Lecture 4

Chapter 6 (ELA)
Linear Transformations

6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations

6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations
VECTOR SPACES AND SUBSPACES
 Definition: A vector space is a nonempty set V of
objects, called vectors, on which are defined two
operations, called addition and multiplication by
scalars (real numbers), subject to the ten axioms (or
rules) listed below. The axioms must hold for all
vectors u, v, and w in V and for all scalars c and d.
1. The sum of u and v, denoted by u  v , is in V.
2. u  v  v  u .
3. (u  v)  w  u  (v  w) .
4. There is a zero vector 0 in V such that
u  (u)  0 .
VECTOR SPACES AND SUBSPACES
5. For each u in V, there is a vector  u in V such
that u  (u)  0 .
6. The scalar multiple of u by c, denoted by cu,
is in V.
7. c(u  v)  cu  cv.
8. (c + d)u = cu + du.
9. c(du)  (cd )u .
10. 1u  u .
SUBSPACES

 Definition: A subspace of a vector space V is a

subset H of V that has three properties:
a. The zero vector of V is in H.
b. H is closed under vector addition. That is, for
each u and v in H, the sum u  v is in H.
c. H is closed under multiplication by scalars.
That is, for each u in H and each scalar c, the
vector cu is in H.
SUBSPACES

 Properties (a), (b), and (c) guarantee that a subspace

H of V is itself a vector space, under the vector
space operations already defined in V.

 Every subspace is a vector space.

 Conversely, every vector space is a subspace (of

itself and possibly of other larger spaces).
More Details with Examples

• Watch this:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tM4TDL9Hj8U
 6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations
 A function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:
T : V 
mapping
W, V ,W : vector spaces
V: the domain of T W: the codomain of T

 Image of v under T
If v is a vector in V and w is a vector in W such that
T ( v )  w,
then w is called the image of v under T
(For each v, there is only one w)

 The range of T
 The set of all images of vectors in V (see the figure on the
next slide)
 The preimage of w
 The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w
(For each w, v may not be unique)
 The graphical representations of the domain, codomain, and range

※ For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T

is the orthogonal projection of any
vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-plane, i.e.
T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
(we will use the above example many
times to explain abstract notions)
※ Then the domain is R3, the codomain
is R3, and the range is xy-plane (a
subspace of the codomian R3)
※ (2, 1, 0) is the image of (2, 1, 3)
※ The preimage of (2, 1, 0) is (2, 1, s),
where s is any real number
 Ex 1: A function from R2 into R2
T : R 2  R 2 v  (v1 , v2 )  R 2
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
(a) Find the image of v=(-1,2) (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11)
Sol:
(a) v  (1, 2)
 T ( v)  T (1, 2)  (1  2,  1  2(2))  ( 3, 3)
(b) T ( v)  w  (1, 11)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )  (1, 11)
 v1  v2  1
v1  2v2  11
 v1  3, v2  4 Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1, 11)
 Linear Transformation

V ,W： vector spaces

T : V  W： A linear tra nsformatio n of V into W if the
following two properties are true
(1) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v), u, v V
(2) T (cu)  cT (u), c  R
 Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving
(because the same result occurs whether the operations of addition
and scalar multiplication are performed before or after the linear
transformation is applied)

T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) T (cu)  cT (u)

Addition Addition Scalar Scalar

in V in W multiplication multiplication
in V in W

(2) A linear transformation T : V  V from a vector space into

itself is called a linear operator
 Ex 2: Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2

T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )

Pf:
u  (u1 , u2 ), v  (v1 , v2 ) : vector in R 2 , c : any real number
(1) Vector addition :
u  v  (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 )  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )

T (u  v )  T (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
 ((u1  v1 )  (u2  v2 ), (u1  v1 )  2(u2  v2 ))
 ((u1  u2 )  (v1  v2 ), (u1  2u2 )  (v1  2v2 ))
 (u1  u2 , u1  2u2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
 T (u)  T ( v )
(2) Scalar multiplication
cu  c(u1 , u2 )  (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu)  T (cu 1 , cu 2 )  (cu 1  cu 2 , cu 1  2cu 2 )
 c(u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )
 cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation
 Ex 3: Functions that are not linear transformations
(a) f ( x)  sin x
sin( x1  x2 )  sin( x1 )  sin( x2 )
(f(x) = sin x is not a linear transformation)
sin( 2  3 )  sin( 2 )  sin( 3 )
   

(b) f ( x)  x 2
( x1  x2 ) 2  x12  x22
(f(x) = x2 is not a linear transformation)
(1  2) 2  12  2 2
(c) f ( x)  x  1
f ( x1  x2 )  x1  x2  1
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  ( x1  1)  ( x2  1)  x1  x2  2
f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) (f(x) = x+1 is not a linear transformation,
although it is a linear function)
In fact, f (cx)  cf ( x)
 Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”.

(1) f ( x)  x  1 is called a linear function because its graph

is a line

(2) f ( x)  x  1 is not a linear transformation from a vector

space R into R because it preserves neither vector
addition nor scalar multiplication
 Zero transformation :
T :V  W T ( v)  0, v V
 Identity transformation
T :V  V T ( v)  v, v V
 Theorem 6.1: Properties of linear transformations
T : V  W , u, v V
(1) T (0)  0 (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=0)
(2) T ( v)  T ( v) (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=-1)
(3) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) (T(u+(-v))=T(u)+T(-v) and property (2))
(4) If v  c1v1  c2v2    cn vn ,
then T ( v)  T (c1v1  c2v2    cn vn )
 c1T (v1 )  c2T (v2 )    cnT (vn )
(Iteratively using T(u+v)=T(u)+T(v) and T(cv) = cT(v))
 Ex 4: Linear transformations and bases
Let T : R3  R3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0)  (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0)  (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1)  (0,3,1)
Find T(2, 3, -2)
Sol:
(2,3,2)  2(1,0,0)  3(0,1,0)  2(0,0,1)
 According to the fourth property on the previous slide that 
 
 T (c1v1  c2v2   cn vn )  c1T (v1 )  c2T (v2 )   cnT (vn ) 

T (2,3,2)  2T (1,0,0)  3T (0,1,0)  2T (0,0,1)

 2(2,1,4)  3(1,5,2)  2T (0,3,1)
 (7,7,0)
 Ex 5: A linear transformation defined by a matrix
3 0
   v1 
The function T : R  R is defined as T ( v)  Av  2
2 3
1  
  v2 
  1  2 
(a) Find T ( v), where v  (2, 1)
(b) Show that T is a linear transformation form R 2 into R 3
Sol:
(a) v  (2, 1) R 2 vector R 3 vector

3 0 6 
 
2
T ( v)  Av   2 1      3
   1  
  1  2 0 
T (2,1)  (6,3,0)
(b) T (u  v)  A(u  v)  Au  Av  T (u)  T ( v) (vector addition)

T (cu)  A(cu)  c( Au)  cT (u) (scalar multiplication)

 Theorem 6.2: The linear transformation defined by a matrix
Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v)  Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm

 Note: R n vector R m vector

 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 
 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
         
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amnvn 

T ( v)  Av T : Rn 
 R m
※ If T(v) can represented by Av, then T is a linear transformation
※ If the size of A is m×n, then the domain of T is Rn and the
codomain of T is Rm
 Ex 7: Rotation in the plane
Show that the L.T. T : R 2  R 2 given by the matrix

cos  sin  
A
 sin  cos 
has the property that it rotates every vector in R2
counterclockwise about the origin through the angle 
Sol:
v  ( x, y)  (r cos  , r sin  ) plane, it can be represented by a set of (r, α))
(Polar coordinates: for every point on the xy-

r：the length of v (  x 2  y 2 ) T(v)

：the angle from the positive v

x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector v
 cos  sin    x  cos  sin   r cos 
T ( v)  Av      
 sin  cos   y   sin  cos   r sin  
r cos cos  r sin  sin  

r sin  cos  r cos sin  
according to the addition
formula of trigonometric
r cos(   ) identities

 r sin(   ) 
r：remain the same, that means the length of T(v) equals the
length of v
 +：the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector T(v)
Thus, T(v) is the vector that results from rotating the vector v
counterclockwise through the angle 
 Ex 8: A projection in R3
The linear transformation T : R3  R3 is given by
1 0 0
A  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 
is called a projection in R3

1 0 0   x   x 
If v is ( x, y, z ), Av  0 1 0   y    y 
0 0 0  z   0 

※ In other words, T maps every vector in R3

to its orthogonal projection in the xy-plane,
as shown in the right figure
6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
 Kernel of a linear transformation T :
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation. Then the set of
all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v)  0 is called the kernel
of T and is denoted by ker(T)
ker(T )  {v | T ( v)  0, v V }

※ For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T is the

orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z)
onto the xy-plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)

※ Then the kernel of T is the set consisting of

(0, 0, s), where s is a real number, i.e.

ker(T )  {(0,0, s) | s is a real number}

 Ex 1: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation
T ( A)  AT (T : M 32  M 23 )
Sol:
0 0 
ker(T )  0 0
 
 0 0 

 Ex 2: The kernel of the zero and identity transformations

(a) If T(v) = 0 (the zero transformation T : V  W ), then
ker(T )  V

(b) If T(v) = v (the identity transformation T : V  V ), then

ker(T )  {0}
 Ex 5: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation
 x1 
 1 1 2  
T (x)  Ax     x2 (T : R 3
 R 2
)
 1 2 3   x 
 3
ker(T )  ?
Sol:
ker(T )  {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) | T ( x1, x2 , x3 )  (0,0), and ( x1, x2 , x3 )  R3}

T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0,0)
 x1 
 1  1  2    0 
 1 2  x2   
3    0 
 x3 
  1 1 2 0  G.-J. E. 1 0 1 0 
 1 2 3 0   0 1 1 0 
   
 x1   t   1 
  x2    t   t  1
      Reduced
 x3   t   1 
Row
 ker(T )  {t (1,1,1) | t is a real number} Echelon
form
 span{(1,1,1)}
Reduced Row Echelon form

https://www.statisticshowto.daasciencecentral.com/reduced-row-echelon-form-2/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l69YjkuUym0&feature=emb_title
 Range of a linear transformation T :
Let T : V  W be a linear tra nsformatio n. Then the set of all
vectors w in W that are images of any vectors in V is called the
range of T and is denoted by range (T )
range (T )  {T ( v) | v V }

※ For the orthogonal projection of

any vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-
plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
※ The domain is V=R3, the codomain
is W=R3, and the range is xy-plane
(a subspace of the codomian R3)
※ Since T(0, 0, s) = (0, 0, 0) = 0, the
kernel of T is the set consisting of
(0, 0, s), where s is a real number
 Notes:
T : V  W is a linear transformation
(1) ker(T ) is subspaceof V (Theorem 6.3)
(2) range (T ) is subspaceof W (Theorem 6.4)