FIRST AND SECOND-ORDER

TRANSIENT CIRCUITS
IN CIRCUITS WITH INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
CANNOT CHANGE INSTANTANEOUSLY.
EVEN THE APPLICATION, OR REMOVAL, OF CONSTANT SOURCES CREATES A
TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR

LEARNING GOALS

FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

Circuits that contain a single energy storing elements.
Either a capacitor or an inductor
SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS
Circuits with two energy storing elements in any combination
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR CIRCUITS WITH INDUCTORS AND/OR CAPACITORS
THE CONVENTIONAL ANALYSIS USING MATHEMATICAL MODELS REQUIRES THE DETERMINATION
OF (A SET OF) EQUATIONS THAT REPRESENT THE CIRCUIT.
ONCE THE MODEL IS OBTAINED ANALYSIS REQUIRES THE SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS FOR
THE CASES REQUIRED.
FOR EXAMPLE IN NODE OR LOOP ANALYSIS OF RESISTIVE CIRCUITS ONE REPRESENTS THE
CIRCUIT BY A SET OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

THE MODEL

WHEN THERE ARE INDUCTORS OR CAPACITORS THE MODELS BECOME LINEAR ORDINARY
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (ODEs). HENCE, IN GENERAL, ONE NEEDS ALL THOSE TOOLS
IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE CIRCUITS WITH ENERGY STORING ELEMENTS.

A METHOD BASED ON THEVENIN WILL BE DEVELOPED TO DERIVE MATHEMATICAL MODELS

FOR ANY ARBITRARY LINEAR CIRCUIT WITH ONE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT.

THE GENERAL APPROACH CAN BE SIMPLIFIED IN SOME SPECIAL CASES WHEN THE FORM
OF THE SOLUTION CAN BE KNOWN BEFOREHAND.
THE ANALYSIS IN THESE CASES BECOMES A SIMPLE MATTER OF DETERMINING SOME
PARAMETERS.
TWO SUCH CASES WILL BE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL FOR THE CASE OF CONSTANT SOURCES.
ONE THAT ASSUMES THE AVAILABILITY OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND A SECOND
THAT IS ENTIRELY BASED ON ELEMENTARY CIRCUIT ANALYSIS… BUT IT IS NORMALLY LONGER

WE WILL ALSO DISCUSS THE PERFORMANCE OF LINEAR CIRCUITS TO OTHER SIMPLE INPUTS
AN INTRODUCTION
INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS CAN STORE ENERGY. UNDER SUITABLE CONDITIONS THIS ENERGY
CAN BE RELEASED. THE RATE AT WHICH IT IS RELEASED WILL DEPEND ON THE PARAMETERS
OF THE CIRCUIT CONNECTED TO THE TERMINALS OF THE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT

With the switch on the left the capacitor receives

charge from the battery.

Switch to the right

and the capacitor
discharges through
the lamp
GENERAL RESPONSE: FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS
Including the initial conditions
the model for the capacitor t t t x
1
voltage or the inductor current e x ( t )  e  x (t )   e  f ( x )dx
0


t
0 TH */e 
will be shown to be of the form t  0

dx t t 0 t tx
(t )  ax (t )  f (t ); x (0 )  x0  1 
dt x(t )  e 
x(t0 )   e 
fTH ( x)dx
 t0
dx
  x  fTH ; x (0 )  x0
dt THIS EXPRESSION ALLOWS THE COMPUTATION
OF THE RESPONSE FOR ANY FORCING FUNCTION.
Solving the differential equation WE WILL CONCENTRATE IN THE SPECIAL CASE
using integrating factors, one WHEN THE RIGHT HAND SIDE IS CONSTANT
tries to convert the LHS into an
exact derivative  is called the " time constant."
t
dx 1  it will be shown to provide significan t
  x  fTH /* e
dt  informatio n on the reaction speed of the
t t t circuit
dx 1  1
e
 e x  e  fTH The initial time, t o , is arbitrary. The
dt  
t
general expression can be used to
d   1
t t

  e x   e fTH
dt 

 
 study sequential switchings .
t0 
 t
FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS WITH 
t t 0
fTH   
t x

CONSTANT SOURCES x(t )  e 

x(t0 )  e e   

  t
dx
0

  x  fTH ; x (0 )  x0
dt 
t t0
 t  
t

t 0

x(t )  e 
x(t0 )  fTH e  e  e  


t t0
1 t tx  
x (t )  e  x (t0 )   e  fTH ( x )dx
t t t 0

x(t )  fTH  x(t0 )  fTH e


0


t  t0
If the RHS is constant
The form of the solution is

t t0
fTH t

tx
t t0
x(t )  e 
x(t0 )   e 
dx x(t )  K1  K 2e


; t  t0
TIME
CONSTANT
 t 0
TRANSIENT
tx t x
  Any variable in the circuit is of
e 
e e   
the form
t t 0


t t 0
fTH 
t t x
y (t )  K1  K 2e 
; t  t0
x(t )  e 
x(t0 ) 

e 
 e dx


t0 Only the values of the constants

K_1, K_2 will change
 EVOLUTION OF THE TRANSIENT AND INTERPRETATION OF
THE TIME CONSTANT

Tangent reaches x-axis in one time constant

With less than 2% error

Drops 0.632 of initial transient is zero
value in one time constant beyond this point

A QUALITATIVE VIEW:
THE SMALLER THE THE TIME
CONSTANT THE FASTER THE
TRANSIENT DISAPPEARS
THE TIME CONSTANT t
t e


The following example illustrates
the physical meaning of time  0.368 With less than 1%
constant
2 0.135 error the transient
3 0.0498 is negligible after
Charging a capacitor 4 0.0183 five time constants
vC  v S R S a KCL@a :
RS + dv v  v S 5 0.0067
C c C 0
vS 
C dt RS
vc
 The model
_
dvC
dv b
C C RTH C  vC  vTH
dt dt
Assume
  RTH C
v S  V S , v C ( 0)  0
The solution can be shown to be
t

vC (t )  VS  VS e    RTH C
transient
For practical purposes the
capacitor is charged when the
transient is negligible
 CIRCUITS WITH ONE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT
THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION APPROACH
CONDITIONS
1. THE CIRCUIT HAS ONLY CONSTANT INDEPENDENT SOURCES
2. THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR THE VARIABLE OF INTEREST
IS SIMPLE TO OBTAIN. NORMALLY USING BASIC ANALYSIS TOOLS;
e.g., KCL, KVL. . . OR THEVENIN
3. THE INITIAL CONDITION FOR THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
IS KNOWN, OR CAN BE OBTAINED USING STEADY STATE ANALYSIS
FACT: WHEN ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE CONSTANT
FOR ANY VARIABLE, y( t ), IN THE CIRCUIT THE
SOLUTION IS OF THE FORM
( t  tO )

y( t )  K 1  K 2e 
, t  tO

SOLUTION STRATEGY: USE THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND THE

INITIAL CONDITIONS TO FIND THE PARAMETERS K1 , K 2 ,
If the diff eq for y is known
Use the initial condition to get
in the form
one more equation
dy y ( 0  )  K1  K 2
a1  a0 y  f We can use this
dt info to find
K 2  y ( 0  )  K1
y (0 )  y0 the unknowns

Use the diff eq to find two

more equations by replacing
the form of solution into the
differential equation
SHORTCUT: WRITE DIFFERENTIAL EQ.
t t
 dy K  IN NORMALIZED FORM WITH COEFFICIENT
y ( t )  K1  K 2 e  ,t  0   2e  OF VARIABLE = 1.
dt 
dy a dy f
t t a1  a0 y  f  1 y
 K2     dt a0 dt a0
a1   e   a 0  K1  K 2 e   f
 






  K1
f
a 0 K1  f  K 1 
a0
t
 a1  
  0    a1
   a K
0 2 e
   a0
 LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND v (t ), t  0. ASSUME v (0)  VS
t

2 x ( t )  K1  K 2 e  ,t  0
K1  x (); K1  K 2  x ( 0  )
t

ANSWER : v (t )  VS  (VS / 2)e RC , t  0
STEP 2 STEADY STATE ANALYSIS
t

SOLUTION IS v (t )  K1  K 2e  , t 0
for   0 and t  , v(t)  K1 (steady state value)
MODEL FOR t  0. USE KCL @ v (t ) IN STEADY STATE THE SOLUTION IS
v ( t )  VS dv A CONSTANT. HENCE ITS DERIVATIVE
R
C
dt
(t )  0 */ R IS ZERO. FROM DIFF EQ.
dv
initial condition v (0)  VS / 2  0  v  VS Steady state value
dt from diff. eq.
(DIFF. EQ. KNOWN,
 (equating steady state values)
INITIAL CONDITION KNOWN)
K1  V S
STEP 1 TIME CONSTANT dy
dy IF THE MODEL IS   y  f THEN K1  f
  y f dt
dt STEP 3 USE OF INITIAL CONDITION
dv
RC (t )  v (t )  Vs AT t  0
dt
v (0)  K1  K 2  K 2  v (0)  K1
Get time constant as K 2  v ( 0)  f
coefficient of derivative v (0)  VS / 2  K 2  VS / 2
 FIND i (t ), t  0 
t
LEARNING EXAMPLE x ( t )  K1  K 2e  ,t  0
 vR  K1  x (); K1  K 2  x (0 )
,t  0  i ( t )  K1  K 2 e

KVL  t

vL MODEL. USE KVL FOR t  0

i (t )
 i (t )

di
VS  v R  v L  Ri (t )  L (t )
dt
INITIAL CONDITION
t  0  i (0)  0 
i ( 0  )  0
inductor  i (0)  i (0 )
L di V L
STEP 1 (t )  i (t )  S  
R dt R R
STEP 2 STEADY STATE i ()  K  VS
1
R
t
STEP 3 INITIAL CONDITION   
VS  L 
i ( 0  )  K1  K 2 ANS : i (t )   1 e R 
R 
 
LEARNING BY DOING

,t  0  i ( t )  K1  K 2 e

v (t )
t

MODEL. KCL FOR t  0

v (t )
IS   i (t )
R
di L di
v (t )  L (t )  I S  (t )  i (t ) INITIAL CONDITION : i (0)  0
dt R dt

L
STEP 1  
R
STEP 2 i ()  I S  K1  I S
STEP 3 i (0 )  0  K1  K 2
t
  
 L 
ANS : i (t )  I S 1  e R 
 
 
 t

i ( t )  K1  K 2 e  ,t  0

INITIAL CONDITIONS
CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE FOR t  0

MODEL FOR t  0
3k
vC ( 0  )  (12)  4V  v (0 )  4V
3k  6k
v (t )
i (t ) 
R2 STEP 1
  RP C  (2  103 )(100  106 F )  0.2 s
STEP 2 v ()  K1  0
IT IS SIMPLER TO DETERMINE MODEL
FOR CAPACITOR VOLTAGE STEP 3 v (0)  K1  K 2  4V  K 2  4V
v (t ) dv v (t ) 
t
 C (t )   0; RP  R1 || R2 v (t )  4e 0.2 [V ], t 0
R1 dt R2
RP  3k || 6k  2k t
dv v (t ) 4  0.2
C (t )  0 ANS : i (t )  e [mA ], t  0
dt RP 3
 t
LEARNING EXAMPLE 

x ( t )  K1  K 2e ,t  0
FIND vO (t ), t  0
K1  x (); K1  K 2  x (0 )
t

v O ( t )  K1  K 2 e  ,t  0
i (t )
STEP 2: FIND K1 USING STEADY STATE
ANALYSIS
KVL(t>0) dvO
0.5 (t )  vO (t )  6  vO ()  6V
dt
vO (  )  K1
 K1  6V

THE NEXT STEP REQUIRES THE INITIAL

VALUE OF THE VARIABLE, vO (0 )
MODEL FOR t  0. USE KVL
di
 VS1  R1i (t )  L (t )  R3i ( t )  0 FOR THE INITIAL CONDITION ONE NEEDS
dt THE INDUCTOR CURRENT FOR t<0 AND
di USES THE CONTINUITY OF THE INDUCTOR
2 (t )  4i (t )  12 vO (t )  2i (t )[V ]
dt CURRENT DURING THE SWITCHING .
di
0.5 (t )  i (t )  3[ A] THE STEADY STATE ASSUMPTION FOR t<0
dt SIMPLIFIES THE ANALYSIS
dv
0.5 O (t )  vO (t )  6V   0.5 STEP 1
dt
 CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE (t<0)
a
i L (t ) RTH  2 || 2  1
I1
t 0  12  4 I1  4  0
I1  4[ A]
KVL
VTH  VOC  2 I1  4  4[V ]
KVL

b 4
MUST FIND i L (t )
FOR EXAMPLE USE THEVENIN
ASSUMING INDUCTOR IN STEADY
STATE

vO ( t )  K1  K 2 e
i L (0)  i (0)  [ A]
3
4 8
i (0)   vO (0 )  [V ]
3 3
8 10
K1  K 2   6  K 2  K 2 
3 3
t t
 ,t  0 10  0.5
5 
t vO (t )  6  e [V ], t  0
i (t )  3  e 0.5 , t  0 3
3
 t

LEARNING EXTENSION FIND vO (t ), t  0 vC ( t )  K1  K 2 e  ,t  0
K1  vC (); K1  K 2  i1 (0)

R1
R2
C

MODEL FOR t  0. USE KCL DETERMINE vc (t )

dv vC dv 2 1
C C (t )   0  ( R1  R2 )C C (t )  vc  0 vO ( t )  vC ( t )  vC ( t )
dt R1  R2 dt 24 3
t
STEP 1   ( R1  R2 )C  (6  103 )(100  106 F )  0.6 s 8  0.6
vO (t )  e [V ], t  0
t 3
STEP 2 
v C ( t )  K1  K 2 e  , t  0 K1  0

INITIAL CONDITIONS. CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE t<0 STEP 3

vC (0)  8  K1  K 2  K 2  8[V ]
 
t
6 vC (t )  8e 0.6 [V ], t 0
vC (0)  (12)V
9

 t
LEARNING EXTENSION FIND i1 (t ), t  0 

i1 (t )  K1  K 2e ,t  0
K1  i1 (); K1  K 2  i1 (0)
CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE
i1 (t ) PRIOR TO SWITCHING

i1 (0)


vL
L


MODEL FOR t  0. USE KVL

di 1 di1 12V
L 1  18i1 (t )  0  (t )  i1 (t )  0 i1 (0)   1A
dt 9 dt 12
1
STEP 1   s
9 STEP 3
STEP 2 K1  0 i1 (0)  i1 (0 )  K1  K 2  K 2  1[ A]
t

FOR INITIAL CONDITIONS ONE NEEDS 1
INDUCTOR CURRENT FOR t<0 ANS : i1(t )  e 9 [ A]  e 9 t [ A], t  0
 USING THEVENIN TO OBTAIN MODELS
Obtain the voltage across the capacitor
or the current through the inductor

a
C ircu it R TH a
w ith Ind u cto r
res is tan ces or In d u cto r
an d C ap acito r V TH 
s o u rces or
Thevenin  C ap acito r
b

R ep res en tatio n o f an arb itrary b

circu it w ith o n e s to rag e elem en t
RTH a R TH a
KCL@ node a Use KVL
ic + ic  iR  0  vR  vR  vL  vTH
 iR 

VTH

C vc dvC V TH L
vL vR  RTH iL
_ ic  C 
diL
dt iL
 vL  L
b
vC  vTH b dt
C as e 1 .1 iR  C as e 1 .2
V o ltag e acro s s cap acito r RTH C u rren t th ro u g h in d u cto r diL
L  RTH iL  vTH
dvC vC  vTH dt
C  0
dvC dt RTH  L  diL vTH
RTH C  vC  vTH 
 R  dt   i L   iSC
dt  TH  RTH
EXAMPLE Thevenin for t>0
at inductor terminals
Find iO (t); t  0
a
6 6
iO (t )
6 6 6
6
3H  b
 24V  6
t 0 6 t 0
24V 

vTH  0 RTH  6  (6 || (6  6))

The variable of interest is the L 3H
inductor current. The model is    0.3 s
RTH 10
L diO vTH
 iO  diO
RTH dt RTH 0.3  iO  0 ; t  0
dt
And the solution is of the form
 K 2  0t.3  
t

t 0.3  e   K1  K 2 e  0
0.3

iO (t )  K1  K 2e ; t  0
  0.3 
t

K1  0  iO (t )  K 2e 0.3
;t 0
Next: Initial Condition
Determine iO (0 ). Use steady state
assumption and continuity of
6i1  6(i1  i3 )  6(i1  i2 )  0 Loop analysis
inductor current  24  6(i2  i1 )  6(i2  i3 )  0 iC (0 )  i3
Circuit for t<0 6(i3  i1 )  6(i3  i2 )  0
v1 v1 v1  24
   0  v1  8 Node analysis
iO (t ) 6 6 6
6 6
6 32
solution : iC (0 )  mA
3H 6

24V  6
t 0

Since K1=0 the solution is

t
i1 iO (0)  iO (0) 
6 6 iO (t )  K 2e 0.3
;t 0
6 v1 32
i3 Evaluating at 0+ K 2 
6
 i2 24 v1 t
24V  6 iO (0)  
6 6 32 
t 0 iO (t )  e 0.3 ; t 0
6
 EXAMPLE Find iO (t), t  0 vTH  6V
6k 100 F 6k
RTH  6k || 6k  3k
iO (t )  vC    3 *103  *100 *106 F  0.3s
12V +

6k 6k
-
t 0
Model for v C
vC dvC
For t  0 iO 
6k 0.3  vC  6
Hence, if the capacitor voltage dt 
t

is known the problem is solved v C  K1  K 2 e 0.3

Model for v_c  K t  

t
1.5  2 e 1.5   K1  K 2e 0.3  6
dvC  1.5



RTH C  vC  vTH
dt K1  6
6k a b 6k
 vTH  Now we need to determine
iO (t ) the initial value v_c(0+)
12V +
6k using continuity and the
-
6k t 0 steady state assumption
 circuit in steady state
before the switching
6k 6k
 vC (0) 
iO (t )
12V +

6k 6k
-
t 0

vC (0)  6V
Continuity of capacitor voltage
vC (0)  6V
K1  K 2  vC (0)
K1  6  K 2  0
vC (t )  6V ; t  0 
vC Diff Eq
iO (t )   1mA; t  0
6k Approach