Chapter 6

Linear Transformations

6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations

6.2 Matrices for Linear Transformations
6.3 Similarity
 6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations


Function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:

T : V mapping
 W , V , W : vector space

V: the domain of T
W: the codomain of T

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
Image of v under T:

If v is in V and w is in W such that

T ( v)  w
Then w is called the image of v under T .


the range of T:
The set of all images of vectors in V.


the preimage of w:
The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w.

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
Ex 1: (A function from R2 into R2 )
T : R 2  R 2 v  (v1 , v2 )  R 2
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
(a) Find the image of v=(-1,2). (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11)

Sol:
(a) v  (1, 2)
 T ( v)  T (1, 2)  (1  2,  1  2(2))  (3, 3)
(b) T ( v)  w  (1, 11)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )  (1, 11)
 v1  v2  1
v1  2v2  11
 v1  3, v2  4 Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1,
11). 4/36

Linear Transformation (L.T.):
V , W：vector space
T : V  W：V to W linear transformation
(1) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v), u, v V
(2) T (cu)  cT (u), c  R

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
Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving.

T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v) T (cu)  cT (u)

Addition Addition Scalar Scalar

in V in W multiplication multiplication
in V in W

(2) A linear transformation T : V  Vfrom a vector space into itself

is called a linear operator.

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
Ex 2: (Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2)
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
Pf:
u  (u1 , u2 ), v  (v1 , v2 ) : vector in R 2 , c : any real number
(1)Vector addition :
u  v  (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 )  (u1  v1 , u 2  v2 )

T (u  v )  T (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
 ((u1  v1 )  (u2  v2 ), (u1  v1 )  2(u 2  v2 ))
 ((u1  u 2 )  (v1  v2 ), (u1  2u2 )  (v1  2v2 ))
 (u1  u2 , u1  2u2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
 T (u)  T ( v )
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(2) Scalar multiplication
cu  c(u1 , u2 )  (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu)  T (cu1 , cu 2 )  (cu1  cu 2 , cu1  2cu 2 )
 c(u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )
 cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

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
Ex 3: (Functions that are not linear transformations)
(a ) f ( x)  sin x
sin( x1  x2 )  sin( x1 )  sin( x2 )
 f ( x )  sin x is not a linear transformation
sin( 2  3 )  sin( 2 )  sin( 3 )

(b) f ( x)  x 2
( x1  x2 ) 2  x12  x22  f ( x )  x 2 is not a linear transformation

(1  2) 2  12  2 2

(c ) f ( x )  x  1
f ( x1  x2 )  x1  x2  1
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  ( x1  1)  ( x2  1)  x1  x2  2
f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 f ( x )  x  1 is not a linear transformation
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
Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”.

(1) f ( x)  x  1 is called a linear function because its graph is a

line.

(2) f ( x)  x  1 is not a linear transformation from a vector

space R into R because it preserves neither vector
addition nor scalar multiplication.

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
Zero transformation:
T :V  W T ( v)  0, v  V

Identity transformation:
T :V  V T ( v )  v, v  V

Thm 6.1: (Properties of linear transformations)
T : V  W , u, v  V
(1) T (0)  0
(2) T ( v)  T ( v )
(3) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v )
(4) If v  c1v1  c2 v2    cn vn
Then T ( v )  T (c1v1  c2 v2    cn vn )
 c1T (v1 )  c2T (v2 )    cnT (vn )
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
Ex 4: (Linear transformations and bases)
Let T : R 3  R 3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0)  (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0)  (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1)  (0,3,1)
Find T(2, 3, -2).
Sol:
(2,3,2)  2(1,0,0)  3(0,1,0)  2(0,0,1)
T (2,3,2)  2T (1,0,0)  3T (0,1,0)  2T (0,0,1) (T is a L.T.)
 2(2,1,4)  3(1,5,2)  2T (0,3,1)
 (7,7,0)

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
Ex 5: (A linear transformation defined by a matrix)
3 0
   v1 
The function T : R  R is defined as T ( v )  Av  2
2 3 1  
  v 2 
(a) Find T ( v) , where v  (2,1)   1  2
(b) Show that T is a linear transformation form R 2 into R 3

Sol: (a ) v  (2,1) R 2 vector R 3 vector

3 0 6 
2
 
T ( v )  Av   2 1      3
   1  
  1  2  0 
T (2,1)  (6,3,0)
(b) T (u  v)  A(u  v)  Au  Av  T (u)  T ( v) (vector addition)

T (cu)  A(cu)  c( Au)  cT (u) (scalar multiplication)

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
Thm 6.2: (The linear transformation given by a matrix)
Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v )  Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm.

Note: R n vector R m vector
 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12 v2    a1n vn 
 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22 v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
    
    
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amn vn 

T ( v )  Av
T : Rn 
 R m
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
Ex 7: (Rotation in the plane)
Show that the L.T. T : R 2  R 2 given by the matrix

cos   sin  
A
 sin  cos  
has the property that it rotates every vector in R2
counterclockwise about the origin through the angle .
Sol:
v  ( x, y )  (r cos  , r sin  ) (polar coordinates)
r ： the length of v
 ： the angle from the
positive x-axis
counterclockwise to the
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 cos   sin    x  cos   sin   r cos  
T ( v )  Av      
 sin  cos      sin 
y cos    r sin  
 r cos  cos   r sin  sin  

r sin  cos   r cos  sin  
r cos(   )

 r sin(   ) 
r ： the length of T(v)
 + ： the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise
to
the vector
Thus, T(v) T(v) that results from rotating the vector v
is the vector
counterclockwise through the angle .

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
Ex 8: (A projection in R3)
The linear transformation T : R 3  R 3 is given by
1 0 0
A  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 
is called a projection in R3.

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 Ex 9: (A linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m )
T ( A)  AT (T : M mn  M nm )
Show that T is a linear transformation.
Sol:
A, B  M mn
T ( A  B )  ( A  B)T  AT  B T  T ( A)  T ( B )

T (cA)  (cA)T  cAT  cT ( A)

Therefore, T is a linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m.

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Keywords in Section 6.1:

function: ‫دا@@لة‬

domain:‫مجا@@ل‬

codomain:‫مجا@@لمق@ابل‬
 T ‫ت@@@حتا@@ل‬
image of v under T:‫تحويل‬ v ‫ص@@ورة‬

range of T: T‫مدى‬

preimage of w:

linear transformation:‫ت@@@حويل خطي‬

linear operator:‫مؤثر خطي‬

zero transformation:‫ت@@@حويل ص @ف@ري‬

identity transformation:‫ت@@@حويل محايد‬

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 6.2 Matrices for Linear Transformations

Two representations of the linear transformation T:R3→R3 :

(1)T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  x2  x3 , x1  3x2  2 x3 ,3x2  4 x3 )

 2 1  1  x1 
(2)T (x)  Ax   1 3  2  x2 
  
 0 3 4   x3 

Three reasons for matrix representation of a linear transformation:

It is simpler to write.

It is simpler to read.

It is more easily adapted for computer use.

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
Thm 6.10: (Standard matrix for a linear transformation)
Let T : R n  R m be a linear trtansformation such that
 a11   a12   a1n 
 a21   a22   a2 n 
T (e1 )   , T (e2 )   ,  , T (en )   ,
     
am1  am 2  amn 
Then the m n matrix whose n columns correspond to T (ei )
 a11 a12  a1n 
 a21 a22  a2 n 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (en )   
     
am1 am 2  amn 
is such that T ( v )  Av for every v in R n .
A is called the standard matrix for T .
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Pf:
 v1 
 v2 
v     v1e1  v2 e2    vn en
 
vn 
T is a L.T.  T (v )  T (v1e1  v2 e2    vn en )
 T (v1e1 )  T (v2 e2 )    T (vn en )
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )    vnT (en )

 a11 a12  a1n   v1   a11v1  a12 v2    a1n vn 

 a21 a22  a2 n  v2   a21v1  a22 v2    a2 n vn 
Av       
          
am1 am 2  amn  vn  am1v1  am 2 v2    amn vn 

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  a11   a12   a1n 
 a21   a22   a2 n 
 v1    v2      vn  
     
am1  am 2  amn 
 v1T (e1 )  v2T (e2 )    vnT (en )

Therefore, T ( v)  Av for each v in R n

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
Ex 1: (Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation)
Find the standard matrix for the L.T. T : R 3  R 2 define by
T ( x, y , z )  ( x  2 y , 2 x  y )
Sol:
Vector Notation Matrix Notation
1 
  1 
T (e1 )  T (1, 0, 0)  (1, 2) T (e1 )  T ( 0 )   
   2
0 
0 
  2
T (e2 )  T (0, 1, 0)  (2, 1) T (e2 )  T ( 1 )   
  1
0 
0 
  0 
T (e3 )  T (0, 0, 1)  (0, 0) T (e3 )  T ( 0 )   
  0 
1
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 A  T (e1 ) T (e2 ) T (e3 )
1  2 0 

2 1 0

Check:
 x  x
  1  2 0     x  2 y 
A y  y 
  2 1 0   2 x  y 

z z
i.e. T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y,2 x  y )

Note:
1  2 0  1x  2 y  0 z
A
2 1 0  2 x  1 y  0 z

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
Ex 2: (Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation)
The linear transformation T : R 2  R 2 is given by projecting
each point in R 2 onto the x - axis. Find the standard matrix for T .
Sol:
T ( x , y )  ( x , 0)
1 0 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 )  T (1, 0) T (0, 1)  
0 0

Notes:
(1) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rm
is the mn zero matrix.
(2) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rn
is the nn identity matrix In
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
Ex 3: (The standard matrix of a composition)
Let T1 and T2 be L.T. from R 3 into R 3 s.t.
T1 ( x, y, z )  (2 x  y, 0, x  z )
T2 ( x, y, z )  ( x  y, z, y )
Find the standard matrices for the compositions
T  T2  T1 and T '  T1  T2 ,
Sol:
2 1 0
A1  0 0 0 (standard matrix for T1 )
1 0 1
1  1 0
A2  0 0 1 (standard matrix for T2 )
0 1 0
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The standard matrix for T  T2  T1

1  1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
A  A2 A1  0 0 1 0 0 0  1 0 1
    
0 1 0  1 0 1   0 0 0 
The standard matrix for T '  T1  T2

2 1 0 1  1 0 2  2 1
A'  A1 A2  0 0 0 0 0 1  0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

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
Inverse linear transformation:

If T1 : R n  R n and T2 : R n  R n are L.T. s.t. for every v inR n

T2 (T1 ( v ))  v and T1 (T2 ( v))  v

Then T2 is called the inverse of T1 and T1 is said to be invertible


Note:
If the transformation T is invertible, then the inverse is
unique and denoted by T–1 .

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
Ex 5: (Finding a matrix relative to nonstandard bases)
Let T：R 2  R 2 be a L.T. defined by
T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , 2 x1  x2 )
Find the matrix of T relative to the basis
B  {(1, 2), (1, 1)} and B'  {(1, 0), (0, 1)}
Sol:
T (1, 2)  (3, 0)  3(1, 0)  0(0, 1)
T (1, 1)  (0,  3)  0(1, 0)  3(0, 1)

T (1, 2)B '  03, T (1, 1)B '  03

   
the matrix for T relative to B and B'
3 0 
A  T (1, 2)B ' T (1, 2)B '   
0  3
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
Ex 6:
For the L.T. T：R 2  R 2 given in Example 5, use the matrix A
to find T ( v ), where v  (2, 1)
Sol:
v  (2, 1)  1(1, 2)  1(1, 1) B  {(1, 2 ), (  1, 1)}
1
 v B   
 1
3 0   1  3
 T ( v )B '  Av B       
0  3  1 3
 T ( v )  3(1, 0)  3(0, 1)  (3, 3) B '  {(1, 0 ), ( 0 , 1)}

Check:
T (2, 1)  (2  1, 2(2)  1)  (3, 3)
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Keywords in Section 6.2:
 T ‫ا@@لمصف@وفة ا@@ألساسية ل@@لتحويل ا@@ل‬
standard matrix for T:‫خطي‬

composition of linear transformations:‫ت@@@ركيبل@@لتحويالتا@@لخطية‬

inverse linear transformation:‫ت@@@حويل خطي عكسي‬


matrix of T relative to the bases B and B‘ :
’B ‫ و‬B ‫ بالنسبة لألساس‬T ‫مصفوفة التحويل الخطي‬

matrix of T relative to the basis B:
B ‫ بالنسبة لألساس‬T ‫مصفوفة التحويل الخطي‬

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 6.3 Similarity

Ex 4: (Similar matrices)

 2  2  3  2
(a) A    and A'    are similar
 1 3   1 2 
1 1 1
because A'  P AP, where P   
 0 1
 2 7  2 1
(b) A    and A'    are similar
  3 7  1 3

1  3  2
because A'  P AP, where P   
 2  1 

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
Ex 5: (A comparison of two matrices for a linear transformation)
1 3 0 
Suppose A  3 1 0  is the matrix for T : R 3  R 3 relative
0 0  2
to the standard basis. Find the matrix for T relative to the basis
B '  {(1, 1, 0), (1,  1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Sol:
The transition matrix from B' to the standard matrix
1 1 0
P  (1, 1, 0)B (1,  1, 0)B (0, 0, 1)B   1  1 0
0 0 1
 12 12 0
 P 1   12  12 0
 
0 0 1
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matrix of T relative to B ':
 12 12 0 1 3 0  1 1 0
A'  P 1 AP   12  12 0 3 1 0  1  1 0
0 0 1 0 0  2 0 0 1
4 0 0
 0  2 0 
0 0  2

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
Notes: Computational advantages of diagonal matrices:

d1k 0  0 d1 0  0
k
0 d 2k  0  0 d2  0
(1) D    D 
       
 0 0  d nk   0 0  d n 

( 2) D T  D
 d11 0  0
0 1
 0
(3) D 1   d2 , d i  0
   
0 0  1 
 dn 

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Keywords in Section 6.3:

matrix of T relative to B:
B ‫ بالنسبة لألساس‬T ‫مصفوفة التحويل الخطي‬

matrix of T relative to B' :
’B ‫ بالنسبة لألساس‬T ‫مصفوفة التحويل الخطي‬

transition matrix from B' to B :
B ‫’ الى‬B ‫مصفوفة االنتقال من األساس‬

transition matrix from B to B' :
’B ‫ الى‬B ‫مصفوفة االنتقال من األساس‬

similar matrix:
‫مصفوفة مماثلة‬

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