SIMULATION AND OPTIMIZATION OF

AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL UNDER

DEREGULATION
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION:
LARGE scale power systems are normally managed by viewing them as being
made up oI control areas with interconnections between them. Each control area
must meet its own demand and its scheduled interchange power. Any mismatch
between the generation and load can be observed by means oI a deviation in
Irequency |1|. This balancing between load and generation can be achieved by
using Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
In this new deregulated environment, the operation oI power system will pose
signiIicant problems oI purely technical nature. The simple Irequency control
sometimes becomes challenging when implemented on the premise oI price
based operation and market driven demand. The basic premise oI the regulatory
policies is to allow competition among generators and to create market
conditions in the sector, seen as necessary conditions Ior increasing the
eIIiciency oI electric energy production and distribution, oIIering a lower price,
higher quality and more secure product.
The engineering aspects oI planning and operation have been reIormulated in a
restructured power system in recent years although essential ideas remain the
same. To improve the eIIiciency in the operation oI the power system some
major changes into the structure oI electric power utilities have been introduced
by means oI deregulating the industry and opening it up to private competition.
The utilities no longer own generation, transmission, and distribution; instead,
there are three diIIerent entities, ;, GENCO (generation companies),
TRANSCOs (transmission companies) and DISCOs (distribution companies).
As there are several GENCOs and DISCOs in the deregulated structure, a
DISCO has the Ireedom to have a contract with any GENCO Ior transaction oI
power. A DISCO may have a contract with a GENCO in another control area.
Such transactions are called 'bilateral transactions. All the transactions have to
be cleared through an impartial entity called an independent system operator
(ISO). The ISO has to control a number oI so-called 'ancillary services, one oI
which is AGC. One oI the most proIitable ancillary services is the load
Irequency control. The main goal oI the LFC is to maintain zero steady state
errors Ior Irequency deviation and minimize unscheduled tie-line power Ilows
between neighboring control areas.
With the emergence oI the distinct oI GENCOs, TRANSCOs, DISCOs and the
ISO, many oI the ancillary services oI a Vertically Integrated Utility (VIU) will
have a diIIerent role to play and hence have to be modeled diIIerently. In the
restructured or deregulated environment, vertically integrated utilities no longer
exist.
In this paper, we Iormulate the two area dynamic model. SpeciIically we Iocus
on the dynamics and parameter optimization. The concept oI a DISCO
participation matrix (DPM) is proposed which helps the visualization and
implementation oI the contracts. The inIormation Ilow oI the contracts is
superimposed on the traditional AGC system and the simulations reveal some
interesting patterns.




CHAPTER 2
AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL
When load in the system increases turbine speed drops beIore the governor can
adjust the input. As the change in the value oI speed decreases the error signal
becomes smaller and the positions oI governor valve get close to the required
position, to maintain constant speed. However the constant speed will not be the
set point and there will be an oIIset, to overcome this problem an integrator is
added, which will automatically adjust the generation to restore the Irequency to
its nominal value. This scheme is called automatic generation control (AGC).
The role oI AGC is to divide the loads among the system, station and generator
to achieve maximum economy and accurate control oI the scheduled
interchanges oI tie-line power while maintaining a reasonability uniIorm
Irequency. Modern power system network consists oI a number oI utilities
interconnected together and power is exchanged between utilities over tie lines
by which they are connected. Automatic generation control (AGC) plays a very
important role in power system as its main role is to maintain the system
Irequency and tie line Ilow at their scheduled values during normal period.
Automatic generation control with primary speed control action, a change in
system load will result in a steady state Irequency deviation, depending upon
governor droop characteristics and Irequency sensitivity oI the load. All
generating units on speed governing will contribute to overall change in
gyration, irrespective oI the location oI the load change. Restoration oI the
system Irequency to nominal value requires supplementary control action which
adjusts the load reIerence set point. ThereIore the primary objectives oI the
automatic generation control are to regulate Irequency to the nominal value and
to maintain the interchange power between control areas at the scheduled values
by adjusting the output oI selected generators. This Iunction is commonly
reIerred to as load Irequency control.
A secondary objective is to distribute the required change in generation among
the units to minimize the operating costs.
Generation in large interconnected power system comprises oI thermal, hydro,
nuclear, and gas power generation. Nuclear units owing to their high eIIiciency
are usually kept at base load close to their maximum output with no
participation in system automatic generation control (AGC). Gas power
generation is ideal Ior meeting varying load demand. However, such plants do
not play very signiIicant role in AGC oI a large power system, since these
plants Iorm a very small percentage oI total system generation. Gas plants are
used to meet peak demands only. Thus the natural choice Ior AGC Ialls on
either thermal or hydro units.
An interconnected power system can be considered as being divided into
control areas which are connected by tie lines. In each control area, all generator
sets are assumed to Iorm a coherent group. The power system is subjected to
local variations oI random magnitudes and durations, Hence, it is required to
control the deviations oI Irequency and tie-line power oI each control area.
In actual power system operations, the load is changing continuously and
randomly. As the ability oI the generation to track the changing load is limited
due to physical/technical considerations, there results an imbalance between the
actual and the scheduled generation quantities. This imbalance leads to a
Irequency error i.e. the diIIerence between the actual and the synchronous
Irequency. The magnitude oI the Irequency error is an indication oI how well
the power system is capable to balance the actual and the scheduled generation.
The presence oI an actual-scheduled generation imbalance gives rise initially to
system Irequency excursions in accordance to the sign oI the imbalance and act
to reduce the magnitude oI actual-scheduled generation imbalance.
A control signal made up oI tie line Ilow deviation added to Irequency deviation
weighted by a bias Iactor would accomplish the desired objective. This control
signal is known as area control error (ACE). ACE serves to indicate when total
generation must be raised or lowered in a control area.
In an interconnection, there are many control areas, each oI which perIorms its
AGC with the objective oI maintaining the magnitude oI ACE (area Control
Error) 'suIIiciently close to 0 using various criteria.
In order to maintain the Irequency suIIiciently close to its synchronous value
over the entire interconnection, the coordination oI the control areas` actions is
required. As each control area shares in the responsibility Ior load Irequency
control, eIIective means are needed Ior monitoring and assessing each area`s
perIormance oI its appropriate share in load Irequency control.
Modern power system network consists oI a number oI utilities interconnected
together and power is exchanged between utilities over tie-lines by which they
are connected. Automatic generation control (AGC) plays a very important role
in power system, its main role is to maintain the system Irequency and tie line
Ilow at their scheduled values during normal period. During large transient
disturbance and emergencies AGC is by passed and other emergency control
takes over. The synchronization oI diIIerent system to interconnected system
depends upon (I) voltage magnitude (2) Irequency and (3) phase sequence. Any
wide deviation Irom the nominal value oI Irequency or voltage will lead the
system to total collapse. Hence AGC has gained importance with the growth oI
interconnected systems and
with rise in size oI interconnected system automation oI the control system have
aroused. A number oI control strategies exist to achieve better perIormance.
Due to non-linearity oI power system, system parameters are linearized around
an operating point. PI controller is generally used. The disadvantage oI PI
controller is that the mathematical model oI the control process may not exist or
may be too expensive in terms oI computer processing powers and memory.

Performance of AGC under normal and abnormal conditions
Under normal conditions with each area able to carry out its control obligations,
steady state corrective action oI AGC is conIined to the area where the deIicit or
excess oI generation occurs. Inter area power transIers are maintained at
scheduled levels and system Irequency is held constant.
Under abnormal conditions, one or more areas may be able to correct Ior the
generation-load mismatch due to insuIIicient generation reserve on AGC. In
such an event, other areas assist by permitting the inter areas power transIers to
deviate Irom scheduled values and by allowing system Irequency to depart Irom
its pre disturbance value. Each area participates in Irequency regulation in
proportion to its available regulating capacity relative to that oI overall system.















CHAPTER 3
DEREGULATION
The electricity market has experienced enormous setbacks in delivering on the
promise oI deregulation. In theory, deregulating the electricity market would
increase the eIIiciency oI the industry by producing electricity at lower costs
and passing those cost savings on to customers.
For the electric industry, deregulation means the generation portion oI
electricity service will be open to competition. However, the transmission and
distribution oI the electricity will remain regulated and our local utility
company will continue to distribute electricity to us and provide customer
services to us. The generation oI electricity is being deregulated, which means
we will have the opportunity to shop around Ior the electricity generation
supplier oI choice.
The electricity market has experienced enormous setbacks in delivering on the
promise oI deregulation. In theory, deregulating the electricity market would
increase the eIIiciency oI the industry by producing electricity at lower costs
and passing those cost savings on to customers.
India also had a centralized institutional environment Ior the provision oI
electricity. India's power generation management in India was structured by the
Electricity (Supply) Act oI 1948. The 1948 Act provided Ior the establishment
oI a Central Electricity Authority (CEA). The CEA was established with the
purpose oI developing a uniIorm national power policy and oI providing
clearance Ior power projects.
The 1948 Act also set up a network oI state electricity boards (SEBs), power
generation undertakings and management boards under central or joint
partnership Ior the purpose oI meeting regional power requirements. Currently,
there are 18 SEBs that generate about two-thirds oI the country's transmission,
distribution and supply oI electricity.
Requirements and Impact of Deregulation.
The requirements oI deregulation are:
Good operations, planning and market design engineers.
SuIIicient supply and Iuel diversity.
SuIIicient transmission inIrastructure.
EIIicient demand side responsiveness and management.
Provision oI right incentives and good price signals.
BENEFITS OF DEREGULATION:
The beneIits oI Deregulation include
It involves issue oI survival oI the Iittest i.e. eIIicient units live and others
perish.
Cheaper electricity through competition and innovation.
Improves generation and planning eIIiciency and economy.
Revitalization oI the power engineering proIession means increased job and
challenging opportunities.

EFFECTS OF DEEGULATION:
Following are the eIIects oI Deregulation:
AIter the deregulation oI electricity there is a huge change in our electricity
bills. Utility bills Ior electricity now include one total price Ior all these
components: generation, transmission, distribution, and local service. There are
separate additional charges Ior Iuel adjustment and taxes. Utility bills in the
deregulated environment will be "unbundled," meaning that each oI the
components will be itemized separately with a price per kilowatt hour (kWh) Ior
each. In addition, there may be a competitive transition charge or stranded
investment charge Ior each kWh.

IMPACTS OF DEREGULATION:
The impacts oI deregulation on Power System Operation are Iollowing:
Splitting into separate entities.
Grid (network) operators turn into neutral system providers.
Power plant operator`s turn into power production companies.
Consumers are treated as customers.
The interIaces especially oI grid operators and power production companies
changed to commercially sensitive ones.
Investments are reduced to minimum with system operated closer to their
limits.
A high grade oI system automation occurs.
Early retirement programs reduce the number oI operating personnel in the
control centre.

'arious Transaction Models
Following the success oI liberalization oI various sectors oI the economy,
electricity markets underwent transition. Vertically integrated utilities, which
managed generation, transport and supply oI electricity, were unbundled, and
competition in generation and supply was introduced. Given the diIIerences in
electricity market structures and regulatory policies around the world, there is
no single standard market model.
The transaction models are
Bilateral transaction.
Multilateral transaction.
Pool model.
Bilateral Transactions
A bilateral transaction between a supplier and a buyer involves the injection oI
power at one location in the network and the extraction oI the same amount oI
power, at the same time, at another location. Each bilateral transaction should,
thereIore, be represented by a Source (positive injection) connected to the point
oI injection and a sink (negative injection) connected to the point oI extraction.
The source and the sink are assumed to have the same size(transaction rate in
MW). The power injections associated with diIIerent bilateral transactions can
inIluence the loading on transmission Iacilities. As a result, power Ilows on
lines and transmission interIaces can increase or decrease depending on the
system operating conditions, transaction size, direction oI power transIer and
the number oI transactions considered.
The conceptual model oI bilateral structure is that gencos and discos enter into
transaction contracts where the quantities traded and the prices are at their own
discretion and not a matter Ior the ISO i.e. a bilateral transaction is made
between a genco and a disco without third party intervention. These transactions
are then submitted to the ISO.
In the absence oI any congestion on the system, the ISO simply dispatches all
the transactions that are requested, making an impartial charge Ior the service.
In a bilateral trading model:
Players arrange the purchase and sale transactions among themselves.
Each schedule coordinator (SC) and each power exchange (PX) are
responsible
Ior ensuring supply/demand balance.
Multilateral transactions are an extension oI bilateral transactions. It is a trade
that is arranged by energy brokers. In a multilateral transaction, there are many
generation points (at least more than one), similarly there are many load points
(at least more than one).
The scheduling coordinator (SC) oI a group oI multilateral transactions provides
the maximum as well as proposed generation and demand at diIIerent
generation and demand points, respectively. The coordinator also provides the
maximum and proposed demands at diIIerent load points oI the group. The SC
determines the Ieasibility oI this group oI multilateral transaction and suggests
minimum possible curtailments. AIter Iinalization, the Ieasible multilateral
transaction is scheduled.

Pool Dispatch
The pool is the sole buyer and seller oI electricity. The pool uses the oIIers oI
suppliers and bid oI the demanders to determine the successIul bidders whose
oIIers and bid have been accepted. The pool oIIers the 'optimum by solving a
centralized economic dispatch model taking into account the network
constraints. In case oI congestion management in pool model, the pool model
considers explicitly the impact oI transmission network constraints. The pool
model assumes implicitly the commitment oI generators which are bidding to
supply power. The determination oI economic optimum is done with the explicit
consideration oI the congestion.

DISCO Participation Matrix
In the restructured environment, GENCOs sell power to various DISCOs at
competitive prices. Thus, DISCOs have the liberty to choose the GENCOs Ior
contracts. They may or may not have contracts with the GENCOs in their own
area. This makes various combinations oI GENCO-DISCO contracts possible in
practice. We introduce the concept oI a 'DISCO participation matrix (DPM) to
make the visualization oI contracts easier. DPM is a matrix with the number oI
rows equal to the number oI GENCOs and the number oI columns equal to the
number oI DISCOs in the system. Each entry in this matrix can be thought oI as
a Iraction oI a total load contracted by a DISCO (column) toward a GENCO
(row). Thus, the entry corresponds to the Iraction oI the total load power
contracted by DISCO Irom a GENCO. The sum oI all the entries in a column in
this matrix is unity. DPM shows the participation oI a DISCO in a contract with
a GENCO; hence the name 'DISCO participation matrix.
The notation Iollows along the lines oI |1|, |2|. Consider a two-area system in
which each area has two GENCOs and two DISCOs in it. Let GENCO ,
GENCO , DISCO , and DISCO be in area I and GENCO , GENCO , DISCO ,
and DISCO be in area II as shown in Fig. 1.

Schematic oI a two-area system in restructured environment.
DPM |cpI11 cpI12 cpI13 cpI14
cpI21 cpI22 cpI23 cpI24
cpI31 cpI32 cpI33 cpI34
cpI41 cpI42 cpI43 cpI44|
where cpI reIers to 'contract participation Iactor. Suppose that DISCO
demands 0.1 pu MW power, out oI which 0.025 puMW is demanded Irom
GENCO , 0.03 puMW Irom GENCO , 0.035 puMW Irom GENCO and 0.01
puMW Irom GENCO .
Then column 3 entries in (1) are easily deIined as
cpI130.025/0.10.25
cpI230.03/0.1 0.3
cpI330.035/0.10.35
cpI430.01/0.1 0.1
The block diagonals oI DPM correspond the Irequency deviation is kept within
prescribed limits. The second assumption is that the individual electrical
connections within an area are so strong at least in comparison to local
demands. OII diagonal blocks correspond to the demands oI the DISCOs in one
area to the GENCOs in another area.

LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (SINGLE AREA)
All the generators in such an area constitute a coherent group so that all the
generators speed and slow down together maintaining their relative power
angles. Such an area is deIined as a control area. The boundaries oI a control
area will generally coincide with that oI an individual electricity board
company. To understand the load Irequency control problem, let us consider a
single turbo generator system supplying an isolated load.

Turbine speed governing system
Figure shows schematically the speed governing system oI a steam turbine. The
system consists oI the Iollowing components:
(1) Fly ball speed governor:
This is the heart oI the system which senses the change in speed (Irequency). As
the speed increases the Ily balls move outwards and the point B on linkage
mechanism moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases.
(2) Hydraulic amplifier:
It comprises a pilot valve movement is converted into high power level piston
valve movement. This is necessary in order to open or close the steam valve
against high pressure steam.
(3 Linkage mechanism:
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D. this
link mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to
change in speed. It also provides a Ieedback Irom the steam valve movement
(link 4).
(4) Speed changer:
It provides a steady state power output setting Ior the turbine. Its downward
movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the
turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady power output). The reverse
happens Ior upward movement oI speed changer.


CHAPTER 4
MODEL OF SPEED GO'ERNING SYSTEM:
Assume that the system is initially operating under steady conditions-the
linkage mechanism stationary and pilot valve closed, steam valve opened by a
deIinite magnitude, turbine running at constant speed with turbine power output
deIinite magnitude, turbine running at constant speed with turbine power output
balancing the generator load. Let the operating conditions be characterized by
balancing the generator load. Let the operating conditions be characterized by
F system Irequency (speed)
P
G
generator output turbine output
Y
G
steam valve setting
We shall obtain a linear incremental model around these operating conditions.
Let the point A on the linkage mechanism be moved downwards by a small
amount AY
A
. It is a command which causes the turbine power output to change
and can thereIore be written as
AY
A
K
C
AP
C
where AP
C
is the commanded increase in power.
The command signal AP
C
(i.e. AY
E
) sets into motion a sequence oI events-the
pilot valve moves upwards, high pressure oil Ilows on to the top oI the main
piston moving it downwards; the steam valve opening consequently increase,
the turbine generator speed increase, i.e. the Irequency goes up. Let us model
these events mathematically.
(1) AY
A
contributes-( L
1
/L
2
) AY
A
or k
1
AY
A
(i.e. upwards) oI k
1
k
C
AP
C
(2) Increase in Irequency A I causes the Ily balls to move outwards so that B
moves
downward by a proportional amount k
2
AI. the consequent movement oI C with
A remaining Iixed at AY
A
is (L
1
L
2
/L
1
)KAI k
2
AI (i.e. downwards)
The net movement oI C is thereIore
AYc - k
1
k
c
AP
c
k
2
AI
Two factors contribute to the movement of C:
The movement oI D, AY
D
, is the amount by which the pilot valve opens. It is
contributed by AY
C
and AY
E
and can be written as
AY
D
(L
4
/L
3
L
4
) AY
C
(L
4
/L
3
L
4
) AY
E
K
3
AY
C
K
4
AY
E
The movement AY
D
depending upon its sign opens one oI the ports oI the pilot
valve admitting high pressure oil into the cylinder thereby moving the main
piston and opening the steam valve by AY
E
. Certain justiIiable simpliIying
assumptions, which can be made at this stage, are:
(1) Inertial reaction Iorces oI main piston and steam valve are negligible
compared to the Iorces exerted on the piston by high pressure oil.
(2) Because oI (i) above, the rate oI oil admitted to the cylinder is proportional
to port opening AY
D
.
The volume oI oil admitted to the cylinder is thus proportional to the time
integral oI AY
D
. The movement AY
E
is obtained by dividing the oil volume by
the area oI the crosssection oI the piston. Thus
AY
E
K
5
}(-AY
D
) dt
It can be veriIied Irom the schematic diagram that a positive movement AYd,
causes negative (upward) movement AYe accounting Ior the negative sign used
in Eq. (3.4)
Taking the Laplace transIorm oI equations, we get
AY
C
(s) -k
1
k
C
AP
C
(s) k
2
AF(s)
AY
D
(s) -k
3
AY
C
(s) k
4
AY
E
(s)
AY
E
(s) -k
5
1/S AY
D
(s)
Eliminating AY
C
(s) and AY
D
(s), we can write
AY
E
(s) k
2
k
3
AP
c
(s)-k
2
k
3
AF(s)(K
4
s/K
5
)
|AP
c
(s) 1/RAF(s)| * (K
SG
/1T
SG
s)
Where
R k
1
/k
2
speed regulation oI the governor
K
SG
k
1
k
3
k
C
/k
4
gain oI speed governor
T
SG
1/k
4
k
5
time constant oI speed governor
The speed governing system oI a hydro-turbine is more involved. An additional
Ieedback loop provides temporary droop compensation to prevent instability.
This is necessitated by the large inertia oI penstock gate which regulates the rate
oI water input to the turbine.

TURBINE MODEL:
Let us now relate the dynamic response oI the steam turbine in terms oI changes
in power output to changes in steam valve opening ?Here two stage steam
turbine with reheat unit is used. The dynamic response is largely inIluenced by
two Iactors, (i) entrained steam between the inlet steam valve and Iirst stage oI
the turbine, (ii) the storage action in the reheated which causes the output iI the
low pressure stage to lag behind that oI the high pressure stage. Thus, the
turbine transIer Iunction is characterized by two time constants. For ease oI
analysis it will be assumed here that the turbine can be modeled to have ease oI
analysis it will be assumed here that the turbine can be modeled to have a single
equivalent time constant. Figure 3.4 shows the transIer Iunction model oI a
steam turbine. Typically the time constant Tt lies in range 0.2 to 2.5.

FIG: TURBINE TRANSFER FUNCTION MODEL

GENERATOR LOAD MODEL:
The increment in power input to the system is AP
G
-AP
D
, where AP
G
AP
D
is the
incremental turbine power output and AP
D
is the load increment. The net surplus
power in an area, represented by the diIIerence in increased generation AP
G
, and
increased demand AP
D
, is absorbed by the system in two ways:
1. Rate oI increase oI stored kinetic energy is the generator rotor. At
scheduled Irequency (I
0
), the stored energy is
W
0
KE
H*P
R
KW-sec(kilojoules)
where P
R
is the KW rating oI the turbo generator and H is deIined as its
inertia constant.

The kinetic energy being proportional to square oI speed (Irequency),
The kinetic energy at a Irequency oI (I
0
AI) is given by
W
KE
W
0
KE
(I
0
AI/ I
0
)
2

HP
R
|1(2AI/I
0
)|
Rate oI change oI kinetic energy is thereIore
d/dt(W
KE
) 2HP
R
/I
0
(d/dtAI)
As the Irequency changes, the motor load changes being sensitive to
speed, the rate oI load with respect to Irequency, i.e.
(cP
D
/cI)AIBAI
where the constant B can be determined emperically.B is positive Ior a
predominently motor load.
Writing the power balance equation, we have
2HP
R
/ I
0
(d/dtAI) BAI APtiei AP
G
- AP
D

BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF GENERATOR LOAD MODEL

BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF LOAD FREQUENCY
CONTROL OF AN ISOLATED SYSTEM:
A complete block diagram representation oI an isolated power system
comprising turbine, generator, governor and load is easily obtained by
combining the block diagram with Ieedback loop is shown in Figure

STEADY STATE ANALYSIS:
The model oI Iigure 3.6 shows that there are two important incremental inputs
to the load Irequency control system - APc, the change in speed changer setting;
and APd, the change in load demand. Let us consider a simple situation in which
the speed changer has a Iixed setting (i.e APd(s) APd/s) is obtained as Iollows:
AF(s)
|APc(s)0
-| k
PS
/|(1T
PS
)(k
SG
K
T
K
PS
/R)/(( (1T
SG
s)( (1T
T
s))| * AP
D
/s|

- |k
PS
/ (1 (k
SG
k
T
k
PS
/ R))| AP
D
While the gain Kt is Iixed Ior the turbine and K is Iixed Ior the power system
K
SG
, the speed governor gain is easily adjustable by changing by lengths oI
various links. Let it be assumed Ior simplicity that K
SG
is so adjusted that k
SG
k
t

1
It also recognized that K
PS
1/B, where B (AP
D
/AI)/P
R
( in pu MW/unit
change in Irequency ). Now
AI - |1/( B (1/R))|* ? P
D

The above equation gives the steady state changes in Irequency caused by
changes in Irequency are small (oI the order oI 5 Irom no load to Iull load).
With this understanding, Iigure 3.7 shows the linear relationship between
Irequency and load
Ior Iree governor operation with speed changer set to give a scheduled
Irequency oI 100 at Iull load. The drop` or slope oI this relationship is


AP
G
-1/R * AI |1/(BR1)| AP
D
Decrease in system load BAI |BR/ (BR1)|* AP
D
OI course, the contribution oI decrease in system load is much less than the
increase in generation. For typical values oI B and R quoted earlier
AP
G
0.971 AP
D
Decrease in system load 0.029 AP
D
Consider now the steady eIIect oI changing speed changer setting (APc(s)
APc/s)
With load demand remaining Iixed (i.e. APd0). The steady state change in
Irequency is obtained as Iollows.
AF(s)|
APd(s)0
|(k
SG
k
T
k
PS
)/((1T
PS
s)(1T
T
s)(k
SG
k
T
k
PS
/R)|*(APc/s)
AI |
steady state
|(k
SG
k
T
k
PS
)/ (1k
SG
k
T
k
PS
/R)|* APc
II k
SG
k
T
1
AI (1/(B1/R))* AP
C
II the speed changer setting is changed by APc while the load demand changes
by AP
D
the steady Irequency change is obtained by superposition, i.e.

APc APd, Ior AI 0
Figure 3.7 depicts two load Irequency plots one to give scheduled Irequency
at
100 rated load and the other to give the same Irequency at 60 rated load.
DYNAMIC RESPONSE:

To obtain the dynamic response giving the change in Irequency as Iunction
oI the time Ior a step change in load, we must obtain the Laplace inverse oI eq.
(3.14). The characteristic equation being oI third order, dynamic response can
only be obtained Ior a speciIic numerical case. However, the characteristic eq.
can be approximated as Iirst order by examining the relative magnitudes oI the
time constants involved. Typical values oI the time constants oI load Irequency
control system are related as
T
SG
T
T
T
PS

Letting T
SG
T
T
0, (and K
SG
K
T
1), the block diagram oI Iig. 3.6 is reduced
to that oI Iigure 3.8, Irom which we can write
AF(s) |
APc(s)0
-|K
ps
/((1K
ps
/R)T
ps
)|* AP
d
/s
-|(K
ps
/ T
ps
) / s(s(RK
ps
/RT
ps
))|* AP
d

AI(t) - (RK
PS
/RK
ps
) * 1-exp |-t/T
ps
(R/(RK
ps
))|} AP
d

The plot oI change in Irequency versus time Ior Iirst order approximation given
above shown in Iig. First order approximation is obviously a poor
approximation.

CONTROL AREA CONCEPT
So Iar we have considered the simpliIied case oI a single turbo-generator
supplying an isolated load. Consider now a practical system with a number oI
generating stations and loads. It is possible to divide an extended power system
(say, national grid) into sub areas (may be, state electricity boards) in which the
generators are tightly coupled together so as to Iorm a coherent group, i.e. all
the generators respond in unison to changes in load or speed changer settings.
Such a coherent area is called a control area in which the Irequency is assumed
to be the same throughout in static as well as dynamic conditions. For purposes
oI developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be reduced to single
speed governor, turbo-generator and load system. All the control strategies
discussed so Iar are, thereIore, applicable to an independent control area.

PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL:

It is seen Irom the above discussion that with the speed governing system
installed on each machine, the steady load Irequency characteristic Ior given
speed changer setting has considerable droop, e.g. Ior the system being used Ior
the illustration above, the steady state droop in Irequency will be 2.9 Hz Irom
no load to Iull load.
System Irequency speciIications are rather stringent and, thereIore, so much
change in Irequency cannot be tolerated. In Iact, it is expected that the steady
change in Irequency cannot be tolerated. In Iact, it is expected that the steady
change in Irequency will be zero. While steady state Irequency can be brought
can back to the scheduled value by adjusting speed changer setting, the system
could undergo intolerable dynamic Irequency changes with changes in load. It
leads to the natural suggestion that the speed changer setting be adjusted
automatically by monitoring the Irequency changes. For this purpose, a signal
Irom AI is Ied through an integrator to the speed changer resulting in the block
diagram conIiguration shown in Iig. 3.10. The system now modiIies to a
proportional plus integral controller, which, as is well known Irom control
theory, gives zero steady state error, i.e. AI(steady state) 0
The signal APc(s) generated by the integral control must be oI opposite sign to
AF(s) which accounts Ior negative sign in block Ior integral controller.
Now
AF(s) - |K
ps
/(1T
ps
S) (1/R K
i
/s)*K
ps
/(1T
sg
s)(1T
t
s)}|* ? P
d
/s
- |RK
ps
s (1T
sg
s)(1T
t
s)/s(1T
sg
s)(1T
t
s)(1T
ps
s)R K
ps
(K
i
R s)}|*
APd/s
Obviously,
AI (steady state sAF(s)

In contrast to eq. (3.16) we Iind that the steady state change in Irequency has
been reduced to zero by the addition oI the integral controller. This can be
argued out physically as well. AI reaches steady state (a constant value) only
when
APc APd constant. Because oI the integrating action oI the controller, this is
only possible iI AI 0

In central load Irequency control oI a given control area, the change (error) in
Irequency is known as area control error (ACE). The additional signal Ied back
in the modiIied control scheme presented above is the integral oI ACE. In the
above scheme ACE being zero under steady conditions, a logical design
criterion is minimization oI AACE dt Ior a step disturbance. This integral is
indeed the
time error oI a synchronous electric clock run Irom the power supply. In Iact,
modern power systems keep track oI integrated time error all the time. A
corrective action (manual adjustment APc, the speed changer setting) is taken by
a large (pre assigned) station in area as soon as the time error exceeds a
prescribed value.
The dynamics oI the proportional plus integral controller can be studied
numerically only, the system being oI Iourth order- the order oI the system has
increased by one with the add Proportional plus integral controller with Ki
0.03 Ior step load disturbance oI 0.182 pu is shown in Iigure 3.11
Load Irequency control with integral controller achieve zero steady state error
and
Iast dynamic response, but it exercise no control over the relative loading oI
various generating station (i.e. economic dispatch) oI the control area. II a
sudden increase in load(1) occurs in control area, the load Irequency control
changes the speed changer settings oI governor oI all generating unit oI the area
so that ,together these unit match the load and the Irequency returns to
scheduled value (This action place in Iew seconds). However, in process oI this
change loading oI various generating unit change in manner independent oI
economic loading consideration. In Iact, some units may get overloaded.
Some control over loading oI individual unit can be exercise by adjusting the
gain Iactor oI integral. However this is not satisIactory. A satisIactory solution
is achieved by using independent controls Ior load Irequency and economic
dispatch. While load Irequency control is Iast acting control and economic
dispatch control is slow acting control, which adjust the speed changer setting in
every minute in accordance with command signal generated by central
economic dispatch centre. Figure 3.12 shows schematic diagram.

TWO AREA LOAD FREQUENCY CONROL:
An extended power system can be divided into a number oI load Irequency
control
areas interconnected by means oI tie lines. Without loss oI generality we shall
consider a two-area case connected by a single line as illustrated in Figure 3.13

The control objective now is to regulate the Irequency oI each area and to
simultaneously re4gulate the tie line power as per inter-area power contracts. As
in the case oI Irequency, proportional; plus integral controller will be installed
so as to give zero steady state error in tie line power Ilow as compared to the
contracted power. It is conveniently assumed that each control area can be
represented by an
equivalent turbine, generator and governor system. Symbols used with suIIix 1
reIer to area 1 and those with suIIix 2 reIer to area 2.
In an isolated control area case the incremental power ( PG - PD) was accounted
Ior by the rate oI increase oI stored kinetic energy and increase in area load
caused by increase in Irequency. Since a tie line transports power in or out oI an
area load caused by increase in Irequency. Since a tie line transports power in or
out oI an area, this Iact must be accounted Ior in the incremental power balance
equation oI each area.
Power transported out oI area 1 is given by
P
tie, 1
V
1
V
2
sin ( o1 - o2 )/ X12
Where
o
1 , 2
power angles oI equivalent machines oI the two areas.
For incremental changes in o1 and o2, the incremental tie line power can be
expressed as
P
tie,

1(pu)
T
12
(o1 - o2)
Where T
12
V
1
V
2
cos ( o1 - o2 ) P
r1
X
12

Since incremental power angles are integrals oI incremental Irequencies, we can
write as
P
tie, 1
2aT
12
(} I
1
dt - }I
2
dt)
where I
1
and I
2
are incremental Irequency changes oI areas 1 and 2 respectively.
Similarly the incremental tie line power out oI area 2 is given by
P
tie, 2
2aT
21
(} I
2
dt - }I
1
dt)
Where
V
2
V
1
cos ( o2 - o1 )
T21 ---------------------------------
Pr2 X21
a12 T21
The incremental power balance equation Ior area1 can be written as
P
G1
- P
D1
2H
1
d ( I
1
) B
1
I
1
P
tie, 1
I
1
dt
It may be noted that all quantities other than Irequency are in per unit
Taking the Laplace transIorm and reorganizing, we get
F
1
(s) | P
G1
(s) - P
D1
(s) - P
tie, 1
(s)|* K
ps1
(1T
ps1
s)
Where as deIined earlier
K
ps1
1/B
1

T
ps1
2H
1
/B
1
I