Contents

1.0.0 VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY................................................................................................................ 4

1.1.0 IMPACTS OF ECTOPARASITES ON LIVESTOCK AND BIRDS ............................................................... 5
1.2.0 CONTROL OF ARTHROPOD BORNE DISEASES .................................................................................. 5
1.3.0 FEATURES OF ARTHROPODS ............................................................................................................ 6
1.4.0 IMPORTANT CLASSES ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.5.0 ARACHNIDS ...................................................................................................................................... 6
1.6.0 CHILOPODS....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7.0 DIPLOPODA ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.8.0 CRUSTACEANS .................................................................................................................................. 7
1.9.0 INSECTS ............................................................................................................................................ 7
2.0.0 CLASS INSECTA ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.0 DIPTERA (FLIES): ............................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.0 EXTERNAL ANATOMY ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 THE INSECT HEAD ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 COMPOUND EYE. ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3 ANTENNAE ................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.4 ANTENNAL SEGMENTS. .............................................................................................................. 10
2.2.5 MOUTHPARTS ............................................................................................................................ 10
2.2.6 THE INSECT THORAX .................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.7 LEGS............................................................................................................................................ 12
2.2.8 LEG TYPES ................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.9 INSECT WINGS. ........................................................................................................................... 13
Primitive wings have many, short cross veins. Such wings are called reticulate................................ 13
2.2.10 HALTERES. ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.13 HOME WORK ............................................................................................................................ 14
3.0.0 THE REPRODUCTION OF INSECTS ...................................................................................................... 14
3.1.0 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................ 14
3.2.0 LIFE CYCLE ...................................................................................................................................... 14
4.0.0 ORDER DIPTERA ................................................................................................................................. 16

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 4.1.0 TSETSE FLIES ................................................................................................................................... 16
4.1.1. STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................................... 16
4.1.2 EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSETSE FLIES .......................................................................... 17
4.1.3 DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................................ 17
4.1.4 TSETSE FLY SPECIES .................................................................................................................... 18
4.1.5 LIFE CYCLE .................................................................................................................................. 18
4.1.6 ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR ....................................................................................................... 18
4.1.7 GENERAL TSETSE ACTIVITY ......................................................................................................... 18
4.1.8 HOST SEEKING AND PREFERENCE .............................................................................................. 19
4.1.9 TRYPANOSOMIASIS .................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.10 TSETSE FLY HABITAT ................................................................................................................. 20
4.2.0 CULICIDAE ...................................................................................................................................... 21
4.4.0 PSYCHODIDAE ................................................................................................................................ 22
4.5.0 CERATOPOGONIDAE ...................................................................................................................... 23
4.6.0 TABANIDAE.................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 10: horse flies ............................................................................................................................... 24
4.7.0 MUSCIDAE ...................................................................................................................................... 24
4.8.0 CALLIPHORIDAE.............................................................................................................................. 25
5.0.0 MYIASIS .............................................................................................................................................. 26
5.1.0 SARCOPHAGIDAE ........................................................................................................................... 27
5.2.0 GASTEROPHILIDAE ......................................................................................................................... 27
5.3.0 OESTRIDAE ..................................................................................................................................... 28
6.0.0 HEMIPTERA ........................................................................................................................................ 29
6.1.0 CIMICIDAE ...................................................................................................................................... 29
6.2.0 REDUVIIDAE ................................................................................................................................... 30
7.0.0 PHTHIRAPTERA................................................................................................................................... 30
8.0.0 SIPHONAPTERA .................................................................................................................................. 31
9.0.0 ACAROLOGY ....................................................................................................................................... 32
9.1.0 ANATOMY OF ARACHNIDS ............................................................................................................. 32
9.1.2 MITE INFESTATION IN VARIOUS ANIMAL SPECIES ..................................................................... 33
9.2 0 THE TICKS ....................................................................................................................................... 34
9.2.1 FAMILY ARGASIDAE.................................................................................................................... 34

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 9.2.4 VETERINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF SOFT TICKS ............................................................................... 34
9.3.0 FAMILY IXODIDAE........................................................................................................................... 34
9.3.1 GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF HARD TICKS ......................................................................................... 35
9.3.3 COMMON NAMES OF TICKS AND THE DISEASES THE TRANSMIT.............................................. 36
9.3.4 PREDILATION SITES OF EACH TICK SPECIES ............................................................................... 36
9.3.5 SIMPLE CRITERIA OF IDENTIFICATION OF TICK .......................................................................... 37
10.0.0 GENERAL CONTROL OF TICKS .......................................................................................................... 37
10.1.0 CULTURAL CONTROL METHODS .................................................................................................. 37
10.2.0 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHOD ................................................................................................. 37
10.3.0 CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS .................................................................................................. 38
10.4.0 CONTROL STRATEGIES ................................................................................................................. 38
10.5.0 TICK BORNE DISEASES: ................................................................................................................. 38

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1.0.0 VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY

Definition:

Entomology (from the greek word entomos, “that which is cut in pieces or
engraved/segmented”) is the study of insects. Though technically incorrect, the definition
is sometimes widened to include the study of terrestrial animals in other arthropod groups
or other phyla, such as arachnids, myriapod deals.

Entomology is the study that deals with insects. Veterinary entomology therefore is the
science that deals with insects of veterinary importance and other related forms.
Entomology is the branch of parasitology. Entomon ( greek) means insect. Insects are
six-legged animals with distinct head, thorax and abdomen. Related forms are animals
which are not insects but are closely related to insects; for example mites and ticks. The
insects and their related forms are collectively called arthropods, belonging to the phylum
arthropoda, which is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. figure 1 (louse fly).

Taxonomically insect belong to the super kingdom eucaryota, kingdom animalia, phylum
arthropoda and class insect.

Figure 1: louse fly.

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1.1.0 IMPACTS OF ECTOPARASITES ON LIVESTOCK AND BIRDS

Many ectoparasites are known to be vectors of pathogens, which the parasite typically
transmit to hosts while feeding or ( occasionally ) defaecating. However, ectoparasites -
especially in large aggregations - may also debilitate domestic animals in other ways, by
causing the following disorders.

 Anaemia
 Irritability
 Dermatitis
 Skin necrosis
 Low weight gains (particularly important in livestock)
 Secondary infection
 Focal haemorrhages
 Blockage of orifices (ears, etc.)
 Inoculation of toxins
 Exsanguination (occasionally).
 Subdermally-located parasitic larval stages of certain flies cause a condition termed
'myiasis', which may lead to significant tissue damage and secondary infection

1.2.0 CONTROL OF ARTHROPOD BORNE DISEASES

There are four main ways of controlling arthropod-borne diseases:

 Disrupt vector-host contact by removing animals from vector infested areas.

 Eradicate vector by chemical or biological methods.
 Chemotherapy of the host population.
 Immunization or vaccination of host population.

Basic requirement of effective vector control measures involve the following:-

 Correct vector identification

 Sufficient biological and ecological information of the vector
 Establishing the magnitude of the damage caused by the vector

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  Sufficient information on vector temporal and spatial distribution.

1.3.0 FEATURES OF ARTHROPODS

All arthropods possess

 Exoskeleton - a hard protective covering around the outside of the body

 Segmented body - that allows movement
 Jointed limbs and jointed mouthparts - that allow extensive specialization
 Bilateral symmetry - whereby a central line can divide the body into two identical halves,
left and right
 Ventral nerve chord - as opposed to a vertebrate nerve chord which is dorsal
 Dorsal blood vessel

1.4.0 IMPORTANT CLASSES

Five important classes of Arthropods are arachnids, chilopoda, diplopoda, crustaceans and
insects.

1.5.0 ARACHNIDS

 Arachnids include spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites. They all have
 2 body segments - cephalothorax and abdomen
 8 legs
 no antennae

1.6.0 CHILOPODS

 Chilopods, which include centipedes, all have

 Many body segments
 1 pair of legs /body segment
 1 pair antennae
 Poisonous jaws

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1.7.0 DIPLOPODA

 Diplopods, which include millipedes, all possess

 Many body segments
 2 pair legs /body segment
 1 pair antennae

1.8.0 CRUSTACEANS

Crustaceans include crabs, prawns, slaters, barnacles etc. Their features are;

 Varied number of body segments - usually there is a head, thorax and abdomen but there
is much fusion, reduction and modification of segments
 Varied number of legs
 2 pair antennae

1.9.0 INSECTS

Insects such as beetles, wasps and cockroaches all have

 3 body segments
 6 legs
 1 pair antennae

NB: The classes of veterinary importance are the arachnids and insects.

2.0.0 CLASS INSECTA

Major insect orders of veterinary importance are:-

 Order Diptera (flies) – 11 families,

 Order Hemiptera (true bugs) – 2 families,
 Order Phthiraptera (lice) – 4 families,
 Order Siphonaptera (fleas) – 2 families.

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2.1.0 DIPTERA (FLIES):

2.2.0 EXTERNAL ANATOMY

 Large well-known group

 Thousands of important species
 Adult have 1 pair of membranous fore-wings
 Hind wings reduced to form halteres
 Mouth parts are proboscus-like for sucking fluids or piercing & sucking or penetrating
tissues
 Larval features, no conspicuous head Legless Slender bodies with pointed fronts which
broaden towards rear Fluid sucking Piercing

Figure 2:Darsal view of tsetse fly

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Figure 3: Side view of tsetse fly.

2.2.1 THE INSECT HEAD

The insect head is a sclerotised capsule of mainly rigid sclerites. It houses the compound eyes,
simple eyes (ocelli), antennae and mouthparts.

2.2.2 COMPOUND EYE.

In most insects there is one pair of large, prominent compound eyes. It is composed of several
units called ommatidia. There may be up to 30,000 ommatidia in a compound eye. This type of
eye gives less resolution than the vertebrate eye, but it gives acute perception of movement -
important in flight. When present, ocelli (either 2 or 3), detect low light or small changes in light
intensity.

2.2.3 ANTENNAE

Insect antennae vary morphologically.

Antennae can detect very low levels of chemicals and are used in insect communication, finding
host plants or mates. The first antennal segment (closest to the head) is called the scape.

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2.2.4 ANTENNAL SEGMENTS.

 The second antennal segment is called the pedicel.

 The remainder of the antenna is collectively called the flagellum

Figure 4: head and antenna of tsetse fly.

2.2.5 MOUTHPARTS

 The 4 mouthparts are the labrum, mandibles, maxillae and labium.

 The labrum is a simple fused sclerite, often called the upper lip, and moves
longitudinally. It is hinged to the clypeus.
 The mandibles, or jaws, are highly sclerotised paired structures that move at right angles
to the body. They are used for biting, chewing and severing food.
 The maxillae are paired structures that can move at right angles to the body and possess
segmented palps.
 The labium (often called the lower lip), is a fused structure that moves longitudinally and
possesses a pair of segmented palps.

The tsetse mouthparts are also characteristic features that can be used to distinguish tsetse from
other types of fly. The mouthparts are attached to the head by a bulb-like swelling at the end of
the labium, called the thecal bulb. This bulb contains muscles to manipulate the mouthparts. At
rest, the mouthparts point forward and are protected by a pair of maxillary palps. When the fly
feeds, the mouthparts are lowered from the palps and point downwards. The tube for sucking

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blood is made up of two parts that are shaped like the gutter of a building and they fit closely one
on top of the other to form the tube. These two parts are called the labium, which is the thickest
and darkest section and the labrum, which is thinner and more transparent. The labium has small
teeth (labellar teeth) at the tip, which are used to pierce the hosts’ skin. The small tube within the
blood-sucking tube is called the hypopharynx that is used to inject saliva into the host blood to
stop it from coagulating. It is important to recognize these structures as they are sites for
trypanosomes in infected flies and therefore can be dissected and examined microscopically to
determine infection rates of tsetse with trypanosomes.

Figure 5: mouth parts of tse tse fly.

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2.2.6 THE INSECT THORAX

 The insect thorax is box-like with dorsal, ventral and lateral sclerites.
 The dorsal sclerites are collectively called the notum or tergum.
 The ventral sclerites are called the sternum and the lateral sclerites are called the
pleuron.
 This construction allows attachment and contraction of muscles used in the movement of
the wings and legs.
 The thorax is further subdivided into 3 segments, the prothorax, mesothorax and
metathorax.
 Each of these segments bears a pair of legs.
 In addition, the mesothorax may bear a pair of fore wings and the metathorax may bear a
pair of hind wings.

2.2.7 LEGS

The legs (figure 6), named from the anterior, are the fore, mid and hind legs. Each leg has several
segments:

Figure 6: Leg segments.

 The coxa articulates with the body.

 The trochanter is usually quite small.
 The femur is usually the longest and strongest segment.
 The tibia is usually long and slender.

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  The tarsus is collectively composed of 2 to 5 smaller tarsomeres. The last tarsomere
usually has a pair of claws and often 2 or 3 tarsal pads.

2.2.8 LEG TYPES

 Unmodified legs are used for walking and are called ambulatory.
 Legs modified for running are called cursorial.
 Digging legs are called fossorial.
 Swimming legs are called natatorial.
 Jumping legs are called saltatorial.
 Grasping legs are called raptorial.

2.2.9 INSECT WINGS.

 Most adult insect possess wings. Some have shortened (brachypterous) wings while
others may be wingless (apterous).
 Wings have a network of veins which give rigidity and support. Air, nerves and blood
also pass through the wing veins.
 There are several major longitudinal veins. These are the costa, subcosta, radius, median,
cubitus and anal veins.

Primitive wings have many, short cross veins. Such wings are called reticulate.

2.2.10 HALTERES.

In flies, (Diptera), the hind wings have become modified to form small balance organs, called
halteres.

2.2.11The Insect Abdomen and External Genitalia

 The insect abdomen has a tergum (never called a notum) and sternum but has no pleuron
since it does not bear legs or wings.
 Terminally the abdomen bears the external genitalia. In some female insects there is a
very obvious ovipositor for depositing eggs.
 A pair of cerci are also present at the end of the abdomen. These have a sensory function.
 In some orders there may also be additional terminal appendages.

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2.2.13 HOME WORK

 Draw and label the internal structure of an insect

 Draw and label the insect reproductive and digestive systems
 State the functions of the labeled parts.

3.0.0 THE REPRODUCTION OF INSECTS

Insects are dioecious i.e. are either male or female. The female insects have an organ called
spermathemaca which stores sperms from a single mating which will fertilise the eggs all the life
of the insect. Most insects therefore mate once in a life time.

3.1.0 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION:

 Oviparous-the eggs are fertilized, laid and hatch outside the mother’s body e.g. housefly,
mosquitoes, etc.
 Ovoviviparous-the eggs are fertilized, retained in the mother’s body until just before
hatching when when they are laid to hatch.
 Viviparous-after fertilization the eggs are retained in the mother’s body, the embryo
receive nourishment from the motherin addition to or instead of that present in the yolk,
and then hatch within the mother’s body body e.g. tsetsefly.
 Parthenogenesis-in some species of insects when the female fails to find a male for
fertilization, the females can produce young ones from unfertilized eggs e.g. bees, aphids,
blackflies etc.

3.2.0 LIFE CYCLE

 Moulting: moulting or ecdysis is the shedding off of the exoskeleton of the insect to
allow it to grow. When the eggs hatch larvae emerge and develop into pupae which in
turn develop into adult insects. Insects moult as they develop from one stage to another.
There can be several larval stages and thus several moults.
 Metamorphosis: is the process by which the egg, larva and pupae reach the adult phase.
This process is controlled by the brain, molting and juvenile hormones. There are two
forms of metamorphosis:

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  Complete metamorphosis is also called holometabolous metamorphosis. The eggs hatch
into larvae, the larva secretes a cocoon around itself to form a puparium and the adult
emerges from the pupa. The life cycle stages include egg, larva, pupa and adult. The
different stages live in different environment. They also have different types of
requirements, infact the pupa stage does not feed at all.

Figure 7: life cycle of fleas

 Incomplete or hemimetabolous metamorphosis. In this life cycle, the adult lays eggs
which hatch into nymphs and after a single or several molts the nymphs develop into the
adult. The nymps feed on the same feed as the adults. But the nymphs have no wings and
reproductive organs. In other insects such as the dragonfly there are naiads which are
similar to nymphs but eat food different from that of the adult.

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4.0.0 ORDER DIPTERA
Insects that belong to the order dipteral have a single pair of wings. Most are harmless but others
are important vectors. All are holometabolous. There are three suborders: Nematocera,
brachycera and cyclorrhapha.

Suborder nematocera-has four important families and these are culicidae (mosquitoes),
certopogonidae (biting midges), simulidae (black flies) and psycodidae (sandflies)

Suborder brachycera-has one important family-Tabanidae which has three genera;Tabanas,

chrysops and haematopota.

Suborder cyclorrhapha-Families muscidae and glosinidae i.e house flies, stable flies and Tsetse
flies respectively.

4.1.0 TSETSE FLIES

Tsetse files belong to the family Glossinidae and genus called Glossina. The name Tsetse is derived from
the Sechuana meaning “fly destructive to cattle”

4.1.1. STRUCTURE

The flies are robust with various shades of brown, from yellowish to blackish brown. Both male and
female are haematophagus. The males are distinguished from females by the presence of hypopygium on
the ventral posterior surface.

Figure 8: male and female tsetse flies.

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4.1.2 EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSETSE FLIES

1. They sit with their wings folded in a scissior like manner over the back, with the tips of the wings
extending slightly beyond the end abdomen, unlike other biting cyclorrhapha.
2. They have a discal cell characteristically hatched shaped in the venation of the wing between the
4th and 5th veins, while in other biting cyclorrhapha it is triangular in shape.
3. They have long proboscis projecting forwards from underneath the head and basal balb, palps are
as long as the proboscis
4. The antenna consists of three segments of which the third has a secondarily branched arista.

4.1.3 DISTRIBUTION

The genus Glossina occurs over 11m sq. km of Africa between latitudes 150N and 300 S. The northern
limit across the continent is from Senegal in the west to Southern Somalia in the east. The northern limit
corresponds closely to the southern edges of the Sahara and Somali deserts. The southern limit is less well
defined. In the southwest it corresponds closely to the northern edges of the Kalahari and Namibian
desert. In the southwest it is generally 200 S but extends as far as 290 S along the east African coastal
region.
The Glossina are usually divided into three species based on their on their morphological differences
1. Fusca group (subgenus Austenina)
2. Palpalis group (subgenus Nemorhina)
3. Morsitans group (subgenus Glossina)

The major limiting factors of the range of genus appear to be:

1. Vegetation
2. Food-presence of animals
3. Climate: Whether too hot or too cold or too little rainfall

The limits are more often than not determined by the climate through the effect of vegetation
1. Subgenus Austenina (Fusca group)
These are limited to dense/thickly forested areas. However, they do not penetrate very far into
forests, but are associated with forest edges. Some species are capable of extending into dry
savannah zones.
2. Subgenus Nemorhina (Palpalis group)
These normally occupy very humid areas of Africa (mangrove swamps, rain forest, lake shores,
and gallery forests along rivers). Those found in drier areas, do not move far from water (rivers,
lakes). In more humid areas they do not need to live very close to free water.
3. Subgenus Glossina (Morsitans group)
This group is restricted to the savannah grassy woodlands. It is least hydrophilic, they don’t live
in wettest areas like the rain forest or mangrove swamps. In addition to climate, its distribution is
limited to scarcity of game animals on which they feed.

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4.1.4 TSETSE FLY SPECIES

There are between 22-23 recognised species of Glossinidae worldwide. In Zambia the following
have been recorded from the three groups
Morsitans group (subgenus Glossina)
1. G. pallidipes
2. G. morsitans morsitans
3. G. morsitans centralis
Palpalis group (subgenus Nemorhina)
1. G. fuscipes fuscipes
Fusca group (subgenus Austenina)
1. G. brevipalpis

4.1.5 LIFE CYCLE

Both the male and female tsetse flies suck blood and are equally capable of transmitting trypanosomes.
The female tsetse fly only mates once in her life time. She has a special sac called spermatheca where
sperms are stored for all subsequent fertilisations. The female is viviparous/larviparous. It produces live
larvae instead of eggs. It produces one (1) larva at a time. In her life time it produces a total of 8-12. The
larvae grows in the uterus of the female, obtaining nourishment from milk glands, and moults twice
during its gestation period that lasts about 10 days.

The female looks for a well shaded spot on loose soils sheltered by trees, bushes, fallen logs etc wehre she
lays the larva. The larvae are yellowish-white in colour with two (2) characteristic black lobes on its hind
end.

As soon as it is laid, burrows into the soil and in a matter of minutes pupate inside the larval skin. The
pupal stage lasts 5-6 weeks. The fly then emerges by pushing off a circular cap at the end of the
puparium. The female fly can live for about 80 days or more.

4.1.6 ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR

Temperature is a very important factor in the ecology of tsetse flies. It affects the fly activity, inter-larval
period and puparial duration. Temperatures below 160 C flies are inactive and above 350C they seek
refuge, in which they become inactive. Temperatures must remain in the 16-350C range for them to be
active and able to seek food.

4.1.7 GENERAL TSETSE ACTIVITY

Tsetse flies are generally not active at night. During day light G. morsitans males can fly for 15 and 30
minutes in the hot and cold seasons respectively, while females fly fewer minutes.

Tsetse flies are highly active in the morning and afternoon and inactive in the middle of the day. Hungry
flies tend to be more active and have higher increases to visual responses.

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The young and old flies are less active. The young due to low fat reserves whilst the old it’s probably due
to fraying of the wings and other degenerative changes. On the day of oviposition the female fly is totally
inactive.

4.1.8 HOST SEEKING AND PREFERENCE

Tsetse flies feed at regular intervals (3-4 days) and they use visual stimuli to locate moving hosts or
stationery host. They also use odours from the host. Host preference is mainly dependent on availability
of hosts. Removal of the most favoured host from the habitat results in adaptation to another host.

4.1.9 TRYPANOSOMIASIS

Trypanosomiasis is a group of acute or chronic infectious protozoal diseases caused by Trypanosomes.

The disease is characterised by anaemia and emaciation and is transmitted by the tsetse fly in which it
multiplies and by other biting flies (Tabanides)

The presence of Trypanosomiasis is limited to the presence of tsetse flies. However it is also known to
occur in areas without tsetse flies which suggest mechanical transmission as well.

TRYPANOSOMES
1. T. vivax and T. congolonse commonly occur in cattle, sheep, goats and dogs
2. T. brucei commonly occur in cattle, horses, dogs and pigs
3. T. simiae commonly occurs in pigs

Other trypanosomes cause sleeping sickness in man. The trypanosome lives in the blood in the plasma of
the mammal, free in the plasma. It feeds on nutrients in the serum and multiplies by binary fission. They
are not all host specific and they vary in their ability to produce disease in any one host. T. vivax is most
pathogenic in cattle. T. brucei in horse and dog, where death may occur in 2-3 weeks and T. simiae may
cause death in 12-36 hours of onset of symptoms.

Trypanosomiasis is one of the most important cattle diseases in Zambia. The disease is associated with
game in the following areas: Eastern, Southern, Central and Western Provinces, although it is becoming
important in North Western and Lusaka Provinces.

INCUBATION
This is known to vary from about 7 days to three weeks.

Transmission
1. Cyclical transmission
This is the main method of transmission. The Tsetse fly (particularly Glossina morsitans) bites
infested animal and acquires infection when sucking blood. In feeding tsetse fly penetrates the blood
vessel and injects anticoagulant in saliva to prevent blood from clotting and sucks up the blood. The
trypanosome undergoes a cycle development in between 8-35 days after which it remains infective on
the tsetse fly and will infect other animals when the tsetse feeds on them

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 2. Acyclical transmission
This is mechanical transmission when biting flies or contaminated needles transmit infected blood
from one animal to another. A tsetse fly when feeding may also transmit this way.
3. Lion, dog and hyena can become infected by eating infected carcases with T. Brucei

SPREAD OF INFECTION
Game animals may often have in apparent infections and form a reservoir for the disease. The disease is
limited by the occurrence of the transmitting flies – no tsetse flies – no lasting disease. An exception to
this is T. vivax which can persist with transmission by large numbers of biting files.
Note: Mixed infections can occur in one tsetse fly and tsetse flies also vary in their susceptibility to
infection with species of trypanosome

Animals from a tsetse fly area may bring infection to a group of cattle away from the fly area and some
cases may occur due to biting flies but these are self limiting. Also infected tsetse flies may be carried (e.g
in transport) to clear areas where they can cause disease and if suitable terrain may extend the fly belt to a
new area.

4.1.10 TSETSE FLY HABITAT

Tsetse flies can be grouped according to their preferred habitats. Forest species are least important.
Riverine species infest essential watering areas. Savannah tsetse are the most important as they occupy
large tracts of suitable grazing land. Control of tsetse fly by spraying is aided by detailed knowledge of
fly habitats.

IMMUNITY
Game animals have strong natural immunity. Recovery from infection results in premunity and immunity.
There is little or no cross immunity to other species of trypanosome. There are variable degrees of
resistance between a single species of trypanosome and the variety of hosts.

SYMPTOMS
Acute infections
There is high temperature, anaemia, respiratory distress, weakness and maybe subcutaneous oedema
(horses and dogs – T. Brucei infections). Appetite and excretion often remain normal

CHRONIC INFECTION
This is the typical infections in cattle, sheep and pigs. There is usually intermittent periods of fever (and
parasitaemia) increasing anaemia, weakness, wasting and emaciation. There is enlargement of lymph
nodes and maybe photophobia, recumbency and death or gradual recovery.

DIAGNOSIS
Symptoms- possibility of infection- blood smear to confirm. Make wet smears to establish infection in
herd. Stained smears for identification. Note T theileri is a large apparently non pathogenic trypanosome
often seen in blood from cattle.

20
POST MORTEM
Lesions; mainly anemia and emaciation. Spleen and lymph nodes are enlarged in most cases exceptions,
especially in horses occur

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Two forms of treatment are available:
1. Curative treatment to infected animals
2. Prophylactic treatment to animals which will be exposed to infection
Bernil is the drug mainly used for curative treatment in cattle in Zambia. Prothidium is mainly used for
prevention of up to four (4) months.
Samorin is used for both cure and prevention. These drugs need careful measurement and dosage and are
effective in cattle. They are not always suitable for trypanosome infections in other animals and other
drugs are available e.g Antricyde chloride for T. simiae in pigs. Prophylaxis as a curative treatment is not
available for this trypanosome.
CONTROL
1. Regular inspection-clinical and wet smearing in herds in areas adjoining fly area, and using
prophylactic drugs
2. Bush clearing-making unsuitable for tsetse fly
3. Aerial spraying – to destroy tsetse fly
4. Fly pickets – to take fly counts
5. Settlement-development of agriculture
6. Game fencing/elimination
7. Sterile insect technique
8. Insect treated baits
9. Targets

4.2.0 CULICIDAE

Culicidae (mosquitoes) Transmit several parasites Protozoa, (malaria) Filarial worms,

(elephantiasis) Arbovirus.

Identification: Long & narrow wings with scales along veins & wing margin

21
Figure 9: mosquitoes

Culicidae (mosquitoes) Biology: Almost all blood-sucking; only females take blood; males take
nectar & plant juices. Eggs laid in flowing or still water; water collected in containers, tree
cavities & leaf axils of plants Eggs laid singly or together in floating raft Larvae & pupae are
aquatic; active swimmers & breathe via siphon tube Adults usually close to breeding sites.

Culicidae (mosquitoes) has two subfamilies Anophelinae Genus Anopheles (human malaria).
Adults rest with abdomen tilted at steep angle to substrate. Larvae rest horizontally on water
surface. Culicinae Genera Aedes & Culex (arboviruses & filarial worms) Adults rest with
abdomen parallel to substrate Larvae hang at angle from water surface. Eggs Larvae Adults.

4.3.0 Simuliidae

Simuliidae (black flies) Females are blood-feeders; Vicious biters & cause major distress to
poultry, livestock & humans.

Black flies are small, dark, stout-bodied flies with a humpbacked appearance. The adult females
feed mainly during daylight hours and are not host specific. The black fly is a potential disease
vector. It hovers about the eyes, ears and nostrils of animals, often alighting and puncturing the
skin with an irritating bite. Large numbers of bites may cause weakness from blood loss,
anaphylactic shock or death.

The black fly life cycle begins with eggs being deposited on logs, rocks or solid surfaces in
eddies of flowing streams. Larvae attach themselves to rocks or vegetation with a posterior
sucker or threads. The length of the larval period is quite variable depending on the species and
the larval environment. The adults, which emerge after pupation, are strong fliers and may fly 7
to 10 miles from their breeding sites.

4.4.0 PSYCHODIDAE

Psychodidae (sand flies) Mostly harmless, except blood-sucking sand flies (subfamily
Phlebotominae). Transmit several pathogens Protozoa, Bacteria (oroya fever)

22
Identification: Small cryptic flies (2-4 mm) Very broad & hairy wings with long parallel veins.
Wings held open over body.

Psychodidae (sand flies) Biology: Adults hide in hyrax & rat burrows during day; enter houses
at night to feed: Adults & larvae live near water: Larvae live in moist soil or in cracks & crevices
where they survive on condensed water

4.5.0 CERATOPOGONIDAE

Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) Females of some genera ( Culicoides ) are blood-suckers;

males visit flowers Painless bite is followed by intense irritation & itchiness.

Identification: Very small flies (0.5-2mm) Grey or yellowish bodies Wings folded over body at
rest Wings have thick radial veins crowded close to wing margin

Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) Biology: Larvae carnivores or detritivores: Larvae mostly live
in water bodies with high organic content; some live in moist or terrestrial habitats. Adult
females transmit arboviruses, in livestock, Bluetongue virus in sheep, African horse sickness.
Species that bite humans may transmit filarial worms & viruses.

4.6.0 TABANIDAE

Tabanidae (horse flies). Horse flies (figure 10) and deer flies, also called Tabanids, are insects
that are usually strong fliers. As with mosquitoes, only females bite. They are usually daytime
feeders and are vicious biters. Their attacks often account for lowered weight gains and lowered
milk production. Because of their painful bites and frequent attacks, horse flies produce frenzied
behavior in their hosts, sometimes causing them to run long distances in an effort to escape.

Tabanids introduce an anticoagulant into the wound when they bite that causes blood to ooze.
These wounds are excellent sites for secondary invasion of other insects and diseases, and also
cause more blood loss. Being intermittent feeders, they can be important mechanical transmitters
of diseases such as anthrax, tularemia and anaplasmosis.

23
Most species of tabanids are aquatic or semi-aquatic in the immature stage, but some develop in
moist soil, leaf mold or rotting logs. Generally the eggs are deposited in layers on vegetation,
objects over water, or moist areas favorable to larval development. Eggs hatch in 5 to 7 days and
the larvae fall to the surface of the water or moist areas where they begin to feed on organic
matter.

Many species prey upon insect larvae, crustacea, snails and earthworms. When the larvae are
ready to pupate, they move into drier soil, usually an inch or two below the surface. The pupal
stage lasts 2 to 3 weeks, after which the adults emerge. The life cycle varies considerably
between species, requiring anywhere from 70 days to 2 years. They are difficult pests to control.
Daily mist applications will protect animals, but are difficult for most cattlemen to implement.

Figure 10: horse flies

4.7.0 MUSCIDAE

Muscidae (house flies) figure 11. Large group with many common flies & some important pests
Nuisance flies Mechanical disease transmitters. Thorax lightly striped Mostly. Larvae live in
various types of organic matter; manure, garbage, rotting vegetation 2 important subfamilies
Muscinae Stomoxyinae

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Figure 11: house flies.

Muscidae (house flies) Muscinae Non-biting species – short fleshy proboscus for mopping up
surface liquids. Some species extract fluids from human food & faeces (e.g. house fly, Musca
domestica ). Such species mechanically transfer bacteria & viruses Cholera, poliomyelitis,
leprosy, typhoid fever, dysentery etc others feed on wounds or run off from wounds some
involved in myiasis

Muscidae (house flies) Stomoxyinae Biting species – long piercing mouth parts Some species are
aggressive & persistent blood-suckers (e.g. stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans ) Torment wild &
domestic animals (e.g. ears of dogs) Stomoxys calcitrans

4.8.0 CALLIPHORIDAE

Calliphoridae (blow flies) figure 12. Identification: Stoutly built flies Shiny metallic (blue or
green) colour Plumose arista (at least 2/3 of length) 2-3 notopleural bristles

Calliphoridae (blow flies) Biology: Adults attracted to decaying flesh, carrion & faeces; larvae
develop inside. Other species are involved in myiasis (genera Calliphora , Chrysomyia & Lucilia

25
) Not normally involved with diseases, but may spread bacteria (e.g. anthrax) Positive attributes;
Wound treatment.

Figure 12: blow flies

5.0.0 MYIASIS
Suborder cyclorrhapha

Insects in the suborder cyclorrhapha can cause a condition called myiasis. Myiasis refers to
infestation of living animals and humans by dipteran larvae, which feed on the host’s living
tissue, dead tissue, body fluids or ingested food material. There are three types of myiasis:

Facultative myiasis- the fly larva are usually free living, however, under certain circumstances,
these larva can adapt themselves to a parasitic dependency on host. Examples are musca
domestica (housefly ), calliphora spp ( blue bottle flies ), lucilia spp (green bottle flies) and
phormia spp ( the blue flies). The adult flies are attracted to a moist wound, skin lesion, or soiled
hair coat. The common site is the breech, where flies may be attracted to wool soaked with urine
or faeces. As the adults feed in these sites, they lay eggs which hatch to produce larvae
(maggots) that move independently about the wound surface ingesting dead cells, exudates,
secretion and debris but not living tissue. This condition is called “fly strike” or “strike”. These
larva irritate, injure and kill successive layers of skin and produce more exudates. The infested

26
animal may die from shock, intoxication, histolysis or infection. Control is by reducing attraction
by shearing or shaving around the attach areas.

Obligatory myiasis- the fly larvae are completely parasitic i.e. they depend on the host to
complete their life cycle, examples include cochliommyia hominivorax ( new world screw
worms). The adult flies are attracted to wounds of several days of age. All species of animals
may be attacked. The adult oviposite on the wound and the eggs hatch into larva to penetrate the
body like a screw; hence the name screw-worm. These larvae cause pain and destruction as they
move into through. Tissues to pupate they fall to the ground. After some days the adult
emerges. The wounds that attract adult may be from dehorning, tick bites, castration, barbed
wire, or newly cut navels. Control is by dressing wounds.

Accidental myiasis- in accidental or pseudo-myiasis, the dipteran larvae are accidentally ingested
(during licking or grooming) and are found within an animal’s gastro intestinal tract and appear
in the faeces undigested. This may occur when a roaming dog or cat ingests carrion that contains
maggots.

5.1.0 SARCOPHAGIDAE

Sarcophagidae (flesh flies) Identification: Robust flies with grey & black colour (never
metallic) Striped thorax & checkerboard grey pattern on abdomen Arista plumose on basal half 4
notopleural bristles

Sarcophagidae (flesh flies) Biology: Adults feed on decaying organic matter (mostly animal) &
faeces. Females deposit live larvae in above for further development. Also involved in myiasis &
develop in skin sores of vertebrates.

5.2.0 GASTEROPHILIDAE

Gasterophilidae (horse bot flies) figure 13. Identification: Adults are dull yellow & bee-like
Short-lived adults lack mouth parts & don’t feed; rarely seen. Genus Gasterophilus associated
with myiasis Larvae inhabit guts of large mammals. Larvae are barrel-shaped & armed with rows
of spines Gasterophilus sp.

27
Gasterophilidae (horse bot flies) Biology: Eggs laid on host’s fur; near mouth or on forelegs
Larvae enter mouth of host; Burrow through skin into mouth; Eggs are licked & swallowed by
host before hatching; Larvae move to stomach & attach to wall; Nourished by horse’s blood;
May damage guts & weaken animals; Mature larvae pass out in faeces & pupate in soil

Figure 13: horse bot fly

5.3.0 OESTRIDAE

Oestridae (warble flies, bot flies) Identification: Large, stout, hairy flies with large inflated head
& mottled grey colour; Adults don’t feed; short-lived & rarely seen Larvae are involved with
myiasis; Larvae are white, spiny, barrel-shaped & have black mouth parts.

Oestridae (warble flies, bot flies) figure 14. Biology: Larvae are internal parasites of mammals;
Nasal cavities of sheep, horses, antelope etc Under skin of cattle, antelope, rodents etc Skin
parasites cause pus-filled boils (warbles) that damage animal hides; Sheep nasal bot fly ( Oestrus
ovis ); Living larvae deposited into nostrils; attach to sinus membrane & feed on mucous;
Sneezed out & pupate in soil; Other species of Oestrus & Gedoelstia live in pulp cavity in horns
of antelope & sheep Warbles on cattle.

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Figure 14: oestrus ovis.

6.0.0 HEMIPTERA

Hemiptera (true bugs) Diverse in appearance; Piercing & sucking mouth parts; When present,
two pairs of wings (hind pair reduced); Incomplete life cycle Immature stages = nymphs are
mostly small wingless replicas of adults; No pupal stage; Of lesser medical importance; Most are
phytophagous or predators of arthropods. Few blood suckers = two families

6.1.0 CIMICIDAE

Cimicidae (bed bugs) Identification: Small, apricot-coloured & wingless; Circular body &
flattened extensions of prothorax behind eyes; Medical & veterinary importance: Most species
are ectoparasitic on rodents, poultry, birds & bats three species parasitic on humans; Cimex
lectularius occurs worldwide; Do not appear to vector any pathogens

Cimicidae (wingless) Biology: Adults & tiny nymphs hide in day; Any cracks & crevices
mattresses, clothing & under wallpaper; Emerge at night to feed on blood; Survive without food
for several months, but need blood to moult & lay eggs; Bites are painless; no response during

29
sleep; Many show allergic reactions (large red discs around bites; swelling & irritation for days);
High densities can cause anaemia in children; Adult & nymphs feeding.

6.2.0 REDUVIIDAE

Reduviidae (winged) Identification: Large robust bugs = ambush predators of arthropods Strong
recurved mouth parts for biting; Inject paralytic toxin to subdue prey; Bite very painful to
humans; Feed on human & animal blood Transmit Chagas’ disease

Reduviidae (winged) Triatominae (kissing bugs). Live in woodland & forest habitats; Colonized
human dwellings; Live in ceilings, cracks & crevices etc. Behave like bed bugs & attack humans
at night; Spread protozoans which cause Chagas’s disease. Most notorious species are Triatoma
infestans & Rhodnius prolixus.

7.0.0 PHTHIRAPTERA
Various species of biting or chewing lice (Suborder Mallophaga) and sucking lice (Suborder
Anoplura) infest domestic animals. Sucking lice infest mammals only, but biting lice infest both
mammals and birds. Lice are wingless, flattened insects, usually 2-4mm long. The claws of the
legs are adapted for clinging to hair and feathers. Anoplura are blood feeders. The three mouth
part (stylet) are retracted within the head when not in use. Mallophaga have ventral chewing
mandibles and live on epidermal products. Some species of Mallophaga feed on blood and
exudates when available.
Sub-order Anoplura (the sucking lice). There are three families of Veterinary significance.
Family Genus Features
Pediculidae Pediculus phthirus have eyes, long head (human louse)
Haematopinidae Haematopinus spp ocular points
Linognathidae Linognathus spp no eyes, long nose

Sub order Mallophaga (biting or chewing lice). These lice infest birds as well as mammals. They
may or may not have eyes, but have short antennae and broad heads. This sub-order has two sub-
divisions:
Amblycera-which have wide heads, 4 segment antennae, separated mesothorax and matathorax
and have lightly development maxillary palps. Family Menoponidae and the genera are Menopan
gallinnae and Menacanthus spp
Ischnocera-have broad heads, visible antennae, lack maxillary palps and have fused mesothorax
and metathorax.

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Families Genera
Philopteridae Cuclotogater heterographus
Trichodectidae Trichodects canis of dogs
Damalinia spp
Lice of different animals
Host species Sucking lice Chewing lice
Cattle Haematopinus Damalinia bovis and Linognathus vituli
Horses Haematopinus asini Damalima equi
Pigs Haematopinus suis
Sheep Linognathus pedalis Damalinia ovis, L. ovillus, L. africanus
Goats Linognathus stenopsis Damalinia caprae and D. crassipes
Dogs Linognathus stetosus Trichodectes canis
Cat Felicola subbrostrata

Life cycle of a louse: Lice have hermimetabolous cycles. Louse eggs or “nits” are glued to hairs
and are pale, transluscent, and soboval. The eggs hatch into nymphs (three stages). Nymphal lice
are smaller than adults, but otherwise resemble them in habits and appearance. About 3-4 weeks
are required to complete one generation, but this varies with species.

Veterinary Significance
Lice cause pruritus and dermal irritation with resultant scratching, rubbing, and biting of infested
areas. A general unthrift appearance, rough coat and lowered production are common. Lice may
also cause anaemia. Control is by use of an effective insecticide.

8.0.0 SIPHONAPTERA
Fleas are wingless, ectoparasitic insects with laterally compressed bodies about 1.5-4mm long
and the abdomen has ten segments. The chitinous coverving is thick and dark brown. Females
are larger than males. They have a habit of jumping when disturbed and the hindermost third pair
(metathorax) of legs is long, strong and adapted for leaping. In some species there are a number
of large spines on the head and thorax known as “combs” or “ctenidia”. On the cheek (genals)
there may be genal combs on the posterior border of the prothorax, pronotal combs. Either or
both of these combs are absent in some species. The lateral flattening and the other structures
enables fleas to move forward easily through the pelage or feathers of their host.

Life cycle: the females produce 2-6 eggs/day. Eggs are deposited on the nest or on the host but
the eggs will fall to the ground, where they hatch in 3-6 days into larvae. The larva has a head
and 13 body segments with no appendages. The whitish vermiform larva measures 4-10mm
when fully grown, and undergoes three larval stages. The pupa, which lasts 10-15 days, is
formed when larva spins a cocoon around itself, and may remain quiescent until it emerges as the
adult. Adult fleas feed only on blood. Stimuli for detection of host include vibration, warmth,

31
exhalation of carbon dioxide or casting a shadow. The maxillae are used to penetrate the hosts
skin and the tip of the labrum epipharynx enters a capillary from which the flea imbibes blood.
Saliva is passed into the host by the salivary pump and appears as clear drops of fluid outside the
capillary. During copulation the sperms are deposited in the spermatheca.

Pathogenesis- Fleas are much less permanent parasites unlike lice. They come and leave host.
They not markedly host specific. Fleas infestation seems to be associated with poor condition of
the host as in a chronic debilitating disease. Infested animals become restless, lose condition.
Flea dirty is the partially digested blood that is passed as faeces. Flea bites bring about condition
called flea allergy dermatitis. Fleas are biological vector of cestode parasites like Dipylidium
caninim in dogs. They also transmit filarial worms and typhys-like rickettsia.
Examples
Species Host Site
Pulex irritans man and other animals whole body
Ctenocephalides felis cat, dog and man whole body
Cleriocephalides canis dog whole body
Ceratophyllus gallinae chicken whole body
Tunga penetrans man foot and ankle
Echidnophaga gallinacean chicken head
Control is by us of acaricides

9.0.0 ACAROLOGY

Class arachnida

Acarology is the study of mites and ticks, both belonging to subclass Acari or Acarina of the
class arachnida. There are two orders of or veterinary importance in the subclass Acari. Order
Acariformes has important families such as sarcoptidae, psoroptidae, knemidoptidae and
demodicidae comprising the mites of our interest. Order parasitiformes comprises families;
ixodidae ( the hard ticks) and Argasidae (the soft ticks).

9.1.0 ANATOMY OF ARACHNIDS

Anatomy of arachnids
The mites and ticks have no distinct head and antennae. The adults have a distinct genital and anal area on
the ventral body surface. All the larvae have three pairs of legs while nymphs and adults have four. The
mouth parts are called chelicerae and are borne on the gnathosoma. Ticks and mites have the same
structure, but the former are larger than the latter.

32
9.1.0 The mites
The mites undergo four developmental stages, i.e the eggs, larval, nymphal (1-3 series-protonymph,
deutonymph and tritonymph) and adult stages. Nymphs look like the adults but have undeveloped
reproductive systems. Mites are permanent parasites, their life cycle is completed on the host.
Suborder Astigmata:
Family Genera Characteristics
Sarcoptidae Sarcoptes spp Legs do not protrude/can’t be seen dorsally
Psoroptidae Psoroptes spp Long legs
Knemidokoptidae Knemidokoptes spp
Chorioptidae Chorioptes spp Legs not very long

Suborder Prostigmata:
Family Genera Characteristics
Demodicidae Demodex Elongated body, short stout legs
Cheyletiellidae Cheylletiella spp

9.1.2 MITE INFESTATION IN VARIOUS ANIMAL SPECIES

Mite infestation is called cutaneous acariasis or mange, which is characterized by chronic dermatitis, seen
as crust formation, scaliness, absesses and in some cases pruritus. The effect are weight loss, restrictive
quarantine and damage to hide and skins.

Host species Mite species Condition caused

Cattle Sarcoptes scabiei Sarcoptic mange
Sheep Psoroptes Ovis Psoroptic mange
Cattle Chorioptes bovis Chorioptic mange
Cattle Demodex bovis Demmdectic mange
Sheep/goat Scarcoptes scabiei ovis Sarcoptic mange
Sheep Psoroptes ovis Sheep scab
Goat Chorioptes caprae, C.ovis Chorioptic mange
Sheep Demodexovis, D. caprae Demodectic mange
Horse Sarcoptes scabiei equi Scorcoptic mange
Horse Psoroptes equi
Horse Chorioptes equi
Trombiculus trambiculidiasis
Pigs Sarcoptes scabieisuis Sarcoptic mange
Dog/cat Sarcoptes canis Cannie scabies
Cat Notoedres cati Feline scabies
Dog/cat Cheyletiella blackei Walking dandruff
Dog Demodex canis Cannie demodicosis
Cat Demodex cati Feiline demodicosis

Veterinary importance of mites: production of dermatitis, exsanguinations of feeding on other body

fluids, transfer of pathogens and production of allergic reactions in hosts.

33
9.2 0 THE TICKS

9.2.1 FAMILY ARGASIDAE

In the soft ticks, the leathery dorsal surface lacks a hard plate (scutum). Males and female argasids appear
to be much alike, except for the larger size of the females and differences in the external genetalia. The
argasid capitulum (mouth-part) arises from the anterior of the body in larvae but from the ventral body
surface in nymphs and adults.

9.2.3 GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF SOFT TICKS

The argasid ticks are highly specialised for sheltering in protected niches or crevices of wall or rocks, in
vertebrate host nests, roosts, burrows or caves. Argasids use multiple hosts i.e. the larvae feed on one host
and drop to the substrate to moult. Several nymphal instars each feed separately, drop and molt. Adults
feed several times but do not moult. Nymphs and adults feed rapidly, usually 30-60 minutes.

Adult argasids mate off the host several times; afterwards, females deposit a few hundred eggs in several
batches and feed between ovipositions. Examples of soft ticks include, Ornithodorus, Argas (the fowl
tick) and Otonius.

9.2.4 VETERINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF SOFT TICKS

 Vector of Borrelia anserine (avian spirochetosis) and rickettsia Aegyptianella pullorum

(aegyptianellosis) and a variety of arbovirusese.g. African swine fever virus.
 Some cause tick paralysis e.g Argas spp irritati

9.3.0 FAMILY IXODIDAE

The dorsal surface of the male hard tick is covered by a scutum. The scutum of the ixodid, female, nymph
and larva covers only the anterior half of the dorsal surface. The males therefore do not enlarge (engorge)
due to restriction of the scutum. The ixodid capitulum (mouth part) arises from the anterior end of the
body in each development stage.

figure 15: hard tick and soft tick

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9.3.1 GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF HARD TICKS

Life cycles. The life cycle is hemimetabolus involving four developmental stages: eggs, larvae, nymphal
and adult stages. Each post embryonic developmental stage feeds only once but for a period of several
days. Males and females which parasitise livestock mate while on the host. Males take less food than
females but remain longer on the host and may mate with several females. Males become sexually mature
only after beginning feeding after which they mate with a feeding female. Only after mating does the
female become replete and fully sexually mature. She then detaches, drops from host, and over a period of
days deposits a single batch of numerous eggs (1000-4000) on or near the ground in crevices, under
stones or debris. Female die after oviposition.

One-host tick life cycle-examples include Boophilus spp, Dermacentor nitens and Hyalomma scupense.
 Larvae hatch from eggs after 7-10 days then the larvae climb on vegetation and seek a host
 Larvae attach onto a host, feed, engorge on blood 2-5 days and moult on the host. After moulting
the larvae change into 3-staged nymphs which take blood meal for 5-6 days
 The engorged nymph pass through a 2-day moult and an adult emerges. Mating and fertilisation
occurs on the host. The female takes a blood meal and engorges
 The engorged female drops onto the ground 20 or more days after larval attachment to host. The
female then lays her eggs and dies

Two-host life cycle – for example Hyalomma Spp

 Larvae hatch from eggs, seek a host (small animal e.g. rabbit) or birds or mammals of any size
 Larvae attach onto a host and engorges on blood and then moult into nymphs which also take a
blood meal
 The engorged nymph drops to the ground to moult into adult which finds a large host
 The adult attaches onto a new host, often on the perineum. Mating and fertilisation take place on
the host
 The female takes a blood meal, engorges and drops to the ground for oviposition and then dies

Three-host life cycle – examples include Amblyomma spp. and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus
 Eggs hatch into larvae and climb and climb onto vegetation to seek a host
 Larvae attach onto a host, usually on hairy parts of head or body and engorges with blood
 Engorged larvae drop to the ground to moult into nymphs
 The nymphs attach onto another host, take a blood meal and engorge
 The engorged nymphs drop to the ground and moult into adults
 The adults find a host. Mating and fertilisation takes place on the host
 The female engorges and drops to the ground for oviposition and dies

9.3.2 IMPORTANCE HARD TICKS

1. Amblyomma spp – vectors of Cowdria ruminantium (a rickettsia) which causes heart water. Their
bites predispose to screw worm infestation
2. Boophilus spp are major vector of Babesia bigemmina, B, bovis (agent for red water) and
Anaplasma marginale (agent for gall sickness)

35
 3. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus – biological vectors of Theileria parva (a protozoon) which causes
corridor disease or east coast fever
4. Dermacentor spp e.g. D. nitens transmits Babesia cabali in the horse
5. Haemaphysalis spp – cause tick paralysis and are vectors of agents of Q fever, tularemia,
brucellosis and babesiosis in dogs
6. Hyalomma spp

NB: Apart from being vectors of various disease agents, ticks cause direct damage to hosts by introducing
toxicosis (e.g sweating sickness, tick paralysis) cause by salivary fluids and toxins. Skin wounds resulting
from tick bites are susceptible to secondary bacterial infections and screw worm infectation. Anaemia
and death may occur as a result of tick infestation

9.3.3 COMMON NAMES OF TICKS AND THE DISEASES THE TRANSMIT

Tick Diseases

Brown ear tick ECF, Red water, gall

sickness

Blue tick Red water, gall

sickness

Red legged or red tick ECF, red water, Gall

sickness

The brown dog tick or kennel tick Tick fever, gall sickness

The bont-legged tick Sweating sickness

Variegated tick or east African bont tick Heart water

The bont tick Tick bit fever

9.3.4 PREDILATION SITES OF EACH TICK SPECIES

Tick Site

Brown ear tick Ear

Blue tick Body, dewlap, shoulder and neck

Red legged or red tick All body but the adult on the tail

Brown dog tick Ear

The bont-legged tick Udder, scrtum, groin, anus and tail-switch

Variegated tick or tropical bont-tick Udder, scrotum, belly, dewlap and flanks.

36
The bont tick Udder, scrotum, groin, anus and tail switch.

9.3.5 SIMPLE CRITERIA OF IDENTIFICATION OF TICK

Tick
Identification

Brown ear tick Colour is brown

Blue tick Colour is bluish with yellow legs

Red legged tick Dark body with orange-red legs, the edge of of the male’s body is orange-red

Brown dog tick Redish brown in colour

The bont-legged tick Dark brown body, white banded legs, shield is black and mouth parts are long.

Variegated tick Conspicuous markings on its shield, the body of female is dark brown, the legs
have brown and white bands

10.0.0 GENERAL CONTROL OF TICKS

Tick control is practised in a wide variety of circumstances involving different tick and host species. The
main reasons for tick control are prevention of transmission of disease agents and protect hosts from
irritation and production losses, formulation of lesions that can become secondarily infested, damage to
hides and udders, toxicosis, paralysis. There are four major tick control methods

10.1.0 CULTURAL CONTROL METHODS

Cultural Control methods – This method is directed against free- living and parasitic stages of ticks.
Control of free-living ticks is achieved by manipulation of the tick’s microclimate
 Removal of certain types of vegetation has been used to control Amblyommaamericanum in
recreational areas
 Control of Argasid ticks e.g Argaspericus and A. walkerae has been done by eliminating cracks in
walls and perches
 Control can also be done by removal of alternate hosts or definitive hosts of a particular stage of
the life cycle
 Rotation of postures or pastures spelling has been used in the control of one host ixodid risk
Boophilus microplus

10.2.0 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHOD

Biological Control Method-is aimed at both free-living and parasitic stages of ticks
 Preditors, including birds, rodents, shrews, ants and spiders, play a role in some areas in reducing
the numbers of free-living ticks. For example fire ants (Pheidolemegacephala) are noteworthy
tick predators, engorged ticks may also become parasitized by the larvae of some wasps
(Hymenoptera)

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  Use of tick resistant cattle is becoming common in Africa and the Americas. The crossbreeds
between zebu, Bos indicus and Sanga and those between Bos indicus and Bos Taurus are notably
resistant to ticks after initial exposure

10.3.0 CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS

Chemical Control Methods-done against the free-living in the environment of the parasitic stages on the
host, by use of acaricides
 Acaricides treatment of vegetation in specific sites e.g trails of recreational areas, to reduce the
risks of tick attachment to people has been used. This can not be used over larger areas because of
environment pollution and cost of treatment
 Dog kennels, barns and human dwelling may also require periodic treatment with acaricides to
control the free-living stages of ixodid ticks such as the kennel tick (Rhipicephalussanguineus)
 Treatment of hosts with acaricides to kill attached larvae, nymphs and adults of ixodid ticks and
larvae of argasid ticks is the most widely used method. The commonly used acaricides are
organochlorides, organophosphates, carbamates, amidines, pyrethroids and avermectins
 Methods of acaricides application are:
- Dips or sprays. The former or the most effective and commonly used method
- Ear-tags impregnated by acaricides
- Slow release “pour-ons” are applied on the back from where they spread to the entire body
- “Spot-ons” – similar to pour-ons but have less ability to spread
- Dusts may be applied on fowls and cats while dusts, washes or dip dogs

Vaccines – recent advances in biotechnology promise a vaccine against Boophilusmicroplus. The vaccine
stimulates antibodies that damage tick gut cells and kill the tick or drastically reduces its reproductive
potential. Prospects of developing similar vaccines against other ixodid tick vectors of cattle diseases of
major veterinary importance remain unclear.

10.4.0 CONTROL STRATEGIES

 Prevention-apply methods that eliminate change of the microclimate of ticks and livestock e.g
pastures without ticks
 Eradication – complete destruction of ticks on pastures or region
 Abate-complete elimination or diminish tick population levels to economically low levels
 Containment-holding tick population levels to within acceptable levels i.e to establish an
endermic stability

10.5.0 TICK BORNE DISEASES:

- East coast fever: a protozoal disease
- Anaplasmosis
- Babesiosis
- Tick fever

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