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Definition
Vectors in n-Space
Definition
Two vectors u=(u1 ,u2 ,,un) and v=(v1 ,v2 ,, vn) in Rn are
called equal if
u1 v1,
u 2 v2 ,...,
u n vn
u v (u1 v1 , u 2 v2 ,..., un vn )
and if k is any scalar, the scalar multiple ku is
defined by
Theorem 4.1.1
Properties of Vector in Rn
Definition
Euclidean Inner Product
u v u1v1 u2 v2 ... un vn
Example 1
Inner Product of Vectors in
R4The Euclidean inner product of the
vectors
u=(-1,3,5,7) and v=(5,-4,7,0)
in R4 is
uv=(-1)(5)+(3)(-4)+(5)(7)+(7)(0)=18
Theorem 4.1.2
Properties of Euclidean Inner
Product
Example 2
Length and Distance in R4
(3u+2v)(4u+v) = (3u)(4u+v)+(2v)(4u+v)
= (3u)(4u)+(3u)v
+(2v)(4u)+(2v)v
=12(uu)+11(uv)+2(vv)
u (u u)
u12 u 22 ... u n2
Example 3
Finding Norm and Distance
Theorem 4.1.3
Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality in
Rn
uv u v
Theorem 4.1.4
Properties of Length in Rn
Theorem 4.1.5
Properties of Distance in Rn
Theorem 4.1.6
Definition
Orthogonality
Example 4
Orthogonal Vector in R4
4
Theorem 4,1,7
Pythagorean Theorem in Rn
If u and v are orthogonal vectors in
R n which the Euclidean inner product, then
uv
u v
u1
u
2
or u u1 u2 ... un
un
uv
u1
u
2
un
v1
v
2
vn
u1 u1
u u
2
2
u
n
n
ku k
u1
u
2
un
ku1
ku
2
ku
n
u v u1 u 2 ... un v1 v2 ... vn
u1 v1 u 2 v1 ... u n vn
u1
u
2
un
and v
v1
v
2
vn
v Tu v1 v2 ... vn
u1
u
2
un
u1v1 u 2 v2 ... u n vn
u v u v
(7)
(8)
u Av AT u v
(9)
Example 5
T
Verifying ThatAu v u A v
Suppose that
1 2
A 2
4
1
0
3
1 ,
1
1
u 2
4
2
v 0
5
Then
1 2
Au 2
4
1
0
3 1
7
1 2 10
5
1 4
1 2 1 2
7
AT v 2 4
0 0 4
3 1
1
1 5
Au v 7( 2) 10(0) 5(5) 11
b2 j
brj
c
r
c
m
n
m 1 m 2
A linear system Ax b can be expressed in dot product form as
r1 x
r x
2
b1
b
2
(10)
(11)
x
m bm
where r1,r2 ,..., rm are the row vectors of A, and b1 , b2 ,..., bm are the entries of b
Example 6
A Linear System Written in Dot
Product Form
The following is an example of a linear system expressed from (11)
System
3x1 4 x2 x3 1
2 x1 7 x2 4 x3 5
x1 5 x2 8 x3 0
(1,5,8) ( x1 , x2 , x 3 ) 0
Functions from Rn to R
Formula
f (x)
f ( x, y )
f ( x, y , z )
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )
Example
f ( x) x
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
f ( x, y , z ) x 2
y2 z2
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )
x12 x22 ... xn2
Classification
Description
Real-valued
Function
function of a real from R to
variable
R
Real-valued
function of two
real variable
Function
from R2 to
R
Real-valued
function of three
real variable
Function
from R3 to
R
Real-valued
Function
function of n real from Rn to
variable
R
Functions from Rn to Rm
(1/2)
R
transformation f :
Functions from Rn to Rm
(2/2)
wm=fm (x1,x2,,xn)
Example 1
2
A Transformation from R to R
The equations
w1 x1 x2
w2 3x1 x2
w3 x12 x22
define a transformation T:R 2 R 3 .
T(x1,x2 ) ( x1 x2 ,3x1 x2 , x12 x22 )
Thus, for example, T (1,2) (1,6,3)
w
a
a
a
m m1 m 2
m3
or more briefly by w Ax
w1
w
2
Example 2
A Linear Transformation from R4
to R3
The linear transformation T:R 4 R 3 defined by the equations
w1 2 x1 3x2 x3 5 x4
w2 4 x1 x2 2 x3 x4
(5)
w3 5 x1 x2 4 x3
can be expressed in matrix form as
x1
2 3 1 5
w1 2 3 1 5
x
w 4 1 2 1 2
(6)
A 4 1 2 1
2
x
w3 5 1 4 0 3
5 1 4 0
x4
The image of a point (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) can be computed dorectly from
3
w2 4 1 2 1
0
w3 5 1 4 0
2
3
8
T Rn Rm
We denote the linear transformation
Thus,
TAby
Rn Rm
TA (x) Ax
Example 3
Zero Transformation
from Rn to Rm
If 0 is the m n zero matrix and 0 is the zero vector in R n , then
for every vector x in R n
T0 (x) 0x 0
so multiplication by zero maps every vector in R n into the zero
vector in R m . We call T0 the zero transformation from R n to R m .
Sometimes the zero transformation is denoted by 0.
Example 4
Identity Operator on Rn
If I is the n n identity, then for every vector x in R n
TI (x) Ix x
so multiplication by I maps every vector in R n into itself.
We call TI the identity operator on R n
Reflection Operators
Table 2
Table 3
Projection Operators
Table 4
Table 5
w2 r sin( )
(14)
(15)
sin
cos
(16)
Table 6
Example 5
Rotation
If each vector in R 2 is rotated through an angle of ( 30), then the image w of a vector
6
x
is
cos
sin
3
x
6
2
cos y 1
6
2
sin
1
x is w
3 1
2
1 3
3 x 1 y
x
2
2
2
y
3 1 x 3 y
2
2
2
A Rotation of Vectors in
R3(1/3)
A Rotation of Vectors in
R3(2/3)
Table 7
A Rotation of Vectors in
R3(3/3)
b (1 cos ) cos
a 2 (1 cos ) cos
c 2 (1 cos ) cos
Table 8
Table 9
Compositions of Linear
Transformations
If TA R n R k and TB R k R m are linear transformations, then for
each x in R n one can first compute TA (x), which is a vector in R k , and
then one can compute TB (TA (x)), which is a vector in R m . Thus, the
application of TA followed by TB produces a transformation from R m to
R n . This transformation is called the composition of TB with TA and is
denoted by TB TA (read "TB circle TA " ). Thus
(TB TA )(x) TB (TA (x))
(18)
(19)
TB TA TBA
(20)
(21)
Example 6
Composition of Two
Rotations(1/2)
Let T1 : R 2 R 2 and T2 : R R
be linear operators that
1
rotate vectors through the
angle
,respective.
2 and
Thus the operation
2
Example 6
Composition of Two
Rotations(2/2)
Thus, the standard matrices for these linear operators are
cos 1 sin 1
cos 2 sin 2
[T1 ]
[T2 ]
,
sin
cos
cos 2
1
1
sin 2
cos(1 2 ) sin(1 2 )
[T2 T1 ]
cos(1 2 )
sin(1 2 )
These matrices should satisfy (21).
cos 2 sin 2
[T2 ][T1 ]
cos 2
sin 2
cos 1 sin 1
sin
cos 1
1
cos(1 2 ) sin(1 2 )
cos(1 2 )
sin(1 2 )
[T2 T1 ]
Example 7
Composition Is Not
Commutative(1/2)
LetT1 : R 2 R 2 be the
reflection operator about
2
T2 : R
R2
x
the yline
,and
let
be the orthogonal
y
projection
on the -axis.
Figure 4.2.8 illustrates T1 T2
T2 T1
graphically
that
and
x effect on a
have different
vector . This same
conclusion can be reached
T2
by showingT1that the
standard matrices for
and
do not commute:
Example 7
Composition Is Not
Commutative(2/2)
0 1
T1 T2 [T1 ][T2 ]
1 0
0 1
T2 T1 [T2 ][T1 ]
0 0
so T1 T2 T2 T1
0 1
0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1
0 0
1 0 1 0
Example 8
Composition of Two
Reflections(1/2)
Example 8
Composition of Two
Reflections(2/2)
T2 T1
The equalityT1 T2 and
can also be deduced by
T1
T2 for
showing that the standard matrices
and
commute
1 0 1 0
1 0
1
1 0
[T2 T1 ] [T2 ][T1 ]
0 1
0 1 0
1 0
1
0
0 1
1
0
1
T ( x) x
The operator
on R2 or R3 is called the reflection
about the origin. As the computations above show, the
standard matrix for this operator on R2 is
1 0
0 1
Compositions of Three or
More Linear
Transformations
(T3 T2 T1 ) : R n R m
by
is
by
Example 9
Composition of Three
Transformations(1/2)
T : R3 R3
Find the standard matrix for the linear operator
that first rotates a vector counterclockwise about the z
-axis through anangle , then reflects the resulting
vector
yz about the -plane, and then projects that vector
orthogonally
xy onto the -plane.
Solution:
The linear transformation T can be expressed as the
composition T : T T T , where T 1 is the rotation about
3
2
1
the -axis, T2 is the rotation about the
yz -plane, T3 is the
z
rotation about thexy -plane. From Tables 3,5, and 7 the
standard matrices for these linear transformations are
Example 9
Composition of Three
Transformations(2/2)
cos
[T1 ] sin
0
sin
cos
0
0
0 ,
1
1 0 0
1 0 0
[T2 ] 0 1 0 , [T3 ] 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
Thus, from (22) the standard matrix for T is [T] [T3 ][T2 ][T1 ] , that is
1 0 0 1
[T ] 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
cos sin
sin cos
0
0
0 0 cos
1 0 sin
0 1 0
0
0
0
sin
cos
0
0
0
1
Definition
One-to-One Linear
transformations
Example 1
One-to-One Linear
Transformations
Theorem 4.3.1
Equivalent Statements
Example 2
Applying Theorem 4.3.1
sin
cos
Example 3
Applying Theorem 4.3.1
Inverse of a One-to-One
Linear Operator(1/2)
R
A
Theorem 4.3.1 the matrix A is invertible. Thus,
is itself a linear operator; it is called the inverse
TA1 TA and
of TA. The linear operators
cancel the effect
of one another in the sense that for all x in Rn
1
or equivalently,TA TA TAA TI
1
TA1 TA TA1 A TI
TA
If w is the image of x under TA, then
into x, since
1
maps w back
Inverse of a One-to-One
Linear Operator(2/2)
Example 4
Standard Matrix for T-1
cos
[T ]
sin
sin
cos
cos sin( )
cos( )
sin
is replaced by
Example 5
Finding T-1 (1/2)
Solution:
The matrix form of
w1 2
w 3
2
these equations is
1 x1
4 x2
2 1
[T ]
3 4
Example 5
Finding T-1 (2/2)
[T ] [T ]
Thus,
w
[T 1 ] 1
w2
4
5
3
5
3
2
5
1
1
4
w1 w2
5 w1
5
5
2 w2 3
2
w w
5 1 5 2
5
4
1
3
2
w1 w2 , w1 w2 )
5
5
5
5
Theorem 4.3.2
Properties of Linear
Transformations
Theorem 4.3.3
(6)
Example 6
Standard Matrix for a Projection
Operator(1/3)
Example 6
Standard Matrix for a Projection
Operator(2/3)
T
(
e
)
sin
sin
cos
T (e 2 ) cos
sin cos
T (e 2 )
2
T
(
e
)
sin
sin
2
sin cos
sin
Example 6
Standard Matrix for a Projection
Operator(3/3)
Solution (b):
Sincesin 6 1 2 and cos 6 3 2 , it follows from part (a) that
the standard matrix for this projection operator is
3 4
[T ]
3 4
3 4 1 4
thus,
1
T
5
3 4
3 4
3 4 1 4
or in horizontal notation
1
5
35 3
3 5
35 3 3 5
,
4
4
T 1,5
Definition
(7)
Example 7
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(1/3)
eigenvalues.
But if is a multiple of ,then every nonzero
vector x is mapped onto the same line as x, so every nonzero
vector is an eigenvector of T. Let us verify these geometric
observations algebraically.cos
The
standard
sin matrix for T is
A
cos
sin
As discussed in Section 2.3, the eigenvalues of this matrix are
equation
cos
sin
the solutions of the character
det(I A)
sin
cos
Example 7
Eigenvalues of a Linear Operator(2/
That is,
( cos ) 2 sin 2 0
, then
sin 0
But if is not a multiple of
, so this equation
0 1
2
T (x) Ax Ix x
Example 7
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(3/3)
1
( 1) equation
0
characteristic
(8) becomes
, so that
is the only eigenvalue of A. In this case the matrix A is
1 0
I
0 1
A
Thus, for all x in R2 ,
T (x) Ax Ix x
so T maps every vector to its negative, and hence to the
same line as x.
Example 8
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(1/3)
1
0 under T, which is on the same line as x, so every nonzero
vector on the z-axis is an eigenvector corresponding to theei
genvalue
. Vectors not in the xy-plane or along the z-axis are
0
mapped into scalar multiples of themselves, so there are no
other eigenvectors or eigenvalues.
To verify these geometric observations algebraically, recall from
Table 5 of Section 4.3 that the standard matrix for T is
1 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 0
Example 8
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(2/3)
1 0
0 1
0 x1
0 x2
x3
1 0
0 1
0 0
0
0
0
x1
x
2
x3
0
0
0
0
, this system
is 0
If
0
0
(9)
Example 8
Eigenvalues of a Linear
Operator(3/3)
0 are
x1 vectors
0 along the z-axis. If
then system (9) is 0 0 0 x 0
0 0 1 x3
t
0
Theorem 4.3.4
Equivalent Statements