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Hoang Hai Ha
4 A PPLICATIONS
∀x = (x 1 , x 2 ), y = (y 1 , y 2 ) ∈ R2 ,
f(x+y) = (3(x 1 + y 1 ) − (x 2 + y 2 ), x 1 + y 1 , (x 1 + y 1 ) + (x 2 + y 2 ))
(3x 1 − x 2 , x 1 , x 1 + x 2 ) + (3y 1 − y 2 , y 1 , y 1 + y 2 ) = f(x)+f(y)
∀λ ∈ R, ∀x ∈ R2 ,
f (λx) = (3λx 1 − λx 2 , λx 1 , λx 1 + λx 2 )
= λ(3x 1 − x 2 , x 1 , x 1 + x 2 ) = λ f (x).
T (x) = (x 1 − x 2 , x 1 + 2x 2 )
Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.
Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.
Find λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such that x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + λ3 e 3 .
Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.
Find λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such that x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + λ3 e 3 .
We have
−1
λ1
1 −1 0 x1 x1 + x2 + x3
λ2 = 0 1 −1 x 2 = x 2 + x 3
λ3 0 0 1 x3 x3
Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.
Find λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such that x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + λ3 e 3 .
We have
−1
λ1
1 −1 0 x1 x1 + x2 + x3
λ2 = 0 1 −1 x 2 = x 2 + x 3
λ3 0 0 1 x3 x3
We have
f (x) = λ1 f (e 1 ) + λ2 f (e 2 ) + λ3 f (e 3 )
= (x 1 + x 2 + x 3 )(2, 3) + (x 2 + x 3 )(3, 4) + x 3 (2, 1)
= (2x 1 + 5x 2 + 7x 3 , 3x 1 + 7x 2 + 8x 3 ).
Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 7 / 41
E XAMPLE 2.1
The function f : R2 → R3 is defined as follows.
3 0 µ ¶
x
[ f (x)]T = Ax T = 2 1 1
x2
−1 −2
f (x) = f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (2x 1 + x 2 − x 3 , −x 1 + 3x 2 − 2x 3 , 3x 2 + 4x 3 )
or
f (x) = f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (2x 1 + x 2 − x 3 , −x 1 + 3x 2 − 2x 3 , 3x 2 + 4x 3 )
or
2 1 −1 x 1
[ f (x)]T = Ax T = −1 3 −2 x 2 .
0 3 4 x3
Which representation is better?
[ f (x)]T = Ax T
[ f (x)]T = Ax T .
⇔ A = f (E )E −1
where f (E ), E are two matrices formed by putting image vectors and
vectors of the basis in column, respectively.
Solution
1 −1 0
The matrix basis E = 0 1 −1, the matrix image
0 0 1
µ ¶
2 3 2
f (E ) = .
3 4 1
Solution
1 −1 0
The matrix basis E = 0 1 −1, the matrix image
0 0 1
µ ¶
2 3 2
f (E ) = .
3 4 1
The matrix representation(the standard matrix) for f is
µ ¶ x1
−1 2 5 7 T
A = f (E )E = ⇒ [ f (x)] = A x 2 .
3 7 8
x3
K er ( f ) = {x ∈ E : f (x) = 0} (1)
2 The set of all vectors in F that are images under f of at least one
vector in E is called the range of f :
I m( f ) = {y ∈ F : ∃x ∈ E , y = f (x)} = f (E ) (2)
T HEOREM 3.2
Let f : E → F be the linear transformation. Then
Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).
Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).
Im(f )
Choose a basis B of Rn (standard basis is recommended),
B = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n }.
Let x ∈ Rn , then x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + ... + λn e n .
Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).
Im(f )
Choose a basis B of Rn (standard basis is recommended),
B = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n }.
Let x ∈ Rn , then x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + ... + λn e n .
y = f (x) = λ1 f (e 1 ) + λ2 f (e 2 ) + .... + λn f (e n ).
Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).
Im(f )
Choose a basis B of Rn (standard basis is recommended),
B = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n }.
Let x ∈ Rn , then x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + ... + λn e n .
y = f (x) = λ1 f (e 1 ) + λ2 f (e 2 ) + .... + λn f (e n ).
⇒ I m( f ) = span{ f (e 1 ), f (e 2 ), ... f (e n )}.
Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.
Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.
2 Find I m( f ).
The columns of A are images of the standard basis in R3 .
Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.
2 Find I m( f ).
The columns of A are images of the standard basis in R3 .
Thus, I m( f ) = span{(1, 0), (−1, 1), (0, 1)}.
Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.
2 Find I m( f ).
The columns of A are images of the standard basis in R3 .
Thus, I m( f ) = span{(1, 0), (−1, 1), (0, 1)}.
dimI m( f ) = r ank(A) = 2.
A basis of I m f is {(1, 0), (0, −1)}.
Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 19 / 41
E XAMPLE 3.2
Let f : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by
f (1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 1), f (−1, 1, 0) = (−2, −1, 0), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1, 3).
Find f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 )
Find the dimension and a basis for K er f
Find the dimension and a basis for I m f
Solution.
Determine the standard matrix for f :
−1
1 −2 2 1 −1 0 1 −1 1
A = 1 −1 1 × 0 1 −1 = 1 0 1.
1 0 3 0 0 1 1 1 4
| {z } | {z }
f (E ) E −1
rank(A) = 3 ⇒ dim
D EFINITION 3.2
Let f : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation and E = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n } be a
basis for Rn , F = { f 1 , f 2 , ..., f m } be a basis for Rm . Then
.. .. .. ..
. . ··· . ··· .
A E ,F = [ f (e 1 )]F [ f (e 2 )]F · · · [ f (e i )]F · · · [ f (e n )]F
.. .. .. ..
. . ··· . ··· . m×n
D EFINITION 3.2
Let f : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation and E = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n } be a
basis for Rn , F = { f 1 , f 2 , ..., f m } be a basis for Rm . Then
.. .. .. ..
. . ··· . ··· .
A E ,F = [ f (e 1 )]F [ f (e 2 )]F · · · [ f (e i )]F · · · [ f (e n )]F
.. .. .. ..
. . ··· . ··· . m×n
R EMARK
When both E and E are standard bases of Rn , Rm then A E ,F becomes
the standard matrix for f .
Solution
To find the standard matrix, we have to find images of the
standard basis in R2 , that is, we find the projections of
{e 1 = (1, 0), e 2 = (0, 1)}.
Solution
To find the standard matrix, we have to find images of the
standard basis in R2 , that is, we find the projections of
{e 1 = (1, 0), e 2 = (0, 1)}.
We have f (e 1 ) = e 1 = (1, 0), f (e 2 ) = (0, 0).
µ ¶
1 0
Then the standard matrix is A = .
0 0
Scheme:
1. Find [−1, 5]B
2. Since [ f ((−1, 5))]B = A B [−1, 5]B , → [ f (1, 5)]B → f (1, 5)
D EFINITION 4.1
f : R2 → R2 : f (x, y) = (kx, y).
D EFINITION 4.2
f : R2 → R2 : f (x, y) = (x, k y).
D EFINITION 4.3
A linear transformation f (x, y) : R2 → R2 is called horizontal shear if
f (x, y) = (x + k y, y), k ∈ R.
D EFINITION 4.4
A linear transformation f (x, y) : R2 → R2 is called vertical shear if
f (x, y) = (x, y + kx), k ∈ R.
E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution
E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R2 , f (1, 0) = (cos α, sin α), f (0, 1) = (− sin α, cos α).
E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R2 , f (1, 0) = (cos α, sin α), f (0, 1) = (− sin α, cos α).
The standard matrix is
à p !
1 3
p2
− 2
A= 3 1
2 2
E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R2 , f (1, 0) = (cos α, sin α), f (0, 1) = (− sin α, cos α).
The standard matrix is
à p !
1 3
p2
− 2
A= 3 1
2 2
µ ¶
T 3
Then f (3, 4) = A .
4
Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 32 / 41
E XAMPLE 4.2
In R3 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about z axis
π
counterclockwise(view from Oz to Ox y plane) an angle . Find
4
f (1, 3, 4).
Solution
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R3 , f (1, 0, 0) = (cos α, sin α, 0), f (0, 1, 0) =
(− sin α, cos α, 0), f (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1).
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R3 , f (1, 0, 0) = (cos α, sin α, 0), f (0, 1, 0) =
(− sin α, cos α, 0), f (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1).
The standard matrix is
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R3 , f (1, 0, 0) = (cos α, sin α, 0), f (0, 1, 0) =
(− sin α, cos α, 0), f (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1).
The standard matrix is
1
T
Then f (1, 3, 4) = A 3.
4
Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 33 / 41
P ROJECTION
E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.
Solution
E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.
Solution
Taking the basis E = {e 1 = (3, 1, −4), e 2 = (−1, 3, 0), e 3 = (4, 0, 3)} in
R3 .
E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.
Solution
Taking the basis E = {e 1 = (3, 1, −4), e 2 = (−1, 3, 0), e 3 = (4, 0, 3)} in
R3 .
f (e 1 ) = (0, 0, 0), f (e 2 ) = (−1, 3, 0), f (e 3 ) = (4, 0, 3).
E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.
Solution
Taking the basis E = {e 1 = (3, 1, −4), e 2 = (−1, 3, 0), e 3 = (4, 0, 3)} in
R3 .
f (e 1 ) = (0, 0, 0), f (e 2 ) = (−1, 3, 0), f (e 3 ) = (4, 0, 3).
Then the standard matrix is A = f (E )E −1 .
E XAMPLE 4.4
In R2 , given the reflection about the line y = x. Find image of the
vector (1, 2).
Solution.
Take the basis e 1 = (1, 1), e 2 = (−1, 1), then we have
E XAMPLE 4.4
In R2 , given the reflection about the line y = x. Find image of the
vector (1, 2).
Solution.
Take the basis e 1 = (1, 1), e 2 = (−1, 1), then we have
f (e 1 ) = (1, 1), f (e 2 ) = (1, −1).
E XAMPLE 4.4
In R2 , given the reflection about the line y = x. Find image of the
vector (1, 2).
Solution.
Take the basis e 1 = (1, 1), e 2 = (−1, 1), then we have
f (e 1 ) = (1, 1), f (e 2 ) = (1, −1).
A f = A f2 A f1 .
with A(−2, 1), B (−1, 3), C (0, 1), D(3, 1), E (−2, −1). Find the image of this
figure if we perform two successive linear transformations f 1 , f 2 , where f 1 is
the counterclockwise rotation about origin angle π3 and f 2 is the reflection
across the line y = x.