Application of Linear Transformation in Computer Graphics PDF

CHAPTER 6
LINEAR
TRANSFORMATIONS
6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations
6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations
Elementary Linear Algebra 投影片設計製作者

R. Larson (8 Edition) 淡江大學電機系翁慶昌教授
CH 6 Linear Algebra Applied
Multivariate Statistics (p.304) Circuit Design (p.322)
Control Systems (p.314)
Population Age and Growth Distribution (p.331) Computer Graphics (p.338)

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6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations
 Function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:
T : V mapping
W , V ,W : vector space
V: the domain of T
W: the codomain of T
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.298 2/103

 Image of v under T:
If v is in V and w is in W such that

T ( v)  w
Then w is called the image of v under T .
 the range of T:
The set of all images of vectors in V.
 the preimage of w:
The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w.

 Ex 1: (A function from R2 into R2 )
T : R 2  R 2 v  (v1 , v2 )  R 2
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
(a) Find the image of v=(-1,2). (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11)
Sol:
(a ) v  (1, 2)
 T ( v )  T (1, 2)  (1  2,  1  2(2))  (3, 3)
(b) T ( v)  w  (1, 11)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )  (1, 11)
 v1  v2  1
v1  2v2  11
 v1  3, v2  4 Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1, 11).
 Linear Transformation (L.T.):
V ,W： vector space
T : V  W： V to W linear tra nsformatio n
(1) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v), u, v V
(2) T (cu)  cT (u), c  R

 Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving.
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) T (cu)  cT (u)
Addition Addition Scalar Scalar

in V in W multiplication multiplication
in V in W
(2) A linear transformation T : V  V from a vector space into

itself is called a linear operator.

 Ex 2: (Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
Pf:
u  (u1 , u2 ), v  (v1 , v2 ) : vector in R 2 , c : any real number
(1)Vector addition :
u  v  (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 )  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
T (u  v )  T (u1  v1 , u 2  v2 )
 ((u1  v1 )  (u 2  v2 ), (u1  v1 )  2(u 2  v2 ))
 ((u1  u 2 )  (v1  v2 ), (u1  2u 2 )  (v1  2v2 ))
 (u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
 T (u)  T ( v )
(2) Scalar multiplica tion
cu  c(u1 , u 2 )  (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu)  T (cu1 , cu2 )  (cu1  cu2 , cu1  2cu2 )
 c(u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )
 cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

 Ex 3: (Functions that are not linear transformations)
(a ) f ( x)  sin x
sin( x1  x2 )  sin( x1 )  sin( x2 )  f ( x )  sin x is not
sin( 2  3 )  sin( 2 )  sin( 3 ) linear transformation
(b) f ( x)  x 2
 f ( x )  x 2 is not linear
( x1  x2 )2  x12  x22
transformation
(1  2)  1  2
2 2 2
(c) f ( x)  x  1
f ( x1  x2 )  x1  x2  1
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  ( x1  1)  ( x2  1)  x1  x2  2
f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  f ( x )  x  1 is not
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.300 linear transformation 9/103
 Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”.
(1) f ( x)  x  1 is called a linear function because its graph

is a line.
(2) f ( x)  x  1 is not a linear transformation from a vector

space R into R because it preserves neither vector
addition nor scalar multiplication.

 Zero transformation:
T :V  W T ( v)  0, v V
 Identity transformation:
T :V  V T ( v)  v, v V
 Thm 6.1: (Properties of linear transformations)
T : V  W , u, v V
(1) T (0)  0
(2) T ( v)  T ( v)
(3) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)
(4) If v  c1v1  c2 v2    cn vn
Then T ( v )  T (c1v1  c2 v2    cn vn )
 c1T (v1 )  c2T (v2 )    cnT (vn )
 Ex 4: (Linear transformations and bases)
Let T : R 3  R 3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0)  (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0)  (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1)  (0,3,1)
Find T(2, 3, −2).
Sol:
(2,3,2)  2(1,0,0)  3(0,1,0)  2(0,0,1)
T ( 2,3,2)  2T (1,0,0)  3T (0,1,0)  2T (0,0,1) (T is a L.T.)
 2( 2,1,4)  3(1,5,2)  2T (0,3,1)
 ( 7,7,0 )

 Ex 5: (A linear transformation defined by a matrix)
3 0
v 
The function T : R 2  R 3 is defined as T ( v)  Av   2 1  1 
  v2 
(a) Find T ( v ) , where v  (2,1)   1  2
(b) Show that T is a linear transformatio n form R 2 into R 3
Sol: (a ) v  (2,1) R 2 vector R 3 vector
3 0 6 
 
2
T ( v)  Av   2 1      3
   1  
  1  2 0 
T (2,1)  (6,3,0)
(b) T (u  v)  A(u  v)  Au  Av  T (u)  T ( v) (vector addition)
T (cu)  A(cu)  c( Au)  cT (u) (scalar multiplication)

 Thm 6.2: (The linear transformation given by a matrix)
Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v)  Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm.
 Note: R n vecto r R m vecto r

 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 
 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
         
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amnvn 
T ( v)  Av
T : Rn 
 R m
 Ex 7: (Rotation in the plane)
Show that the L.T. T : R 2  R 2 given by the matrix
cos   sin  
A
 sin  cos  
has the property that it rotates every vector in R2
counterclockwise about the origin through the angle .
Sol:
v  ( x, y)  (r cos  , r sin  ) (polar coordinates)
r： the length of v
：the angle from the positive
x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector v
cos   sin    x  cos   sin   r cos  
T ( v)  Av      
 sin  cos      sin 
y cos    r sin  
 r cos  cos   r sin  sin  

r sin  cos   r cos  sin  
r cos(   )

 r sin(    ) 
r：the length of T(v)
 +：the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector T(v)
Thus, T(v) is the vector that results from rotating the vector v
counterclockwise through the angle .

 Ex 8: (A projection in R3)
The linear transformation T : R 3  R 3 is given by
1 0 0
A  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 
is called a projection in R3.

 Ex 9: (A linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m )
T ( A)  AT (T : M mn  M nm )
Show that T is a linear transformation.
Sol:
A, B  M mn
T ( A  B)  ( A  B)T  AT  BT  T ( A)  T ( B)
T (cA)  (cA)T  cAT  cT ( A)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m.

Key Learning in Section 6.1
▪ Find the image and preimage of a function.
▪ Show that a function is a linear transformation, and find a
linear transformation.
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Keywords in Section 6.1
 function: 函數
 domain: 論域
 codomain: 對應論域
 image of v under T: 在T映射下v的像
 range of T: T的值域
 preimage of w: w的反像
 linear transformation: 線性轉換
 linear operator: 線性運算子
 zero transformation: 零轉換
 identity transformation: 相等轉換
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6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
 Kernel of a linear transformation T:
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation
Then the set of all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v)  0 is
called the kernel of T and is denoted by ker(T).
ker(T )  {v | T ( v)  0, v V }
 Ex 1: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation)

T ( A)  AT (T : M 32  M 23 )
Sol:
 0 0  
  
ker(T )  0 0 
 0 0  
 
 Ex 2: (The kernel of the zero and identity transformations)
(a) T(v) = 0 (the zero transformation T : V  W )
ker(T )  V
(b) T(v) = v (the identity transformation T : V  V )
ker(T )  {0}

T ( x, y, z)  ( x, y,0) (T : R3  R3 )
ker(T )  ?
Sol:
ker(T )  {( 0,0, z ) | z is a real number }

 x1 
 1  1  2  
T (x)  Ax    x2 (T : R 3  R 2 )
 1 2 3  
 x3 
ker(T )  ?
Sol:
ker(T )  {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) | T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0,0), x  ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  R 3}
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0,0)
 x1 
 1  1  2    0 
 1 2  x2   
3    0 
 x3 

 1  1  2 0 G. J .E 1 0  1 0
 1 2  
3 0 0 1 1 0
 x1   t   1 
  x2    t   t  1
     
 x3   t   1 
 ker(T )  {t (1,1,1) | t is a real number }

 span{(1,1,1)}

 Thm 6.3: (The kernel is a subspace of V)
The kernel of a linear transformation T : V  W is a
subspace of the domain V.
Pf: T (0)  0 (Theorem 6.1)
 ker(T ) is a nonempty subset of V
Let u and v be vectors in the kernel of T . then
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)  0  0  0  u  v  ker(T )
T (cu)  cT (u)  c0  0  cu  ker(T )

Thus, ker(T ) is a subspace of V .
 Note:
The kernel of T is sometimes called the nullspace of T.
 Ex 6: (Finding a basis for the kernel)
Let T : R 5  R 4 be defined by T (x)  Ax, where x is in R 5 and
1 2 1  1
0
2 1 3 1 0 
A
 1 0 2 0 1 
 
0 0 0 2 8
Find a basis for ker(T) as a subspace of R5.

Sol:
A 0 
1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0
2 1 3 1 0 0  G . J . E 0 1 1 0 2 0
   
 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 0
 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
s t
 x1   2 s  t    2  1 
 x2   s  2t  1  2
       
x   x3    s   s  1   t  0 
 x4    4t   0   4
 x5   t   0   1 
B  (2, 1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 2, 0,  4, 1): one basis for the kernel of T

 Corollary to Thm 6.3:
Let T : R n  R m be the L.T given by T (x)  Ax
Then the kernel of T is equal to the solution space of Ax  0
T (x)  Ax (a linear transformati on T : R n  R m )
 Ker (T )  NS ( A)  x | Ax  0, x  R m  (subspace of R m )
 Range of a linear transformation T:
Let T : V  W be a L.T.
Then the set of all vectors w in W that are images of vector
in V is called the range of T and is denoted by range(T )
range(T )  {T ( v) | v V }
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.311-312 28/103

 Thm 6.4: (The range of T is a subspace of W)
The range of a linear tra nsformatio n T : V  W is a subspace of W .
Pf:
T (0)  0 (Thm.6. 1)
 range(T ) is a nonempty subset of W
Let T (u) and T ( v) be vector in the range of T
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)  range(T ) ( u  V , v  V  u  v  V )
T (cu)  cT (u)  range(T ) (u  V  c u  V )
Therefore, range(T ) is W subspace .

 Notes:
T : V  W is a L.T.
(1) Ker (T ) is subspace of V
(2)range(T ) is subspace of W
 Corollary to Thm 6.4:

Let T : R n  R m be the L.T. given by T (x)  Ax
Then the range of T is equal to the column space of A
 range (T )  CS ( A)

 Ex 7: (Finding a basis for the range of a linear transformation)
Let T : R 5  R 4 be defined by T (x)  Ax, where x is R 5 and
1 2 1  1
0
2 1 3 1 0 
A
 1 0 2 0 1 
 
0 0 0 2 8
Find a basis for the range of T.

Sol:
1 2 0 1  1 1 0 2 0  1
2 1 3 1 0  G . J . E 0 1 1 0 2
A    B
 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
 0 0 0 2 8  0 0 0 0 0 
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5
 w1 , w2 , w4  is a basis for CS ( B )
c , c , c is a basis for CS ( A)
1 2 4
 (1, 2,  1, 0), (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 2)is a basis for the range of T

 Rank of a linear transformation T:V→W:
rank (T )  the dimension of the range of T
 Nullity of a linear transformation T:V→W:
nullity (T )  the dimension of the kernel of T
 Note:
Let T : R n  R m be the L.T. given by T (x)  Ax, then
rank (T )  rank ( A)
nullity (T )  nullity ( A)

 Thm 6.5: (Sum of rank and nullity)
Let T : V  W be a L.T. form an n - dimensiona l vector space V
into a vector space W . then
rank (T )  nullity( T )  n
dim( range of T )  dim( kernel of T )  dim( domain of T )
Pf:
Let T is represente d by an m  n matrix A
Assume rank ( A)  r
(1) rank (T )  dim( range of T )  dim( column space of A)
 rank ( A)  r
(2) nullity (T )  dim( kernel of T )  dim( solution space of A)
 nr
 rank (T )  nullity (T )  r  (n  r )  n
 Ex 8: (Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation)
Find the rank and nullity of the L.T. T : R 3  R 3 define by
1 0  2 
A  0 1 1 
0 0 0 
Sol:
rank (T )  rank ( A)  2
nullity (T )  dim( domain of T )  rank (T )  3  2  1

 Ex 9: (Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation)
Let T : R 5  R 7 be a linear tra nsformatio n.
(a ) Find the dimension of the kernel of T if the dimension
of the range is 2
(b) Find the rank of T if the nullity of T is 4
(c) Find the rank of T if ker (T )  {0}
Sol:
(a ) dim( domain of T )  5
dim( kernel of T )  n  dim( range of T )  5  2  3
(b) rank (T )  n  nullity (T )  5  4  1
(c) rank (T )  n  nullity (T )  5  0  5

 One-to-one:
A function T : V  W is called one - to - one if the preimage of
every w in the range consists of a single vector.
T is one - to - one iff for all u and v inV, T (u)  T ( v)
implies that u  v.

 Onto:
A function T : V  W is said to be onto if every element
in w has a preimage in V
(T is onto W when W is equal to the range of T.)

 Thm 6.6: (One-to-one linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T.
Then T is 1 - 1 iff ker(T )  {0}
Pf:
Suppose T is 1 - 1
Then T (v)  0 can have only one solution : v  0
i.e. ker (T )  {0}
Suppose ker (T )  {0} and T (u )  T (v)
T (u  v)  T (u)  T (v)  0
T is a L .T .
 u  v  ker(T )  u  v  0
 T is 1 - 1
 Ex 10: (One-to-one and not one-to-one linear transformation)
(a ) The L.T. T : M mn  M nm given by T ( A)  AT
is one - to - one.
Because its kernel consists of only the m  n zero matrix.
(b) The zero transform ation T : R 3  R 3 is not one - to - one.

Because its kernel is all of R 3 .

 Thm 6.7: (Onto linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T., where W is finite dimensiona l.
Then T is onto iff the rank of T is equal to the dimension of W .
 Thm 6.8: (One-to-one and onto linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T. with vect or space V and W both of
dimension n. Then T is one - to - one if and only if it is onto.
Pf:
If T is one - to - one, then ker(T )  {0} and dim(ker( T ))  0
dim( range (T ))  n  dim(ker( T ))  n  dim( W )
Consequent ly, T is onto.
If T is onto, then dim( range of T )  dim(W )  n
dim(ker( T ))  n  dim( range of T )  n  n  0
Therefore, T is one - to - one.
 Ex 11:
The L.T. T : R n  R m is given by T (x)  Ax, Find the nullity and rank
of T and determine whether T is one - to - one, onto, or neither.
1 2 0 1 2
( a ) A  0 1 1  (b) A  0 1
   
0 0 1  0 0 
1 2 0
1 2 0 
(c ) A   ( d ) A  0 1 1
0 1  1  
0 0 0
Sol:
T:Rn→Rm dim(domain of T) rank(T) nullity(T) 1-1 onto
(a)T:R3→R3 3 3 0 Yes Yes
(b)T:R2→R3 2 2 0 Yes No
(c)T:R3→R2 3 2 1 No Yes
(d)T:R3→R3 3 2 1 No No
 Isomorphism:
A linear transformatio n T : V  W that is one to one and onto
is called an isomorphis m. Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces
such that there exists an isomorphis m from V to W , then V and W
are said to be isomorphic to each other.
 Thm 6.9: (Isomorphic spaces and dimension)
Two finite-dimensional vector space V and W are isomorphic
if and only if they are of the same dimension.
Pf:
Assume that V is isomorphic to W , where V has dimension n.
 There exists a L.T. T : V  W that is one to one and onto.
T is one - to - one
 dim( Ker (T ))  0
 dim( range of T )  dim( domain of T )  dim( Ker (T ))  n  0  n
T is onto.
 dim( range of T )  dim(W )  n
Thus dim(V )  dim(W )  n
Assume that V and W both have dimension n.
Let v1 , v2 ,  , vn  be a basis of V, and
let w1 , w2 , , wn  be a basis of W .
Then an arbitrary vector in V can be represente d as
v  c1 v1  c2 v 2    cn v n
and you can define a L.T. T : V  W as follows.
T ( v)  c1w1  c2 w 2    cn w n
It can be shown that this L.T. is both 1-1 and onto.
Thus V and W are isomorphic.
 Ex 12: (Isomorphic vector spaces)
The following vector spaces are isomorphic to each other.
(a ) R 4  4 - space
(b) M 41  space of all 4  1 matrices
(c) M 22  space of all 2  2 matrices
(d) P3 ( x)  space of all polynomial s of degree 3 or less
(e)V  {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , 0), xi is a real number }(subspace of R 5 )

▪ Find the kernel of a linear transformation.
▪ Find a basis for the range, the rank, and the nullity of a linear
transformation.
▪ Determine whether a linear transformation is one-to-one or
onto.
▪ Determine whether vector spaces are isomorphic.
46/103
 kernel of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的核空間
 range of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的值域
 rank of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的秩
 nullity of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的核次數
 one-to-one: 一對一
 onto: 映成
 isomorphism(one-to-one and onto): 同構
 isomorphic space: 同構的空間
47/103
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
 Two representations of the linear transformation T:R3→R3 :
(1)T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  x2  x3 , x1  3x2  2 x3 ,3x2  4 x3 )
 2 1  1  x1 
(2)T (x)  Ax   1 3  2  x2 
  
 0 3 4   x3 
 Three reasons for matrix representation of a linear transformation:
 It is simpler to write.
 It is simpler to read.
 It is more easily adapted for computer use.

 Thm 6.10: (Standard matrix for a linear transformation)
Let T : R n  R m be a linear trt ansformati on such that
 a11   a12   a1n 
 a21   a22   a2 n 
T (e1 )   , T (e2 )   ,  , T (en )   ,
        
am1  am 2  amn 
Then the m n matrix who se n columns correspond to T (ei )
 a11 a12  a1n 
 a21 a22  a2 n 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (en )   
     
am1 am 2  amn 
is such that T ( v)  Av for every v in R n .
A is called the standard matrix for T .
Pf:
 v1 
 v2 
v     v1e1  v2 e2    vn en

vn 
T is a L.T.  T (v )  T (v1e1  v2 e2    vn en )
 T (v1e1 )  T (v2 e2 )    T (vn en )
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )    vnT (en )
 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 

 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
          
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amnvn 

 a11   a12   a1n 
 a21   a22   a2 n 
 v1    v2      vn  
        
am1  am 2  amn 
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )    vnT (en )
Therefore, T ( v)  Av for each v in R n

 Ex 1: (Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation)
Find the standard matrix for the L.T. T : R3  R 2 define by
T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y, 2 x  y)
Sol:
Vector Notation Matrix Notation
1
  1 
T (e1 )  T (1, 0, 0)  (1, 2) T (e1 )  T ( 0 )   
   2
0 
0 
  2
T (e2 )  T (0, 1, 0)  (2, 1) T (e2 )  T ( 1 )   
  1
0 
0 
  0 
T (e3 )  T (0, 0, 1)  (0, 0) T (e3 )  T ( 0 )   
  0 
1
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 ) T (e3 )
1  2 0 

2 1 0
 Check:
 x  x
  1  2 0     x  2 y 
A y  y 
  2 1 0   2 x  y 

z z
i.e. T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y,2 x  y)
 Note:
1  2 0  1x  2 y  0 z
A
2 1 0  2 x  1y  0 z

 Ex 2: (Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation)
The linear tra nsformatio n T : R 2  R 2 is given by projecting
each point in R 2 onto the x - axis. Find the standard matrix for T .
Sol:
T ( x, y)  ( x, 0)
1 0
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (1, 0) T (0, 1)  
0 0
 Notes:
(1) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rm
is the m  n zero matrix.
(2) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rn
is the n  n identity matrix In.
 Composition of T1:Rn→Rm with T2:Rm→Rp :
T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v)), v  R n
T  T2  T1 , domain of T  domain of T1
 Thm 6.11: (Composition of linear transformations)

Let T1 : R n  R m and T2 : R m  R p be L.T.
with standard matrices A1 and A2 , then
(1)The compositio n T : R n  R p , defined by T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v)), is a L.T.
(2) The standard matrix A for T is given by the matrix product A  A2 A1

Pf:
(1)( T is a L.T.)
Let u and v be vectors in R n and let c be any scalar the n
T (u  v )  T2 (T1 (u  v ))  T2 (T1 (u)  T1 ( v ))
 T2 (T1 (u))  T2 (T1 ( v ))  T (u)  T ( v )
T (cv )  T2 (T1 (cv ))  T2 (cT1 ( v ))  cT2 (T1 ( v ))  cT ( v )
(2)( A2 A1 is the standard matrix for T )
T ( v )  T2 (T1 ( v ))  T2 ( A1 v )  A2 A1 v  ( A2 A1 ) v
 Note:
T1  T2  T2  T1

 Ex 3: (The standard matrix of a composition)
Let T1 and T2 be L.T. from R3 into R3 s.t.
T1 ( x, y, z )  (2 x  y, 0, x  z )
T2 ( x, y, z )  ( x  y, z, y )
Find the standard matrices for the compositio ns
T  T2  T1 and T '  T1  T2 ,
Sol:
2 1 0
A1  0 0 0 (standard matrix for T1 )
1 0 1
1  1 0
A2  0 0 1 (standard matrix for T2 )
0 1 0
The standard matrix for T  T2  T1
1  1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
A  A2 A1  0 0 1 0 0 0  1 0 1
    
 0 1 0  1 0 1   0 0 0 
The standard matrix for T '  T1  T2
2 1 0 1  1 0 2  2 1
A'  A1 A2  0 0 0 0 0 1  0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

 Inverse linear transformation:
If T1 : R n  R n and T2 : R n  R n are L.T. s.t. for every v in R n
T2 (T1 ( v ))  v and T1 (T2 ( v))  v
Then T2 is called the inverse of T1 and T1 is said to be invertible
 Note:
If the transformation T is invertible, then the inverse is
unique and denoted by T–1 .

 Thm 6.12: (Existence of an inverse transformation)
Let T : R n  R n be a L.T. with standard matrix A,
Then the following condition are equivalent .
(1) T is invertible.
(2) T is an isomorphism.
(3) A is invertible.
 Note:
If T is invertible with standard matrix A, then the standard
matrix for T–1 is A–1 .

 Ex 4: (Finding the inverse of a linear transformation)
The L.T. T： R3  R3 is defined by
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  3x2  x3 , 3x1  3x2  x3 , 2 x1  4 x2  x3 )
Show that T is invertible, and find its inverse.
Sol:
The standard matrix for T
2 3 1  2 x1  3 x2  x3
A  3 3 1  3 x1  3 x2  x3
2 4 1  2 x1  4 x2  x3
 2 3 1 1 0 0
 A I 3    3 3 1 0 1 0
 
 2 4 1 0 0 1 
1 0 0  1 1 0
G 0 1 0  1 0
. J .E

1  I

 A1 
 0 0 1 6  2  3
Therefore T is invertible and the standard matrix for T 1 is A1
 1 1 0
A1   1 0 1
 
 6  2  3
 1 1 0   x1    x1  x2 
T 1 ( v)  A1 v   1 0 1   x2     x1  x3 
    
 6  2  3 3   1
x 6 x  2 x 2  3 x3
In other word s,
T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1  x2 ,  x1  x3 , 6 x1  2 x2  3 x3 )
 the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B':
T :V  W (a L.T. )
B  {v1 , v2 ,, vn } (a basis for V )
B'  {w1 , w2 ,, wm } (a basis for W )
Thus, the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B' is
A  T (v1 )B' , T (v2 )B' ,, T (vn )B'  M mn

 Transformation matrix for nonstandard bases:
Let V and W be finite - dimensiona l vector spaces with basis B and B' ,
respective ly, where B  {v1 , v 2 ,, v n }
If T : V  W is a L.T. s.t.
 a11   a12   a1n 
a  a  a 
T ( v1 )B '   21 , T ( v 2 )B '   22 ,, T ( v n )B '   2 n 
        
     
am1   am 2  amn 
then the m  n matrix who se n columns correspond to T ( vi )B'

 a11 a12  a1n 
 a21  a2 n 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (en )  
a22

     
am1 am 2  amn 
is such that T ( v)B'  A[ v]B for every v in V .

 Ex 5: (Finding a matrix relative to nonstandard bases)
Let T： R 2  R 2 be a L.T. defined by
T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , 2 x1  x2 )
Find the matrix of T relative to the basis
B  {(1, 2), (1, 1)} and B'  {(1, 0), (0, 1)}
Sol:
T (1, 2)  (3, 0)  3(1, 0)  0(0, 1)
T (1, 1)  (0,  3)  0(1, 0)  3(0, 1)
T (1, 2)B '  03, T (1, 1)B'  03

   
the matrix for T relative to B and B '
3 0 
A  T (1, 2)B ' T (1, 2)B '   
0  3
 Ex 6:
For the L.T. T： R 2  R 2 given in Example 5, use the matrix A
to find T ( v ), where v  (2, 1)
Sol:
v  (2, 1)  1(1, 2)  1(1, 1) B  {( 1 , 2 ), (  1 , 1 )}
1
 v B   
 1
3 0   1  3
 T ( v)B '  Av B       
0  3  1 3
 T ( v)  3(1, 0)  3(0, 1)  (3, 3) B '  {( 1 , 0 ), ( 0 , 1 )}
 Check:
T (2, 1)  (2  1, 2(2)  1)  (3, 3)
 Notes:
(1)In the special case where V  W and B  B' ,
the matrix A is alled the matrix of T relative to the basis B
(2)T : V  V : the identity t ransformat ion
B  {v1 , v2 ,  , vn } : a basis for V
 the matrix of T relative to the basis B
1 0  0 
0 1  0 
A  T (v1 )B , T (v2 )B ,  , T (vn )B      In
   
 
0 0  1 
Elementary Linear Algebra, Section 6.3, p.327 68/103

▪ Find the standard matrix for a linear transformation.
▪ Find the standard matrix for the composition of linear
transformations and find the inverse of an invertible linear
transformation.
▪ Find the matrix for a linear transformation relative to a
nonstandard basis.
69/103
 standard matrix for T: T 的標準矩陣
 composition of linear transformations: 線性轉換的合成
 inverse linear transformation: 反線性轉換
 matrix of T relative to the bases B and B' : T對應於基底B到
B'的矩陣
 matrix of T relative to the basis B: T對應於基底B的矩陣
70/103
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
T :V  V ( a L.T. )
B  {v1 , v2 ,, vn } ( a basis of V )
B'  {w1 , w2 , , wn } (a basis of V )
A  T (v1 )B , T (v2 )B ,, T (vn )B  ( matrix of T relative to B)
A'  T (w1 )B' , T (w2 )B' ,, T (wn )B'  (matrix of T relative to B' )
P  w1 B , w2 B ,, wn B  ( transitio n matrix from B' to B )
P 1  v1 B ' , v2 B ' ,, vn B '  ( transitio n matrix from B to B' )
vB  PvB ' , vB '  P 1vB

T ( v)B  Av B
T ( v)B '  A' v B '
 Two ways to get from v B ' to T ( v ) B ' :
indirect
(1)(direct )
A'[ v]B '  [T ( v)] B '
(2)(indirect)
P 1 AP[ v ]B '  [T ( v )] B '
 A'  P 1 AP
direct

 Ex 1: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
Find the matrix A' for T： R 2  R 2
T ( x1 , x2 )  (2 x1  2 x2 ,  x1  3 x2 )
reletive to the basis B'  {(1, 0), (1, 1)}
Sol:
(I) A'  T (1, 0)B ' T (1, 1)B' 
3
T (1, 0)  (2,  1)  3(1, 0)  1(1, 1)  T (1, 0)B '   
 1
  2
T (1, 1)  (0, 2)  2(1, 0)  2(1, 1)  T (1, 1)B '   
2
 3  2
 A'  T (1, 0)B ' T (1, 1)B '   
 1 2 
(II) standard matrix for T ( matrix of T relative to B  {(1, 0), (0, 1)})
 2  2
A  T (1, 0) T (0, 1)  
 1 3 
transition matrix from B ' to B
1 1
P  (1, 0)B (1, 1)B    
 0 1
transition matrix from B to B'
1 1  1
P  
 0 1 
matrix of T relative B'
1 1  1  2  2 1 1  3  2
A'  P AP         
 0 1   1 3  0 1   1 2 
Let B  {( 3, 2), (4,  2)} and B'  {( 1, 2), (2,  2)} be basis for R 2 ,
 2 7 
and let A    be the matrix for T : R 2
 R 2
relative to B.
  3 7
Find the matrix of T relative to B'.
Sol:
 3  2
transition matrix from B ' to B : P  (1, 2)B (2,  2)B    
 2  1 
  1 2
transition matrix from B to B ': P  (3, 2)B ' (4,  2)B '   
1

  2 3 
matrix of T relative to B ':
1   1 2    2 7   3  2   2 1
A'  P AP         
 2 3   3 7  2  1   1 3
For the linear tra nsformatio n T : R 2  R 2 given in Ex.2, find v B、
T ( v)B and T ( v)B ' , for the vector v whose coordinate matrix is
 3
vB '   
Sol:   1
3  2  3  7
vB  PvB '  2  1   1   5
    
 2 7  7  21
T ( v)B  AvB    3 7  5   14
    
  1 2  21  7
T ( v)B '  P T ( v)B   2 3  14   0 
1
    
 2 1  3  7 
or T ( v )B '  A' v B '       
 1 3   1  0 
 Similar matrix:
For square matrices A and A‘ of order n, A‘ is said to be
similar to A if there exist an invertible matrix P s.t. A'  P1 AP
 Thm 6.13: (Properties of similar matrices)
Let A, B, and C be square matrices of order n.
Then the following properties are true.
(1) A is similar to A.
(2) If A is similar to B, then B is similar to A.
(3) If A is similar to B and B is similar to C, then A is similar to C.
Pf:
(1) A  I n AI n
(2) A  P 1 BP  PAP1  P( P 1 BP ) P 1
PAP1  B  Q 1 AQ  B (Q  P 1 )
 Ex 4: (Similar matrices)
 2  2  3  2
(a) A    and A'    are similar
 1 3   1 2 
1 1 1
because A'  P AP, where P   
 0 1
 2 7   2 1
(b) A    and A'    are similar
  3 7  1 3
1  3  2
because A'  P AP, where P   
 2  1 

 Ex 5: (A comparison of two matrices for a linear transformation)
1 3 0 
Suppose A  3 1 0  is the matrix for T : R 3  R 3 relative
0 0  2
to the standard basis. Find the matrix for T relative to the basis
B'  {(1, 1, 0), (1,  1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Sol:
The transitio n matrix from B' to the standard matrix
1 1 0 
P  (1, 1, 0)B (1,  1, 0)B (0, 0, 1)B   1  1 0
0 0 1 
 12 12 0
 P 1   12  12 0
 
0 0 1
matrix of T relative to B ':
 12 1
2
0  1 3 0  1 1 0 
A'  P 1 AP   12  12 0 3 1 0  1  1 0
0 0 1  0 0  2 0 0 1 
4 0 0 
 0  2 0 
0 0  2

 Notes: Computational advantages of diagonal matrices:
d1k 0  0 d1 0  0
0 d 2k  0 0 d2  0
(1) D  
k
 D 
        
 0 0  d nk   0 0  d n 
(2) DT  D
 d11 0  0
0 1
 0
(3) D 1   d2
, d i  0
   
0 0  1 
 dn 

▪ Find and use a matrix for a linear transformation.
▪ Show that two matrices are similar and use the properties of
similar matrices.
82/103
 matrix of T relative to B: T 相對於B的矩陣
 matrix of T relative to B' : T 相對於B'的矩陣
 transition matrix from B' to B : 從B'到B的轉移矩陣
 transition matrix from B to B' : 從B到B'的轉移矩陣
 similar matrix: 相似矩陣
83/103
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations
 Elementary matrices for linear transformations in R2:
Reflection in y-axis Reflection in x-axis Reflection in line y = x

 1 0 1 0  0 1 
A  A  A 
 0 1   0  1  1 0 
Horizontal expansion (k > 1) Vertical expansion (k > 1)
or contraction (0 < k < 1) or contraction (0 < k < 1)
k 0 1 0 
A  A 
 0 1   0 k 
Horizontal shear Vertical shear
1 k  1 0
A  A
 0 1  
 k 1 
 Ex 1: (Reflections in R2)
a. Reflection b. Reflection c. Reflection
in the y-axis in the x-axis in the line y = x
T ( x, y )  (  x , y ) T ( x, y )  ( x, y ) T ( x, y)  ( y, x)
  1 0  x   x  1 0   x   x  0 1   x   y 
 0 1  y    y  0  1  y    y  1 0   y    x 
              

 Ex 2: (Expansions and Contractions in R2)
a. Horizontal contractions
and expansions
T ( x, y )  (kx, y)
k 0  x  kx 
 0 1  y    y 
b. Vertical contractions
and expansions
T ( x, y )  ( x, ky)
1 0   x   x 
0 k   y   ky 

 Ex 3: (Shears in R2)
a. Horizontal shear
T ( x, y)  ( x  ky, y)
1 k   x   x  ky 
0 1   y    y 
T ( x, y )  ( x  2 y, y )
Under this transformation, points in the upper half-plane “shear” to
the right by amounts proportional to their y-coordinates. Points in
the lower half-plane “shear” to the left by amounts proportional to
the absolute values of their y-coordinates. Points on the x-axis do
not move by this transformation.
b. Vertical shear
T ( x, y)  ( x, y  kx)
 1 0  x   x 
k 1  y   kx  y 
T ( x, y)  ( x, y  2 x)
Here, points in the right half-plane “shear” upward by amounts
proportional to their x-coordinates. Points in the left half-plane
“shear” downward by amounts proportional to the absolute values
of their x-coordinates. Points on the y-axis do not move.

 Rotation in R3:
Suppose you want to rotate the point (x, y, z) counterclockwise
about the z-axis through an angle θ.
 x  cos   sin  0  x   x cos   y sin  

 y   sin  cos  0  y    x sin   y cos  
      
z   0 0 1  z   z 

 Ex 4: (Rotation About the z-axis)
V1 (0, 0, 0) V2 (1, 0, 0)
V3 (1, 2, 0) V4 (0, 2, 0)
V5 (0, 0, 3) V6 (1, 0, 3)
V7 (1, 2, 3) V8 (0, 2, 3)
Sol:
a. A rotation of 60
cos 60  sin 60 0  1 2  3 2 0
A   sin 60 cos 60 0   3 2 12 0
   
 0 0 1  0 0 1
V1(0, 0, 0) V2(0.5, 0.87, 0) V3(1.23, 1.87, 0) V4(1.73, 1, 0)

V5(0, 0, 3) V6(0.5, 0.87, 3) V7(1.23, 1.87, 3) V8(1.73, 1, 3)
b. A rotation of 90
cos 90  sin 90 0 0  1 0
A   sin 90 cos 90 0  1 0 0
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
c. A rotation of 120
cos 120   sin 120  0   1 2  3 2 0

A   sin 120  cos 120  0   3 2  1 2 0
   
 0 0 1  0 0 1

Rotation about the x-axis Rotation about the y-axis Rotation about the z-axis
1 0 0   cos  0 sin   cos   sin  0
0 cos   sin    0 1 0   sin  cos  0
  
0 sin cos    sin 0 cos    0 0 1

 Note:
To illustrate the right-hand rule, imagine the thumb of your
right hand pointing in the positive direction of an axis. The
cupped fingers will point in the direction of counterclockwise
rotation. The figure below shows counterclockwise rotation
about the z-axis.

 Ex 5: (Rotation About the x-Axis and y-Axis)
(a) A rotation of 90 about the x-axis

1 0 0  1 0 0 
A  0 cos 90  sin 90  0 0  1
   
 0 sin 90  cos 90    0 1 0 
(b) A rotation of 90 about the y-axis

 cos 90 0 sin 90   0 0 1 
A 0 1 0    0 1 0
   
  sin 90  0 cos 90     1 0 0 

 Identify linear transformations defined by reflections,
expansions, contractions, or shears in R2.
 Use a linear transformation to rotate a figure in R3.
95/103
 reflection: 鏡射
 expansion: 擴展
 contraction: 縮減
 share: 切變
 rectangular prism: 長方體
96/103
6.1 Linear Algebra Applied
 Multivariate Statistics
Many multivariate statistical methods can use linear

transformations. For instance, in a multiple regression
analysis, there are two or more independent variables
and a single dependent variable. A linear transformation
is useful for finding weights to be assigned to the
independent variables to predict the value of the
dependent variable. Also, in a canonical correlation
analysis, there are two or more independent variables
and two or more dependent variables. Linear
transformations can help find a linear combination of
the independent variables to predict the value of a linear
combination of the dependent variables.

 Control Systems
A control system, such as the one shown for a dairy
factory, processes an input signal xk and produces an
output signal xk+1. Without external feedback, the
difference equation xk+1 = Axk, a linear
transformation where xi is an n × 1 vector and A is
an n × n matrix, can model the relationship between
the input and output signals. Typically, however, a
control system has external feedback, so the
relationship becomes xk+1 = Axk+Buk, where B is an
n m matrix and uk is an m × 1 input, or control,
vector. A system is called controllable when it can
reach any desired final state from its initial state in or
fewer steps. If A and B make up a controllable
system, then the rank of the controllability matrix
[B AB A2B . . . An-1B]
is equal to n.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, 314 98/103

 Circuit Design
Ladder networks are useful tools for electrical

engineers involved in circuit design. In a ladder
network, the output voltage V and current I of one
circuit are the input voltage and current of the circuit
next to it. In the ladder network shown below, linear
transformations can relate the input and output of an
individual circuit (enclosed in a dashed box). Using
Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws and Ohm’s
Law,
V2  1 0  V1 

 I   1/ R 1   I 
 2  1  1
and
V3  1  1/ R  V2 
     .
 I 3  0 1  I2 

 Circuit Design
A composition can relate the input and output of the

entire ladder network, that is, V1 and I1 to V3 and I3.
Discussion on the composition of linear
transformations begins on the following page.

 Weather
A Leslie matrix, named after British mathematician

Patrick H. Leslie (1900–1974), can be used to find the
age and growth distributions of a population over time.
The entries in the first row of an n × n Leslie matrix L
are the average numbers of offspring per member for
each of n age classes. The entries in subsequent rows
are pi in row i +1, column i and 0 elsewhere, where pi is
the probability that an ith age class member will survive
to become an (i +1)th age class member. If xj is the age
distribution vector for the jth time period, then the age
distribution vector for the (j +1)th time period can be
found using the linear transformation xj+1 = Lxj. You
will study population growth models using Leslie
matrices in more detail in Section 7.4.

 Computer Graphics
The use of computer graphics is common in many

fields. By using graphics software, a designer can
“see” an object before it is physically created. Linear
transformations can be useful in computer graphics.
To illustrate with a simplified example, only 23 points
in R3 were used to generate images of the toy boat
shown in the figure at the left. Most graphics software
can use such minimal information to generate views
of an image from any perspective, as well as color,
shade, and render as appropriate. Linear
transformations, specifically those that produce
rotations in R3 can represent the different views. The
remainder of this section discusses rotation in R3.

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CHAPTER 6

Elementary Linear Algebra 投影片設計製作者

Multivariate Statistics (p.304) Circuit Design (p.322)

Control Systems (p.314)

Population Age and Growth Distribution (p.331) Computer Graphics (p.338)

 Function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.298 2/103

If v is in V and w is in W such that

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.298 3/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.299 5/103

T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) T (cu)  cT (u)

Addition Addition Scalar Scalar

(2) A linear transformation T : V  V from a vector space into

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.299 6/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.299 8/103

(1) f ( x)  x  1 is called a linear function because its graph

(2) f ( x)  x  1 is not a linear transformation from a vector

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.300 10/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.301 12/103

Sol: (a ) v  (2,1) R 2 vector R 3 vector

T (cu)  A(cu)  c( Au)  cT (u) (scalar multiplication)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.301 13/103

 Note: R n vecto r R m vecto r

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.303 16/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.304 17/103

Therefore, T is a linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.304 18/103

 Ex 1: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation)

(b) T(v) = v (the identity transformation T : V  V )

 Ex 3: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.309 22/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.310 23/103

 ker(T )  {t (1,1,1) | t is a real number }

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.310 24/103

T (cu)  cT (u)  c0  0  cu  ker(T )

Find a basis for ker(T) as a subspace of R5.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.311 26/103

B  (2, 1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 2, 0,  4, 1): one basis for the kernel of T

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.311-312 28/103

Therefore, range(T ) is W subspace .

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.312 29/103

 Corollary to Thm 6.4:

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.312 30/103

Find a basis for the range of T.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.313 31/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.313 32/103

 Nullity of a linear transformation T:V→W:

nullity (T )  the dimension of the kernel of T

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.313 33/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.314 35/103

(b) rank (T )  n  nullity (T )  5  4  1

(c) rank (T )  n  nullity (T )  5  0  5

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.314 36/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.315 37/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.315 38/103

(b) The zero transform ation T : R 3  R 3 is not one - to - one.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.315 40/103

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.317 45/103

(1)T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  x2  x3 , x1  3x2  2 x3 ,3x2  4 x3 )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.320 48/103

 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.321 50/103

Therefore, T ( v)  Av for each v in R n