Elementary Linear Algebra: Ankur Singh Offce-124 M AB2 VIT AP Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh

Elementary Linear Algebra
Ankur Singh Offce-124 M AB2

VIT AP Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh
Lecture Set – 08 onwards

Chapter 2:
Euclidean Vector Spaces
Chapter Content
 Euclidean n-Space
 Linear Transformations from Rn to Rm
 Properties of Linear Transformations Rn to Rm
 Linear Transformations and Polynomials
2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 2

4-1 Definitions
 If n is a positive integer, then an ordered n-tuple is a sequence of n

real numbers (a1,a2,…,an). The set of all ordered n-tuple is called n-
space and is denoted by Rn.
 Two vectors u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un) and v = (v1 ,v2 ,…, vn) in Rn are called
equal if
u1 = v1 ,u2 = v2 , …, un = vn
The sum u + v is defined by
u + v = (u1+v1 , u1+v1 , …, un+vn)
and if k is any scalar, the scalar multiple ku is defined by
ku = (ku1 ,ku2 ,…,kun)

4-1 Remarks
 The operations of addition and scalar multiplication in

this definition are called the standard operations on Rn.
 The zero vector in Rn is denoted by 0 and is defined to be

the vector 0 = (0, 0, …, 0).
 If u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un) is any vector in Rn, then the negative
(or additive inverse) of u is denoted by -u and is defined
by -u = (-u1 ,-u2 ,…,-un).
 The difference of vectors in Rn is defined by
v – u = v + (-u) = (v1 – u1 ,v2 – u2 ,…,vn – un)

Theorem 4.1.1 (Properties of Vector in Rn)
 If u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un), v = (v1 ,v2 ,…, vn), and w = (w1 ,w2 ,…,
wn) are vectors in Rn and k and l are scalars, then:
 u+v=v+u
 u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
 u+0=0+u=u
 u + (-u) = 0; that is u – u = 0
 k(lu) = (kl)u
 k(u + v) = ku + kv
 (k+l)u = ku+lu
 1u = u

4-1 Euclidean Inner Product
 Definition
 If u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un), v = (v1 ,v2 ,…, vn) are vectors in Rn, then the
Euclidean inner product u · v is defined by
u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + … + un vn
 Example 1
 The Euclidean inner product of the vectors u = (-1,3,5,7) and v =
(5,-4,7,0) in R4 is
u · v = (-1)(5) + (3)(-4) + (5)(7) + (7)(0) = 18

Theorem 4.1.2
Properties of Euclidean Inner Product
 If u, v and w are vectors in Rn and k is any scalar, then
 u·v=v·u
 (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w
 (k u) · v = k(u · v)
 v · v ≥ 0; Further, v · v = 0 if and only if v = 0

4-1 Example 2
 (3u + 2v) · (4u + v)

= (3u) · (4u + v) + (2v) · (4u + v )
= (3u) · (4u) + (3u) · v + (2v) · (4u) + (2v) · v
=12(u · u) + 11(u · v) + 2(v · v)

4-1 Norm and Distance in Euclidean n-Space
 We define the Euclidean norm (or Euclidean length) of a

vector u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un) in Rn by
u  (u  u)1/ 2  u12  u22  ...  un2
 Similarly, the Euclidean distance between the points u =

(u1 ,u2 ,…,un) and v = (v1 , v2 ,…,vn) in Rn is defined by
d (u, v)  u  v  (u1  v1 ) 2  (u2  v2 ) 2  ...  (un  vn ) 2

4-1 Example 3
 Example
 If u = (1,3,-2,7) and v = (0,7,2,2), then in the Euclidean space R4
u  (1) 2  (3) 2  (2) 2  (7) 2  63  3 7

d (u, v)  (1  0) 2  (3  7) 2  (2  2) 2  (7  2) 2  58

Theorem 4.1.3
(Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality in Rn)
 If u = (u1 ,u2 ,…,un) and v = (v1 , v2 ,…,vn) are vectors in Rn,
then |u · v| ≤ || u || || v ||

Theorem 4.1.4
(Properties of Length in Rn)
 If u and v are vectors in Rn and k is any scalar, then
 || u || ≥ 0
 || u || = 0 if and only if u = 0
 || ku || = | k ||| u ||
 || u + v || ≤ || u || + || v || (Triangle inequality)

Theorem 4.1.5
(Properties of Distance in Rn)
 If u, v, and w are vectors in Rn and k is any scalar, then
 d(u, v) ≥ 0
 d(u, v) = 0 if and only if u = v
 d(u, v) = d(v, u)
 d(u, v) ≤ d(u, w ) + d(w, v) (Triangle inequality)

Theorem 4.1.6
 If u, v, and w are vectors in Rn with the Euclidean inner
product, then u · v = ¼ || u + v ||2–¼ || u–v ||2

4-1 Orthogonality
 Two vectors u and v in Rn are called orthogonal if u · v = 0
 Example 4
 In the Euclidean space R4 the vectors
u = (-2, 3, 1, 4) and v = (1, 2, 0, -1)
are orthogonal, since
u · v = (-2)(1) + (3)(2) + (1)(0) + (4)(-1) = 0

Theorem 4.1.7
(Pythagorean Theorem in Rn)
 If u and v are orthogonal vectors in Rn which the
Euclidean inner product, then || u + v ||2 = || u ||2 + || v ||2

4-1 Matrix Formulae for the Dot Product
 If we use column matrix notation for the vectors

u = [u1 u2 … un]T and v = [v1 v2 … vn]T ,
or
 u1   v1 
u     and v    
un  vn 
then
u · v = v Tu
Au · v = u · ATv
u · Av = ATu · v

4-1 Example 5
 Verifying that Au‧v= u‧Atv
 1  2 3  1   2
A   2 4 1, u   2 , v   0 
 1 0 1  4   5 

4-1 A Dot Product View of
Matrix Multiplication
 If A = [aij] is an mr matrix and B =[bij] is an rn matrix, then the ij-
the entry of AB is
ai1b1j + ai2b2j + ai3b3j + … + airbrj
which is the dot product of the ith row vector of A and the jth
column vector of B
 Thus, if the row vectors of A are r1, r2, …, rm and the column
vectors of B are c1, c2, …, cn ,
r1  c1 r1  c 2  r1  c n 
r  c r  c  r  c 
AB   2 1 2 2 2 n 
    
 
rm  c1 rm  c 2  rm  c n 

4-1 Example 6
 A linear system written in dot product form
system dot product form

3x1  4 x2  x3  1  (3,-4,1)  ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  1
2 x1  7 x2  4 x3  5 (2,-7,-4)  ( x , x , x )  5
 1 2 3   
x1  5 x2  8 x3  0  (1,5,-8)  ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  0

Chapter Content

4-2 Functions from R n to R
 A function is a rule f that associates with each element in

a set A one and only one element in a set B.
 If f associates the element b with the element a, then we
write b = f(a) and say that b is the image of a under f or
that f(a) is the value of f at a.
 The set A is called the domain of f and the set B is called
the codomain of f.
 The subset of B consisting of all possible values for f as a
varies over A is called the range of f.

4-2 Examples
Formula Example Classification Description
Real-valued function of a Function from
f (x) f ( x)  x 2 real variable R to R
Real-valued function of Function from

two real variable R2 to R
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y)  x 2  y 2
Real-valued function of Function from

f ( x, y , z )  x 2 three real variable
f ( x, y , z ) R3 to R
 y2  z2
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )  Real-valued function of Function from

f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) n real variable Rn to R
x12  x22  ...  xn2

4-2 Function from R n to R m
 If the domain of a function f is Rn and the codomain is Rm, then f is

called a map or transformation from Rn to Rm. We say that the
function f maps Rn into Rm, and denoted by f : Rn  Rm.
 If m = n the transformation f : Rn  Rm is called an operator on Rn.
 Suppose f1, f2, …, fm are real-valued functions of n real variables,

say
w1 = f1(x1,x2,…,xn)
w2 = f2(x1,x2,…,xn)
…
wm = fm(x1,x2,…,xn)
These m equations define a transformation from Rn to Rm. If we
denote this transformation by T: Rn  Rm then
T (x1,x2,…,xn) = (w1,w2,…,wm)

4-2 Example 1
 The equations
w1 = x1 + x2
w2 = 3x1x2
w3 = x12 – x22
define a transformation T: R2  R3.
T(x1, x2) = (x1 + x2, 3x1x2, x12 – x22)
Thus, for example, T(1,-2) = (-1,-6,-3).

4-2 Linear Transformations
from Rn to Rm
 A linear transformation (or a linear operator if m = n) T: Rn  Rm is
defined by equations of the form
w1  a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn  w1  a11 a12  a13   x1 
w2  a21 x1  a22 x2  ...  a2 n xn  w  a a  a23   x2 
or  2    21 22
            
wm  am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn     
 wm  amn amn  amn   xm 
or
w = Ax
 The matrix A = [aij] is called the standard matrix for the linear
transformation T, and T is called multiplication by A.

4-2 Example 2 (Linear Transformation)
 The linear transformation T : R4  R3 defined by the
equations
w1 = 2x1 – 3x2 + x3 – 5x4
w2 = 4x1 + x2 – 2x3 + x4
w3 = 5x1 – x2 + 4x3
the standard matrix for T (i.e., w = Ax) is
2  3 1  5
A  4 1  2 1 
5  1 4 0 

4-2 Notations of Linear Transformations
 If it is important to emphasize that A is the standard matrix for
T. We denote the linear transformation T: Rn  Rm by TA: Rn 
Rm . Thus, TA(x) = Ax
 We can also denote the standard matrix for T by the symbol
[T], or T(x) = [T]x
 Remark:
 A correspondence between mn matrices and linear transformations
from Rn to Rm :
 To each matrix A there corresponds a linear transformation TA
(multiplication by A), and to each linear transformation T: Rn  Rm,
there corresponds an mn matrix [T] (the standard matrix for T).

4-2 Examples
 Example 3 (Zero Transformation from Rn to Rm)

 If 0 is the mn zero matrix and 0 is the zero vector in Rn, then for
every vector x in Rn
T0(x) = 0x = 0
 So multiplication by zero maps every vector in Rn into the zero
vector in Rm. We call T0 the zero transformation from Rn to Rm.
 Example 4 (Identity Operator on Rn)

 If I is the nn identity, then for every vector in Rn
TI(x) = Ix = x
 So multiplication by I maps every vector in Rn into itself.
 We call TI the identity operator on Rn.

4-2 Reflection Operators
 In general, operators on R2 and R3 that map each vector

into its symmetric image about some line or plane are
called reflection operators.
 Such operators are linear.

4-2 Reflection Operators (2-Space)

4-2 Reflection Operators (3-Space)

4-2 Projection Operators
 In general, a projection operator (or more precisely an

orthogonal projection operator) on R2 or R3 is any
operator that maps each vector into its orthogonal
projection on a line or plane through the origin.
 The projection operators are linear.



4-2 Rotation Operators
 An operator that rotate each vector in R2 through a

fixed angle  is called a rotation operator on R2.

4-2 Example 6
 If each vector in R2 is rotated through an angle of /6

(30) ,then the image w of a vector
x 
x 
 y
cos   sin   x  3 1   3 x  1 y
6    2 2     2
x 2 
w
6
is     y  
sin  cos    y  1 3   3
 6 6   2 2   2 x 
1
2 
y
 For example, the image of the vector

 3  1
1  
x    is w   2 
1 1  3
 
 2 

4-2 A Rotation of Vectors in R 3
 A rotation of vectors in R3 is usually

described in relation to a ray emanating
from the origin, called the axis of rotation.
 As a vector revolves around the axis of
rotation it sweeps out some portion of a
cone.
 The angle of rotation is described as
“clockwise” or “counterclockwise” in
relation to a viewpoint that is along the axis
of rotation looking toward the origin.
 The axis of rotation can be specified by a
nonzero vector u that runs along the axis of
rotation and has its initial point at the origin.

4-2 A Rotation of Vectors in R 3

4-2 Dilation and Contraction Operators
 If k is a nonnegative scalar, the operator on R2 or R3 is

called a contraction with factor k if 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 and a
dilation with factor k if k ≥ 1 .

4-2 Compositions of Linear Transformations
 If TA : Rn  Rk and TB : Rk  Rm are linear transformations, then for
each x in Rn one can first compute TA(x), which is a vector in Rk, and
then one can compute TB(TA(x)), which is a vector in Rm.
 the application of TA followed by TB produces a transformation from Rn
to Rm.
 This transformation is called the composition of TB with TA and is
denoted by TB。TA. Thus (TB 。 TA)(x) = TB(TA(x))
 The composition TB 。 TA is linear since

(TB 。TA)(x) = TB(TA(x)) = B(Ax) = (BA)x
 The standard matrix for TB。TA is BA. That is, TB。TA = TBA
 Multiplying matrices is equivalent to composing the corresponding
linear transformations in the right-to-left order of the factors.

4-2 Example 6
(Composition of Two Rotations)
 Let T1 : R2  R2 and T2 : R2 
R2 be linear operators that rotate
vectors through the angle 1 and
2, respectively.
 The operation
(T2 。T1)(x) = (T2(T1(x)))
first rotates x through the angle
1, then rotates T1(x) through the
angle 2.
 It follows that the net effect of
T2 。T1
is to rotate each vector in R2
through the angle 1+ 2

4-2 Example 7
Composition Is Not Commutative
0 1 0 1  0 1
T1  T2   [T1 ][T2 ]      
1 0 0 0  0 0
0 1  0 1 0 0
T2  T1   [T2 ][T1 ]   
0
  
0 1 0 1 0 
so T1  T2   T2  T1 

4-2 Example 8
 Let T1: R2  R2 be the reflection about the y-axis, and T2:
R2  R2 be the reflection about the x-axis.
 (T1◦T2)(x,y) = T1(x, -y) = (-x, -y)
 (T2◦T1)(x,y) = T2(-x, y) = (-x, -y)
 is called the reflection about the origin
 加圖4.2.9

4-2 Compositions of Three or More
Linear Transformations
 Consider the linear transformations
T 1 : Rn  Rk , T2 : Rk  R l , T 3 : Rl  Rm
 We can define the composition (T3◦T2◦T1) : Rn  Rm by
(T3◦T2◦T1)(x) : T3(T2(T1(x)))
 This composition is a linear transformation and the standard matrix
for T3◦T2◦T1 is related to the standard matrices for T1,T2, and T3 by
[T3◦T2◦T1] = [T3][T2][T1]
 If the standard matrices for T1, T2, and T3 are denoted by A, B, and C,
respectively, then we also have
TC◦TB◦TA = TCBA

4-2 Example 9
 Find the standard matrix for the linear operator T : R3  R3 that first
rotates a vector counterclockwise about the z-axis through an angle ,
then reflects the resulting vector about the yz-plane, and then
projects that vector orthogonally onto the xy-plane.
cos   sin  0  1 0 0  1 0 0 
[T1 ]  sin  cos  0 , [T2 ]   0 1 0, [T3 ]  0 1 0 
 0 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0   1 0 0  cos   sin  0  cos  sin  0

[T ]  0 1 0   0 1 0 sin  cos  0    sin  cos  0 
0 0 0  0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 0 

Chapter Content

4-3 One-to-One Linear Transformations
 A linear transformation T : Rn →Rm is said to be one-to-
one if T maps distinct vectors (points) in Rn into distinct
vectors (points) in Rm
 Remark:
 That is, for each vector w in the range of a one-to-one linear
transformation T, there is exactly one vector x such that
T(x) = w.
 Example 1
 Rotation operator is one-to-one
 Orthogonal projection operator is not one-to-one

Theorem 4.3.1 (Equivalent Statements)
 If A is an nn matrix and TA : Rn  Rn is multiplication by

A, then the following statements are equivalent.
 A is invertible
 The range of TA is Rn
 TA is one-to-one

4-3 Example 2 & 3
 The rotation operator T : R2  R2 is one-to-one
 The standard matrix for T is cos   sin  
[T ]  
sin  cos  
 [T] is invertible since
cos   sin 
det  cos 2   sin 2   1  0
sin  cos 
 The projection operator T : R3  R3 is not one-to-one

 The standard matrix for T is 1 0 0 
[T ]  0 1 0 
0 0 0
 [T] is not invertible since det[T] = 0

4-3 Inverse of a One-to-One Linear Operator
 Suppose TA : Rn  Rn is a one-to-one linear operator
 The matrix A is invertible.
 TA-1 : Rn  Rn is itself a linear operator; it is called the inverse of TA.
 TA(TA-1(x)) = AA-1x = Ix = x and TA-1(TA (x)) = A-1Ax = Ix = x
 TA ◦ TA-1 = TAA-1 = TI and TA-1 ◦ TA = TA-1A = TI
 If w is the image of x under TA, then TA-1 maps w back into x, since
TA-1(w) = TA-1(TA (x)) = x
 When a one-to-one linear operator on Rn is written as T : Rn  Rn, then

the inverse of the operator T is denoted by T-1.
 Thus, by the standard matrix, we have [T-1]=[T]-1

4-3 Example 4
 Let T : R2  R2 be the operator that rotates each vector in R2 through

the angle : cos   sin  
[T ]  
sin  cos  
 Undo the effect of T means rotate each vector in R2 through the
angle -.
 This is exactly what the operator T-1 does: the standard matrix T-1 is
1 1  cos  sin   cos( )  sin(  ) 
[T ]  [T ]     
  sin  cos    sin(  ) cos(  ) 
 The only difference is that the angle  is replaced by -

4-3 Example 5
 Show that the linear operator T : R2  R2 defined by the equations
w1= 2x1+ x2
w2 = 3x1+ 4x2
is one-to-one, and find T-1(w1,w2).
 Solution:  4 1
 5  
w1  2 1   x1  2 1  5
w   3 4  x 
1 1
[T ]    [T ]  [T ]   
 2   2  3 4  3 2
 5 5 
 4 1  4 1 
 5    w  w2 
1  1    1
w 5 w 5 5
[T ]       
1

 w2   3 2   w2   3 2 
 w1  w2
 5 5 
 5 5 
4 1 3 2
T 1 ( w1 , w2 )  ( w1  w2 , w1  w2 )
5 5 5 5

Theorem 4.3.2
(Properties of Linear Transformations)
 A transformation T : Rn  Rm is linear if and only if the following
relationships hold for all vectors u and v in Rn and every scalar c.
 T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v)
 T(cu) = cT(u)

Theorem 4.3.3
 If T : Rn  Rm is a linear transformation, and e1, e2, …, en are
the standard basis vectors for Rn, then the standard matrix for T
is A = [T] = [T(e1) | T(e2) | … | T(en)]

4-3 Example 6
(Standard Matrix for a Projection Operator)
 Let l be the line in the xy-plane that passes through the
origin and makes an angle  with the positive x-axis,
where 0 ≤  ≤ . Let T: R2  R2 be a linear operator that
maps each vector into orthogonal projection on l.
 Find the standard matrix for T.
 Find the orthogonal projection of
the vector x = (1,5) onto the line
through the origin that makes an
angle of  = /6 with the positive
x-axis.

4-3 Example 6 (continue)
 The standard matrix for T can be written as
[T] = [T(e1) | T(e2)]
 Consider the case 0    /2.
 ||T(e1)|| = cos 
 T (e1 ) cos    cos 2  

T (e1 )    
 T (e ) sin   sin  cos  
||T(e2)|| = sin 
1

 T (e 2 )  cos   sin  cos  

T (e 2 )    
    sin  
2
 T (e 2 ) sin
 cos 2  sin  cos  

T    
sin  cos  sin 2  

 cos 2  sin  cos  
T    
sin  cos  sin  
2
 Since sin (/6) = 1/2 and cos (/6) = 3 /2, it follows

from part (a) that the standard matrix for this projection
operator is
3 4 3 4
[T ]   
 3 4 1 4 
Thus,
3  5 3 
 1   3 4 3 4 1   4 
T           
 5   3 4 1 4  5  3  5 
 
 4 

4-3 Geometric Interpretation of Eigenvector
 If T: Rn  Rn is a linear operator, then a scalar  is called an
eigenvalue of T if there is a nonzero x in Rn such that
T(x) = x
Those nonzero vectors x that satisfy this equation are called the
eigenvectors of T corresponding to 
 Remarks:
 If A is the standard matrix for T, then the equation becomes
Ax = x
 The eigenvalues of T are precisely the eigenvalues of its standard
matrix A
 x is an eigenvector of T corresponding to  if and only if x is an
eigenvector of A corresponding to 
 If  is an eigenvalue of A and x is a corresponding eigenvector, then Ax
= x, so multiplication by A maps x into a scalar multiple of itself

4-3 Example 7
 Let T : R2  R2 be the linear operator that rotates each vector

through an angle .
 If  is a multiple of , then every nonzero vector x is mapped onto
the same line as x, so every nonzero vector is an eigenvector of T.
cos   sin  
The standard matrix for T is A  
cos  

sin 
 The eigenvalues of this matrix are the solutions of the characteristic

equation
  cos  sin 
det(I  A)  0
 sin    cos 
 That is, ( – cos )2 + sin2  = 0.

4-3 Example 7(continue)
(  cos ) 2  sin 2   0
 If  is not a multiple of   Thus, for all x in R2, T(x) = Ax
 sin2 > 0 = Ix = x
 no real solution for   So T maps every vector to
 A has no real eigenvectors. itself, and hence to the same
line.
 If  is a multiple of 
 sin  = 0 and cos  = 1
 In the case that sin  = 0 and
 In the case that sin  = 0 and cos  = -1,
cos  = 1
 A = -I and T(x) = -x
  = 1 is the only eigenvalue
 T maps every vector to its
 1 0 negative.
A 
0 1

4-3 Example 8
 Let T : R3  R3 be the orthogonal projection on xy-plane.
 Vectors in the xy-plane
 mapped into themselves under T
 each nonzero vector in the xy-plane is an eigenvector corresponding to
the eigenvalue  = 1
 Every vector x along the z-axis
 mapped into 0 under T, which is on the same line as x
 every nonzero vector on the z-axis is an eigenvector corresponding to
the eigenvalue 0
 Vectors not in the xy-plane or along the z-axis
 mapped into  = 0 scalar multiples of themselves
 there are no other eigenvectors or eigenvalues

4-3 Example 8 (continue) 1 0 0 
A  0 1 0 
0 0 0
 The characteristic equation of A is
 1 0 0
det(I  A)  0  1 0  0 or (  1) 2   0
0 0 
 The eigenvectors of the matrix A corresponding to an eigenvalue λ
are the nonzero solutions of   1 0 0   x1  0
 0
  1 0   x2   0
 0 0    x3  0
 If  = 0, this system is
 1 0 0  x1  0  x1  0
 0 1
 0  x2   0  x   0 
 2  
 0 0 0   x3  0  x3  t 
 The vectors are along the z-axis

 If  = 1, the system is
0 0 0  x1  0  x1   s 
0 0 0   x   0   x   t 
  2     2  
0 0 1   x3  0  x3  0
 The vectors are along the xy-plane

Theorem 4.3.4 (Equivalent Statements)
 If A is an nn matrix, and if TA : Rn  Rn is multiplication

by A, then the following are equivalent.
 A is invertible
 Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution
 The reduced row-echelon form of A is In
 A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices
 Ax = b is consistent for every n1 matrix b
 Ax = b has exactly one solution for every n1 matrix b
 det(A)  0
 The range of TA is Rn
 TA is one-to-one

Chapter Content

4-4 Example 1
 Correspondence between polynomials and vectors
 Consider the quadratic function p(x)=ax2+bx+c
 define the vector
 
a
z  b 
 c 

4-4 Example 2
 Addition of polynomials by adding vectors
 Let p(x)= 4x3-2x+1 and q(x)= 3x3-3x+x then to compute
r(x) = 4p(x)-2q(x)

4-4 Example 3
 Differentiation of polynomials
 p(x) =ax2+bx+c
d
p( x)  2ax  b
dx

4-4 Affine Transformation
 An affine transformation from Rn to Rm is a mapping of

the form S(u) = T(u) + f, where T is a linear
transformation from Rn to Rm and f is a (constant) vector
in Rm.
 Remark
 The affine transform S is a linear transformation if f is the
zero vector

4-4 Example 4 (Affine Transformations)
 The mapping
 0 1 1
S (u)    u  1
  1 0 
is an affinetransformation on R2.
 If u = (a,b), then
 0 1 a  1 b  1 
S (u)        
 1 0 b  1  a  1

4-4 Interpolating Polynomials
 Consider the problem of interpolating a polynomial to a
set of n+1 points (x0,y0), …, (xn,yn).
 That is, we seek to find a curve p(x) = anxn + … + a0
 The matrix
1 x0 x02  x0n  a0   y0 
 n   y 
1 x1 x12  x0   1   1 
a
          
 n    
1 xn 1 xn21  xn 1   n 1   n 1 
a y
1 x xn2  xnn  an   yn 
 n
is known as a Vandermonde matrix

4-4 Example 5 (Interpolating a Cubic)
 To interpolating a polynomial to the data (-2,11), (-1,2),

(1,2), (2,-1), we form the Vandermonde system
1  2 4  8 a0  11 
1  1 1  1  a   2 
  1    
1 1 1 1  a2   2 
    
1 2 4 8   a3   1
 The solution is given by [1 1 1 -1].

 Thus, the interpolant is p(x) = -x3 + x2 + x + 1.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Ankur Singh Offce-124 M AB2 VIT AP Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh

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Elementary Linear Algebra

Ankur Singh Offce-124 M AB2

Lecture Set – 08 onwards

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 2

 If n is a positive integer, then an ordered n-tuple is a sequence of n

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 3

 The operations of addition and scalar multiplication in

 The zero vector in Rn is denoted by 0 and is defined to be

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 4

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 5

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 6

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 7

 (3u + 2v) · (4u + v)

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 8

 We define the Euclidean norm (or Euclidean length) of a

 Similarly, the Euclidean distance between the points u =

d (u, v)  u  v  (u1  v1 ) 2  (u2  v2 ) 2  ...  (un  vn ) 2

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 9

u  (1) 2  (3) 2  (2) 2  (7) 2  63  3 7

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 10

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 11

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 12

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 13

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 14

 Two vectors u and v in Rn are called orthogonal if u · v = 0

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 15

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 16

 If we use column matrix notation for the vectors

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 17

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 18

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 19

 A linear system written in dot product form

system dot product form

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 20

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 21

 A function is a rule f that associates with each element in

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 22

Real-valued function of Function from

Real-valued function of Function from

f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )  Real-valued function of Function from

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 23

 If the domain of a function f is Rn and the codomain is Rm, then f is

 If m = n the transformation f : Rn  Rm is called an operator on Rn.

 Suppose f1, f2, …, fm are real-valued functions of n real variables,

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 24

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 25

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 26

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 27

[T], or T(x) = [T]x

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 28

 Example 3 (Zero Transformation from Rn to Rm)

 Example 4 (Identity Operator on Rn)

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 29

 In general, operators on R2 and R3 that map each vector

 Such operators are linear.

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 30

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 31

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 32

 In general, a projection operator (or more precisely an

 The projection operators are linear.

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 33

2019/7/30 Elementary Linear Algebra 34