic circulation carries blood from the heart to all the other parts
of the body and back again.
• In pulmonary circulation:
• The pulmonary artery is a big artery that comes from the heart. It splits into
two main branches, and brings blood from the heart to the lungs. At the
lungs, the blood picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide. The blood
then returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins.
• In systemic circulation:
• Next, blood that returns to the heart has picked up lots of oxygen from the
lungs. So it can now go out to the body. The aorta is a big artery that leaves
the heart carrying this oxygenated blood. Branches off of the aorta send
blood to the muscles of the heart itself, as well as all other parts of the body.
Like a tree, the branches gets smaller and smaller as they get farther from
the aorta.
• At each body part, a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries
connects the very small artery branches to very small veins. The
capillaries have very thin walls, and through them, nutrients and
oxygen are delivered to the cells. Waste products are brought into
the capillaries.

Capillaries then lead into small veins. Small veins lead to larger and
larger veins as the blood approaches the heart. Valves in the veins
keep blood flowing in the correct direction. Two large veins that lead
into the heart are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. (The
terms superior and inferior don't mean that one vein is better than
the other, but that they're located above and below the heart.)

Once the blood is back in the heart, it needs to re-enter the

pulmonary circulation and go back to the lungs to drop off the carbon
dioxide and pick up more oxygen.
 Factors affecting the oxygenation
• Physiological. Decreased oxygen caring capacity
problem
• Anemia
• Inhalation of toxin material
• Suffocation
• Increased metabolic rate
• Pregnancy
• Obesity
• Trauma
• Development .
• Infant
• School age children
• Older age
• Life style .
• Nutrition
• Exercise
• Smoking
• Stress reduction
• Environment.
• Occupation
• Exposure to contaminants ( talcum, dust, )
• Moist area
• Urban area
Common manifestation of altered respiration
• Symptoms
• Breathlessness
• Orthopnea (is shortness of breath (dyspnea) that occurs when lying flat, causing the person to have to sleep
propped up in bed or sitting in a chair.)
• Recurrent chest infections
• Disturbed sleep
• Non-refreshing sleep
• Nightmares
• Daytime sleepiness
• Poor concentration and/or memory
• Confusion
• Hallucinations
• Morning headaches
• Fatigue
• Signs
• Increased respiratory rate
• Shallow breathing
• Weak cough
• Weak sniff
• Abdominal paradox (inward movement of the abdomen during inspiration)
• Use of accessory muscles of respiration
• Reduced chest expansion on maximal inspiration
 Common manifestation of altered
cardiovascular system
• Extreme fatigue
• Constant dizziness or lightheadedness
• A fast heart rate (more than 100 beats per minute)
• A new, irregular heartbeat
• Chest pain or discomfort during activity that goes away with rest
• Difficulty breathing during regular activities and rest
• A respiratory infection or cough that becomes worse
• Restlessness or confusion
• Changes in sleep patterns
• Loss of appetite or nausea
• These warning signs signal that you’re having a heart attack:
• Pain or pressure in the center of your chest that lasts more than a few minutes, or
goes away and comes back
• Discomfort spreading or radiating to your back, jaw, throat, or arm
• Nausea, lightheadedness, or cold sweats
• Indigestion or heartburn
• Weakness, anxiety, or shortness of breath
• Rapid or irregular heartbeats
• If you’re a woman, you’ll likely feel chest pain or discomfort, but not always. These
are the other warning signs to pay attention to:
• Shortness of breath
• Nausea/vomiting
• Back or jaw pain
• Loss of appetite or heartburn
• Tiredness or weakness
• Coughing
• Heart flutters or palpitations
 AGING CHANGES IN YOUR BODY AND THEIR
AFFECTS ON THE LUNGS 
• The muscle that supports your breathing, the diaphragm, becomes
weakened. This weakness may prevent you from breathing enough air in or
out.
• These changes in your bones and muscles may lower the oxygen level in
your body. Also, less carbon dioxide may be removed from your body.
Symptoms such as tiredness and shortness of breath can result.
• Changes to lung tissue:
• Muscles and other tissues that are near your airways may lose their ability to
keep the airways completely open. This causes the airways to close easily.
• Aging also causes the air sacs to lose their shape and become baggy.
• These changes in lung tissue can allow air to get trapped in your lungs. Too
little oxygen may enter your blood vessels and less carbon dioxide may be
removed. This makes it hard to breathe.
• ne common sign of aging is when a person cannot maintain
as high a level of physical activity as in the past.  One of the
major causes of this decease in activity is the deceased
ability of the respiratory organs to acquire and deliver
oxygen to the arterial blood.  This is due to a number of
structural changes to the respiratory system.
• The cartilage in the walls of the trachea and bronchi
undergoes a progressive calcification causing them to
become increasingly rigid with aging.  These changes cause a
gradual decrease in maximum breathing capacity. 
Additionally the walls of the alveoli deteriorate.  This reduces
the surface area of the alveoli where gas exchange takes
place.  Finally with age the lungs lose some of their elastic
recoil and thus offer less resistance to expansion.
The Effects of Aging on Your Cardiovascular System

• An individual's ability to sustain a high level of exercise for a prolonged period of time
decreases with age, even with healthy aging. This decline can be slowed by regular
exercise, but it cannot be avoided completely. The decline is caused by a weakening of
the functions of all the body's systems, though the focus here is on the heart.

The heart has a pacing system that controls the heartbeat and regulates the electrical
signals that stimulate the heart's pumping action. Over time, this natural pacemaker
loses some of its cells, and some of its electrical pathways may get damaged. These
changes can result in a slightly slower heart rate at rest and a greater susceptibility to
abnormal rhythms (the most common of which is known as "atrial fibrillation").

With increasing age, all the structures of the heart also become more rigid. The muscles
of the left ventricle get thicker, the heart may increase slightly in size, and the volume of
the left ventricle may decline. As a result, the heart may both fill and empty more
slowly, thus putting less blood into circulation. The increase in one's heart rate and
cardiac output in response to physical activity is also diminished, and one's maximum
heart rate declines. The drop in maximum heart rate appears to be greater than average
in sedentary individuals and in those with overt cardiovascular disease.
• The walls of the arteries and arterioles become thicker, and the
space within the arteries expands slightly. Elastic tissue within the
walls of the arteries and arterioles is lost. Together, these changes
make the vessels stiffer and less resilient.
• Because arteries and arterioles become less elastic as people age,
they cannot relax as quickly during the rhythmic pumping of the
heart. As a result, blood pressure increases more when the heart
contracts (during systole)—sometimes above normal—than it does
in younger people. Abnormally high blood pressure during systole
with normal blood pressure during diastole is very common among
older people. This disorder is called isolated systolic hypertension.
• Many of the effects of aging on the heart and blood vessels can be
reduced by regular exercise. Exercise helps people maintain
cardiovascular fitness as well as muscular fitness as they age.
Exercise is beneficial regardless of the age at w
• Airway management includes a set of
maneuvers and medical procedures
performed to prevent and relieve
airway obstruction. This ensures an open
pathway for gas exchange between a patient's
lungs and the atmosphere.