Linear Transformations

Subject: ALGEBRA-III
Semester-IV

Lesson: Linear Transformations

Lesson Developer: Nikhil Khanna
College/Department: Research Scholar,
Department of Mathematics,
University of Delhi

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Contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................. 3
2. Definition and Examples of Linear Transformation ......................... 3
3. Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformations ...................................... 7
Dimension Theorem ....................................................................... 9
Some Solved Problems ................................................................. 14
4. The Matrix Representation of Linear Transformation ........................ 17
Some Solved Problems ................................................................. 22
5. Composition of Linear Transformations and Matrix Multiplication ....... 24
Exercises ....................................................................................... 33
References .................................................................................... 34

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1. Introduction
Till now, we have studied the theory of vector spaces, subspaces and their direct
sum. Further, we have investigated the concepts of linear combination of vectors,
linearly independent and linearly dependent vectors, span of vectors, basis-the building
blocks of vector spaces and dimension of a vector spaces.

In the present chapter, we will study the functions on vector spaces which preserves
their structure in some sense. Since in order to pass from one space to another and to
compare the spaces both in term of the sets under consideration and the operations
acting on the sets, some different kind of approach is needed which gives rise to the
special class of functions known as linear transformations.

2. Definition and Examples of Linear Transformation

In this section, the formal definition of a linear transformation along with its several
fundamental properties and examples are given.

Definition 2.1 Let and be two vector spaces over the same field . A function
is called a linear transformation if, for all and , we have

i. and
ii.

For the vector spaces and over the field , the identity transformation is
defined as for all and the zero transformation is defined as
for all

Let us see some of its examples:

Example 2.2 Let be defined by then for and

, we have

Thus, is a linear transformation.

Example 2.3 Let be defined as , then for

and we have

Clearly,

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Thus, is not a linear transformation.

Recall that a function is said to be additive function if

for all

Example 2.4 Consider an additive function , where and are vector spaces
over the field of rational numbers .

Let us show that is a linear transformation i.e., we need to verify only the condition (ii)
of Definition 2.1.

Let

Now, for ,

-times

So,

-times

Thus, every additive function , where and are vector spaces over the field of
rational numbers is a linear transformation.

Value Addition
Consider a vector space over a field of complex numbers and let be a
function given by .
Let , where and , then we have

is additive.
But since
So, is additive but it doesn’t form a linear transformation.
Note that an additive function does not form a linear transformation.
Thus, the statement posed in above example does not hold in general and it depends on
the field .

In the following theorem, properties of linear transformation are given.

Theorem 2.4 Let be a linear transformation. Then,

(i)

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(ii)
(iii) for all

Proof. (i) We have

Since is linear,

Using cancellation law in the group we have .

(ii) We have

by (i).

Hence

(iii) Now,

as is linear.

by (ii).

The next result gives the necessary and sufficient conditions under which forms
a linear transformation.

Theorem 2.5 Let and be two vector spaces over the field , then is a linear
transformation if and only if , for all and

Proof. Let be a linear transformation, then for all and we have

Conversely, let , for all and .

If we take , then

, for all

and if we put , then we have

, for all and .

So, by Definition 2.1, is a linear transformation.

The above result is the alternate way to verify whether a function is linear
transformation or not. We generally use Theorem 2.5 to prove the linearity of the
transformation.

In general, for and , is linear if and only if

.

Example 2.6 Suppose that denotes the vector space of real-valued continuous
functions on . Let with

Define by for all

Now, for and we have

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Hence is a linear transformation.

Recall that denotes the set of all matrices with entries from a field
of real numbers.

Example 2.7 Define as where is the transpose of

Then, for and we have

Hence is a linear transformation.

Definition 2.8 Suppose that is a vector space. Then, a linear operator defined on
is a linear transformation whose domain and co-domain are both

Next, we give few examples of linear operators.

Example 2.9 Define by the rule that by rotating counter clockwise by

is the vector for and Then, is called the
rotation by

Let be a non-zero vector of length such that it makes an angle of with the
positive direction of -axis and let

Then, and . Further, makes an angle of with the

positive direction of -axis.

So,

Let . Then, for we have

and

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Thus,

Hence is linear.

Example 2.10 Consider a function defined by Then, is

known as reflection with respect to axis.

Further, for and we have

Hence is linear.

Example 2.11 Consider a function defined by then is

known as projection on the axis.

Further, and we have

Hence is linear.

Example 2.12 Consider a function given by .

For and we have

Thus, is linear.

Further, if then is called the dialation operator and if then the operator
is called the contraction operator.

3. Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformations

In this section, we will study two very important sets-the range and null space linked
with linear transformation . The purpose of finding these sets is to study the
essential properties of a linear transformation . We will give various results and
examples related to these sets.

Definition 3.1 Suppose that is a linear transformation. Then, the kernel (or
null space) of is given by

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Definition 3.2 Suppose that is a linear transformation. Then, the image (or
range) of is given by

Example 3.3 Suppose that and are vector spaces, and let and
denote the zero and identity transformations respectively.

Then,

and

Example 3.4 Let be the transformation defined by

then find and

Solution. Let , then

This gives and .

Now,

Thus,

Also,

In the above two examples, one may note that the range and the null space of
are again subspaces. Is the above observation holds in general?

The answer to the above query is yes and the next result shows that the above
observation holds true in general.

Theorem 3.5 Suppose that be a linear transformation. Then, show that

(i) is a subspace of
(ii) is a subspace of .

Proof. (i). Let and denote the zero vectors in and respectively.

Since so we have

Let and let

Then,

Also,

Therefore, and so forms a subspace of

(ii). Since , so we have

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Let and let , then there exist such that

and

So, and

Therefore and , so forms a subspace of

In the next result, a method to find a spanning set for the range of a linear
transformation is given.

Theorem 3.6 Suppose be a linear transformation, where and be two vector

spaces and let be a basis for then

Proof. Note that for each .

Recall that if is any subset of then is also a subspace of Further, is

the smallest subspace of containing

Since forms a subspace of , we can conclude that contains

Further, let then for some we have .

Now, since is a basis for , we have

for some

Also as is linear, therefore

Thus,

Hence

Note that Theorem 3.6 remains valid if is infinite, ,

Next, we define the rank and nullity of a linear transformation.

Definition 3.8 Suppose that is a linear transformation, where and are

vector spaces over a field and if and be finite-dimensional, then the nullity
of is defined as and the rank of is defined as

The following theorem gives the relationship between the dimension of a vector
space, rank and nullity of a linear transformation . Precisely, it says that given any
linear transformation , the dimension of the vector space is equal to the sum of the
dimensions of kernel of and range of

Dimension Theorem
Theorem 3.9 Let be a linear transformation, where are vector spaces such
that is finite dimensional, then

Proof. Let and and suppose be a basis for .

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Then, since is finite and is a subspace of , we can extend to a

basis for .

We shall show that forms a basis for

Using Theorem 3.6, we have

Also, since for we have

where

Now, we claim that is a linearly independent subset.

Let

for

Since is linear, we have

So, clearly

Thus, there exist such that

This gives

As is a basis for , we have for all .

Therefore, is a linearly independent set.

Hence

Some authors refer above theorem as Sylvester’s Theorem.

Theorem 3.10 Suppose that is a linear transformation, where and are

vector spaces over a field . Then, is one-to-one if and only if

Proof. Let be one-to-one and let , then

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So, we have

Therefore,

Conversely, let and suppose that for then we have

Then,

Thus, we have

This implies that

or

Hence is one-to-one.

Next, we summarize the equivalent conditions for which a linear transformation

where are finite-dimensional vector spaces is one-one or onto.

Theorem 3.11 Suppose that is linear, where and are finite dimensional
vector spaces with same dimension. Then, the following are equivalent:

i. is one-one.
ii. is onto.
iii.

Proof. Using Dimension theorem, we have

Now, by Theorem 3.10, we find that is one-to-one iff iff iff

iff i.e.,

Now, recall that if is a subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space and if

then .

This implies that i.e., is onto.

In the following two examples, let us use the above mentioned theorems to check
whether a given linear transformation is one-to-one or onto.

Example 3.12 Let be a linear transformation given by

where and is the derivative of .

Then, show that is a one-to-one linear transformation.

Solution. Using Theorem 3.6, we have

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Now, since is linearly independent, so we have

Also, since , is not onto.

Using Dimension Theorem, we have

Therefore, by using Theorem 3.10, we deduce that is one-to-one.

Example 3.13 Suppose that is a linear transformation given by

Let then

This gives

Clearly, so Theorem 3.10, is one-to-one linear operator.

Also by using Theorem 3.11, is onto.

Thus, is one-to-one and onto.

The next theorem and corollary shows that how linear transformation is
determined by its action on a basis.

Theorem 3.14 Suppose that and are two vector spaces over such that
is a basis for . Then, for there exists exactly one linear
transformation such that for

Proof. Let be a vector, then

where , are scalars.

Define as …( )

We shall prove that is a linear transformation.

Let and

Since has basis ,

and

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for

This gives

So,

Therefore, is a linear transformation.

Further,

Hence for

To prove the uniqueness of , let be any other linear transformation such that

For any we have

Therefore,

( is a linear transformation)

This gives

Thus, for all we have so

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Therefore, we conclude that defined by ( ) is a unique linear transformation given by

for

Corollary 3.15 Suppose that are two linear transformations such that

, where and are vector spaces and let possess a finite basis
. Then, show that .

Proof. Suppose that is an arbitrary vector.

Since has a basis , so

Further, we have

Thus, for all and so

Next, we give the definition and some examples of -invariant subspaces of

Definition 3.16 Suppose that is a linear operator, where is a vector space. A

subspace of is said to be -invariant subspace if for every that is

Example 3.17 Zero subspace and are invariant subspaces of as and

Example 3.18 If be a linear operator and let , then .

So, is invariant subspace of

Also, if then for some

Therefore, is an invariant subspace of

Thus, and are invariant subspaces of

Some Solved Problems

Problem 1 Find the range, rank, null space and nullity of the linear transformation

such that .

Solution. Now,

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is spanned by

Since is a subspace of which has dimension , these four vectors cannot form
basis for

One may even verify that is a set of linearly

dependent vectors.

Note that is a linearly independent set and hence form a basis for

This gives

Now,

In Matrix form , we have

We observe that the rank of the coefficient matrix is 3 ( , number of variables).

Hence , so one variable can be given arbitrary value.

Taking in and , we obtain

Thus,

So, is spanned by .

Problem 2 Give an example of a linear operator such that and

Also, if , then find the relation between and

Solution. Let be defined by , then clearly is a linear

transformation on .

Also note that , we have

But

Now, for all

for all .

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Problem 3 Let be a linear transformation such that is finite and

, then prove that is even. Also, provide an example of such linear
transformation.

Solution. Since is a vector space of finite-dimension and are both

subspaces of , so

Using Dimension theorem,

Thus, is even.

Let be defined by

Then, is a linear transformation and

Hence and (even).

Problem 4 Let be a linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space and

suppose that Show that

Solution. We have and

By Dimension theorem, we have

and

Since so

We shall prove that .

Let

as .

Now, let be arbitrary. Then, and

and for some

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Problem 5 Let be linear and let and

Then, find . Is one-to-one?

Solution. Let .

For , let

Then,

This shows that is linearly independent.

Since, is a basis of

Now, suppose be arbitrary.

Then,

Thus,

Hence and so

Now, let us suppose that

Then, there exists such that and

So,

which is a contradiction. Hence

Therefore using Theorem 2.25, is one-to-one.

4. The Matrix Representation of Linear Transformation

In this section, we are going to analyse one of the most useful methods in the
study of linear transformation defined on a vector space with finite dimension. Such
method is known as the method of representing a linear transformation by a matrix.

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Here, one-to-one correspondence between the matrices and the linear transformations
has been shown so that one can easily study the properties of matrices by using the
properties of linear transformation and vice versa. Let us first study the notion of an
ordered basis for a vector space.

Definition 4.1 Suppose that is a finite-dimensional vector space. A basis is said to be

an ordered basis for if it can be written in a certain specific order i.e., an ordered
basis for forms a finite sequence of vectors such that it is linearly independent and it
generates .

Example 4.2 For , and both are ordered bases. But

as ordered basis.

Value Addition
 For is known as the standard ordered basis.
 For the vector space we call as the standard ordered basis.

With the tool of ordered basis, one may find abstract vectors in an -dimensional
vector space with -tuples. This can be done through the notion of coordinate vectors.

Definition 4.3 Suppose that is an ordered basis for a vector space

with finite dimension and let for be the unique scalars such that

Then, the coordinate vector of relative to , represented by is defined by

Example 4.4 Let and suppose that be its standard ordered

basis. If then

In the following definition, matrix representation of a linear transformation is

given.

Definition 4.5 Let and be finite-dimensional vector spaces of dimensions and

respectively. Let and be their ordered bases
respectively.

Suppose that is a linear operator. Then, for each there exist

unique scalars such that

Then, the matrix defined by

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is called the matrix representation of with respect to ordered bases written as

If and , then we write

Let us illustrate the computation of matrix representation of a linear

transformation in the following examples.

Example 4.6 Let be the linear transformation defined by

Let and be the ordered bases of and respectively.

Now, let us compute

Thus,

Also, if , then let us find .

We have

and

Hence

Next, let us study the addition and scalar multiplication operations of linear
transformations.

Definition 4.7 Suppose that be linear transformations, where and are

vector spaces over and let be any scalar.

We define the sum of and as such that

, for all

and the scalar multiplication of by is defined by such that

, for all

Using the addition and scalar multiplication operations given in the above
definition, the following theorem gives another vector space which is the collection of all
linear transformations from to over .

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Definition 4.8 Suppose that and be vector spaces over . Then, the set of all
linear transformations from into over is denoted by

If then we write instead of

Theorem 4.9 Let and be vector spaces over a field and let be linear
transformations. Then,

a) is linear, for all

b) forms a vector space over

Proof.

a) Let and Then,

Hence is linear transformation.

b) and are linear transformations.

For and we have

This shows that is a linear transformation and therefore

Again, for , and we have

This shows that is a linear transformation, so

Further, for , and , we have

i.
(as addition in is commutative)
ii. .

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(as addition in is associative)

iii. , where is the zero linear transformation
and is called the additive identity of
iv. So, is the additive inverse of

Thus, forms an additive abelian group with respect to operation of

addition. Also,

v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

Hence, the collection comprising of all linear transformations from into

forms a vector space over .

The next theorem gives the matrix representations for addition and scalar
multiplication of linear transformations.

Theorem 4.10 Let be linear transformations, where and are two vector
spaces with finite dimensions and let and be the ordered bases of and
respectively, then

(i)

(ii) for all

Proof. Let and be the ordered bases of and

respectively, then there exist unique scalars and such that

and for

(i)

Thus,

Hence .

(ii) means that

This gives and therefore, we have

Hence

The following example illustrates the above theorem.

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Example 4.11 Let and be linear transformations respectively

defined by and

Let be the ordered bases of and respectively.

Then, as we have computed in Example 4.6, .

Now,

Thus,

Also,

Then,

This gives

Now,

Hence

Some Solved Problems

Problem 6 Suppose that be a linear transformation defined by
and let and be the ordered bases of
and respectively. Then, find

Solution. We have

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Hence

Problem 7 Find the matrix representation of the linear operator given by

relative to the basis

Solution. Since

therefore, we have .

Problem 8 Let be a linear operator on defined by where denotes

the standard ordered basis of Describe explicitly

Solution. The standard ordered basis of is

Then,

Now, consider

Therefore, linear operator is explicitly written as

for all

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5. Composition of Linear Transformations and Matrix

Multiplication
In this section, we will find that there exists a relationship between the matrix
representations of the composite of linear transformations and that of their associated
linear transformations. The following result shows that the composite of linear
transformations is linear.

Theorem 5.1 Let and be linear transformations, where and be

vector spaces over the field . Then, defined by is a linear
transformation.

Proof. Let and

Then,

(since is a linear transformation)

(since is a linear transformation)

Next, some properties of the composition of linear transformations are given.

Theorem 5.2 Suppose that where is a vector space. Then,

(i) and
(ii)
(iii)
(iv) for all the scalars

Proof. (i) Let and consider

(since )

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Suppose that and be linear transformations and let

and where and are the
ordered bases of and respectively.

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For , we have

where

The above discussion gives the motivation for the following definition of matrix
multiplication.

Definition 5.3 Suppose that and are matrices of order and

respectively. Then, their product, denoted by is defined as the matrix of order
such that for and , we have

One may note that represents the sum of products of corresponding entries from
the row of and column of

The next result is a direct outcome of the definition of matrix multiplication.

Theorem 5.4 Suppose that and are two linear transformations,

where and are vector spaces over the field with ordered bases and
respectively. Then,

Proof. Let and be two linear transformations and let and

where and have ordered bases and
respectively.

For we have

(Since is commutative)

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It follows that the entry in is , where .

Also, the entry in is equal to

Therefore,

Corollary 5.5 Suppose that be a vector space with ordered basis and is of finite
dimension and let then

Proof. The proof can be obtained on the similar lines of the above theorem.

Let us illustrate the Theorem 5.4 by the following example.

Example 5.6 Let and denote the linear transformations

defined as

and

respectively.

Let be the ordered bases of and respectively.

Clearly, .

Now,

So,

Further,

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This gives

Also,

This gives

Therefore,

Hence Theorem 5.4 is verified.

The next theorem gives the analogues of (i), (iii), and (iv) of Theorem 5.2.

Theorem 5.7 Suppose that is an matrix, and are matrices of order

and and are matrices of order .Then,

(i) and ( .
(ii) for any scalar

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(iii)
(iv) If is a vector space of finite dimension and ordered basis then

Proof.

(i) Consider

So,

Similarly, we can prove that

(ii) We have

Also,

and

So, for any scalar ,

(iii) We have
,
where with denotes the identity matrix and
denotes the Kronecker delta.

(iv) We have where is the vector of .

Corollary 5.8 Suppose that is matrix of order and let be

matrices and be matrices and be scalars. Then,

and

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Proof. Using Theorem 5.7, we have

and

The following result gives the relationship between the columns of matrices
and .

Theorem 5.9 Let and be matrices of order and respectively. Suppose

that for each , where , and denotes the columns of and
respectively. Then, we have

i.
ii. where denotes the standard vector of

Proof

i. We have

ii. We have
since .

In the following result, the matrix multiplication and the matrix representation of a
linear transformation have been used to evaluate the transformation at any given vector.

Theorem 5.10 Suppose that is a linear transformation, where and are

vector spaces of finite dimension and and respectively be the ordered bases of and
. Then, for each we have

Proof. Let be fixed.

Now, for all we define linear transformations given by and

given by

Let denote the standard ordered basis of

We note that

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Now, if we identify the column vectors as matrices and then on using Theorem 5.4, we
have

We illustrate the above theorem by the following example.

Example 5.11 Suppose that is the linear transformation given by

and let and denote the standard ordered bases of and

respectively.

If , then by Problem 7, we have

Now, we will verify Theorem 5.10 by showing that .

Let , then and suppose that

Also,

Hence

Next, we see that with the introduction of the left-multiplication transformation

for matrix of order , the properties of transformation work analogously for matrices
and vice-versa.

Definition 5.12 Let denote a matrix of order with entries from a field . Let
be a mapping defined by for every column vector , where
denotes the matrix product of and . This mapping is known as left-
multiplication transformation.

Example 5.13 Let .

Then, and given by is a left-multiplication

transformation.

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If , then

The next theorem gives some of the useful properties of left-multiplication

transformation

Theorem 5.14 Suppose that is a matrix of order with entries from . Then, the
left-multiplication transformation is linear. Also, if is any other matrix of
order with entries from and if and denotes the standard ordered bases of
and respectively. Then, the following properties holds true.

i.
ii. if and only if
iii. and , for all
iv. If be a linear transformation, then there exists a unique matrix
with order with In particular,
v. If is a matrix of order , then .
vi. If , then

Proof. Let and Then,

(by definition)

(using Theorem 5.7)

Hence is linear.

i. The column of is equal to which in turn equals to which is

nothing but the column of using Theorem 5.9 (ii).

So, clearly

ii. Let

Then, using (i), we have

Converse can be obtained by reversing back these steps.

iii. Let then

Thus,

Again, let and , then

Hence

iv. Let , then by using Theorem 5.10, we have

for all

Hence

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Also, using (ii) matrix is unique.

v. For any , if we apply Theorem 5.9 numerous times, we note that

is the column of and the column of is also equal to

So, clearly

Thus,

Therefore, by using Corollary 3.15, we have

vi. For all vectors we have

Thus,

Next, left-multiplication transformations are used to set up the associativity of

matrix multiplication.

Theorem 5.15 Suppose that and are matrices such that is defined. Then,
is also defined and the matrix multiplication is associative, that is .

Proof. is clearly well defined matrix.

Now using Theorem 5.14 (v) and using the associative property of functional
composition, we have

Therefore, using Theorem 5.14 (ii),

Alternately, we can prove it as follows:

Suppose that and be and matrices respectively.

Clearly, is well defined matrix.

We will claim that

Now,

Hence .

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Exercises
1. Let and be two vector spaces over the field , then

is a linear transformation if and only if for and we

have

2. Does there exists any linear transformation such that

? Justify.

3. Find the range, rank, Ker and nullity of the linear transformation such
that .

4. Let be a linear transformation such that is not onto, then show that
there exists some non-zero vector such that

5. Let be a linear transformation. Show that the following statements are

equivalent:
i.
ii. If then .

6. Let and be the linear transformations given by

and respectively. Let
denote the standard ordered bases for and respectively. Then, find
and and use them to verify Theorem 5.4.

7. Let and be linear transformations, where and are

vector spaces. Then
a) Prove that if is one-to-one, then is also one-to-one. Check whether
in this case is one-to-one or not.
b) Prove that if is onto, then is also onto. Check whether in this case
is onto or not.
c) Prove that if and are both one-to-one and onto, then is also.

8. Let denote a linear transformation given by where

denotes the transpose of matrix . Then, using Theorem 5.10, find
, where denotes the standard ordered basis for

9. Let be a linear transformation defined by

and let and denotes the standard ordered bases for and
respectively. Then find

10. Suppose that and be two vector spaces over a field and let and be non-
zero linear transformations from into . Further, if then prove
that has a linearly independent subset

11. Suppose that be a linear transformation given by

and let be the standard ordered basis for Then find

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12. Let be a linear transformation defined by

Further, let be the standard ordered basis for and let
Then find Also, if , then find

13. Suppose that be vector space with dimension and let be its ordered basis.
Further, let be defined by Then, prove that is linear.

References
1. S. H. Friedberg, A. J. Insel and L. E. Spence, Linear Algebra (4 th Edition),
Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2004.
2. S. Andrilli and D. Hecker, Elementary Linear Algebra (4 th Edition), Academic
Press, 2012.
3. B. Kolman and D. R. Hill, Introductory Linear Algebra with Applications (7 th
Edition), Pearson Education, 2003.
4. S. Lang, Introduction to Linear Algebra (2nd Edition), Springer, 2005.
5. Gilbert Strang, Linear Algebra and its Applications, Thomson, 2007.
6. S. Kumaresan, Linear Algebra - A Geometric Approach, Prentice-Hall of India,
1999.
7. Kenneth Hoffman, Ray Alden Kunze, Linear Algebra (2 nd Edition), Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1971.

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