Scalar and Vector Functions and Fields

Vector calculus concerns two kinds of functions namely scalar functions

whose values are scalars; f  f ( p) depending on the points p in space and
 
vector functions whose values are vectors v  v ( p)  (v1 ( p), v 2 ( p), v3 ( p))
depending on p. Here p is a point in the domain of definition which in
applications is a (three-dimensional) domain or a surface or a curve in
space. We say that the vector function defines a vector field, and a scalar
function defines a scalar field in that domain or that surface or curve.
Examples of vector functions are shown in figures.

Field of tangent vectors Field of normal vectors

of a curve of a surface
Examples of scalar fields are the temperature field of a body or the
pressure field of the air in the earth's atmosphere. Vector and scalar
functions may also depend on time t or some other parameters.
Notation: If we introduce Cartesian coordinates x, y, z then, instead of

v ( p) we can also write

v ( x, y, z )  (v1 ( x, y, z ), v2 ( x, y, z ), v3 ( x, y, z ))
But we keep in mind that components depend on the choice of a
coordinate system, whereas a vector field that has a physical or a
geometric meaning should have magnitude and direction depending only
on p, not on that choice. Similarly for the value of a scalar field
f ( p )  f ( x, y , z )
Example: Scalar function.
The distance f ( p) of any point p from a fixed point po in space is a
scalar function whose domain of definition is the whole space. f ( p)
defines a scalar field in space. If we introduce a Cartesian coordinate
system and po has the coordinates xo , yo , zo , then f is given by
f ( p )  f ( x, y , z )  ( x  x o ) 2  ( y  y o ) 2  ( z  z o ) 2

where x, y, z are the coordinates of p. The coordinates of p changes if we

choose another coordinate system but f ( p) will have the same value as
before. Hence, f ( p) is a scalar function. The direction cosines of the
100
straight line through p and po are not scalar functions because their
values depend on the choice of the coordinate system.
Example: Vector function.

At any instant the velocity vectors v ( p) of a
rotating body B constitute a vector field,
called the velocity field of the rotation. If we
introduce a coordinate system having the origin
on the axis of rotation, then
   Velocity field of a
i j k
     rotating body
v ( x, y , z )    r  0 0    ( yi  xj )
x y z

Vector Functions
If the components of a vector are not constant, but they are functions, for
example x(t ) and y(t ) for a two-components vector, then for every value
of t a vector or point is specified ( x(t ), y(t )) . Then, we have a function

 (t )  ( x(t ), y(t )), whose independent variable t is a scalar variable,
therefore, its domain is some set of real numbers, while its range is a set
of vectors. This function is called a vector function, in contrast with real
function whose range is a set of real numbers. The velocity vector for
which the magnitude as well as direction may change with time is an
example of a vector function that depends on time as a scalar variable.
The Domain of the vector function
The domain of the vector function is the set of real numbers at which, all
the components are defined.
Scalar Function
x y  f (x) y
Scalar Scalar

Vector Function
 
t    ( x(t ), y(t ))
Scalar Vector
 1
Example: Find the domain of   ( 2  t , )
t 3

101
 )  R  3
1
D( 2  t )  (,2], D(
t 3
 
D( )  D( x(t ))  D( y(t ))  D( )  (,2]  3  (,2]
The graph of the vector function

As t changes the vector function  (t ) also changes and the resulting set
consists of vectors or points that construct a graph or a chart. Therefore,
at every value of t, the coordinates x (t ) and y(t ) of a point on the graph
give the two components of the vector function. Then, we can look at the
two components x (t ) and y(t ) as a pair of parametric equations (x(t),y(t))
that represents the real function y  f (x) . Upon removal of t, we express
the function in the explicit form y  y(x) whose graph in the x-y plane
defines the chart of the vector function.
y
Example: Draw the graph of each
of the following vector functions:

(1)  (t )  (2  t , t 2 )
Let x  2  t, y  t 2  t  2  x
y
 y  ( 2  x) 2
(parabola) 2 x
b

(2)  (t )  (a cos kt, b sin kt)
 x  a cos kt, y  b sin kt
x2 y2 -a a x
  1 (ellipse)
a2 b2
-b y

(3)  (t )  (a chbt, a shbt )
x  a chbt, y  a shbt
 x 2  y 2  a 2 (hyperbola)

-a y a x

(4)  (t )  (a cos bt, a sin bt )
 x  a cos bt, y  a sin bt a
x 2  y 2  a 2 (circle) x

102
The limit of a vector function
  
The limit of  (t ) as t tends to t o is a vector  such that  (t ) is close to
 
 for t close to to . For  (t ) to be close to  , the length of the
 
difference vector  (t )   must be close to zero y

and vice versa.   
   (t )  
Then, approaching  (t )   to zero


is sufficient to bring  (t ) close 
  

to . But, as  (t )   is a scalar x
quantity, then, we can define the limit of a vector function in terms of the
limit of a real function.
   
Definition: lim  (t )   if lim  (t )    0.
tt o tt o

 
Theorem: The vector function  (t )    ( x(t ), y (t )) has a limit at t  to
if and only if the two real functions x(t ) and y(t ) have limits at t o , in
addition to that;
lim ( x(t ), y (t ))  (lim x(t ), lim y (t ))
t to t to t to

Example: Find each of the following limits:

sin t sin t
(1) lim (t 2  1, e t 2 , )  (lim (t 2  1), lim e t 2 , lim )  (1, e 2 ,1).
t 0 t t 0 t 0 t 0 t
(2) lim (ln t , cos(t  1), t  1)
t 1

lim ln t  0, lim cos(t  1)  1, lim t  1 does not exist as t  1 is not defined in

t 1 t 1 t 1

left neighborhood of t  1  lim  does not exist. t 1

Continuity of the vector function


Theorem: The vector function  (t ) is said to be continuous at t  to if
 
lim  (t )   (t o ) .
t t
o

 sin t
Example: Discuss the continuity of  (t )  (t 2 , ) at t  0.
t

103
 
The component sin t is not defined at t  0 . Then  (t ) is not defined at
t
t  0 and consequently it is not continuous at t=0, although the limit at
t  0 exists and equals (0,1).
Derivative of the vector function:
 
At every t, the derivative  (t ) of a vector function  (t ) is given by;
 
  (t  t )   (t )
 (t )  lim
t  0 t
 
Theorem: If  (t )  ( x(t ), y(t )), then  (t )  ( x(t ), y(t ))
 
  (t  t )   (t ) ( x(t  t ), y (t  t ))  ( x(t ), y (t ))
Proof:  (t )  lim  lim
t 0 t t 0 t
x(t  t )  x(t ) y (t  t )  y (t )
 ( lim , lim )  ( x(t ), y (t ))
t 0 t t  0 t
Example: Find the derivative of each of the following functions:
  cos t
(1)  (t )  (t 2 , sin t )   (t )  (2t , )
2 t
 t  1 t2  2 1
(2)  (t )  ( , e , tan 1 t )   (t )  ( , 2te t2
, ).
t 1 (t  1) 2 1 t2
Example: A particle moves on a curve whose parametric equations are
given by x  et , y  2 cos 3t , z  2 sin 3t , where t is time; find the velocity
and acceleration at any instant t.
Solution
The position vector of the particle at any instant t is given by

R(t )  (e  t ,2 cos 3t ,2 sin 3t )
 
 dR t  dV
V   (e ,6 sin 3t ,6 cos 3t )  a   (e t ,18 cos 3t ,18 sin 3t ).
dt dt
Example: The position at time t for a point moving in the x  y plane is

given by r  (t 2  3,2t  4) . Find
(1) The trajectory of the point,
y
(2) The velocity and the acceleration vectors
at time t.
Solution
 x
(1) r  (t 2  3, 2t  4), (-3,-4)

104
 1 1
Let x  t 2  3, y  2t  4  t  ( y  4)  x  3  ( y  4) 2
2 4

 dr  dV
(2) V   (2t ,2)  a   (2,0).
dt dt
Indefinite integral of a vector function
Since the indefinite integral is the inverse operation of differentiation,
then; for  (t )  ( x(t ), y(t ))
 
  (t )dt   ( x(t ), y(t )) dt  ( x(t )dt  c1 ,  y (t )dt  c 2 )  (  x(t )dt ,  y (t )dt )  c

where c is an arbitrary constant vector.
t
Example: Find  (t 2  1, sin t ,
t 1
2
) dt

t  t3 1 
I  (  (t 2  1)dt ,  sin tdt,  dt )  c  (  t ,  cos t , ln(t 2  1))  c
t 1
2
3 2
Definite integral of a vector function

If  (t ) is a continuous vector function, then;
b   b    
 a
 (t )dt   (t )   (b)   (a) , where  (t )   (t ).
a


2
Example: Find (t  4, et )dt
1

t2 2
I (  4t , et )  (10, e 2 )  (9 / 2, e1 )  (11/ 2, e 2  e)
2 1

Example: Find  0
(2 cos t , t sin t 2 )dt

1  1
I  (2 sin t , cos t 2 )  (0, cos  2 )  (0,1 / 2)  (0, ( cos  2  1) / 2)
2 0 2

Example: If the acceleration vector for a particle moving in a plane is

  
given at any time t by a  ti  j , find the position and velocity vectors at
 
any time, knowing that the initial velocity Vo  0 and initial position

ro  (0,1).
Solution
  t2 
V   a (t )dt   (t ,1)dt  ( , t )  c1
2
      
At t  0, V  Vo  0  0  (0,0)  c1  c1  0

105
 t2   t2 t3 t2 
V  ( , t )  r   V dt   ( , t ) dt  ( , )  c2
2 2 6 2
   
At t  0  r  ro  (0,1)  (0,1)  (0,0)  c2  c2  (0,1)
 t3 t2 t3 t2
 r  ( , )  (0,1)  ( ,  1).
6 2 6 2
Partial derivatives of a vector function
 
If  is a vector function that depends on several variables as;  ( x, y, z)
 
instead of  (t ) and regardless of the number of components, then  has
three first partial derivatives in the form;
     
  ( x  x, y, z )   ( x, y, z )   ( x, y  y, z )   ( x, y, z )
 lim ,  lim ,
x x0 x y y 0 y
  
  ( x, y, z  z )   ( x, y, z )
 lim
z z 0 z
Similarly, we can find the higher partial derivatives;
     
 2  2  2  2  2  2
, , , , , , ...
x 2 y 2 z 2 xy yz xz

Also, as in scalar functions if the second partial derivatives of  are
 
 2  2
continuous, then;  , and so on for the other second and higher
yz zy
order partial derivatives.

Example: For   ( x 2 y, y  z, e y sin( xz))
  
  
 (2 xy, 0, ze cos( xz)),
y
 ( x , 1, e sin( xz)),
2 y
 (0, 1, xe y cos( xz)),
x y z
 
 2  2
 (2 x, 0, ze cos( xz)),
y
 (2 x, 0, ze y cos( xz))
xy yx

Rules for differentiation of vector functions

  
If f , g , h are differentiable vector functions and u is a scalar function;
 
d   df dg
(1) ( f  g )  
dt dt dt

d  df
(2) (cf )  c , c is a constant.
dt dt

d  df  du
(3) (u f )  u  f
dt dt dt

106
 
d    dg df 
(4) ( f . g )  f .  . g
dt dt dt

d    dg df 
(5) ( f  g )  f    g
dt dt dt
  
d    df    dg    d h
(6) ( f . g  h )  . g  h  f .  h  f . g 
dt dt dt dt
 
d    df    dg    dh
(7) ( f  ( g  h ))   ( g  h )  f  (  h )  f  ( g  )
dt dt dt dt
  Q ( x  x, y  y , z  z )
df df du
(8) 
dt du dt 
R
The gradient of a scalar field  
R  R
Let  ( x, y , z ) be a single-valued P ( x, y , z )

continuous scalar function of R
position which possesses o
continuous first partial derivatives 
with respect to x, y and z throughout
some region of space, and let R  ( x, y, z ) be the vector drawn from the
origin to a general point P( x, y, z). If we move from P to a neighboring
point Q : ( x  x, y  y, z  z) the function  will change by an amount
 ;
  
  x  y  z
x y z

If we divide  by the distance S  R between P and Q, we obtain a
measure of the rate at which  changes where we move from P to Q:
  x  y  z
  
s x s y s z s
For instance, if  ( x, y, z) is the temperature at the general point P( x, y, z)
then  / s is the average rate of change of temperature in the direction
in which S is measured. The limiting value of  / s as Q  P along
the segment PQ is called the derivative of  in the direction PQ or
simply the directional derivative of  ;
d  dx  dy  dz
  
ds x ds y ds z ds
The first factor in each product on the right-side depends only on  and
the coordinates of the point at which the derivative of  is evaluated.
107
The second factor in each product is independent of  and depends only
on the direction in which the derivative is being computed. This
observation suggests that d / ds can be thought of as the dot product of
two vectors: one depends only on  and the coordinates of P and the
other depends only on the direction from P to Q;

d    dx dy dz    dR
( , , ).( , , )  ( , , ).
ds x y z ds ds ds x y z ds

The vector function (  ,  ,  ) is known as the gradient of  or simply

x y z

grad  or  .
 
d dR  dR
 grad .   .
ds ds ds
To determine the significance of grad  , we observe first that since s is
   
just the length of R , then dR / ds is a unit vector. Therefore,  .dR / ds
  
is the projection of  in the direction of dR / ds . Then,  has the
property that its projection in any direction is equal to the derivative of 
in that direction. Also, as the maximum projection of a vector is the

vector itself, it is clear that  extends in the direction of the greatest rate
of change of  and that rate of change is given by its magnitude.
Example: What is the directional derivative of the function
 ( x, y, z )  xy 2  z 3 y at the point (2,1,1) in the direction of the vector
(1,2,2) ? . What is the direction of the maximum as well as the minimum
rate of change of  ?.

  ( y 2 ,2 xy  z 3 ,3z 2 y ) and at the point (2,1,1) is given by
 d  (1,2,2)  11
  (1,3,3)   . 
ds (1,2,2) 9 3
  (1,3,3)
The direction of maximum rate of change is given by;  /  
19
  (1,3,3)
The direction of minimum rate of change is given by   /  
19
The maximum rate of change = 19
Example: The mass density (mass per unit volume) of a metal ball
centered at the origin is given by the function  ( x, y, z )  ke  ( x  y  z ) ,
2 2 2

where k is a positive constant.

108
(a) In what direction does that density increases most rapidly at the point
( x, y, z ) ? What is the maximum rate of increase in density?
(b) In what direction does the density decrease most rapidly?
  
(c) What are the rates of density change at ( x, y, z) in the i , j , k
directions?
Solution
       
(a)   ( , , )  2ke ( x  y  z ) ( x, y, z )  2 r   /   r / r
2 2 2

x y z
Then, the gradient vector is directed towards the origin and therefore, the
temperature increases most rapidly towards the origin. The maximum rate
of increase is
 
  2 r  2 x 2  y 2  z 2
 
(b) The density decreases most rapidly in the direction of   / 
(away from the origin).

(c) The rate change in i direction is: d   .i  2 x
 
ds i
 d  
The rate of change in j direction is:    . j  2 y
ds j
 d  
The rate of change in k direction is:   .k  2 z
ds k 

Normal Vector to a Surface: If we set  ( x, y, z)  c,
we obtain as c takes on different values, a family of
 c
surfaces known as level surfaces of  . On the
assumption that  is a single-valued, one and only one
surface passes through any given point P. For a neighboring point Q
d
which lies on that surface which passes through P, we have,  0 since
ds

 dR 
 =c on that surface    .  0 for any vector dR / ds which has the
ds
limiting direction of a secant PQ of the level surface. Clearly such

vectors are all tangent to   c at point P, and therefore;  is normal to
every tangent and consequently, normal to the level surface of  .

109
Example: Find the unit normal vector to the surface z  x 2  y 2 at point
(1,2,5).

Let   x 2  y 2  z  0    (2 x,2 y,1)
   (2 x,2 y,1)   (2,4,1)
 n   /    at (1,2,5) : n 
4x2  4 y 2 1 21

Example: Find the unit normal vector to the surface

( x  1)  y  ( z  2)  9 at (3,1,-4).
2 2 2


  ( x  1) 2  y 2  ( z  2) 2  9  0    (2( x  1), 2 y, 2( z  2))
 (2,1,2) 
At (3,1,4) :   (4,2,4)  n  
3

The vector differential operator  is not an ordinary vector. Its
components

are differentiation symbols. As the term "operator" suggests,
 can be thought of as something that operates on thing such as scalar
fields and vector fields.
Operation on a scalar field: If f is a differentiable scalar function; then
 f f f
f  ( , , ) (gradient of f ) which discussed before.
x y z
Operation on a vector field: If V  (V1, V2 , V3 ) is a differentiable vector
 
field; then the gradient vector  can operate on V in two ways as:
  V V V  
.V  divV  1  2  3 (divergence of V or div V ).
x y z
  
i j k
   V V V V V V
  V  curl V   / x  / y  / z  ( 3  2 , 1  3 , 2  1 )
y z z x x y
V1 V2 V3
      
If .V  0, then V is called solenoidal, and if   V  0, then V is called
irrotational.

Example: Prove that A  (3 y 4 z 2 ,4 x 3 z 2 ,3x 2 y 2 ) is solenoidal.
  
. A  0  0  0  0  A is solenoidal.

Example: Find the value of a such that V  ( x  3 y, y  2 z, x  az )
is solenoidal.
 
.V  1  1  a  0  a  2.

Example: Show that A  (6 xy  z 3 , 3x 2  z , 3 xz 2  y ) is irrotational.

110
   
i j k
   
  A   / x  / y  / z  0  A is irrotational.
6 xy  z 3 3x 2  z 3 xz 2  y

Example: Find the constants a, b, and c such that


V  ( x  2 y  az, bx  3 y  z , 4 x  cy  2 z ) is irrotational.
  
i j k
 
 V   / x  / y  / z
x  2 y  az bx  3 y  z 4 x  cy  2 z

   
 i (c  1)  j (4  a)  k (b  2)  0  c  1, a  4, b  2.

Interpretation of Divergence and Curl

 
View V as the velocity field of some fluid. The divergence of V at a
point P gives us as indication of whether the fluid tends to accumulate
near P (negative divergence) or tends to move away from P (positive
divergence). In the first case, P is sometimes called a sink, and in the
second case, it is called a source. The curl at P measures the rotational
tendency of the fluid.
  2 2 2
Laplacian Operator:  2  .   
x 2 y 2 z 2

For a scalar twice-differentiable function  ;

 2  2  2
 2    .
x 2 y 2 z 2

Example: For   3x2 z  y 2 z 3  4x3 y  2x  3 y  5 find  2 .

  2   2
 6 xz  12 x 2 y  2,  6 z  24 xy,  2 yz 3
 4 x 3
 3,  2 z 3
x x 2 y y 2

  2
 3x 2  3 y 2 z 2 ,  6 y 2 z   2  6 z  24 xy  2 z 3  6 y 2 z.
z z 2

The equation of the normal line and tangent plane to a surface:


Let the surface defined as  ( x, y, z)  c . We determine   at ( xo , yo , zo )
which is normal to the surface.
The equation of the normal line is given by

 ( x o , y o , z o ) ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
( x, y , z )  ( x o , y o , z o )   
 ( x o , y o , z o )

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The equation of the tangent plane is given by;
 
(r  ( xo , yo , zo )). ( xo , yo , zo )  0

Example: For the surface ( x 1)2  y 2  ( z  2)2  9, find the equation of the
normal line and tangent plane at the point (3,1,4).
  (2,1,2)
As before, we find  /  
3
 (2,1,2)
The equation of the normal line; r  (3,1,4)  
3
The equation of the tangent plane;
 (2,1,2) 2 1 2
(r  (3,1,4)) .  0  ( x  3)  ( y  1)  ( z  4)  0
3 3 3 3
Useful vector relationships:
  
(1) (1   2 )  1   2
      
(2) .( A  B )  . A  .B
      
(3)   ( A  B)    A    B
     
(4) .( A)   . A  . A
     
(5)   ( A)     A    A
        
(6) .( A  B)  B. (  A)  A . (  B)
 
(7) .( )   2  div grad 
  
(8)   ( )  curl grad   0
    
(9) .(  A)  div curl A  0
  
(10) .(1   2 )  0
      
(11)   (  A)  (. A)   2 A
            
(12)   ( A  B)  ( B.) A B(. A)  ( A.) B  A(.B)
            
(13) ( A.B)  ( B.) A  ( A.) B  B  (  A)  A  (  B)

Important result:

it follows from relation (8) for the vector A , that if
  
  A  0, then A can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function that
       
is A   .
But if   A  0, then A   which shows that A can not be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar function.

112
 
Example: Prove that A  ( y 2  2 xyz 3 , 3  2 xy  x 2 z 3 , 6 z 3  3 x 2 yz 2 ) is
 
irrotational vector and then find  such that A   .
  
i j k
  
 A   / x  / y  / z 0
y 2  2 xyz3 3  2 xy  x 2 z 3 6 z 3  3 x 2 yz 2

 A is irrotational, then A     (  ,  ,  )
 

x y z

  y 2  2 xyz 3     ( y 2  2 xyz 3 ) x  xy 2  x 2 yz 3  f1 ( y, z )
x

  3  2 xy  x 2 z 3     (3  2 xy  x 2 z 3 ) y  3 y  xy 2  x 2 z 3 y  f 2 ( x, z )
y

 3
  6 z 3  3x 2 yz 2     (6 z 3  3x 2 yz 2 ) z  z 4  x 2 yz 3  f 3 ( x, y )
z 2
3 4
   xy 2  x 2 yz 3  3 y 
z c
2

Example: Prove that V  (2 xyz 3 , x 2 z 3 , 3x 2 yz 2 ) is irrotational and find 
 
such that V   .
  
i j k
     
  V   / x  / y  / z  0  V is irrotational, then   V
2 xyz3 x 2 z 3 3 x 2 yz 2

 
 2 xyz 3   x 2 yz 3  f1 ( y, z ) ,  x 2 z 3    x 2 yz 3  f 2 ( x, z )
x y

 3x 2 yz 2    x 2 yz 3  f 3 ( x, y )    x 2 yz 3  c
z

113