AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

LEARNING GOALS

SINUSOIDS
Review basic facts about sinusoidal signals

SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Behavior of circuits with sinusoidal independent sources
and modeling of sinusoids in terms of complex exponentials

PHASORS
Representation of complex exponentials as vectors. It facilitates
steady-state analysis of circuits.

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITANCE

Generalization of the familiar concepts of resistance and
conductance to describe AC steady state circuit operation

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Representation of AC voltages and currents as complex vectors

BASIC AC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF LAWS

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Extension of node, loop, Thevenin and other techniques
 SINUSOIDS

x (t )  X M sin  t

Adimensional plot As function of time

X M  amplitude or maximum value

  angular frequency (rads/sec) " leads by  "
 t  argument (radians)
2
T  Period  x (t )  x (t  T ), t

1 
f    frequency in Hertz (cycle/sec )
T 2
  2 f " lags by  "
BASIC TRIGONOMETRY
RADIANS AND DEGREES
ESSENTIAL IDENTITIES
sin(   )  sin  cos   cos sin  2 radians  360 degrees
cos(   )  cos cos   sin  sin  180
 (rads)   (degrees)
sin(  )   sin  
cos(  )  cos
ACCEPTED EE CONVENTION
SOME DERIVED IDENTITIES

sin(   )  sin  cos   cos sin  sin( t  )  sin( t  90)
2
cos(   )  cos cos   sin  sin 
1 1
sin  cos   sin(   )  sin(   )
2 2 Three conditions must be saisfied before we can
1 1 determine the phase difference:
cos cos   cos(   )  cos(   ) (1)The frequency of both sinusoids must be the same.
2 2
(2)The amplitude of both sinusoids must be positive.
APPLICATIONS (3)Both sinusoids must be written as sine waves or
cosine waves.

cos  t  sin( t  )
2

sin  t  cos( t  )
2
cos  t   cos( t   )
sin  t   sin( t   )
EXAMPLE 8.1
cos( t )

Leads by 45 degrees Lags by 315

cos( t  45)
cos( t  45  360)

 cos( t  45) Leads by 225 or lags by 135

cos( t  45  180)
EXAMPLE 8.2

v1 (t )  12 sin(1000t  60), v2 (t )  6 cos(1000 t  30)

FIND FREQUENCY AND PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN VOLTAGES
Frequency in radians per second is the factor of the time variable   1000 sec1

f ( Hz )   159.2 Hz
2
To find phase angle we must express both sinusoids using the same
trigonometric function; either sine or cosine with positive amplitude

take care of minus sign with cos( )   cos(  180)

 6 cos(1000t  30)  6 cos(1000t  30  180)

Change sine into cosine with cos( )  sin(  90)

6 cos(1000t  210)  6 sin(1000t  210  90)
We like to have the phase shifts less than 180 in absolute value
6 sin(1000t  300)  6 sin(1000t  60)
v1 (t )  12 sin(1000t  60) (1000t  60)  (1000t  60)  120
v1 leads v2 by 120
v2 (t )  6 sin(1000t  60) (1000t  60)  (1000t  60)  120
v2 lags v1 by 120
LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.2

i1 (t )  2 sin(377t  45)
i2 ( t )  0.5 cos(377t  10)
i3 (t )  0.25 sin(377t  60)
i1 leads i2 by_____?
i1 leads i3 by_____?

cos  sin(  90)

0.5 cos(377t  10)  0.5 sin(377t  10  90)
(377t  45)  (377  100)  55
i1 leads i2 by  55
sin    sin(  180)
 0.25 sin(377t  60)  0.25 sin(377t  60  180)
(377t  45)  (377 t  120)  165
i1 leads i3 by 165
 SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Learning Example

di
KVL : L ( t )  Ri (t )  v (t )
dt
In steady state i (t )  A cos( t   ), or
i (t )  A1 cos  t  A2 sin  t */ R
If the independent sources are sinusoids di
of the same frequency then for any (t )   A1 sin  t  A2 cos t */ L
dt
variable in the linear circuit the steady
state response will be sinusoidal and of ( LA1  RA2 ) sin  t  ( LA2  RA1 ) cos  t 
the same frequency  VM cos t
v (t )  A sin( t   )  i SS (t )  B sin( t   )  LA1  RA2  0 algebraic problem
To determine the steady state solution LA2  RA1  VM
we only need to determine the parameters A1  RV M , A2  LV M
2 2 2 2
B, R  ( L ) R  (L )
Determining the steady state solution can
be accomplished with only algebraic tools!
FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE SOLUTION
The solution is i (t )  A1 cos  t  A2 sin  t
The applied voltage is v (t )  VM cos  t
For comparison purposes one can write i (t )  A cos( t   )
A1  A cos  , A2   A sin  A2
A  A12  A22 , tan   
A1
RV M LV M
A1  , A2 
R 2  (L) 2 R 2  (L) 2
VM 1 L
A ,   tan
R 2  (L) 2 R
VM 1 L
i (t )  2 2
cos( t  tan )
R  (L) R
For L  0 the current ALWAYS lags the voltage

If R  0 (pure inductor) the current lags the voltage by 90

SOLVING A SIMPLE ONE LOOP CIRCUIT CAN BE VERY LABORIOUS
IF ONE USES SINUSOIDAL EXCITATIONS

TO MAKE ANALYSIS SIMPLER ONE RELATES SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS

TO COMPLEX NUMBERS. THE ANALYSIS OF STEADY STATE WILL BE
CONVERTED TO SOLVING SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ...

… WITH COMPLEX VARIABLES

ESSENTIAL IDENTITY : e j  cos  j sin (Euler identity)

v (t )  VM cos t  y (t )  A cos( t   )
v (t )  VM sin  t  y (t )  A sin( t   ) * / j (and add)
y (t )
VM e j t  Ae j (t  )  Ae j e j t
If everybody knows the frequency of the sinusoid
then one can skip the term exp(jwt)

VM  Ae j
 Example 8.4  tan 1
L
2 2
R  jL  R  (L ) e R

L
j VM  tan 1
IMe  e R
2 2
R  (L )
v ( t )  V M e j t
VM L
IM  ,    tan 1
Assume i (t )  I M e ( j t  ) R 2  (L ) 2 R
di
KVL : L ( t )  Ri (t )  v ( t ) v (t )  VM cos t  Re{VM e j t }
dt
di  i (t )  Re{I M e ( j t  ) }  I M cos( t   )
(t )  jI M e ( j t  )
dt
di
L (t )  Ri (t )  jLI M e ( j t  )  RI M e ( j t  )
dt
C P
 ( jL  R) I M e ( j t  )
x  jy  re j
 ( jL  R) I M e j e jt
x
r  x 2  y 2 ,   tan 1
( j L  R ) I M e j  e j  t  V M e j  t y
VM R  j L x  r cos , y  r sin 
I M e j  */
j L  R R  j L
V M ( R  j  L)
I M e j 
R 2  (L) 2
 PHASORS
ESSENTIAL CONDITION
ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE SINUSOIDS OF THE SAME FREQUENCY

BECAUSE OF SOURCE SUPERPOSITION ONE CAN CONSIDER A SINGLE SOURCE

u(t )  U M cos( t   )
THE STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF ANY CIRCUIT VARIABLE WILL BE OF THE FORM
y (t )  YM cos( t   )
j (  t  )
SHORTCUT 1 u(t )  U M e j ( t  )  y (t )  YM e
j (  t  )
Re{U M e j ( t  ) }  Re{YM e }

NEW IDEA: U M e j ( t  )  U M e j e jt u  U M e j  y  YM e j

SHORTCUT IN NOTATION
INSTEAD OF WRITING u  U M e j WE WRITE u  U M 
... AND WE ACCEPT ANGLES IN DEGREES
U M  IS THE PHASOR REPRESENTATION FOR U M cos( t   )
u(t )  U M cos( t   )  U  U M   Y  YM   y (t )  Re{YM cos( t   )}
SHORTCUT 2: DEVELOP EFFICIENT TOOLS TO DETERMINE THE PHASOR OF
THE RESPONSE GIVEN THE INPUT PHASOR(S)
 Example 8.5 Learning Assessment 8.3 & 8.4

It is essential to be able to move from

sinusoids to phasor representation
A cos(t   )  A  
V  VM 0 A sin(t   )  A    90
v  Ve jt v (t )  12 cos(377t  425)  12  425
I  I M  y (t )  18 sin(2513t  4.2)  18  85.8
di i  Ie jt
L (t )  Ri (t )  v
dt Given f  400 Hz
L( jIe jt )  RIe jt  Ve jt V1  1020  v1 (t )  10 cos(800 t  20)
In terms of phasors one has V2  12  60  v2 ( t )  12 cos(800 t  60)
jLI  RI  V
Phasors can be combined using the
V
I rules of complex algebra
R  jL
(V11 )(V2 2 )  V1V2(1   2 )
The phasor can be obtained using
V11 V1
only complex algebra  (1   2 )
V2 2 V2
We will develop a phasor representation
for the circuit that will eliminate the need
of writing the differential equation
 PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

RESISTORS v (t )  Ri (t )
VM e ( j t  )  RI M e ( j t  )
VM e j  RI M e j
V  RI Phasor representation for a resistor

Phasors are complex numbers. The resistor

model has a geometric interpretation

The voltage and current

phasors are colineal

In terms of the sinusoidal signals this

geometric representation implies that
the two sinusoids are “in phase”
 d
INDUCTORS VM e ( j t  )  L ( I M e ( j t  ) ) Relationship between sinusoids
dt
 jLI M e ( j t  )

VM e j  jLI M e j

V  jLI

Example 8.7
The relationship between L  20mH , v (t )  12 cos(377t  20). Find i (t )
phasors is algebraic
For the geometric view
  377
1220
use the result V  1220 I  ( A)
L90
j  190  e j 90 V 12
I I    70( A)
j L 377  20  103
V  LI90
12
i (t )  3
cos(377t  70)
377  20  10
The voltage leads the current by 90 deg
The current lags the voltage by 90 deg
 d Relationship between sinusoids
CAPACITORS I M e ( j t  )  C (VM e ( j t  ) )
dt
I M e j  jCe j

I  CV90

I  jCV

Example 8.8
C  100 F , v (t )  100 cos(314t  15). Find i (t )
The relationship between   314
phasors is algebraic
V  10015 I  C  190  10015
In a capacitor the I  jCV
current leads the
I  314  100  106  100105( A)
voltage by 90 deg
i (t )  3.14 cos(314t  105)( A)
The voltage lags
the current by 90 deg
LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.6 & 8.7 C  150 F , I  3.6  145, f  60 Hz
L  0.05 H , I  4  30( A), f  60 Hz Find the voltage across the inductor
Find the voltage across the inductor   2 f  120
  2 f  120
I
V  jLI I  jCV  V 
j C
V  120  0.05  190  4  30
3.6  145
V  2460 V
120  150  106  190
v (t )  24 cos(120  60) 200
V   235


Now an example with capacitors

200
v (t )  cos(120 t  235)

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

For each of the passive components the relationship between the voltage phasor
and the current phasor is algebraic. We now generalize for an arbitrary 2-terminal
element
Z ( )  R( )  jX ( )
R( )  Resistive component
X ( )  Reactive component
| Z | R 2  X 2
X
 z  tan 1
R

(INPUT) IMPEDANCE

V V  V
Element Phasor Eq. Impedance
Z   M v  M ( v   i ) | Z |  z
I I M  i I M R V  RI ZR
V  jLI Z  j L
(DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE) L
1 1
C V  I Z 
The units of impedance are OHMS j C jC
Impedance is NOT a phasor but a complex
number that can be written in polar or
Cartesian form. In general its value depends
on the frequency
KVL AND KCL HOLD FOR PHASOR REPRESENTATIONS

 v2 ( t ) 
  i0 (t )
i1 (t ) i2 ( t ) i3 (t )
v1 ( t ) v3 ( t )
 
KVL: v1(t )  v2 (t )  v3 (t )  0 KCL :  i0 (t )  i1 (t )  i2 (t )  i3 (t )  0
vi (t )  VMie j ( t i ) , i  1,2,3 ik (t )  I Mk e j ( t k ) , k  0,1,2,3

In a similar way, one shows ...

KVL : (VM 1e j1  VM 2e j 2  VM 3e j 3 )e jt  0
VM 11  VM 2 2  VM 3 3  0
V1  V2  V3  0 Phasors!
 I 0  I1  I 2  I 3  0
 V2 
  I0
I1 I2 I3
V1 V3
 
The components will be represented by their impedances and the relationships
will be entirely algebraic!!
 SPECIAL APPLICATION:
IMPEDANCES CAN BE COMBINED USING THE SAME RULES DEVELOPED
FOR RESISTORS
I I
 V1   V2   
I I Z1Z 2
Z1 Z2 V V Zp 
Z1 Z2 Zs  Z1  Z2 Z1  Z 2
 
Zs   k Zk
1 1
k
Zp Zk
f  60 Hz , v (t )  50 cos( t  30)
EXAMPLE 8.9
Compute equivalent impedance and current
  120 , V  5030, Z R  25
1
Z L  j120  20  103  , Z C 
ZR  R j120  50  106
Z L  j 7.54, Z C   j 53.05
Z s  Z R  Z L  Z C  25  j 45.51
Z L  j L
V 5030 5030
I  ( A)  ( A)
1 Z s 25  j 45.51 51.93  61.22
ZC 
jC I  0.9691.22( A)  i (t )  0.96 cos(120 t  91.22)( A)
 LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.8 FIND i (t )

  377
Z R  20

Z L  j 377  40  103  j15.08

V  120(60  90)
j
ZC    j 53.05
377  50  106
Z eq  Z C || ( Z R  Z L ) Z eq  30 .5616 + j 4 .9714  30.9639.239

V 120  30
I   3.876  39.924( A)
Z eq 30.9639.239
 (COMPLEX) ADMITTANCE Parallel Combinatio n of Admittances
1 Y p   Yk
Y  G  jB (Siemens) k
Z
YR  0.1S 1
G  conductanc e YC   j1( S )
 j1
B  Suceptanc e
Y p  0.1  j1( S )
1 1 R  jX R  jX
   2
Z R  jX R  jX R  X 2 Series Combination of Admittances
R 1 1
G 
R2  X 2 Ys k Yk
X
B 2 1 1 1
R  X2 0.1S  
Ys 0.1  j 0.1
Element Phasor Eq. Impedance Admittance  j 0.1S  10  j10
1
R V  RI ZR Y  G
R (0.1)( j 0.1) 0.1  j 0.1
Ys  
1 0.1  j 0.1 0.1  j 0.1
V  jLI Z  jL Y
L j L 1 10  j10
1 Ys  
C V I 1 10  j10 200
j C Z Y  j C
j C Ys  0.05  j 0.05 S
EXAMPLE 8.10 VS  6045(V ) LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.9
FIND Y p , I

Y p  0.5  j 0.5  j1  0.25  0.75  j 0.5( S )

Y p  YR  YL
 0.5  j 0.25 Y p  0.901433.69( S )
2  j4 2  j4
Zp  Yp   0.5  j 0.25( S )
2  j4 j8 I  Y pV  0.901433.69  1020
I  Y pV  (0.5  j 0.25)  6045( A) I  9.01453.79( A)

I  0.559  26.565  6045( A)

I  33.5418.435( A)
EXAMPLE 8.11 SERIES-PARALLEL REDUCTIONS
1 2  j4
Y2   2
Z3  4  j 2 2  j 4 (2)  (4) 2
1 4  j2
Y34  
4  j2 20

Y4   j 0.25  j 0.5  j 0.25

Z 4  1 / Y4   j 4

1  (  j 2)
Z1  j 4  ( j 2) 8
1  j2 Z4  
j4  j2 j2
1
Z1  Y2  0.1  j 0.2( S )
1  j 0.5
1  j 0.5 Y34  0.2  j 0.1
Z1  Z2  2  j6  j 2  2  j 4 Y234  0.3  j 0.1( S )
1  (0.5) 2
Z1  0.8  j 0.4() Z 34  4  j 2 1 1 0.3  j 0.1
Z 234   
Y234 0.3  j 0.1 0.1
Z 2 Z 34
Z 234   3  j1
Z 2  Z 34
Z eq  Z1  Z 234  3.8  j 0.6  3.8478.973
LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.10 FIND THE IMPEDANCE ZT

Z1  4  j 6  j 4
Z1  4  j 2 ( R  P ) Z1  4.47226.565
Y1  0.224  26.565
( P  R)Y1  0.200  j 0.100

Y12  Y1  Y2  0.45  j 0.35

Y12  Y1  Y2 ( R  P )Y12  0.570  37.875
1 Z 2  2  j 2 ( R  P ) Z 2  2.82845 Z12  1.75437.875
Z12 
Y12 Y2  0.354  45 ( P  R) Z12  1.384  j1.077
( P  R)Y2  0.250  j 0.250
1 4  j2 ZT  2  (1.384  j1077)  3.383  j1.077
Y1   2
4  j 2 ( 4)  ( 2) 2
1 2  j2
Y2   2
2  j 2 (2)  (2) 2
1 1 0.45  j 0.35
Z12   
Y12 0.45  j 0.35 0.325
PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Display all relevant phasors on a common reference frame
Very useful to visualize phase relationships among variables.
Especially if some variable, like the frequency, can change

EXAMPLE 8.12 SKETCH THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

Any one variable can be chosen as reference.
For this case select the voltage V

V V
KCL : I S    jCV
R jL

  (capacitiv e)
| I L || I C | | I L || I C |

I C  jCV

V
IL    (inductive)
j l CAPACITIVE CASE
INDUCTIVE CASE
EXAMPLE 8.13 DO THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT
  377( s 1 ) 2. PUT KNOWN NUMERICAL VALUES

| VL  VC || VR |

VR  RI
VL  jLI DIAGRAM WITH REFERENCE VS  12 290
It is convenient to select
1 the current as reference VL  18135(V ) Read values from
VC  I
jC diagram!
VS  VR  VL  VC  I  345( A)
1. DRAW ALL THE PHASORS
VR  1245(V )
(Pythagoras)

| VL || VC | VC  6  45
LEARNING BY DOING FIND THE FREQUENCY AT WHICH v (t ) AND i (t )
ARE IN PHASE
i.e., the phasors for i (t ), v (t ) are co - lineal
1
C V I  jLI  RI
 jC
v (t ) L Notice that I was
 PHASOR DIAGRAM chosen as reference
R
jLI 1
V I  jLI  RI
jC

1 RI I
I
j C

1 1
V and I are co - lineal iff jL   0 2 
jC LC
1
2  3 6
 10 9
   3.162  10 4
(rad / s )
10  10

f   5.033  103 Hz
2
LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.11 Draw a phasor diagram illustrating all voltages and currents

 j4 4  90 Current
I1  I 445
2  j4 4.472  63.435 divider
I1  3.57818.435( A)
1 20
I2  I 445
2  j4 4.472  63.435
I 2  1.789108.435 Simpler than I 2  I  I1

V  2 I1  7.15618.435(V )

DRAW PHASORS. ALL ARE

KNOWN. NO NEED TO SELECT
A REFERENCE
BASIC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

For relatively simple circuits use

Ohm' s law for AC analysis; i.e., V  IZ

The rules for combining Z and Y
KCL AND KVL
Current and voltage divider
For more complex circuits use

Node analysis
Loop analysis
Superposition
Source transforma tion
Thevenin' s and Norton' s theorems
MATLAB
PSPICE
 EXAMPLE 8.14 COMPUTE ALL THE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Compute I1
Use current divider for I2 , I3
Ohm' s law for V1 , V2

V1  690 I 2 V2  4  90 I 3
Z eq  4  ( j 6 || 8  j 4)
V1  16.2678.42(V )
24  j 48 32  j8  24  j 48
Z eq  4   V2  7.2815(V )
8  j2 8  j2
56  j 56 79.19645
Z eq    9.60430.964()
8  j2 8.24614.036
V 2460
I1  S   2.49829.036( A)
Z eq 9.60430.964
j6 690
I3  I1  2.49829.036( A)
8  j2 8.24614.036
8  j4 8.944  26.565
I2  I1  2.49829.036( A)
8  j2 8.24614.036
I1  2.529.06 I 2  2.71  11 .58 I 3  1.82105
LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.12 IF VO  845, COMPUTE VS

THE PLAN...

COMPUTE I3
COMPUTE V1
COMPUTE I2 , I1
COMPUTE VS
VO
I3  ( A)  445( A)
2
V1  (2  j 2) I 3  8  45  445
V1  11.3140(V ) VS  2 I1  V1  2(2.828  j 2.829)  11.3140
V1 11 .3140 VS  16.97  j 5.658(V )
I2    5.657  90( A)
j2 290
VS  17.888  18.439
I1  I 2  I 3  5.657  90  445
I1   j 5.657  (2.828  j 2.828)( A)
I1  2.828  j 2.829( A)
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
PURPOSE: TO REVIEW ALL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TOOLS DEVELOPED FOR
RESISTIVE CIRCUITS; I.E., NODE AND LOOP ANALYSIS, SOURCE SUPERPOSITION,
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION, THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS.

COMPUTE I0 V2  60 V
 20  V2  2  0
1  j1 1  j1
 1 1  6
V2  1  2 
1  j1 1  j1 1  j1

(1  j1)  (1  j1)(1  j1)  (1  j1) 2(1  j1)  6

V2 
(1  j1)(1  j1) 1  j1
4
V2  8  j2
1. NODE ANALYSIS 1 j
(4  j )(1  j )
V1 V V V2 
 20  2  2  0 2
1  j1 1 1  j1
5 3
V1  V2  60 I 0    j ( A) I 0  2.92  30.96
2 2
V2 NEXT: LOOP ANALYSIS
I0  ( A)
1
 2. LOOP ANALYSIS

ONE COULD ALSO USE THE SUPERMESH

TECHNIQUE

SOURCE IS NOT SHARED AND Io IS

DEFINED BY ONE LOOP CURRENT I2
I 0   I3
LOOP 1 : I1  20

LOOP 2 : (1  j )( I1  I 2 )  60  (1  j )( I 2  I3 )  0
LOOP 3 : (1  j )( I 2  I 3 )  I 3  0 CONSTRAINT : I1  I 2  20
MUST FIND I3 SUPERMESH : (1  j ) I1  60  ( I 2  I 3 )  0
2 I 2  (1  j ) I 3  6  (1  j )(2) MESH 3 : ( I 3  I 2 )  (1  j ) I 3  0
/* (1  j )
/* (2) I0  I 2  I3
(1  j ) I 2  (2  j ) I 3  0
(1  j ) 2

 2(2  j ) I 3  (1  j )(8  2 j ) NEXT: SOURCE SUPERPOSITION
10  6 j 5 3
I3  I 0    j ( A)
4 2 2
3. SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

I 0'  10( A)

(1  j )(1  j )
Z '  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1
(1  j )  (1  j )
COULD USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
TO COMPUTE I"0

Z" Z"
V1"  " "
60(V ) I 0  " 60( A)
Z 1 j Z 1 j
Z" 1 j 1 j
I 0"  6
2  j (1  j )  3  j
I 0"  6 ( A)
1 j 6 6
1 j I "
  j ( A)
2 j 0
4 4
5 3 
I 0  I 0'  I 0"    j ( A)
Z "  1 || (1  j ) 2 2 
NEXT: SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
4. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

82j
IS 
1 j

Z  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1

V ' 8  2 j

Now a voltage to current transformation

NEXT: THEVENIN

I S 4  j (4  j )(1  j ) 5  3 j
I0    
2 1  j (1  j )(1  j ) 2
 THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

Ma y co n ta in
in d e p e n d e n t a n d
d e p e n d e n t s o u rce s
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
va ria b le s
PART A
 Ma y co n ta in
in d e p e n d e n t a n d
vO d e p e n d e n t s o u rce s
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
_ b va ria b le s
PART B

ZTH
RTH i a

 LINEAR CIRCUIT
vTH vO
 PART B
_ b
PART A
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Phasor
for PART A
vTH Thevenin Equivalent Source Impedance
RTH Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
5. THEVENIN ANALYSIS Voltage Divider
1 j 10  6 j
VOC  (8  2 j ) 
(1  j )  (1  j ) 2

ZTH  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1

53j
82j I0  ( A)
2
NEXT: NORTON
 NORTON’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

Ma y co n ta in
in d e p e n d e n t a n d
d e p e n d e n t s o u rce s
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
va ria b le s
PART A
 Ma y co n ta in
in d e p e n d e n t a n d
vO d e p e n d e n t s o u rce s
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
_ b va ria b le s
PART B

Phasors

i a

ZN LINEAR CIRCUIT
iN RN vO
PART B
_ b
PART A
Norton Equivalent Circuit
for PART A
Impedance
ce ZN
6. NORTON ANALYSIS

ZTH  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1

I SC 4  j (4  j )(1  j ) 5  3 j
I0    
2 1  j (1  j )(1  j ) 2

Possible techniques: loops, source

transformation, superposition
BY SUPERPOSTION
60 8  2 j
I SC  20   ( A)
1 j 1 j
EXAMPLE 8.16 FIND V0 USING NODES, LOOPS, THEVENIN, NORTON
WHY SKIP SUPERPOSITION AND TRANSFORMATION?

Supernode constraint : V1  V3  120

KCL @ Supernode
V  V0 V3  V2 V1  V2 V3
 40  3    0
1 1 j j
KCL@V2
V2  V1 V  V3
 2I x  2 0
j 1
NODES
KCL@ V0
V0 V0  V3
  40  0  V3  2V0  4
1 1
Controlling variable V1  V3  12
V3  V0 V1  2V0  16
Ix 
1 V3  V0  V0  4
j (V2  2V0  16)  2(V0  4)  (V2  2V0  4)  0
 j (V2  2V0  16)  (V2  2V0  4)  (V0  4)  j (2V0  4)  4
84j
Adding : V0  
Notice choice of ground 1 2 j
LOOP ANALYSIS MESH CURRENTS DETERMINED BY SOURCES
I 2  40
 I 3  2( I 4  4)
I3  2 I x
MESH 1 :
 jI1  120  1( I1  I 3 )  0
MESH 4 :
1( I 4  I 2 )  1 I 4  j ( I 4  I 3 )  0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE : I x  I 4  I 2
VARIABLE OF INTEREST : V0  1 I 4 (V )
MESH CURRENTS ARE ACCEPTABLE
I 4  4  I 4  j ( I 4  2( I 4  4))  0
48 j j
( 2  j ) I 4  ( 4  8 j )  I 4   
2 j j
8 4j
V0  
1 2 j
 Alternative procedure to compute Thevenin
THEVENIN
impedance:
1. Set to zero all INDEPENDENT sources
2. Apply an external probe
Vtest
ZTH  
I "x

KVL
FOR OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE I "x

Vtest   I "x  jI "x  ZTH  1  j ()

I x'  40
ZTH  1  j
2I x
80 1
V0  (4  8 j )(V )
2 j
VOC  4  8 j (V )
NORTON Supernode constraint
V1  V3  120  V1  V3  12
KCL@ Supernode
V3 V3 V3  V2 V1  V2
    40  0 / j
1 j 1 j
V2  V3 V2  V1
KCL@ V2 :  2 I X'''    0 / (  j )
1 j
V
Controlling Variable : I x'''  3
1
I SC
2 jV3  j (V2  V3 )  (V2  V3  12)  0
(1  j )V2  (1  3 j )V3  12
(1  j )V3  jV3  jV2  (V3  12)  V2  4 j
(1  j )V2  2 jV3  12  4 j
4j 48j
(1  j )V3  4 j  V3   I SC 
V3 1 j 1 j
I x'''  ( A)
1 ( 4  8 j ) j 8 4j
I SC  
(1  j ) j 1 j
Now we can draw the Norton
I SC  I x'''  4 Equivalent circuit ...

USE NODES
 NORTON’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

ZTH

I SC

1 j  8  4 j 
V0  (1) I 0 (V )   (V ) Current Divider
2  j  1 j 

EQUIVALENCE OF SOLUTIONS

12  4 j (8  4 j )(1  j )
Using Norton’s method V0   
3 j (1  2 j )(1  j )
48j j
Using Thevenin’s V0  
2 j j
84j
Using Node and Loop methods V0  
1 2 j
LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USE THEVENIN
USE NODAL ANALYSIS 4j
V1 ZTH  2 || 1 || j 2  3  4 j  4 j (2  6 j )
2  j2 2  6 j 40
3
1 || j 2 j2
VOC  1230 1230
2  (1 || j 2) 2(1  2 j )  2 j
24120 12120
V1  1230 V1 V1 V1  V0 VOC  
    0 / 2 j 26j 1 3 j
2 1 j2 j
V0  V1 V0
  0  V1  (1  j )V0 ZTH  j1
j 1
j (V1  1230)  2 jV1  V1  2(V1  V0 )  0 
2V0  (1  2  2 j  j )(1  j )V0  j1230 VOC
+
- 1 V0
(2  (1  3 j )(1  j ))V0  190  1230 
12120 12120
V0    2.1275(V ) 1
44j 5.6645 V0  VOC
ZTH 1 j
LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.14 COMPUTE V0 USING MESH ANALYSIS
V1 USING NODES
V1  240 V1
 290  0
2 22j
2
V0  V1
22j

USING SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

2
CONSTRAINT V0V  240
222j
 I1  I 2  290  I1  I 2  2 j
SUPERMESH 2
V0I  2  290
 240  2 I1  2 jI 2  2 I 2  0 42j
2( I 2  2 j )  (2  2 j ) I 2  24 (4  2 j ) I 2  24  4 j V0  V0V  V0I
24  4 j 24.339.46
V0  2 I 2    10.8636.03
2 j 2.24  26.57
 LEARNING ASSESSMENT 8.15 COMPUTE V0 V2

V0"

V0  V0'  V0"

1. USING SUPERPOSITION
(2 j ) || (2  2 j )
2 || (2  2 j ) V2  240
V1 2  (2 j || (2  2 j )
2
V0"  V2
2 || (2  2 j ) 22j
V1  (120)
j 2  (2 || 2  2 j )

V0'
2
V0'  V1
22j
2. USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
2j

I1
Z 2 V0
I eq

I eq  120  6  90  12  6 j
Z
I1  I eq
Z 22j
V0  2I1
 j 2

I1 2
V0
120 2 j 2 6  90 

Z  2 || j 2
USE NORTON’S THEOREM

 j2

I1
ZTH 2 V0
I SC

ZTH  2 || j 2
ZTH
I1  I SC
ZTH  2  2 j

V0  2I1
120

 6  90

I SC