HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

 Skeletal System - provides the structural framework for the body and protects
internal organs such as the heart, lungs and brain.
 Functions of the Skeleton:
1. It gives the body much needed support. It protects the internal organs in the
body.
2. It makes body movement possible through the muscles attached to them.
3. It stores important minerals like calcium.
4. It is where millions of blood cells are produced.
 Structure of the Skeletal System:
1. Skull - consists of cranium and facial bones. Cranium protects the brain and
facial bones protect the face.
2. Spinal column - protects the spinal cord, a very delicate organ and the ribs
protect the lungs and the heart.
3. Appendages - upper arm has one long bone called humerus and two bones
in lower arm known as radius and ulna. Each wrist or carpals has 8
bones and the fingers or phalanges have 14 bones. The legs are made
up of long bones. The upper leg is the femur. The lower leg has two bones
called tibia and fibula. Femur is the longest bone in the body.
4. Joint - connects two or more bones together.
Kind of Joints:
a. Ball and socket allows movement in all direction.
b. Hinge joint allows movement in one direction.
c. Gliding joint allows side to side and back and forth movement.
d. Pivot joint allows rotation movement.
e. Immovable or fixed joint do not allow movement.
f. Saddle joint provide stability to the bones and allow flexion or
extension movement.
g. Ellipsoid joint allows movement in 2 axes.

 Muscular System
Muscles are the flesh parts of the body that supports the skeletal,system, they are
present in your cheek, arms, stomach, legs, hands and, internal organs.
 Functions: The main functions of this system are as follows: mobility, stability,
posture, circulation, respiration, digestion, urination, childbirth, vision, organ
protection, and,temperature regulation.
 Three types of muscles in our body:
a. Smooth Muscles are called involuntary muscles. These muscles cannot be
controlled consciously. Smooth muscles are present in the walls of the
digestive tract like the esophagus, stomach and small and large intestines.
The muscles in your stomach, blood vessels and bladder contain smooth
muscles. They keep on moving all the time.
b. Cardiac Muscles are involuntary muscles present only in the heart. Cardiac
muscles allow the heart muscle to contract rhythmically. When the heart
contracts, the blood is pushed out of the heart into the arteries. Your heart
muscles beat at the rate of 70 times per minute or more than 100, 000 times
a day and even when you are asleep.
c. Skeletal Muscles are voluntary muscles that are consciously controlled to
move bones. It is responsible for all kinds of movement. Skeletal muscles are
attached to bones by tendons and when tightened and contracted, they cause
 movement. Tendons which are tough bands of connective tissue, connect
muscles to the bones.

 Integumentary System - acts as the barrier from the outside environment.

- The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, glands, nails and nerves.
- The skin is one of the first defense mechanisms in your immune system.
- Tiny glands in the skin secrete oils that increase the function of the skin to protect it
against microorganisms.
-Your skin has immune cells.
 Functions of Integumentary System:
1. It protects the body’s internal living tissues and organs.
2. It protects against microorganisms and invasion by infectious organisms.
3. It protects the body from dehydration and against abrupt changes in
temperature.
4. It helps dispose waste materials.
5. It acts as receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold.
6. It stores water and fat. It helps in the production of vitamin D.
 Layers of the Skin
1. Epidermis – is the outer layer of the skin. It consists of epithelial cells
that contain protein like called keratin. Keratin water proofs and protects
the cells and tissues that lie underneath. The outer layer contains dead
cells of the epidermis. The epidermis acts as a barrier that protects the
body from ultraviolet radiation, harmful chemicals, and pathogens such as
bacteria, viruses and fungi. Melanin absorbs light energy, which protects
inner cells from damaging effect of ultraviolet rays from the sun.
2. Dermis- It is the second layer of the skin. It is directly beneath the
epidermis. It is usually 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis. Its
consist of connective tissues that prevent the skin from tearing and
enables the skin to return to its normal state after being stretched. The
elasticity of the skin decreases as people ages its structure.
3. Subcutaneous tissue or Hypodermis- It is the deepest section of the
skin. This refers to the fat tissue below the dermis that insulates the body
from cold temperatures and provides shock Absorption. Fat cells of the
hypodermis also store nutrients and energy.
4. Hairs and nails- Hair, toenails and fingernails are also part of the
integumentary system. Hair and nails contain keratin and develop from
epithelial cells. Hair cells grow out from the narrow cavities in the dermis
called hair follicles. The nails act as a protective plate over the fingertips
and toes. Hair serves many functions such as keeping the body warm.
Nutrients like protein, iron, zinc, vitamin E, and biotin are needed for hair
growth.

 Digestive System - A system which is composed of organs working together to break down
food into pieces so that nutrients can be absorbed into the bloodstream
- Digestion - process of breaking the food into smaller pieces for the use of our body.
 Three main functions of the digestive system
1. Breaks down food into smaller portions.
2. Absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream and transfers nutrients to the cells to
produce energy.
3. Aids in the elimination process of undigested food.
 Two kinds of digestion
1. Mechanical Digestion- is the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. It
takes place as the food moves down the digestive tract via peristalsis.
Peristalsis is the rhythmic, involuntary contraction of the smooth muscles.
2. Chemical Digestion –involves the breaking down of food chemically into simple
nutrients that can be used by the cells.
 Parts and Functions of the Digestive System
`

 Path of Food
Digestion begins in the mouth where food is mechanically digested by chewing with
the help of the teeth. As the food is chewed, saliva is released by the salivary glands.
The chewed food called bolus passes through the esophagus down to the stomach, a
hollow muscular organ that can temporarily expand to store food. The stomach
produces gastric juices that will help digest protein foods. The half-digested food then
passes into the small intestine. The further breakdown of food needs help from the
accessory organs of the body such as the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. Undigested
food is pushed down into the large intestine where most of the water and minerals
are absorbed back in the body. The waste product or stool passes into the rectum and
expelled in the anus.

 Respiratory System - respiratory system is made of body parts that help you breathe in
oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.
- Respiration - process of exchanging gases with the environment. It includes the intake of
oxygen and its delivery to the cells of the different parts of the body, and its removal and
release of carbon dioxide.
 Function of the respiratory system
1. To provide a constant supply of oxygen to keep your body cells functioning and
to remove carbon dioxide from the body cells.
 The main parts of the respiratory system are nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, lungs and diaphragm.
1. Nasal Cavity - the nostrils are the opening into the nasal passages that are
lined with hairs. Nostrils have cilia. The cilia filter the dust and other
particles present in the air. They also protect the nasal passages and other
regions of the respiratory tract. The blood vessels inside the lining of the nose
warm and humidify the air.
2. Pharynx and Larynx - the pharynx is also called throat. It is the common
passageway for food, water, and air. Below the epiglottis is the larynx or
the voice box. The larynx contains two vocal chords that vibrate when air passes
by them. With our tongue and lips, we convert these vibrations into speech.
 3. Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, and Alveoli - the trachea is known as the
windpipe. It is made up of muscles and elastic fibers with rings of cartilage
lined with cilia. The trachea filers the air we inhale and branches into the
bronchi. The bronchi are two tubes that carry air into the lungs. Bronchial
tubes also branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles branch
off into alveoli. Alveoli are grape-liked structures at the end of
bronchioles. The alveoli have thin walls that are surrounded by blood vessels.
4. Lungs - the lungs are located in the chest cavity surrounded by the rib cage.
The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. This is were
exchange of gases occurs. This is the part where oxygen is taken in and the
carbon dioxide expelled out. Each lung is covered with the pleural membrane.
This membrane produces slippery fluid that allows the lungs to glide freely
during breathing.
5. Diaphragm - The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that controls
breathing, which is located at the bottom of the lungs. During respiration, the
diaphragm flattens out and pushes forward, making more space for the lungs.
We inhale or breathe in, the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward. This
movement increases the space in the lungs, which pulls air into it. When we
exhale or breathe out, the diaphragm expands. This movement reduces the
amount of space for the lungs and forces air out.
 Breathing - when you inhale, the diaphragm moves down, which causes the chest
cavity to expand, allowing air to move into the lungs. When you exhale, the diaphragm
moves up again and the ribs drop to their normal position. The pressure applied to the
lungs forces some of the air out, passing the tubes then out through the nose.

 Pathway of Air

 Circulatory system - a transport system of the body.

 Function
1. It is responsible for the distribution of blood and other nutrients throughout the
body.
2. It picks up carbon dioxide and other wastes in the body organs and gets rid of
them.
 Three Main Parts / Organs of Circulatory System
1. Heart is the pumping organ of the circulatory system. You learned that
your heart is an organ that is made up of cardiac muscles. It is approximately as
big as your fist.
The heart has four chambers: the right and left atrium upper chamber) and
the right and left ventricles (lower chamber).
The atria,(singular:atrium) are responsible for receiving blood from the
veins. The ventricles are responsible for discharging chambers that force
blood into the arteries. Blood is then sent to the lungs and then distributed to
the different parts of the body.
The left and right ventricles of the heart are separated by a structure called
septum. The heart has valves that prevent the blood from flowing back into the
atria when the ventricles contract.
Upper Chambers : receive blood from the blood vessels
Right Atrium: receives oxygen poor blood
Left Atrium: receives oxygen rich blood
Lower Chambers: receive blood from the atria and pump it out to the
body
Right Ventricle: pumps oxygen poor blood to the lung
Left ventricle: pumps oxygen rich blood to the parts of the body

2. Blood is the liquid that is constantly flowing throughout the body. It is

called the river of life. It transports nutrients and oxygen to all the body cells
and
takes away their waste products.
Oxygen-poor blood from the different parts of the body enters the superior
vena cava and inferior vena cava and goes to the right atrium of the heart. This
blood passes through the tricuspid valve as it is pumped from the right atrium to
the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps the blood, which flows through the
pulmonary valve, to the pulmonary artery, and then to the lungs. This movement
of the blood from the heart chambers to the heart tissues is called coronary
circulation. It takes place when the blood flows to the heart.
BLOOD CIRCULATION
a. Pulmonary circulation takes place as the blood moves from the heart
to the lungs. In the lungs, exchange of gases takes place. Carbon dioxide
is removed and breathed out, while oxygen is breathed in and absorbed by
the blood.
b. Systemic circulation is responsible for the distribution of oxygen and
nutrients to all parts of the body. It is the process wherein the oxygen-
rich blood from the lungs flows through the pulmonary vein, enters the left
atrium, and goes to the left ventricle through the mitral valve or bicuspid
valve. The left ventricle pumps the blood that passes through the aortic
valve and the aorta to the different parts of the body. The blood flows to
the arteries and then enters the capillaries, where nutrients and oxygen are
absorbed. Waste products, including carbon dioxide, are collected by the
blood, which then flows through the veins and back to the heart.

Blood has components. We have liquid and solid components. The liquid
part is called the plasma, a clear yellowish fluid that makes up the rest of
the blood’s volume. Plasma is made in the liver. The solid components are
red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Red blood cells/erythrocytes contain hemoglobin, a substance rich in

Iron that gives color to the blood. Red blood cells pick up oxygen in the
 lungs and transport it to all the body cells. After delivering the oxygen to
the cells, they remove the carbon dioxide.

White blood cells/leukocytes are called the soldier of the body because
they fight infections. When there is an infection, the body will produce more
white blood cells to help fight it.

Platelets/thrombocytes help stop bleeding. They are designed to begin

the process of clot formation whenever a tissue or blood vessel is broken.
Platelets are made in the bone marrow.

3. Blood Vessel is the pathway through which the blood flows throughout the
body.
Types of blood vessels
a. Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen rich blood away from the
heart. Aorta is the largest artery. Arterioles are the smallest arteries.
b. Veins carry poor oxygen-poor blood back to the heart . Superior Vena
Cava is the largest vein. Venules are the smallest veins.
c. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. They serve as a connection
between arteries and veins. When blood passes through them, oxygen,
food nutrients and wastes pass in and out through capillary walls.

 Nervous System - the organ system that is responsible for coordinating the functions of the
other systems of the body. It controls your thoughts, actions and vital signs such as heartbeat
and blood flow. It is impossible to live without this system.
 Functions of the nervous system
1. Sensory function – The nervous system gathers information in the
environment with the aid of sensory receptors.
2. Interpretative function – The nervous system translates the gathered signals
from the sensory receptors and decides the course of action to be done.
3. Motor function – The nervous system sends a message to the responsible body
tissue or organ to respond.
 Two Parts of the Nervous System:
1. Central nervous system (CNS) = Central nervous system is the control
center of the body. It controls the movements of the muscles and tissues and
directs the different organs in performing their tasks., It interprets various stimuli
that the sense organs receive from the environment.
a. Brain is the primary organ of the human body, and it is considered the
processing center of the body. It receives and interprets countless signals.The
brain has parts.
 Cerebrum - largest part of the brain. It is responsible for the different
mental processes such as solving mathematical problems, reasoning,
learning, memory and imagination. It processes all the information coming
from the different parts of the body and directs all the necessary
responses to the information. It receives and interprets messages from
the sense organs.
 Cerebellum - second largest part of the brain. It controls muscle
coordination, maintains normal muscle tone and posture, and coordinates
balance. The cerebellum controls the activities that you perform such as
playing, walking,
painting, jumping and swimming. The cerebrum is divided into left and
right hemispheres. Right hemisphere is responsible for insight, 3D forms,
art, music awareness, imagination and left-hand control. The left
hemisphere is responsible for number skills, written language, reasoning,
spoken language, scientific skills and right-hand control.
  Brain stem - the part of the brain that connects with the spinal cord. It
controls involuntary activities like digestion, heartbeat, and breathing. The
brain stem has three parts: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
1. Midbrain is the topmost part of the brain stem. It is associated
with vision, hearing, motor control and temperature regulation.
2. Pons lie below the midbrain. It regulates the rate of breathing. It is
responsible for the rapid eye movement, the stage in a sleep that
is associated with dreaming.
3. Medulla Oblongata is the lowest part of the brain. It contains the
centers that control involuntary functions like breathing, blood
circulation, heart rate, digestion, vomiting, hiccupping and
coughing.
b. Spinal Cord
The spinal column or vertebral column surrounds and protects a long
and
thick bundle of nerve tissues called the spinal cord. The spinal cord is
connected to the brain stem through the hole at the base of the skull. The
various stimuli received by the different parts of the body are sent to the
brain through the spinal cord. The brain then sends responses to these
stimuli back to the muscles, tissues, or organs involved, also by way of the
spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - the peripheral nervous system contains
all the nerves outside the brain and the spinal cord. It carries impulses from the
sensory nerves to the central nervous system and from the central nervous
system to the motor nerves.

Parts of Peripheral Nervous System

a. Autonomic nervous system controls the involuntary actions and
activities of the smooth and cardiac muscles.
b. Somatic nervous system controls voluntary actions, such as
walking,and handling objects.

Our body is made up of different types of neurons. These neurons are classified
according to their functions.
1. Sensory neuron is a neuron that is responsible for detecting different
sensations. They carry messages from the different sense organs to the
central nervous system.
2. Motor neuron is a neuron that deals with the different movements of
the body. They send impulses from the central nervous system to the
muscles, causing the muscles to contract.
3. Associative neuron or interneuron is a neuron that connects
sensory and motor neurons, allowing impulses to travel from one nerve
to another.
4. Receptor/sense organ receives stimulus from the environment
through its sensorynerves.
5. Dendrites are shorter nerve fibers that carry messages toward the cell
body.
6. Neuron or nerve cell is the functional unit of the nervous system.
7. Stimulus is an agent or factor that provokes interest, enthusiasm, or
excitement.
8. Response is the reaction of an organism or any part of its body to a
stimulus.
 Involuntary nervous system =(vegetative or autonomic nervous system)
controls the body's mechanisms that we can not influence actively. It's still engaging
and controls movement, heartbeat and metabolic processes. It achieves this by
collecting and transmitting messages from the brain to the body. Will respond rapidly to
shifts, body modifications to adjust. If your body gets so hot, for starters, your
accidental nervous system enhances your skin's blood flow and lets you sweat further
to cool off again.

Parts of Involuntary nervous system:

a. Parasympathetic Nervous System= activates various metabolic
processes and helps us to relax
b. Sympathetic nervous system = prepares the body for emotional and
physical exercise. It makes your heart pump harder and faster, expands your
airways to make it easier for you to breathe, and prevents digestion.