CHAPTER 6

LINEAR
TRANSFORMATIONS
6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations
6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations

Elementary Linear Algebra 投影片設計製作者

R. Larson (8 Edition) 淡江大學 電機系 翁慶昌 教授
 CH 6 Linear Algebra Applied

Multivariate Statistics (p.304) Circuit Design (p.322)

Control Systems (p.314)

Population Age and Growth Distribution (p.331) Computer Graphics (p.338)

1/103
 6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations

 Function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:

T : V mapping
W , V ,W : vector space

V: the domain of T
W: the codomain of T

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.298 2/103

  Image of v under T:

If v is in V and w is in W such that

T ( v)  w
Then w is called the image of v under T .

 the range of T:
The set of all images of vectors in V.

 the preimage of w:
The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.298 3/103

  Ex 1: (A function from R2 into R2 )
T : R 2  R 2 v  (v1 , v2 )  R 2
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
(a) Find the image of v=(-1,2). (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11)
Sol:
(a ) v  (1, 2)
 T ( v )  T (1, 2)  (1  2,  1  2(2))  (3, 3)
(b) T ( v)  w  (1, 11)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )  (1, 11)
 v1  v2  1
v1  2v2  11
 v1  3, v2  4 Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1, 11).
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.298 4/103
  Linear Transformation (L.T.):
V ,W： vector space
T : V  W： V to W linear tra nsformatio n
(1) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v), u, v V
(2) T (cu)  cT (u), c  R

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.299 5/103

  Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving.

T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) T (cu)  cT (u)

Addition Addition Scalar Scalar

in V in W multiplication multiplication
in V in W

(2) A linear transformation T : V  V from a vector space into

itself is called a linear operator.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.299 6/103

  Ex 2: (Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
Pf:
u  (u1 , u2 ), v  (v1 , v2 ) : vector in R 2 , c : any real number
(1)Vector addition :
u  v  (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 )  (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )

T (u  v )  T (u1  v1 , u 2  v2 )
 ((u1  v1 )  (u 2  v2 ), (u1  v1 )  2(u 2  v2 ))
 ((u1  u 2 )  (v1  v2 ), (u1  2u 2 )  (v1  2v2 ))
 (u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
 T (u)  T ( v )
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.299 7/103
 (2) Scalar multiplica tion
cu  c(u1 , u 2 )  (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu)  T (cu1 , cu2 )  (cu1  cu2 , cu1  2cu2 )
 c(u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )
 cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.299 8/103

  Ex 3: (Functions that are not linear transformations)
(a ) f ( x)  sin x
sin( x1  x2 )  sin( x1 )  sin( x2 )  f ( x )  sin x is not
sin( 2  3 )  sin( 2 )  sin( 3 ) linear transformation
(b) f ( x)  x 2
 f ( x )  x 2 is not linear
( x1  x2 )2  x12  x22
transformation
(1  2)  1  2
2 2 2

(c) f ( x)  x  1
f ( x1  x2 )  x1  x2  1
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  ( x1  1)  ( x2  1)  x1  x2  2
f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  f ( x )  x  1 is not
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.300 linear transformation 9/103
  Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”.

(1) f ( x)  x  1 is called a linear function because its graph

is a line.

(2) f ( x)  x  1 is not a linear transformation from a vector

space R into R because it preserves neither vector
addition nor scalar multiplication.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.300 10/103

  Zero transformation:
T :V  W T ( v)  0, v V
 Identity transformation:
T :V  V T ( v)  v, v V
 Thm 6.1: (Properties of linear transformations)
T : V  W , u, v V
(1) T (0)  0
(2) T ( v)  T ( v)
(3) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)
(4) If v  c1v1  c2 v2    cn vn
Then T ( v )  T (c1v1  c2 v2    cn vn )
 c1T (v1 )  c2T (v2 )    cnT (vn )
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.300 11/103
  Ex 4: (Linear transformations and bases)
Let T : R 3  R 3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0)  (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0)  (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1)  (0,3,1)
Find T(2, 3, −2).
Sol:
(2,3,2)  2(1,0,0)  3(0,1,0)  2(0,0,1)
T ( 2,3,2)  2T (1,0,0)  3T (0,1,0)  2T (0,0,1) (T is a L.T.)
 2( 2,1,4)  3(1,5,2)  2T (0,3,1)
 ( 7,7,0 )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.301 12/103

  Ex 5: (A linear transformation defined by a matrix)
3 0
v 
The function T : R 2  R 3 is defined as T ( v)  Av   2 1  1 
  v2 
(a) Find T ( v ) , where v  (2,1)   1  2
(b) Show that T is a linear transformatio n form R 2 into R 3

Sol: (a ) v  (2,1) R 2 vector R 3 vector

3 0 6 
 
2
T ( v)  Av   2 1      3
   1  
  1  2 0 
T (2,1)  (6,3,0)
(b) T (u  v)  A(u  v)  Au  Av  T (u)  T ( v) (vector addition)

T (cu)  A(cu)  c( Au)  cT (u) (scalar multiplication)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.301 13/103

  Thm 6.2: (The linear transformation given by a matrix)
Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v)  Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm.

 Note: R n vecto r R m vecto r

 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 
 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
         
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amnvn 

T ( v)  Av
T : Rn 
 R m
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.302 14/103
  Ex 7: (Rotation in the plane)
Show that the L.T. T : R 2  R 2 given by the matrix

cos   sin  
A
 sin  cos  
has the property that it rotates every vector in R2
counterclockwise about the origin through the angle .
Sol:
v  ( x, y)  (r cos  , r sin  ) (polar coordinates)
r： the length of v
：the angle from the positive
x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector v
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.303 15/103
 cos   sin    x  cos   sin   r cos  
T ( v)  Av      
 sin  cos      sin 
y cos    r sin  
 r cos  cos   r sin  sin  

r sin  cos   r cos  sin  
r cos(   )

 r sin(    ) 
r：the length of T(v)
 +：the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector T(v)
Thus, T(v) is the vector that results from rotating the vector v
counterclockwise through the angle .

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.303 16/103

  Ex 8: (A projection in R3)
The linear transformation T : R 3  R 3 is given by
1 0 0
A  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 
is called a projection in R3.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.304 17/103

  Ex 9: (A linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m )
T ( A)  AT (T : M mn  M nm )
Show that T is a linear transformation.
Sol:
A, B  M mn
T ( A  B)  ( A  B)T  AT  BT  T ( A)  T ( B)
T (cA)  (cA)T  cAT  cT ( A)

Therefore, T is a linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.304 18/103

Key Learning in Section 6.1
▪ Find the image and preimage of a function.
▪ Show that a function is a linear transformation, and find a
linear transformation.

19/103
Keywords in Section 6.1
 function: 函數
 domain: 論域
 codomain: 對應論域
 image of v under T: 在T映射下v的像
 range of T: T的值域
 preimage of w: w的反像
 linear transformation: 線性轉換
 linear operator: 線性運算子
 zero transformation: 零轉換
 identity transformation: 相等轉換

20/103
 6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
 Kernel of a linear transformation T:
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation
Then the set of all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v)  0 is
called the kernel of T and is denoted by ker(T).
ker(T )  {v | T ( v)  0, v V }

 Ex 1: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation)

T ( A)  AT (T : M 32  M 23 )
Sol:
 0 0  
  
ker(T )  0 0 
 0 0  
 
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.309 21/103
  Ex 2: (The kernel of the zero and identity transformations)
(a) T(v) = 0 (the zero transformation T : V  W )
ker(T )  V

(b) T(v) = v (the identity transformation T : V  V )

ker(T )  {0}

 Ex 3: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation)

T ( x, y, z)  ( x, y,0) (T : R3  R3 )
ker(T )  ?
Sol:
ker(T )  {( 0,0, z ) | z is a real number }

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.309 22/103

  Ex 5: (Finding the kernel of a linear transformation)
 x1 
 1  1  2  
T (x)  Ax    x2 (T : R 3  R 2 )
 1 2 3  
 x3 
ker(T )  ?
Sol:
ker(T )  {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) | T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0,0), x  ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  R 3}

T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0,0)
 x1 
 1  1  2    0 
 1 2  x2   
3    0 
 x3 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.310 23/103

  1  1  2 0 G. J .E 1 0  1 0
 1 2  
3 0 0 1 1 0

 x1   t   1 
  x2    t   t  1
     
 x3   t   1 

 ker(T )  {t (1,1,1) | t is a real number }

 span{(1,1,1)}

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.310 24/103

  Thm 6.3: (The kernel is a subspace of V)
The kernel of a linear transformation T : V  W is a
subspace of the domain V.
Pf: T (0)  0 (Theorem 6.1)
 ker(T ) is a nonempty subset of V
Let u and v be vectors in the kernel of T . then
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)  0  0  0  u  v  ker(T )

T (cu)  cT (u)  c0  0  cu  ker(T )

Thus, ker(T ) is a subspace of V .
 Note:
The kernel of T is sometimes called the nullspace of T.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.311 25/103
  Ex 6: (Finding a basis for the kernel)
Let T : R 5  R 4 be defined by T (x)  Ax, where x is in R 5 and
1 2 1  1
0
2 1 3 1 0 
A
 1 0 2 0 1 
 
0 0 0 2 8

Find a basis for ker(T) as a subspace of R5.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.311 26/103

 Sol:
A 0 
1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0
2 1 3 1 0 0  G . J . E 0 1 1 0 2 0
   
 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 0
 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
s t
 x1   2 s  t    2  1 
 x2   s  2t  1  2
       
x   x3    s   s  1   t  0 
 x4    4t   0   4
 x5   t   0   1 

B  (2, 1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 2, 0,  4, 1): one basis for the kernel of T

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.311 27/103
  Corollary to Thm 6.3:
Let T : R n  R m be the L.T given by T (x)  Ax
Then the kernel of T is equal to the solution space of Ax  0
T (x)  Ax (a linear transformati on T : R n  R m )
 Ker (T )  NS ( A)  x | Ax  0, x  R m  (subspace of R m )
 Range of a linear transformation T:
Let T : V  W be a L.T.
Then the set of all vectors w in W that are images of vector
in V is called the range of T and is denoted by range(T )

range(T )  {T ( v) | v V }

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.311-312 28/103

  Thm 6.4: (The range of T is a subspace of W)
The range of a linear tra nsformatio n T : V  W is a subspace of W .
Pf:
T (0)  0 (Thm.6. 1)
 range(T ) is a nonempty subset of W
Let T (u) and T ( v) be vector in the range of T

T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v)  range(T ) ( u  V , v  V  u  v  V )
T (cu)  cT (u)  range(T ) (u  V  c u  V )

Therefore, range(T ) is W subspace .

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.312 29/103

  Notes:
T : V  W is a L.T.
(1) Ker (T ) is subspace of V
(2)range(T ) is subspace of W

 Corollary to Thm 6.4:

Let T : R n  R m be the L.T. given by T (x)  Ax
Then the range of T is equal to the column space of A
 range (T )  CS ( A)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.312 30/103

  Ex 7: (Finding a basis for the range of a linear transformation)
Let T : R 5  R 4 be defined by T (x)  Ax, where x is R 5 and
1 2 1  1
0
2 1 3 1 0 
A
 1 0 2 0 1 
 
0 0 0 2 8

Find a basis for the range of T.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.313 31/103

 Sol:
1 2 0 1  1 1 0 2 0  1
2 1 3 1 0  G . J . E 0 1 1 0 2
A    B
 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
 0 0 0 2 8  0 0 0 0 0 
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5
 w1 , w2 , w4  is a basis for CS ( B )
c , c , c is a basis for CS ( A)
1 2 4

 (1, 2,  1, 0), (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 2)is a basis for the range of T

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.313 32/103

  Rank of a linear transformation T:V→W:
rank (T )  the dimension of the range of T

 Nullity of a linear transformation T:V→W:

nullity (T )  the dimension of the kernel of T

 Note:
Let T : R n  R m be the L.T. given by T (x)  Ax, then
rank (T )  rank ( A)
nullity (T )  nullity ( A)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.313 33/103

  Thm 6.5: (Sum of rank and nullity)
Let T : V  W be a L.T. form an n - dimensiona l vector space V
into a vector space W . then
rank (T )  nullity( T )  n
dim( range of T )  dim( kernel of T )  dim( domain of T )
Pf:
Let T is represente d by an m  n matrix A
Assume rank ( A)  r
(1) rank (T )  dim( range of T )  dim( column space of A)
 rank ( A)  r
(2) nullity (T )  dim( kernel of T )  dim( solution space of A)
 nr
 rank (T )  nullity (T )  r  (n  r )  n
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.313 34/103
  Ex 8: (Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation)
Find the rank and nullity of the L.T. T : R 3  R 3 define by
1 0  2 
A  0 1 1 
0 0 0 
Sol:
rank (T )  rank ( A)  2
nullity (T )  dim( domain of T )  rank (T )  3  2  1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.314 35/103

  Ex 9: (Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation)
Let T : R 5  R 7 be a linear tra nsformatio n.
(a ) Find the dimension of the kernel of T if the dimension
of the range is 2
(b) Find the rank of T if the nullity of T is 4
(c) Find the rank of T if ker (T )  {0}
Sol:
(a ) dim( domain of T )  5
dim( kernel of T )  n  dim( range of T )  5  2  3

(b) rank (T )  n  nullity (T )  5  4  1

(c) rank (T )  n  nullity (T )  5  0  5

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.314 36/103

  One-to-one:
A function T : V  W is called one - to - one if the preimage of
every w in the range consists of a single vector.
T is one - to - one iff for all u and v inV, T (u)  T ( v)
implies that u  v.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.315 37/103

  Onto:
A function T : V  W is said to be onto if every element
in w has a preimage in V
(T is onto W when W is equal to the range of T.)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.315 38/103

  Thm 6.6: (One-to-one linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T.
Then T is 1 - 1 iff ker(T )  {0}
Pf:
Suppose T is 1 - 1
Then T (v)  0 can have only one solution : v  0
i.e. ker (T )  {0}
Suppose ker (T )  {0} and T (u )  T (v)
T (u  v)  T (u)  T (v)  0
T is a L .T .
 u  v  ker(T )  u  v  0
 T is 1 - 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.315 39/103
  Ex 10: (One-to-one and not one-to-one linear transformation)
(a ) The L.T. T : M mn  M nm given by T ( A)  AT
is one - to - one.
Because its kernel consists of only the m  n zero matrix.

(b) The zero transform ation T : R 3  R 3 is not one - to - one.

Because its kernel is all of R 3 .

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.315 40/103

  Thm 6.7: (Onto linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T., where W is finite dimensiona l.
Then T is onto iff the rank of T is equal to the dimension of W .
 Thm 6.8: (One-to-one and onto linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T. with vect or space V and W both of
dimension n. Then T is one - to - one if and only if it is onto.
Pf:
If T is one - to - one, then ker(T )  {0} and dim(ker( T ))  0
dim( range (T ))  n  dim(ker( T ))  n  dim( W )
Consequent ly, T is onto.
If T is onto, then dim( range of T )  dim(W )  n
dim(ker( T ))  n  dim( range of T )  n  n  0
Therefore, T is one - to - one.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.316 41/103
  Ex 11:
The L.T. T : R n  R m is given by T (x)  Ax, Find the nullity and rank
of T and determine whether T is one - to - one, onto, or neither.
1 2 0 1 2
( a ) A  0 1 1  (b) A  0 1
   
0 0 1  0 0 
1 2 0
1 2 0 
(c ) A   ( d ) A  0 1 1
0 1  1  
0 0 0
Sol:
T:Rn→Rm dim(domain of T) rank(T) nullity(T) 1-1 onto
(a)T:R3→R3 3 3 0 Yes Yes
(b)T:R2→R3 2 2 0 Yes No
(c)T:R3→R2 3 2 1 No Yes
(d)T:R3→R3 3 2 1 No No
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.316 42/103
  Isomorphism:
A linear transformatio n T : V  W that is one to one and onto
is called an isomorphis m. Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces
such that there exists an isomorphis m from V to W , then V and W
are said to be isomorphic to each other.
 Thm 6.9: (Isomorphic spaces and dimension)
Two finite-dimensional vector space V and W are isomorphic
if and only if they are of the same dimension.
Pf:
Assume that V is isomorphic to W , where V has dimension n.
 There exists a L.T. T : V  W that is one to one and onto.
T is one - to - one
 dim( Ker (T ))  0
 dim( range of T )  dim( domain of T )  dim( Ker (T ))  n  0  n
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.317 43/103
 T is onto.
 dim( range of T )  dim(W )  n
Thus dim(V )  dim(W )  n
Assume that V and W both have dimension n.
Let v1 , v2 ,  , vn  be a basis of V, and
let w1 , w2 , , wn  be a basis of W .
Then an arbitrary vector in V can be represente d as
v  c1 v1  c2 v 2    cn v n
and you can define a L.T. T : V  W as follows.
T ( v)  c1w1  c2 w 2    cn w n
It can be shown that this L.T. is both 1-1 and onto.
Thus V and W are isomorphic.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.317 44/103
  Ex 12: (Isomorphic vector spaces)
The following vector spaces are isomorphic to each other.
(a ) R 4  4 - space
(b) M 41  space of all 4  1 matrices
(c) M 22  space of all 2  2 matrices
(d) P3 ( x)  space of all polynomial s of degree 3 or less
(e)V  {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , 0), xi is a real number }(subspace of R 5 )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, p.317 45/103

Key Learning in Section 6.2
▪ Find the kernel of a linear transformation.
▪ Find a basis for the range, the rank, and the nullity of a linear
transformation.
▪ Determine whether a linear transformation is one-to-one or
onto.
▪ Determine whether vector spaces are isomorphic.

46/103
Keywords in Section 6.2
 kernel of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的核空間
 range of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的值域
 rank of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的秩
 nullity of a linear transformation T: 線性轉換T的核次數
 one-to-one: 一對一
 onto: 映成
 isomorphism(one-to-one and onto): 同構
 isomorphic space: 同構的空間

47/103
 6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
 Two representations of the linear transformation T:R3→R3 :

(1)T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  x2  x3 , x1  3x2  2 x3 ,3x2  4 x3 )

 2 1  1  x1 
(2)T (x)  Ax   1 3  2  x2 
  
 0 3 4   x3 
 Three reasons for matrix representation of a linear transformation:
 It is simpler to write.
 It is simpler to read.
 It is more easily adapted for computer use.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.320 48/103

  Thm 6.10: (Standard matrix for a linear transformation)
Let T : R n  R m be a linear trt ansformati on such that
 a11   a12   a1n 
 a21   a22   a2 n 
T (e1 )   , T (e2 )   ,  , T (en )   ,
        
am1  am 2  amn 
Then the m n matrix who se n columns correspond to T (ei )
 a11 a12  a1n 
 a21 a22  a2 n 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (en )   
     
am1 am 2  amn 
is such that T ( v)  Av for every v in R n .
A is called the standard matrix for T .
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.320 49/103
 Pf:
 v1 
 v2 
v     v1e1  v2 e2    vn en

vn 
T is a L.T.  T (v )  T (v1e1  v2 e2    vn en )
 T (v1e1 )  T (v2 e2 )    T (vn en )
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )    vnT (en )

 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v2    a1n vn 

 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
          
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amnvn 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.321 50/103

  a11   a12   a1n 
 a21   a22   a2 n 
 v1    v2      vn  
        
am1  am 2  amn 
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )    vnT (en )

Therefore, T ( v)  Av for each v in R n

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.321 51/103

  Ex 1: (Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation)
Find the standard matrix for the L.T. T : R3  R 2 define by
T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y, 2 x  y)
Sol:
Vector Notation Matrix Notation
1
  1 
T (e1 )  T (1, 0, 0)  (1, 2) T (e1 )  T ( 0 )   
   2
0 
0 
  2
T (e2 )  T (0, 1, 0)  (2, 1) T (e2 )  T ( 1 )   
  1
0 
0 
  0 
T (e3 )  T (0, 0, 1)  (0, 0) T (e3 )  T ( 0 )   
  0 
1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.321 52/103
 A  T (e1 ) T (e2 ) T (e3 )
1  2 0 

2 1 0
 Check:
 x  x
  1  2 0     x  2 y 
A y  y 
  2 1 0   2 x  y 

z z
i.e. T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y,2 x  y)
 Note:
1  2 0  1x  2 y  0 z
A
2 1 0  2 x  1y  0 z

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.321 53/103

  Ex 2: (Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation)
The linear tra nsformatio n T : R 2  R 2 is given by projecting
each point in R 2 onto the x - axis. Find the standard matrix for T .
Sol:
T ( x, y)  ( x, 0)
1 0
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (1, 0) T (0, 1)  
0 0
 Notes:

(1) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rm
is the m  n zero matrix.
(2) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rn
is the n  n identity matrix In.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.322 54/103
  Composition of T1:Rn→Rm with T2:Rm→Rp :

T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v)), v  R n

T  T2  T1 , domain of T  domain of T1

 Thm 6.11: (Composition of linear transformations)

Let T1 : R n  R m and T2 : R m  R p be L.T.
with standard matrices A1 and A2 , then

(1)The compositio n T : R n  R p , defined by T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v)), is a L.T.

(2) The standard matrix A for T is given by the matrix product A  A2 A1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.323 55/103

 Pf:
(1)( T is a L.T.)
Let u and v be vectors in R n and let c be any scalar the n
T (u  v )  T2 (T1 (u  v ))  T2 (T1 (u)  T1 ( v ))
 T2 (T1 (u))  T2 (T1 ( v ))  T (u)  T ( v )
T (cv )  T2 (T1 (cv ))  T2 (cT1 ( v ))  cT2 (T1 ( v ))  cT ( v )

(2)( A2 A1 is the standard matrix for T )

T ( v )  T2 (T1 ( v ))  T2 ( A1 v )  A2 A1 v  ( A2 A1 ) v
 Note:
T1  T2  T2  T1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.323 56/103

  Ex 3: (The standard matrix of a composition)
Let T1 and T2 be L.T. from R3 into R3 s.t.
T1 ( x, y, z )  (2 x  y, 0, x  z )
T2 ( x, y, z )  ( x  y, z, y )
Find the standard matrices for the compositio ns
T  T2  T1 and T '  T1  T2 ,
Sol:
2 1 0
A1  0 0 0 (standard matrix for T1 )
1 0 1
1  1 0
A2  0 0 1 (standard matrix for T2 )
0 1 0
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.324 57/103
 The standard matrix for T  T2  T1

1  1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
A  A2 A1  0 0 1 0 0 0  1 0 1
    
 0 1 0  1 0 1   0 0 0 
The standard matrix for T '  T1  T2

2 1 0 1  1 0 2  2 1
A'  A1 A2  0 0 0 0 0 1  0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.324 58/103

  Inverse linear transformation:

If T1 : R n  R n and T2 : R n  R n are L.T. s.t. for every v in R n

T2 (T1 ( v ))  v and T1 (T2 ( v))  v

Then T2 is called the inverse of T1 and T1 is said to be invertible

 Note:
If the transformation T is invertible, then the inverse is
unique and denoted by T–1 .

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.324 59/103

  Thm 6.12: (Existence of an inverse transformation)
Let T : R n  R n be a L.T. with standard matrix A,
Then the following condition are equivalent .

(1) T is invertible.
(2) T is an isomorphism.
(3) A is invertible.
 Note:
If T is invertible with standard matrix A, then the standard
matrix for T–1 is A–1 .

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.325 60/103

  Ex 4: (Finding the inverse of a linear transformation)
The L.T. T： R3  R3 is defined by
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  3x2  x3 , 3x1  3x2  x3 , 2 x1  4 x2  x3 )
Show that T is invertible, and find its inverse.
Sol:
The standard matrix for T
2 3 1  2 x1  3 x2  x3
A  3 3 1  3 x1  3 x2  x3
2 4 1  2 x1  4 x2  x3
 2 3 1 1 0 0
 A I 3    3 3 1 0 1 0
 
 2 4 1 0 0 1 
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.325 61/103
 1 0 0  1 1 0
G 0 1 0  1 0
. J .E


1  I

 A1 
 0 0 1 6  2  3
Therefore T is invertible and the standard matrix for T 1 is A1
 1 1 0
A1   1 0 1
 
 6  2  3
 1 1 0   x1    x1  x2 
T 1 ( v)  A1 v   1 0 1   x2     x1  x3 
    
 6  2  3 3   1
x 6 x  2 x 2  3 x3
In other word s,
T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1  x2 ,  x1  x3 , 6 x1  2 x2  3 x3 )
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.325 62/103
  the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B':

T :V  W (a L.T. )
B  {v1 , v2 ,, vn } (a basis for V )
B'  {w1 , w2 ,, wm } (a basis for W )

Thus, the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B' is

A  T (v1 )B' , T (v2 )B' ,, T (vn )B'  M mn

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.326 63/103

  Transformation matrix for nonstandard bases:
Let V and W be finite - dimensiona l vector spaces with basis B and B' ,
respective ly, where B  {v1 , v 2 ,, v n }

If T : V  W is a L.T. s.t.
 a11   a12   a1n 
a  a  a 
T ( v1 )B '   21 , T ( v 2 )B '   22 ,, T ( v n )B '   2 n 
        
     
am1   am 2  amn 

then the m  n matrix who se n columns correspond to T ( vi )B'

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.326 64/103

  a11 a12  a1n 
 a21  a2 n 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (en )  
a22

     
am1 am 2  amn 

is such that T ( v)B'  A[ v]B for every v in V .

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.326 65/103

  Ex 5: (Finding a matrix relative to nonstandard bases)
Let T： R 2  R 2 be a L.T. defined by
T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , 2 x1  x2 )
Find the matrix of T relative to the basis
B  {(1, 2), (1, 1)} and B'  {(1, 0), (0, 1)}
Sol:
T (1, 2)  (3, 0)  3(1, 0)  0(0, 1)
T (1, 1)  (0,  3)  0(1, 0)  3(0, 1)

T (1, 2)B '  03, T (1, 1)B'  03

   
the matrix for T relative to B and B '
3 0 
A  T (1, 2)B ' T (1, 2)B '   
0  3
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.326 66/103
  Ex 6:
For the L.T. T： R 2  R 2 given in Example 5, use the matrix A
to find T ( v ), where v  (2, 1)
Sol:
v  (2, 1)  1(1, 2)  1(1, 1) B  {( 1 , 2 ), (  1 , 1 )}
1
 v B   
 1
3 0   1  3
 T ( v)B '  Av B       
0  3  1 3
 T ( v)  3(1, 0)  3(0, 1)  (3, 3) B '  {( 1 , 0 ), ( 0 , 1 )}

 Check:
T (2, 1)  (2  1, 2(2)  1)  (3, 3)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.327 67/103
  Notes:
(1)In the special case where V  W and B  B' ,
the matrix A is alled the matrix of T relative to the basis B
(2)T : V  V : the identity t ransformat ion
B  {v1 , v2 ,  , vn } : a basis for V
 the matrix of T relative to the basis B
1 0  0 
0 1  0 
A  T (v1 )B , T (v2 )B ,  , T (vn )B      In
   
 
0 0  1 

Elementary Linear Algebra, Section 6.3, p.327 68/103

Key Learning in Section 6.3
▪ Find the standard matrix for a linear transformation.
▪ Find the standard matrix for the composition of linear
transformations and find the inverse of an invertible linear
transformation.
▪ Find the matrix for a linear transformation relative to a
nonstandard basis.

69/103
Keywords in Section 6.3
 standard matrix for T: T 的標準矩陣
 composition of linear transformations: 線性轉換的合成
 inverse linear transformation: 反線性轉換
 matrix of T relative to the bases B and B' : T對應於基底B到
B'的矩陣
 matrix of T relative to the basis B: T對應於基底B的矩陣

70/103
 6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
T :V  V ( a L.T. )
B  {v1 , v2 ,, vn } ( a basis of V )
B'  {w1 , w2 , , wn } (a basis of V )
A  T (v1 )B , T (v2 )B ,, T (vn )B  ( matrix of T relative to B)
A'  T (w1 )B' , T (w2 )B' ,, T (wn )B'  (matrix of T relative to B' )
P  w1 B , w2 B ,, wn B  ( transitio n matrix from B' to B )
P 1  v1 B ' , v2 B ' ,, vn B '  ( transitio n matrix from B to B' )

vB  PvB ' , vB '  P 1vB

T ( v)B  Av B
T ( v)B '  A' v B '
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.330 71/103
  Two ways to get from v B ' to T ( v ) B ' :
indirect
(1)(direct )
A'[ v]B '  [T ( v)] B '

(2)(indirect)
P 1 AP[ v ]B '  [T ( v )] B '

 A'  P 1 AP
direct

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.330 72/103

  Ex 1: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
Find the matrix A' for T： R 2  R 2
T ( x1 , x2 )  (2 x1  2 x2 ,  x1  3 x2 )
reletive to the basis B'  {(1, 0), (1, 1)}
Sol:
(I) A'  T (1, 0)B ' T (1, 1)B' 
3
T (1, 0)  (2,  1)  3(1, 0)  1(1, 1)  T (1, 0)B '   
 1
  2
T (1, 1)  (0, 2)  2(1, 0)  2(1, 1)  T (1, 1)B '   
2
 3  2
 A'  T (1, 0)B ' T (1, 1)B '   
 1 2 
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.330 73/103
 (II) standard matrix for T ( matrix of T relative to B  {(1, 0), (0, 1)})
 2  2
A  T (1, 0) T (0, 1)  
 1 3 
transition matrix from B ' to B
1 1
P  (1, 0)B (1, 1)B    
 0 1
transition matrix from B to B'
1 1  1
P  
 0 1 
matrix of T relative B'
1 1  1  2  2 1 1  3  2
A'  P AP         
 0 1   1 3  0 1   1 2 
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.330 74/103
  Ex 2: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
Let B  {( 3, 2), (4,  2)} and B'  {( 1, 2), (2,  2)} be basis for R 2 ,
 2 7 
and let A    be the matrix for T : R 2
 R 2
relative to B.
  3 7
Find the matrix of T relative to B'.
Sol:
 3  2
transition matrix from B ' to B : P  (1, 2)B (2,  2)B    
 2  1 
  1 2
transition matrix from B to B ': P  (3, 2)B ' (4,  2)B '   
1

  2 3 
matrix of T relative to B ':
1   1 2    2 7   3  2   2 1
A'  P AP         
 2 3   3 7  2  1   1 3
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.331 75/103
  Ex 3: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)
For the linear tra nsformatio n T : R 2  R 2 given in Ex.2, find v B、
T ( v)B and T ( v)B ' , for the vector v whose coordinate matrix is
 3
vB '   
Sol:   1
3  2  3  7
vB  PvB '  2  1   1   5
    
 2 7  7  21
T ( v)B  AvB    3 7  5   14
    
  1 2  21  7
T ( v)B '  P T ( v)B   2 3  14   0 
1

    
 2 1  3  7 
or T ( v )B '  A' v B '       
 1 3   1  0 
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.331 76/103
  Similar matrix:
For square matrices A and A‘ of order n, A‘ is said to be
similar to A if there exist an invertible matrix P s.t. A'  P1 AP
 Thm 6.13: (Properties of similar matrices)
Let A, B, and C be square matrices of order n.
Then the following properties are true.
(1) A is similar to A.
(2) If A is similar to B, then B is similar to A.
(3) If A is similar to B and B is similar to C, then A is similar to C.
Pf:
(1) A  I n AI n
(2) A  P 1 BP  PAP1  P( P 1 BP ) P 1
PAP1  B  Q 1 AQ  B (Q  P 1 )
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.332 77/103
  Ex 4: (Similar matrices)

 2  2  3  2
(a) A    and A'    are similar
 1 3   1 2 
1 1 1
because A'  P AP, where P   
 0 1

 2 7   2 1
(b) A    and A'    are similar
  3 7  1 3

1  3  2
because A'  P AP, where P   
 2  1 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.332 78/103

  Ex 5: (A comparison of two matrices for a linear transformation)
1 3 0 
Suppose A  3 1 0  is the matrix for T : R 3  R 3 relative
0 0  2
to the standard basis. Find the matrix for T relative to the basis
B'  {(1, 1, 0), (1,  1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Sol:
The transitio n matrix from B' to the standard matrix
1 1 0 
P  (1, 1, 0)B (1,  1, 0)B (0, 0, 1)B   1  1 0
0 0 1 
 12 12 0
 P 1   12  12 0
 
0 0 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.333 79/103
 matrix of T relative to B ':
 12 1
2
0  1 3 0  1 1 0 
A'  P 1 AP   12  12 0 3 1 0  1  1 0
0 0 1  0 0  2 0 0 1 
4 0 0 
 0  2 0 
0 0  2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.333 80/103

  Notes: Computational advantages of diagonal matrices:

d1k 0  0 d1 0  0
0 d 2k  0 0 d2  0
(1) D  
k
 D 
        
 0 0  d nk   0 0  d n 

(2) DT  D
 d11 0  0
0 1
 0
(3) D 1   d2
, d i  0
   
0 0  1 
 dn 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.333 81/103

Key Learning in Section 6.4
▪ Find and use a matrix for a linear transformation.
▪ Show that two matrices are similar and use the properties of
similar matrices.

82/103
Keywords in Section 6.4
 matrix of T relative to B: T 相對於B的矩陣
 matrix of T relative to B' : T 相對於B'的矩陣
 transition matrix from B' to B : 從B'到B的轉移矩陣
 transition matrix from B to B' : 從B到B'的轉移矩陣
 similar matrix: 相似矩陣

83/103
 6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations
 Elementary matrices for linear transformations in R2:

Reflection in y-axis Reflection in x-axis Reflection in line y = x

 1 0 1 0  0 1 
A  A  A 
 0 1   0  1  1 0 
Horizontal expansion (k > 1) Vertical expansion (k > 1)
or contraction (0 < k < 1) or contraction (0 < k < 1)
k 0 1 0 
A  A 
 0 1   0 k 
Horizontal shear Vertical shear
1 k  1 0
A  A
 0 1  
 k 1 
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.336 84/103
  Ex 1: (Reflections in R2)
a. Reflection b. Reflection c. Reflection
in the y-axis in the x-axis in the line y = x
T ( x, y )  (  x , y ) T ( x, y )  ( x, y ) T ( x, y)  ( y, x)
  1 0  x   x  1 0   x   x  0 1   x   y 
 0 1  y    y  0  1  y    y  1 0   y    x 
              

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.336 85/103

  Ex 2: (Expansions and Contractions in R2)
a. Horizontal contractions
and expansions
T ( x, y )  (kx, y)

k 0  x  kx 
 0 1  y    y 

b. Vertical contractions
and expansions
T ( x, y )  ( x, ky)

1 0   x   x 
0 k   y   ky 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.337 86/103

  Ex 3: (Shears in R2)

a. Horizontal shear
T ( x, y)  ( x  ky, y)
1 k   x   x  ky 
0 1   y    y 

T ( x, y )  ( x  2 y, y )
Under this transformation, points in the upper half-plane “shear” to
the right by amounts proportional to their y-coordinates. Points in
the lower half-plane “shear” to the left by amounts proportional to
the absolute values of their y-coordinates. Points on the x-axis do
not move by this transformation.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.338 87/103
 b. Vertical shear
T ( x, y)  ( x, y  kx)

 1 0  x   x 
k 1  y   kx  y 

T ( x, y)  ( x, y  2 x)
Here, points in the right half-plane “shear” upward by amounts
proportional to their x-coordinates. Points in the left half-plane
“shear” downward by amounts proportional to the absolute values
of their x-coordinates. Points on the y-axis do not move.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.338 88/103

  Rotation in R3:
Suppose you want to rotate the point (x, y, z) counterclockwise
about the z-axis through an angle θ.

 x  cos   sin  0  x   x cos   y sin  

 y   sin  cos  0  y    x sin   y cos  
      
z   0 0 1  z   z 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.338 89/103

  Ex 4: (Rotation About the z-axis)
V1 (0, 0, 0) V2 (1, 0, 0)
V3 (1, 2, 0) V4 (0, 2, 0)
V5 (0, 0, 3) V6 (1, 0, 3)
V7 (1, 2, 3) V8 (0, 2, 3)

Sol:
a. A rotation of 60
cos 60  sin 60 0  1 2  3 2 0
A   sin 60 cos 60 0   3 2 12 0
   
 0 0 1  0 0 1

V1(0, 0, 0) V2(0.5, 0.87, 0) V3(1.23, 1.87, 0) V4(1.73, 1, 0)

V5(0, 0, 3) V6(0.5, 0.87, 3) V7(1.23, 1.87, 3) V8(1.73, 1, 3)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.339 90/103
 b. A rotation of 90
cos 90  sin 90 0 0  1 0
A   sin 90 cos 90 0  1 0 0
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

c. A rotation of 120

cos 120   sin 120  0   1 2  3 2 0

A   sin 120  cos 120  0   3 2  1 2 0
   
 0 0 1  0 0 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.339 91/103

 Rotation about the x-axis Rotation about the y-axis Rotation about the z-axis
1 0 0   cos  0 sin   cos   sin  0
0 cos   sin    0 1 0   sin  cos  0
  
0 sin cos    sin 0 cos    0 0 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.340 92/103

  Note:
To illustrate the right-hand rule, imagine the thumb of your
right hand pointing in the positive direction of an axis. The
cupped fingers will point in the direction of counterclockwise
rotation. The figure below shows counterclockwise rotation
about the z-axis.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.340 93/103

  Ex 5: (Rotation About the x-Axis and y-Axis)

(a) A rotation of 90 about the x-axis

1 0 0  1 0 0 
A  0 cos 90  sin 90  0 0  1
   
 0 sin 90  cos 90    0 1 0 

(b) A rotation of 90 about the y-axis

 cos 90 0 sin 90   0 0 1 
A 0 1 0    0 1 0
   
  sin 90  0 cos 90     1 0 0 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.340 94/103

Key Learning in Section 6.5
 Identify linear transformations defined by reflections,
expansions, contractions, or shears in R2.
 Use a linear transformation to rotate a figure in R3.

95/103
Keywords in Section 6.5
 reflection: 鏡射
 expansion: 擴展
 contraction: 縮減
 share: 切變
 rectangular prism: 長方體

96/103
 6.1 Linear Algebra Applied
 Multivariate Statistics

Many multivariate statistical methods can use linear

transformations. For instance, in a multiple regression
analysis, there are two or more independent variables
and a single dependent variable. A linear transformation
is useful for finding weights to be assigned to the
independent variables to predict the value of the
dependent variable. Also, in a canonical correlation
analysis, there are two or more independent variables
and two or more dependent variables. Linear
transformations can help find a linear combination of
the independent variables to predict the value of a linear
combination of the dependent variables.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.1, p.304 97/103

 6.2 Linear Algebra Applied
 Control Systems
A control system, such as the one shown for a dairy
factory, processes an input signal xk and produces an
output signal xk+1. Without external feedback, the
difference equation xk+1 = Axk, a linear
transformation where xi is an n × 1 vector and A is
an n × n matrix, can model the relationship between
the input and output signals. Typically, however, a
control system has external feedback, so the
relationship becomes xk+1 = Axk+Buk, where B is an
n m matrix and uk is an m × 1 input, or control,
vector. A system is called controllable when it can
reach any desired final state from its initial state in or
fewer steps. If A and B make up a controllable
system, then the rank of the controllability matrix
[B AB A2B . . . An-1B]
is equal to n.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.2, 314 98/103

 6.3 Linear Algebra Applied
 Circuit Design

Ladder networks are useful tools for electrical

engineers involved in circuit design. In a ladder
network, the output voltage V and current I of one
circuit are the input voltage and current of the circuit
next to it. In the ladder network shown below, linear
transformations can relate the input and output of an
individual circuit (enclosed in a dashed box). Using
Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws and Ohm’s
Law,
V2  1 0  V1 

 I   1/ R 1   I 
 2  1  1
and
V3  1  1/ R  V2 
     .
 I 3  0 1  I2 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.322 99/103

 6.3 Linear Algebra Applied
 Circuit Design

A composition can relate the input and output of the

entire ladder network, that is, V1 and I1 to V3 and I3.
Discussion on the composition of linear
transformations begins on the following page.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.3, p.322 100/103

 6.4 Linear Algebra Applied
 Weather

A Leslie matrix, named after British mathematician

Patrick H. Leslie (1900–1974), can be used to find the
age and growth distributions of a population over time.
The entries in the first row of an n × n Leslie matrix L
are the average numbers of offspring per member for
each of n age classes. The entries in subsequent rows
are pi in row i +1, column i and 0 elsewhere, where pi is
the probability that an ith age class member will survive
to become an (i +1)th age class member. If xj is the age
distribution vector for the jth time period, then the age
distribution vector for the (j +1)th time period can be
found using the linear transformation xj+1 = Lxj. You
will study population growth models using Leslie
matrices in more detail in Section 7.4.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.4, p.331 101/103

 6.5 Linear Algebra Applied
 Computer Graphics

The use of computer graphics is common in many

fields. By using graphics software, a designer can
“see” an object before it is physically created. Linear
transformations can be useful in computer graphics.
To illustrate with a simplified example, only 23 points
in R3 were used to generate images of the toy boat
shown in the figure at the left. Most graphics software
can use such minimal information to generate views
of an image from any perspective, as well as color,
shade, and render as appropriate. Linear
transformations, specifically those that produce
rotations in R3 can represent the different views. The
remainder of this section discusses rotation in R3.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 6.5, p.338 102/103