ORGAN SYSTEMS

The human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as one unit. Organ systems fit between
the hierarchical levels of organs and the organism. Ten major organ systems of the body are listed below along with several
organs that are associated with each system. It is important to keep in mind that these organ systems don't just exist as
individual units. The final product of these cooperating systems is one unit called the body.
Each system depends on the others, either directly or indirectly, to keep the body functioning normally.

1. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The main function of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients and gasses to cells and tissues throughout body. This is
accomplished by the circulation of blood. Two components of this system are the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.
 Cardiovascular: This system is comprised of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The beating of the heart drives
the cardiac cycle which pumps blood throughout body.
Cardiovascular organs: heart, blood vessels, blood 
 Lymphatic: This system is a vascular network of tubules and ducts that collect, filter, and return lymph to blood
circulation. As a component of the immune system, the lymphatic system produces and circulates immune cells
called lymphocytes.
Lymphatic organs: lymph vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils

2. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system breaks down food polymers into smaller molecules to provide energy for the body.
Digestive juices and enzymes are secreted to break down the carbohydrates, fat, and protein in food.
 Primary organs: mouth, stomach, intestines, rectum 
 Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, liver, pancreas

3. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system regulates vital processes in the body including growth, homeostasis, metabolism, and sexual
development.
Endocrine organs secrete hormones to regulate body processes.
 Endocrine structures: pituitary gland, pineal gland, thymus, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland

4. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system protects the internal structures of the body from damage, prevents dehydration, stores fat and
produces vitamines and hormones.
 Integumentary structures: skin, nails, hair, sweat glands

5. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system enables movement through the contraction of muscles.
 Structures: muscles

6. NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the external environment.
 Structures: brain, spinal cord, nerves

7. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive system enables the production of offspring through sexual reproduction. It is comprised of male and
female reproductive organs and structures which produce sex cells and ensure the growth and development of offspring.
 Male organs: testes, scrotum, penis, vas deferens, prostate 
 Female organs: ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

8. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system provides the body with oxygen via gas exchange between air from the outside environment and gases
in the blood.
 Respiratory organs: lungs, nose, trachea, bronchi

9. SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal System: This system supports and protects the body while giving it shape and form.
 Structures: bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, cartilage

10. URINARY/EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The urinary/excretory System removes wastes and maintains water balance in the body.
 Structures: kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra, ureters
Layers of the Skin

The integumentary system consists of the largest organ in the body, which is the skin. This extraordinary organ
system has the following functions:
1. Protects the internal structures of the body from damage, prevents dehydration, stores fat, and produces vitamins
and hormones. The integumentary system is the body's first line of defense against bacteria, viruses, and
other pathogens. It also helps to provide protection from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
2. It also helps to maintain homeostasis within the body by assisting in the regulation of body temperature and water
balance.
3. Aids in the excretion of minerals and water not needed by the body.
4. The skin is a sensory organ in that it has receptors for detecting heat and cold, touch, pressure, and pain.
Components of the skin include hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves,
and muscles. Concerning integumentary system anatomy, the skin is composed of a layer of epithelial
tissue (epidermis) that is supported by a layer of connective tissue(dermis) and an underlying subcutaneous layer
(hypodermis or subcutis).

SKIN LAYERS OVERVIEW

 Epidermis - outermost layer of the skin composed of squamous cells. This layer is characterized into two distinct
types: thick skin and thin skin.
 Dermis - thickest layer of skin that lies beneath and supports the epidermis.
 Hypodermis (Subcutis) - innermost layer of the skin that helps to insulate the body and cushion internal organs.

Epidermis Skin Layer

The outermost layer of the skin is composed of epithelial tissue and is known as the epidermis. It contains squamous
cells or keratinocytes, which synthesize a tough protein called keratin. Keratin is a major component of skin, hair, and
nails. Keratinocytes on the surface of the epidermis are dead and are continually shed and replaced by cells from beneath.
This layer also contains specialized cells called Langerhans cells that signal the immune system of an infection by
presenting antigenic information to lymphocytes in lymph nodes. This aids in the development of antigen immunity.
The innermost layer of the epidermis contains keratinocytes called basal cells. These cells constantly divide to produce
new cells that are pushed upward to the layers above. Basal cells become new keratinocytes, which replace the older ones
that die and are shed. Within the basal layer are melanin producing cells known as melanocytes. Melanin is a pigment that
helps to protect the skin from harmful ultraviolet solar radiation by giving it a brown hue. Also found in the basal layer of the
skin are touch receptor cells called Merkel cells. The epidermis is composed of five sublayers.
Epidermal Sublayers

 stratum corneum - top layer of dead, extremely flat cells. Cell nuclei are not visible.
 stratum lucidum - thin, flattened layer of dead cells. Not visible in thin skin.
 stratum granulosum - rectangular-shaped cells that become increasingly flattened as they move to the surface of
the epidermis.
 stratum spinosum - polyhedral-shaped cells that flatten as they get closer to the stratum granulosum.
 stratum basale - innermost layer of elongated columnar (column-shaped) cells. Consists of basal cells that produce
new skin cells.

Thick and Thin Skin

The epidermis is characterized into two distinct types: thick skin and thin skin. Thick skin is about 1.5 mm thick and is found
only on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The rest of the body is covered by thin skin, the thinnest of which covers
the eyelids.

Dermis Skin Layer

The layer beneath the epidermis is the dermis. This is the thickest layer of skin composing almost 90 percent of its
thickness. Fibroblasts are the main cell type found in the dermis. These cells generate connective tissue as well as the
extracellular matrix that exists between the epidemis and dermis. The dermis also contains specialized cells that help regulate
temperature, fight infection, store water, and supply blood and nutrients to the skin. Other specialized cells of the dermis
help in the detection of sensations and give strength and flexibility to the skin. Components of the dermis include:
 Blood vessels - transport oxygen and nutrients to the skin and remove waste products. These vessels also transport
vitamin D from the skin to the body.
 Lymph vessels - supply lymph (milky fluid containing white blood cells of the immune system) to skin tissue to
fight microbes.
 Sweat glands - regulate body temperature by transporting water to the skin's surface where it can evaporate to cool
down the skin.
 Sebaceous (oil) glands - secret oil that helps to waterproof the skin and protect against microbe build-up. They
are attached to hair follicles.
 Hair follicles - tube-shaped cavities that enclose the hair root and provide nourishment to the hair.
 Sensory receptors - nerve endings that transmit sensations such as touch, pain, and heat intensity to the brain.
 Collagen - generated from dermal fibroblasts, this tough structural protein holds muscles and organs in place and
gives strength and form to body tissues.
 Elastin - generated from dermal fibroblasts, this rubbery protein provides elasticity and helps to make the skin
stretchable. It is also found in ligaments, organs, muscles and artery walls.
 
Hypodermis Skin Layers

The innermost layer of the skin is the hypodermis or subcutis. Composed of fat and loose connective tissue, this layer of the
skin insulates the body and cushions and protects internal organs and bones from injury. The hypodermis also connects skin
to underlying tissues through collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers that extend from the dermis.
A major component of the hypodermis is a type of specialized connective tissue called adipose tissue that stores excess energy
as fat. Adipose tissue consists primarily of cells called adipocytes that are capable of storing fat droplets. Adipocytes swell
when fat is being stored and shrink when fat is being used. The storage of fat helps to insulate the body and the burning of fat
helps to generate heat. Areas of the body in which the hypodermis is most thick include the buttocks, palms, and soles of the
feet.
Other components of the hypodermis include blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and white blood cells known
as mast cells. Mast cells help to protect the body against pathogens, heal wounds, and aid in blood vessel formation.
ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN

The anatomy of the brain is complex due its intricate structure and function. This amazing organ acts as a control center by
receiving, interpreting, and directing sensory information throughout the body. The brain and spinal cord are the two main
structures of the central nervous system. There are three major divisions of the brain. They are the forebrain, the midbrain,
and the hindbrain.

BRAIN DIVISIONS

The forebrain is the division of the brain that is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and processing
sensory information, thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language, and controlling motor function. There are
two major divisions of forebrain: the diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon contains structures such as
the thalamus and hypothalamus which are responsible for such functions as motor control, relaying sensory information, and
controlling autonomic functions. The telencephalon contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum. Most of the actual
information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex.

The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain. or mesencephalon, is the portion of the

brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses
as well as motor function.

The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and is composed of the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The
metencephalon contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum. These regions assists in maintaining balance and
equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information. The myelencephalon is composed of
the medulla oblongata which is responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN: STRUCTURES

The brain contains various structures that have a multitude of functions. Below is a list of major structures of the brain and
some of their functions.

Basal Ganglia
 Involved in cognition and voluntary movement
 Diseases related to damages of this area are Parkinson's and Huntington's
Brainstem
 Relays information between the peripheral nerves and spinal cord to the upper parts of the brain
 Consists of the midbrain, medulla oblongata, and the pons

Broca's Area
 Speech production
 Understanding language
Central Sulcus (Fissure of Rolando)
 Deep grove that separates the parietal and frontal lobes
Cerebellum
 Controls movement coordination
 Maintains balance and equilibrium
Cerebral Cortex
 Outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum
 Receives and processes sensory information
 Divided into cerebral cortex lobes
Cerebral Cortex Lobes
 Frontal Lobes -involved with decision-making, problem solving, and planning 
 Occipital Lobes-involved with vision and color recognition 
 Parietal Lobes - receives and processes sensory information 
 Temporal Lobes - involved with emotional responses, memory, and speech
Cerebrum
 Largest portion of the brain
 Consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows
Corpus Callosum
 Thick band of fibers that connects the left and right brain hemispheres
Cranial Nerves
  Twelve pairs of nerves that originate in the brain, exit the skull, and lead to the head, neck and torso

Fissure of Sylvius (Lateral Sulcus)

 Deep grove that separates the parietal and temporal lobes
Limbic System Structures
 Amygdala - involved in emotional responses, hormonal secretions, and memory 
 Cingulate Gyrus - a fold in the brain involved with sensory input concerning emotions and the regulation of
aggressive behavior 
 Fornix - an arching, fibrous band of white matter axons (nerve fibers) that connect the hippocampus to the
hypothalamus 
 Hippocampus - sends memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and
retrieves them when necessary 
 Hypothalamus - directs a multitude of important functions such as body temperature, hunger, and homeostasis 
 Olfactory Cortex - receives sensory information from the olfactory bulb and is involved in the identification of odors 
 Thalamus - mass of gray matter cells that relay sensory signals to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum
Medulla Oblongata
 Lower part of the brainstem that helps to control autonomic functions
Meninges
 Membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord
Olfactory Bulb
 Bulb-shaped end of the olfactory lobe
 Involved in the sense of smell
Pineal Gland
 Endocrine gland involved in biological rhythms
 Secretes the hormone melatonin
Pituitary Gland
 Endocrine gland involved in homeostasis
 Regulates other endocrine glands
Pons
 Relays sensory information between the cerebrum and cerebellum
Wernicke's Area
 Region of the brain where spoken language is understood

MIDBRAIN

Cerebral Peduncle
 anterior portion of the midbrain consisting of large bundles of nerve fiber tracts that connect the forebrain to the
hindbrain

Reticular Formation
 Nerve fibers located inside the brainstem and a component of the tegmentum (midbrain)
 Regulates awareness and sleep
Substantia Nigra
 Helps to control voluntary movement and regulates mood (midbrain)
Tectum
 The dorsal region of the mesencephalon (midbrain)
 Assists in visual and auditory reflexes
Tegmentum
 The ventral region of the mesencephalon (midbrain)
 Includes the reticular formation and the red nucleus

BRAIN VENTRICLES

Ventricular System - connecting system of internal brain cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid

 Aqueduct of Sylvius - canal that is located between the third ventricle and the fourth ventricle 
 Choroid Plexus - produces cerebrospinal fluid 
 Fourth Ventricle - canal that runs between the pons, medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum 
 Lateral Ventricle - largest of the ventricles and located in both brain hemispheres 
 Third Ventricle - provides a pathway for cerebrospinal fluid to flow
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to perform its specialized function of turning food into the energy you need to
survive and packaging the residue for waste disposal. To help you understand how the many parts of the digestive system
work together, here is an overview of the structure and function of this complex system. The digestive system is
responsible for taking whole foods and turning them into energy and nutrients to allow the body to function,
grow, and repair itself. The six primary processes of the digestive system include:

1. Ingestion of food
2. Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes
3. Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body
4. Digestion of food into smaller pieces
5. Absorption of nutrients
6. Excretion of wastes
Mouth
Food begins its journey through the digestive system in the mouth, also known as the oral cavity. Inside the mouth are many accessory organs that aid
in the digestion of food—the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands. Teeth chop food into small pieces, which are moistened by saliva before the tongue and
other muscles push the food into the pharynx. 
 Teeth. The teeth are 32 small, hard organs found along the anterior and lateral edges of the mouth. Each tooth is made of a bone-like
substance called dentin and covered in a layer of enamel—the hardest substance in the body. Teeth are living organs and contain blood vessels and
nerves under the dentin in a soft region known as the pulp. The teeth are designed for cutting and grinding food into smaller pieces. 
 Tongue. The tongue is located on the inferior portion of the mouth just posterior and medial to the teeth. It is a small organ made up of several
pairs of muscles covered in a thin, bumpy, skin-like layer. The outside of the tongue contains many rough papillae for gripping food as it is moved by the
tongue’s muscles. The taste buds on the surface of the tongue detect taste molecules in food and connect to nerves in the tongue to send taste
information to the brain. The tongue also helps to push food toward the posterior part of the mouth for swallowing. 
 Salivary Glands. Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The salivary glands are accessory organs that produce a watery
secretion known as saliva. Saliva helps to moisten food and begins the digestion of carbohydrates. The body also uses saliva to lubricate food as it
passes through the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.

Pharynx
The pharynx, or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube connected to the posterior end of the mouth. The pharynx is responsible for the passing of masses of
chewed food from the mouth to the esophagus. The pharynx also plays an important role in the respiratory system, as air from the nasal cavity passes
through the pharynx on its way to the larynx and eventually the lungs. Because the pharynx serves two different functions, it contains a flap of tissue
known as the epiglottis that acts as a switch to route food to the esophagus and air to the larynx.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach that is part of the upper gastrointestinal tract. It carries swallowed masses of
chewed food along its length. At the inferior end of the esophagus is a muscular ring called the lower esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter. The
function of this sphincter is to close of the end of the esophagus and trap food in the stomach.

Stomach 
The stomach is a muscular sac that is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, just inferior to the diaphragm. In an average person, the stomach
is about the size of their two fists placed next to each other. This major organ acts as a storage tank for food so that the body has time to digest large
meals properly. The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes that continue the digestion of food that began in the mouth.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10 feet long that is part of the lower gastrointestinal tract. It is located just
inferior to the stomach and takes up most of the space in the abdominal cavity. The entire small intestine is coiled like a hose and the inside surface is
full of many ridges and folds. These folds are used to maximize the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. By the time food leaves the small
intestine, around 90% of all nutrients have been extracted from the food that entered it. 

Liver and Gallbladder

The liver is a roughly triangular accessory organ of the digestive system located to the right of the stomach, just inferior to the diaphragm and superior to
the small intestine. The liver weighs about 3 pounds and is the second largest organ in the body. The liver has many different functions in the body, but
the main function of the liver in digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ
located just posterior to the liver. The gallbladder is used to store and recycle excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the
digestion of subsequent meals.

Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland located just inferior and posterior to the stomach. It is about 6 inches long and shaped like short, lumpy snake with its
 “head” connected to the duodenum and its “tail” pointing to the left wall of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small
intestine to complete the chemical digestion of foods.

Large Intestine
The large intestine is a long, thick tube about 2 ½ inches in diameter and about 5 feet long. It is located just inferior to the stomach and wraps around the
superior and lateral border of the small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and contains many symbiotic bacteria that aid in the breaking down
of wastes to extract some small amounts of nutrients. Feces in the large intestine exit the body through the anal canal.

Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the
person know that there is stool to be evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum,
sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the
rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation
temporarily goes away.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and
external). The lining of the upper anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The anus is
surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the
anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. It keeps us
continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external
sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

Ingestion
The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the intake of food. The mouth is responsible for this function, as it is the orifice through which all
food enters the body. The mouth and stomach are also responsible for the storage of food as it is waiting to be digested. This storage capacity allows
the body to eat only a few times each day and to ingest more food than it can process at one time.

Secretion 
In the course of a day, the digestive system secretes around 7 liters of fluids. These fluids include saliva, mucus, hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and bile.
Saliva moistens dry food and contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme that begins the digestion of carbohydrates. Mucus serves as a protective
barrier and lubricant inside of the GI tract. Hydrochloric acid helps to digest food chemically and protects the body by killing bacteria present in our food.
Enzymes are like tiny biochemical machines that disassemble large macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids into their smaller
components. Finally, bile is used to emulsify large masses of lipids into tiny globules for easy digestion.

Mixing and Movement 

The digestive system uses 3 main processes to move and mix food:
 Swallowing. Swallowing is the process of using smooth and skeletal muscles in the mouth, tongue, and pharynx to push food out of the mouth,
through the pharynx, and into the esophagus.
 Peristalsis. Peristalsis is a muscular wave that travels the length of the GI tract, moving partially digested food a short distance down the tract.
It takes many waves of peristalsis for food to travel from the esophagus, through the stomach and intestines, and reach the end of the GI tract.
 Segmentation. Segmentation occurs only in the small intestine as short segments of intestine contract like hands squeezing a toothpaste tube.
Segmentation helps to increase the absorption of nutrients by mixing food and increasing its contact with the walls of the intestine.
Digestion
Digestion is the process of turning large pieces of food into its component chemicals. Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces of
food into smaller pieces. This mode of digestion begins with the chewing of food by the teeth and is continued through the muscular mixing of food by
the stomach and intestines. Bile produced by the liver is also used to mechanically break fats into smaller globules. While food is being mechanically
digested it is also being chemically digested as larger and more complex molecules are being broken down into smaller molecules that are easier to
absorb. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva splitting complex carbohydrates into simple carbohydrates. The enzymes
and acid in the stomach continue chemical digestion, but the bulk of chemical digestion takes place in the small intestine thanks to the action of the
pancreas. The pancreas secretes an incredibly strong digestive cocktail known as pancreatic juice, which is capable of digesting lipids, carbohydrates,
proteins and nucleic acids. By the time food has left the duodenum, it has been reduced to its chemical building blocks—fatty acids, amino acids,
monosaccharides, and nucleotides.

Absorption
Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the body to absorb. Absorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water
and alcohol being absorbed directly into the bloodstream. Most absorption takes place in the walls of the small intestine, which are densely folded to
maximize the surface area in contact with digested food. Small blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the molecules and carry them to
the rest of the body. The large intestine is also involved in the absorption of water and vitamins B and K before feces leave the body.

Excretion
The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a process known as defecation. Defecation removes indigestible substances from
the body so that they do not accumulate inside the gut. The timing of defecation is controlled voluntarily by the conscious part of the brain, but must be
accomplished on a regular basis to prevent a backup of indigestible materials. 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

When stomach acid backs up into your esophagus — a condition called acid reflux — you may feel a burning pain in the middle of your chest. It often
occurs after meals or at night.

2. Gallstones
Gallstones are hard deposits that form in your gallbladder — a small, pear-shaped sack that stores and secretes bile for digestion. Gallstones can form
when there’s too much cholesterol or waste in your bile, or if your gallbladder doesn’t empty properly. When gallstones block the ducts leading from your
gallbladder to your intestines, they can cause sharp pain in your upper-right abdomen. Medications sometimes dissolve gallstones, but if that doesn’t
work, the next step is surgery to remove the gallbladder.

3. Crohn’s Disease
Crohn’s disease is part of a group of digestive conditions called inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Crohn’s most commonly affects the terminal ileum,
which connects the end of the small bowel and the beginning of the colon, but it can affect any part of the digestive tract. 

4. Ulcerative Colitis
Ulcerative colitis is another inflammatory bowel. The symptoms of ulcerative colitis are very similar to those of Crohn's, but the part of the digestive tract
affected is solely the large intestine, also known as the colon.If your immune system mistakes food or other materials for invaders, sores or ulcers
develop in the colon’s lining. If you experience frequent and urgent bowel movements, pain with diarrhea, blood in your stool, or abdominal cramps, visit
your doctor.

5. Anal Fissure
Anal fissures are tiny, oval-shaped tears in the lining of the very end of your digestive tract called your anus. The symptoms are similar to those of
hemorrhoids, such as bleeding and pain after moving your bowels. Straining and hard bowel movements can cause fissures, but so can soft stools and
diarrhea.

6. Ulcers
Ulcers damage the lining of the stomach because of bacterial infections or adverse side effects of medications such as aspirin, ibuprofen or naporoxen,
according to the National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse. Spicy foods and stress may aggravate ulcers, but do not cause them.
Antibiotics or antacids usually alleviate problems long enough for minor ulcers to heal.

7. Acid Reflux
Heartburn or acid indigestion results in stomach acid backing up into the esophagus to create a burning sensation or sour taste in the mouth.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) affects people who suffer acid reflux symptoms more than twice a week. Acid reflux occurs because the lower
esophageal sphincter does not close properly. Some people may get more bouts of heartburn from certain foods, but each individual has different
reactions to particular foods. Cigarette smoking contributes to heartburn by causing the esophageal sphincter to relax.

8. Celiac Disease
Celiac disease can affect children or adults. Symptoms include diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain, skin rash or a thinning of bones. In children it can
cause growth failure. People with the disease are advised to eliminate foods with gluten, a protein that is found in wheat, rye and barley. Gluten
damages the lining of the small intestine for people with the disease.

9. Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowl syndrome affects the muscles in the intestines. It can cause gas, abdominal pain, diarrhea or constipation. The syndrome can be painful
and uncomfortable. It usually does not lead to further diseases. Most people can control symptoms through diet, stress management and medication.

10. Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases include Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. It leads to severe bowel problems, abdominal pain and malnutrition. Crohn’s
disease and ulcerative colitis can be painful and debilitating. Medication can eliminate symptoms and prevent flare-ups. Surgery may be needed in some
cases to repair the colon.

11. Diverticulitis
The disease occurs when pouches in the large intestine become infected and inflamed, according to the American Academy of Family Physicians.
Symptoms may include severe abdominal pain often in the lower left side of the abdomen, constipation, diarrhea, nausea or fever. People with the
disease are advised to eat more fiber to help with proper digestion.
 Organs in the Respiratory System and Their Functions
The respiratory system plays a vital role in the body, by providing your cells with much needed oxygen, as well as excreting
carbon dioxide, which can be deadly if allowed to accumulate. Major parts of the respiratory system include the airways, the lungs,
and the muscles of respiration. This article will explain anatomy of  the respiratory system, detailing the organs involved as well as the things
that can go wrong.

Anatomy of Respiratory System: Organs and Functions

The three major parts of the respiratory system all work together to carry out their task. The airways (nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx etc.) allow
air to enter the body and into the lungs. The lungs work to pass oxygen into the body, whilst removing carbon dioxide from the body. The
muscles of respiration, such as the diaphragm, work in unison to pump air into and out of the lungs whilst breathing.

Respiratory Organs Description Function

Nose and Nasal Cavity The nose is the primary opening for the respiratory The nose is used to inhale air into the body. The nasal cavity warms the air as
system, made of bone, muscle, and cartilage. The it enters, acting as filtration and purifying the air by removing any dust, pollen,
nasal cavity is a cavity within your nose filled with and other contaminants, before it passed to the inner body.
mucus membranes and hairs.

Mouth Also called the oral cavity, the mouth is the
secondary exterior opening for the respiratory
system. Most commonly, the majority of respiration
is achieved via the nose and nasal cavity, but the
mouth can be used if needed.
Inhaling air through the mouth allows more inhalation, as the oral cavity is far
larger than the nasal cavity. The air also has less distance to travel, meaning
more air can enter your body and be used faster. The oral cavity has no hairs
or filtering techniques, meaning the air you inhale does not undergo the
filtration process.

Pharynx Also called the throat, the pharynx is a funnel of Air that is inhaled enters the pharynx, where it descends into the larynx via a
muscle that extends from the respiratory openings diversion from the epiglottis. As the pharynx is used for swallowing food as well
to the esophagus and larynx. as breathing, the epiglottis ensures that air can pass into the trachea, and that
food enters the esophagus.

Larynx Also known as the voice box, the larynx is situated Aside from allowing us the ability of speech, the larynx also acts as a defense
below the pharynx, in the anterior portion of the mechanism. If any food passes into the esophagus when swallowing, the
neck. larynx produces a strong cough reflex.

Trachea Also known as the wind pipe, the trachea is a tube The main respiratory function of the trachea is to provide a clear and
made of cartilage rings that are lined with unhindered airway for air to enter and exit the lungs. Inside the trachea, small
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. hairs reside upon the inner walls. These hairs catch dust and other
contaminants from inhaled air, which are later expelled via coughing.

Bronchi The bronchi are two tubes stemming off of the end The bronchi connect the wind pipe to the lungs, allowing air from external
of the trachea. Each tube is connected to a lung. respiratory openings to pass efficiently into the lungs. Once in the lungs, the
bronchi begin to branch out into secondary, smaller bronchi, coined tertiary
bronchi.

Bronchioles Tertiary bronchi divide to even smaller, narrower Bronchioles lead to alveolar sacs, which are sacs containing alveoli.
tubes known as bronchioles.
 Alveoli Alveoli are hollow, individual cavities that are found Alveoli have extremely thin walls, which allows the exchange of oxygen and
within alveolar sacs. carbon dioxide to take place within the lungs. There are estimated to be three
million alveoli in the average lung.

Diaphragm The diaphragm is an important muscle of respiration
which is situated beneath the lungs.
The diaphragm contracts to expand the space inside the thoracic cavity, whilst
moving a few inches inferiorly into the abdominal cavity. Whilst this is
happening, the intercostal muscles also contract, which moves the rip cage up
and out. The contractions force air into the lungs, by creating a negative
pressure through expansion.

Diseases and Illnesses of the Respiratory System

With knowing the anatomy of respiratory system, you should also know that many conditions and illnesses can affect
the respiratory system, some of the common problems include: -
 Asthma – Asthma leads to a narrowing of the airways, which can cause breathlessness and wheezing.
 Bronchitis – A condition that causes inflammation of the mucus lining within the one lung or both.
 Emphysema – A disease that affects alveoli.
 Influenza – An illness caused by a virus that can have a detrimental affect on one’s respiratory system.
 Laryngitis – When one’s vocal chords (larynx) become inflamed.
 Pneumonia – When one or both lungs become inflamed.
 Lung cancer – Although commonly associated with smokers, lung cancer can also affect those who do not
smoke. 

Right lung

Organs of the Circulatory System and Their Functions

Your circulator system is a complex network of different organs and vessels that ensure proper flow of
nutrients, blood, hormones and oxygen to and from cells. Your body cannot be able to maintain a healthy
internal environment or fight diseases in the absence of your circulatory system. Generally, the system
organs help maintain proper pH and temperature in your body to keep healthy. Keep reading to discover
detailed information about them.
 Main Circulatory System Organs
Your circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels. It also includes about 5 liters of blood that your heart transports through your
blood vessels.

1.  The Heart

Located slightly to the left of the middle of your chest, the heart is made of strong muscle tissue and is protected by your rib cage. Even though
it is no larger than the size of your fist, it plays a vitally important role in your body. It consists of four hollow chambers – two ventricles and two
atria. All four chambers work quite like pumps and push blood throughout your body. The blood that moves towards the heart enters it through
the atria and then goes out to your body through the ventricles.

THE HEART WALL

The heart is an extraordinary organ. It is about the size of a clenched fist, weighs about 10.5 ounces and is shaped like a cone. Along with the circulatory
system, the heart works to supply blood and oxygen to all parts of the body. The heart is located in the chest cavity just posterior to the breastbone,
between the lungs, and superior to the diaphragm. It is surrounded by a fluid filled sac called the pericardium, which serves to protect this vital organ.

The heart wall is composed of connective tissue, endothelium, and cardiac muscle. It is the cardiac muscle that enables the heart to contract and allows
for the synchronization of the heart beat. The heart wall is divided into three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.

 Epicardium - outer protective layer of the heart.

 Myocardium - muscular middle layer wall of the heart.

 Endocardium - inner layer of the heart.

HEART WALL: EPICARDIUM

Epicardium (epi-cardium) is the outer layer of the heart wall. It is also known as visceral pericardium as it forms the inner layer of the pericardium. The
epicardium is composed primarily of loose connective tissue, including elastic fibers and adipose tissue. The epicardium functions to protect the inner
heart layers and also assists in the production of pericardial fluid. This fluid fills the pericardial cavity and helps to reduce friction between pericardial
membranes. Also found in this heart layer are the coronary blood vessels, which supply the heart wall with blood. The inner layer of the epicardium is in
direct contact with the myocardium.

HEART WALL: MYOCARDIUM

Myocardium (myo-cardium) is the middle layer of the heart wall. It is composed of cardiac muscle fibers, which enable heart contractions. The
myocardium is the thickest layer of the heart wall, with its thickness varying in different parts of the heart. The myocardium of the left ventricle is the
thickest as this ventricle is responsible for generating the power needed to pump oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Cardiac
muscle contractions are under the control of the peripheral nervous system, which directs involuntary functions including heart rate.
Cardiac conduction is made possible by specialized myocardial muscle fibers. These fiber bundles, consisting of the atrioventricular bundle and Purkinje
fibers, carry electrical impulses down the center of the heart to the ventricles. These impulses trigger the muscle fibers in the ventricles to contract.

HEART WALL: ENDOCARDIUM

Endocardium (endo-cardium) is the thin inner layer of the heart wall. This layer lines the inner heart chambers, covers heart valves, and is continuous
with the endotheliumof large blood vessels. The endocardium of heart atria consists of smooth muscle, as well as elastic fibers. An infection of the
endocardium can lead to a condition known as endocarditis. Endocarditis is typically the result of an infection of the heart valves or endocardium by
certain bacteria, fungi, or other microbes. Endocarditis is a serious condition that can be fatal.
The heart is a component of the cardiovascular system that helps circulate blood to the organs, tissues, and cells of the body. Blood travels
through blood vessels and is circulated along pulmonary and systemic circuits. The heart is divided into four chambers that are connected by heart
valves. These valves prevent the backward flow of blood and keep it moving in the right direction.

The lower two chambers of the heart are called heart ventricles. A ventricle is a cavity or chamber that can be filled with fluid, such as the cerebral
ventricles. The heart ventricles are separated by a septum into the left ventricle and the right ventricle. The upper two heart chambers are called atria.
Atria receive blood returning to the heart from the body and ventricles pump blood from the heart to the body.

The heart has a three-layered heart wall composed of connective tissue, endothelium, and cardiac muscle. It is the muscular middle layer known as
myocardium that enables the heart to contract. Due to the force needed to pump blood to the body, ventricles have thicker walls than do atria. The left
ventricle wall is the thickest of the heart walls.

FUNCTION OF HEART VENTRICLES

The ventricles of the heart function to pump blood to the entire body. During the diastole phase of the cardiac cycle, the atria and ventricles are relaxed
and the heart fills with blood. During the systole phase, the ventricles contract pumping blood to the major arteries (pulmonary and aorta). The heart
valves open and close to direct the flow of blood between the heart chambers and between the ventricles and major arteries. Papillary muscles in the
ventricle walls control the opening and closing of the tricuspid valve and mitral valve.

 Right ventricle: Receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the main pulmonary artery. Blood passes from the right atrium through
the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. Blood is then forced into the main pulmonary artery as the ventricles contract and pulmonary valve
opens. The pulmonary artery extends from the right ventricle and branches into left and right pulmonary arteries. These arteries extend to
the lungs. Here, oxygen-poor blood picks up oxygen and is returned to the heart via the pulmonary veins.
 Left ventricle: Receives blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the aorta. Blood returning to the heart from the lungs enters the left atrium
and passes through the mitral valve to the left ventricle. Blood in the left ventricle is then pumped to the aorta as the ventricles contract and the
aortic valve opens. The aorta carries and distributes oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body.

2.  The Blood Vessels

The blood vessels are one of the most important circulatory system organs. Your blood vessels allow blood to flow quickly from one region to
another and then allow it to come back to your heart. The size of your vessels increases with an increase in the amount of blood that passes
through the vessel. Blood vessels have a hollow area that allows for easy flow of blood – it's called lumen. There will be a wall around the
lumen, which can be thick as in arteries or thin as in capillaries.

All your blood vessels have a thin layer of squamous epithelium that prevents clots from forming. The layer is called endothelium and ensures
that your blood cells stay inside the vessels all the time. There are three basic types of blood vessels, including capillaries, arteries and veins.

 Arteries take oxygen-rich blood away from your heart.

 Veins take blood back toward your heart.
 Capillaries are very tiny blood vessels that form a connection between arteries and veins. The capillary walls facilitate the transfer of
oxygen, nutrients and wastes in and out of your body.

3.  The Lungs

Your lungs aren't technically a part of circulatory system organs, but they really help make it possible for your heart to function correctly. Your
lungs provide oxygen for your body. The lungs send oxygen-rich blood to the left side of your heart and your heart then uses blood vessels and
arteries to transfer it to the rest of your body.

4.  The Blood

Your heart pumps blood throughout your body and travels through thousands of miles, mainly because it has to move through the network of
blood vessels within your body. Your blood is an amazing substance that carries water, nutrients, waste products and oxygen to and from your
body cells. A young person will have up to a gallon of blood, whereas an adult will have about 5 quarts of blood.
It is important to note that your blood looks like an ordinary red liquid, but it's in fact made up of solids,
liquids and small amounts of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Your blood also consists of cells that perform
 different functions in your body. The following table will tell you more about different blood cells and their
functions.

Parts Function of Them

Red Blood Cells These cells take oxygen from your lungs and transport it to the rest of
your body cells. After delivering the oxygen, it gathers up the carbon
dioxide and delivers it back to your lungs.

White Blood Cells These blood cells play a role in fighting off germs and protect you
from diseases. Your body produces more white blood cells to deal
with an infection in your body.

Platelets These blood cells help stop bleeding. When you cut yourself,
platelets start accumulating at the opening and plug up the hole to
stop bleeding. Once the platelets start sticking to the opening of a
damaged blood vessel, they start attracting more fibers, platelets and
other blood cells to prevent excessive bleeding.

Plasma Made in the liver, the liquid part of your blood is called the plasma
and is about half of your blood is made of this substance. The
plasma transports your blood cells and many other components
throughout your body.

There are three different types of circulation that occur regularly in the body:

 Pulmonary circulation: This part of the cycle carries oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and back to the heart.
 Systemic circulation: This is the part that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart and to other parts of the body.
 Coronary circulation: This type of circulation provides the heart with oxygenated blood so it can function properly.

Common Circulatory System Diseases

Arteriosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis is a common disease of the circulatory system caused by the buildup of fat, cholesterol, or other substance in the artery wall. Deposits in
the artery cause the vessel to stiffen and narrow. Diabetes, high cholesterol, smoking, and high blood pressure can result in stiff arteries that restrict
blood flow through the heart.
Hypertension
Hypertension, or high blood pressure, occurs when a high force of blood presses against the artery walls over time. This condition can develop from a
diet high in salt, smoking, kidney disease, or some other underlying medical condition. Untreated high blood pressure may lead to stroke, heart failure, or
visual problems.
Aortic Aneurysm
Another common disease of the circulatory system is an aortic aneurysm. An aortic aneurysm occurs when a section of the aorta bulges, stretches, and
swells. This bulge can weaken the aorta to the point that it bursts, releasing blood into the body. Bleeding from an aortic aneurysm is a medical
emergency that can be caused by high blood pressure, smoking, aging, high cholesterol, and a positive family history.
Coronary Heart Disease
Heart disease, or coronary artery disease, occurs when the blood vessels that supply oxygen to the heart narrow and stiffen. Smoking, an unhealthy
diet, stress, and a sedentary lifestyle all increase the risk of heart disease. A heart attack or stroke can occur if the condition is untreated.
Varicose veins
Varicose veins are another common disease of the circulatory system that happens when veins in the legs twist, swell, and become painful. Aging,
pregnancy, prolonged standing, and defective valves can all contribute to the development of varicose veins. Most of the time varicose veins can be
treated by elevating the lower extremities, avoiding prolonged standing or sitting positions, and wearing supportive stockings.
Chronic Venous Insufficiency
This condition occurs when blood pools or collects in the lower extremities, but it's difficult to return to the heart. Symptoms of chronic venous
insufficiency include swelling in the lower legs and ankles, aching or tired feeling in the legs and varicose veins
Chronic venous insufficiency can result from obesity, history of varicose veins, deep vein thrombosis, sedentary lifestyle, long periods of sitting or
standing, being over the age of 50, female, or pregnant.
Angina
Angina is a symptom of an underlying heart condition that occurs when the flow of blood and oxygen are restricted to the heart muscles. Symptoms of
this one of common circulatory system diseases include chest pain, pressure or squeezing in the chest, frequent or infrequent chest pain, tightness in
chest. Diabetes, hypertension, smoking and other circulatory diseases can increase the risk for angina. Treatment of angina focuses on restoring proper
blood flow to the heart.
Peripheral Vascular Disease
Peripheral vascular disease occurs when the arteries and veins supplying the lower extremities narrow and stiffen from the buildup of plaque. Common
symptoms of peripheral vascular disease include pain with movement, tingling, burning, or numbness in feet when resting, fatigue, achiness, pain and
cramps at night. Lifestyle changes, aspirin, and/or stain drugs may be used to treat the condition. If lifestyle changes and medications do not work an
angioplasty or stent placement may be preformed
Atherosclerosis
A large proportion of cardiovascular disease is due to atherosclerosis. In atherosclerosis the walls of your arteries become thick and stiff because of the
build up of fatty deposits called plaques.  When this happens, the flow of blood is restricted. Atherosclerosis can happen throughout the body.  In the
arteries of the heart it is known as coronary artery disease, in the legs, peripheral arterial disease. Atherosclerosis happens over a period of time and its
consequences can be grave and include heart attack and stroke.

Cerebrovascular disease (e.g. stoke)
 Disease pertaining to the blood vessels in the brain. A cerebrovascular accident or stroke is the result of an impeded blood supply to some part of the
brain. A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is interrupted. This can happen either when a blood vessel in the brain or neck is blocked or
bursts. If this happens, your brain is deprived of oxygen and parts of your brain may be permanently damaged. A stroke can kill or leave you with a
permanent disability.
The consequences of a stroke can include problems with speech or vision, weakness or paralysis.

Ischemic heart disease (e.g. heart attack)

Heart ailments caused by narrowing of the coronary arteries and therefore a decreased blood supply to the heart.

Hypertensive heart disease

High blood pressure may overburden the heart and blood vessels and cause disease. Hypertensive heart disease includes: aneurysm, and peripheral
arterial disease.

Rheumatic heart disease

Rheumatic heart disease is caused by one or more attacks of rheumatic fever, which then do damage to the heart.
Rheumatic heart disease includes: valvular heart disease.

Inflammatory heart disease

Inflammation of the heart muscle (myocarditis), the membrane sac (pericarditis) which surround the heart, the inner lining of the heart (endocarditis) or
the myocardium (heart muscle).
Inflammatory heart disease includes: cardiomyopathy, pericardial disease, and valvular heart disease

Aneurysm
An aneurysm is a bulge or weakness in the wall of a blood vessel.  Aneurysms can enlarge over time and may be life threatening if they rupture. They
can occur because of high blood pressure or a weak spot in a blood vessel wall. Aneurysms can occur in arteries in any location in your body. The most
common sites include the abdominal aorta and the arteries at the base of the brain.

High blood pressure (hypertension)

High blood pressure is the excessive force of blood pumping through your blood vessels. High blood pressure causes many types of cardiovascular
disease, such as stroke and heart failure, and renal disease.

Peripheral arterial disease

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is caused by atherosclerosis, which is the narrowing and / or blockage of the blood vessels in the legs.  PAD manifests
as pain in the legs when walking, which is relieved by rest. If you have PAD you are at greater risk of developing gangrene in your legs.

Rheumatic heart disease

Rheumatic heart disease is damage caused to the heart’s valves by rheumatic fever, which is caused by streptococcal bacteria.

Valvular heart disease

The heart’s valves keep blood flowing through the heart in the right direction.  But a variety of conditions can lead to valvular damage.  Valves may
narrow (stenosis), leak (regurgitation or insufficiency) or not close properly (prolapse). You may be born with valvular disease, or the valves may be
damaged by such conditions as rheumatic fever, infections connective tissue disorders, and certain medications or radiation treatments for cancer.

Cardiomyopathy
Cardiomyopathy refers to diseases of the heart muscle. Some types of cardiomyopathy are genetic, while others occur because of infection or other
reasons that are less well understood. One of the most common types of cardiomyopathy is idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, where the heart is
enlarged. Other types include ischemic, loss of heart muscle; dilated, heart enlarged; hypertrophic, heart muscle is thickened.

Pericardial disease
The sac that encases the heart is called the pericardium and it can be affected by a variety of conditions such as inflammation (pericarditis), fluid
accumulation (pericardial effusion) and stiffness (constrictive pericarditis). The etiology of these conditions varies.
Congenital heart disease
Congenital heart disease is when you are born with malformations of the heart’s structures.  This may be the result of the genes you inherited from your
parents or adverse exposure to certain elements while still in the womb, such as some medicines or too much alcohol.  Congenital heart disease is a
broad term and examples are holes in the heart, abnormal valves, and abnormal heart chambers.

Heart failure
Heart failure is a chronic condition that happens when the heart’s muscle becomes too damaged to adequately pump the blood around your body. If you
have heart failure your heart still works but because it is less effective your organs do not get enough blood and oxygen. Heart failure tends to affect
older people more often and manifests as shortness of breath, reduced exercise tolerance and swelling of the ankles. It results if the heart is damaged
and weakened.

Cardiac arrhythmias
An arrhythmia is a problem with the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat, where the heart beats irregularly, too fast or too slow. Most arrhythmias are not
dangerous, but some can be serious or life threatening. Common types of arrythmias include atrial fibrillation (the heart contracts in an irregular way at a
high rate), bradycardia (when the heart beats irregularly or too slow), and supraventricular tachycardia (when the heart beats irregularly or too fast).

Types Of Blood Diseases

There are many different blood diseases that are diagnosed and treated by hematologists. Some of these are benign (non-cancerous) and others are
types of blood cancer. They can involve one or more of the three main types of blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets). They can
also involve blood proteins involved in clotting. Not every blood disorder requires treatment. This is a list of some of the more common blood disorders
treated by community hematologists.

Red Blood Cell Disorders – Deficiencies or abnormalities in the red blood cells.

Anemia – A deficiency in the number of red blood cells often causing weakness and pallor. There are many potential causes of anemia.
Aplastic Anemia – A type of anemia occurring when the bone marrow fails to produce enough of all three types of blood cells: red cells, white cells, and
platelets. The Aplastic Anemia & MDS International Foundation, Inc. is a good resource to learn more about this disorder..

Sickle Cell Anemia – an inherited blood disorder where blood cells are sickle (or “C”) shaped and block blood flow. Clumps of sickle cells block blood
flow to the limbs and organs, and can cause pain, serious infection, and organ damage. The American Sickle Cell Anemia Association, a nonprofit
organization providing a wide range of services to those individuals and families with either sickle cell anemia, sickle cell trait, or variants of the disease.

Thalassemia – A hereditary blood disorder affecting hemoglobin, the molecule that carries oxygen. At About Thalassemia (part of Cooley’s Anemia
Foundation) patients can find general information about the different types of Thalassemia.
White Blood Cell Disorders – (abnormalities in the production of white blood cells)

Myelofibrosis – A chronic disease manifested by fibrous material in the bone marrow, anemia and an enlarged spleen. Also known as agnogenic myeloid
metaplasia.

Myeloma – a cancer of plasma cells, a type of white bloods cell. Find more information at the International Myeloma Foundation.

Myelodysplasia – A group of disorders where bone marrow does not function properly and does not produce enough normal blood cells. The
Myelodysplastic (MDS) Syndromes Foundation is devoted to the prevention, treatment, and study of the myelodysplastic syndromes.

Leukemia – A group of diseases where white blood cells grow uncontrollably. These diseases are classified according to how quickly the disease grows
and the type of cells affected.

Lymphoma – A tumor that arises in the lymph nodes or in other lymphoid tissue.

Platelet Disorders – (usually a deficiency in platelets leading to easy bruising and excessive bleeding)

Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP) – A clinical syndrome where a decreased number of platelets causes bleeding, and easy bruising. ITP
Science includes information about diagnosing ITP, treatment goals, as well as helpful information for patients recently diagnosed with the disorder.

Essential Thrombocytosis – A disorder in which platelets are overproduced, which can lead to both blood clotting and bleeding.

Clotting Disorders – Problems affecting the ability to clot blood, leading to excessive bleeding or excessive clotting. The Coagulation Factors site
features articles and news on coagulation disorders, and also includes a health directory and information on clinical trials for coagulation disorder
patients.

Hemophilia – A bleeding disorder caused by a problem in one of the factors of blood clotting. Only males are affected by the disease but the carrier of
the genes are females.

Von Willebrand Disease – A hereditary disease where there is a deficiency of the von Willebrand factor, which is a factor that affects platelet function.
This often leads to excessive bleeding.

Hypercoagulable states – These are inherited or acquired abnormalities that increase a person’s risk of developing a blood clot. Examples include
Factor V Leiden mutations, Protein C deficiency, and Lupus anticoagulant.

Hemochromatosis – A disorder where patients absorb extra amounts of iron from their daily diet and over time. The excess iron can build up in organs
such as the heart, liver, and pancreas. If left untreated, diabetes, heart disease and liver failure can result. The Iron Disorders Institute provides
information about iron disorders as well as preventions, publications, diet suggestions, and more.