Introductory Entomology

Third Semester
Lamjung Campus
Course Code: ENT 211
Course Title: Introductory Entomology
Credit Hours: 3(2+1) Full Marks:75
Theory: 50, Practical: 25
Introduction -
Definition, position
of insects in animal
kingdom
 Definition
 Entomology is a branch of zoology that deals with the
study of insects.
 The term is derived from the Greek word Entomon =
Insects and logos = study.
 Agricultural Entomology deals with the study of insects
that affect agriculture.
 There are other branches of entomology, such as medical
entomology, veterinary entomology, forest entomology
and forensic entomology (study of insects inhabiting
decomposing remains).
 Insect
 The world insect derived from the Latin word ‘Insectum’ which
means ‘to cut into’.
 Insects, whose body is divided into three regions namely head,
thorax and abdomen
 Having two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs in thoracic
region
 Genital organs towards posterior end of the body and with
decentralized nervous system
 They have open blood system, bilaterally symmetrical body and
decentralized nervous system
  Insects occupy 2/3rd of total population of Phylum Arthropoda
 Characters of Class Insecta

 Body divided in to 3 segments: head, thorax and abdomen

 Possess three pairs of legs, hence the name Hexapoda
 Presence of one or two pairs of wings
 A pair of antennae
 Respiration by means of internal air tubes known as trachea
 Genital opening situated at the posterior end of the body
 Presence of metamorphosis (incomplete/complete) during
development
 Possess exoskeleton made up of hard cuticle which plays
important role for survival
 Excretion is mainly by malpighian tubules which help in
maintaining ionic balance
• The phylum Arthropoda
• Some characteristics of the Arthropoda are:
• They have a so called exoskeleton. They do not have bones, but the hard outer covering supports the muscles.
• The appendages are jointed.
• The body is formed of a number of segments.
• Characteristics of the class Hexapoda (Insects)
• Some characteristics of insects are:
• Body:
• The body is divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax and abdomen
• Head:
• One pair of antennae.
– The antennae are usually used as tactile organs (= organs pertaining to the sense of touch) or as olfactory organs (= organs of smell).
• Eyes:
– Most insects possess one pair of compound eyes and sometimes some simple eyes called "ocelli".
• Mouthparts.
– There is a big variety in types of mouthparts; biting, sucking, stinging, licking, etc.
• Thorax:
• Three pairs of legs.
– The thorax has three segments. These are called pro-thorax, meso-thorax and meta-thorax. Each segment has one pair of legs. The different
parts of the leg are called coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsus.
Note: some insects are legless, or have fewer than 6 legs. Some larvae have leg-like appendages on the abdomen.
• Often one or two pairs of wings.
– The wings are borne by the second and/or third of the thoracic segments.
Note: Some insects are wingless.
• Abdomen:
• The gonopore (genital opening) is at the posterior end of the abdomen.
• No appendages used for moving on the abdomen of adults (except in a few primitive insects).
• Sometimes there are some appendages at the end of the abdomen.
 FEATURES OF ARTHROPODS

Arthropoda (from Greek words arthros = jointed, podos = foot) is the

largest phylum in the Animal Kingdom Arthropods are segmented
animals which have jointed appendages. All arthropods have:

 All arthropods possess: Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
Sometimes head and thorax are united together to form cephalothorax
 Exoskeleton - a hard protective covering around the outside of the
body (divided by sutures into plates called sclerites)
 Segmented body
 Jointed limbs and jointed mouthparts - that allow extensive
specialization
 Bilateral symmetry - whereby a central line can divide the body into
two identical halves, left and right
 Nervous system is fully developed
 Dorsal blood pump (open blood vascular system are found).
 Contd…..
 Heart is long and contractile
 Alimentary canal is complete
 Mouthparts are present around the mouth which is used in
puncturing, sucking and chewing
 Muscular system is well developed
 Excretion takes place by Malpighian tubules 
 The Phylum Arthropoda includes the class Insecta and other classes
like the Arachnida, the Chilopoda, the Diplopoda and the Crustacea.
 It is with these groups that the insects, especially the wingless ones,
are most likely to be confused and the main characters that are used
to differentiate these classes are:
Systematic Classification of Insects
 Kingdom- Animal
 Phylum – Arthropoda
 Class – Insecta
 Order – Lepidoptera (Butterflies and moths)
 Family – Noctuidae
 Genus – Helicoverpa
 Species – armigera
Class: Arachnida (arachnids): spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, etc.

 Arachnids possess :
 Terrestrial, 2 body segments - cephalothorax and abdomen
 4 pairs of legs, simple eyes, respiration is done by gills or
lungs
 no antennae
 It has 4 sub classes:
1. Scorpinida: E.g. Scorpion
2. Phalangida: E.g. Harvest man or Daddy long leg.
3. Araneida; E.g. Spiders
4. Acarina: E.g. Ticks and Mites.
 Class: Chilopoda (Centipedes)

 Chilopods are quick moving predators with

poison glands which possess:
 Terrestrial in habitat, body is long, flattened
and multi-segmented
 1 pair of legs per body segment
 1 pair of antennae
 1st pair of legs modified into venomous “fangs”
 Animals are unisexual. E.g. centipedes
 Class: Diplopoda (millipedes)

Diplopods are slow moving vegetarians which

possess:
Many body segments, long and cylindrical
2 pair of legs per body segment
1 pair of antennae E.g.: millipedes
 Class: Crustacea (Crustaceans): crabs, shrimp, barnacles, sow bugs, etc.

Crustaceans possess:
 Mostly aquatic, free living parasites
 Two body regions – Cephalothorax and abdomen
 Pairs of antennae
 Varied number of legs (usually five)
 Respiration is done by skin or by gills
 Excretion is done by green glands
 Mostly unisexual.
Class: Insecta (Insects); beetles, bugs, wasps, moths, flies, etc.

Insects possess:
3 body segments
6 legs
1 pair of antennae
Most flying insects possess two pairs of wings
Reasons for the
dominance of
insects over
other animals
 THE DOMINANCE OF INSECTS
Most successful group of organisms on the planet
1. NUMBER OF SPECIES
 Every 2 out of 3 living things is an insect
 Entomologists estimate that over 900,000 insects (species) have been
named
Plant Kingdom 400,000 species
Animal Kingdom 250,000 species

2. NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS
Another way to look a the dominance of insects is to consider the
distribution and density of individual species of populations
Small size and high reproductive potential = population of epic proportions
A migratory locusts may contain up to 10 billion individuals, cover an area of
several thousand hectares, and have a total biomass of over 30,000 metric tons

Grape leafhoppers reach populations as dense as 30 million hectare in some

vineyards
 Contd….
 A single colony of Australian termites can swell to several million individuals
within an earthen mound 20-25 feet tall

3. DISTRIBUTION
 A third way to assess the dominance of insects is to examine their
abundance and diversity in a wide range of ecological habitats
 Insects are found in virtually every terrestrial and fresh water environment
on the face of the earth.
 Insect can be found in temperature varied from -200C (Ice bug) to 800C
(locust)
 REASONS OF DOMINANCE
I. Structural characters:-
1. Exoskeleton:
 The insect body has an outer exoskeleton or body wall made
up of cuticular protein called as chitin.
 This is light in weight and gives strength, rigidity and
flexibility to the insect body.
 Prevent from desiccation or water loss
 Prevent from physical or mechanical injuries and to maintain
shape and size of the body, providing area for muscle
attachment
 Giving strength to the body appendages
 Contd….
2. Small size:
 Most species are of insects are between 2 and 200 mm (0.1
-1.0 inch) in length
 Some may be smaller while some may be bigger like Goliath
beetle of Africa ( 4 inch ) and walkingstick of Malaysia (13
inch)
 It helps the insects to exploit different ecological niches
inaccessible for other animals.
 Minimal resources are needed for survival and reproduction
 Ideal for avoiding predation
 Contd….
3. Flight
Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly
Highly effective mode of escape from predators
Efficient means of transportation, allows
populations to expand to new habitats and resources
Efficient use of energy allows some insects to travel
great distances or remain airborne for long periods of
time.
Monarch butterfly can fly 600 km at time.
 Contd….
4. Hexapod locomotion:
 Because of the presence of six legs on the three thoracic segments
 The insect will have equilibrium during all the phases of its locomotion

5. Compound eyes:
 Most of the adult insects and nymphs consists of compound eyes as visual
organs which possess number of hexagonal units known as ommatidia.
 Because of presence of number of ommatidia , even if some or few ommatidia
get damaged, the insect does not lose the power of vision
 Compound eye comprised of few to as many as 28,000 (in dragonflies)
ommatidia
 Houseflies and dragonflies have eyes that cover most of their head. This gives
them almost 360 degree vision, enabling them to see predators coming from any
direction.
 Contd….
6. Scattered sense organs:
 The sense organs viz., visual organs, gustatory organs
(senses of taste) , smell (olfaction), organs of touch etc.
are distributed on different parts of the body
 Like antennae, eyes, mouth parts in the head, legs with
claws on thorax, tympanum (auditory membrane),
cerci ( sensory appendages) at the posterior of the
abdomen etc.
 This scatterings on all parts of the body prevents the
chance of all being damaged
 Contd….
II. Developmental characters:-
1. High Fecundity
 Egg laying capacity of a female insects.
 It helps to increase the population at faster rate. e.g. Queen Honey bee can
produce 4000 eggs per day.

2. Method of reproduction:
 Many species of insects (aphids, scales, thrips, and midges) can reproduce
without males- parthenogenesis
 Oviparous (egg laying) and viviparous (giving birth to active young)

3. Controlled reproduction:
 Though insects possess high fecundity, there is also high degree of control over
reproduction by reducing the number of females that can lay eggs.
 This character is mostly seen in social insects such as honey bees and termites.
 Contd….
4. Short life cycle:
 Most of insects have very short life cycle i.e. 2 to 4 weeks
 Dorsophila melanogaster has shortest development
time (egg to adult) is 7 days, is achieved at 28 °C
 Similarly, a flesh fly has a life cycle of 3 days.
 The adult mayflies are short-lived, from a few minutes to
a few days normally say one day, depending on the
species.
 Whose immature stage usually lasts one year in fresh
water
 Contd….
5. Feeds on variety of foods and Specificity of food:

III. Protective adaptations and devices:-

6. Morphological adaptations (mimicry):
 The body color and shape of some insects make them look like part of the plant e.g.:
stick insects and leaf insects

2. Physiological adaptations:
 Some insects produce or release poisonous or unpleasant odors from their body or
possess warning coloration by imitating certain distasteful insects.
 E.g.: Stink bugs have specialized exocrine glands located in the thorax or abdomen that
produce foul smelling hydrocarbons.
 Larvae of swallow tail butterflies have eversible glands called osmeteria, located just
behind the head when disturbed they release repellent volatile and waves their body back
and forth to ward of intruders
 Some blister beetles (Meloidae) produce cantharidin, a strong irritant and blistering agent
 Contd….
3. Behavioral adaptations:
 It is a defense strategy adopted by some insects through feigning death or
imitating the voice of dangerous insects or mimicry.
 Colarado potato beetles when disturbed, draw their legs beneath and
drop to the ground and pretend as if dead. Hairy caterpillars

4. Construction of protective structures:

 Some insects construct shelter with the available plant material for
protecting themselves from adverse conditions, natural enemies and to
store food material for use during the period of scarcity
 Cases / Bags in case of case worms/bag worms.
 Termatoria in case of termites
 Honey comb in case of honey bees
If one pair of housefly is left to bred from April-
August, they produce progeny enough to cover
this world with 47' (feet) deep layer.
Such case will happen if all the flies with remain a
live and produce continuously
Cicada has life of 17 years. The female member of
cicada is voice less.
So, there is a saying, "Happy the cicada's life
because they have voiceless wife".
 CHAPTER 3:
BENEFICIAL AND
HARMFUL EFFECTS
OF INSECTS
 There are over 900,000 insects (species) have
been named
 Of which only about 10,000 species are
incriminated as pests of agriculture, forests
and livestock i.e. about only 1%
 Rest are either beneficial or indifferent
 Beneficial effects
 
1. Pollination- Insects such as honey bees, beetles and wasps aid in pollinating
our crops and fruit trees. Crops in Rosaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Leguminosae
are exclusively pollinated by bee. It is estimated that 80% of the commercial
food crops are pollinated by honey bees.
2. Bio-control agents- Some parasitic and predatory insects are excellent bio-
control agents for controlling other injurious insects. Example Encarsia formosa
is an excellent bio-control agent for white flies on tomatoes and potatoes.
3. Production of products - Honey, wax, silk (from Bombyx mori), shellac (from
Laccifer lacca) and cochineal (red dye widely used in cosmetics, medicinal and
food products) derived from, a scale insect, Dactylopius coccus.
4. Nutrient recycling - Insects feed on dead and decaying plants, animals and
animal excreta and help in recycling the nutrients. Some insects burrow into
soils and improve the soil structure and texture. Examples are dung feeders
dung beetles and termites.
5. Source of food - over 500 species of insects are used as food by humans -
usually crickets, grasshoppers, beetle, wasp, butterfly larvae, bugs etc.
 Contd….
6. Insects useful as drugs, ornaments and scientific
research.
– As medicine e.g. Sting of honey bees- remedy for
rheumatism and arthritis
– Eanthoridin - extracted from blister beetle –useful as hair
tonic
– Ornaments, entertainers -Artists and designers copy color
of butterflies. , Beetles worm as necklace. Insect collection
is a hobby
– Scientific research -Drosophila and mosquitoes are useful
in genetic and toxicological studies respectively.
 Detrimental effects

 
1. Destruction or spoilage of food (both fresh and stored) and crops (including
forests)
2. Crop losses due to insect pests in Nepal is about 15-20 % (Neupane,
2058). ( In world 12.5%, Cramer, 1967)
3. Damage to goods - leather, paper, textiles, (by beetles, cockroaches,
silverfish or moths), timber (by termites and different types of borers).
4. Transmits disease in plants and animals: Disease causing Mosquito- Malaria,
Filariasis, and dengue fever. Housefly- Typhoid, Cholera, Leprosy, Anthrax
5. Possess venoms and cause allergies
6. Some insects are a nuisance to our well-being -house flies, ants, mosquitoes
7. Cause phobias – fear of grisly caterpillars or spiders (arachnophobia)
8. Require use of pesticides and other poisons, which often harm other
animals
 Body segmentation of Insect
 Insect have segmented bodies with certain segments fusing to form
three usually well defined regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
 The grouping of segments into functional regions is known as tagmosis
 Head consists of 6 segments . Head comprises of mouthparts,
compound eyes, simple eyes (ocelli) and a pair of antennae.
 Thorax consists of 3 segments i.e. prothorax, mesothorax and
metathorax, Meso and metathorax are together known as
pterothorax.
 All the three thoracic segments possess a pair of legs and meso and
meta-thorax each possess one pair of wings.
 Abdomen has 7-11 segments with genital appendages. The 8 and 9
segments in female and 8 segment in male insects are modified to bear
genital appendices.
 Contd….

 The outer parts of every segments of body is hard,

colored and complex in nature.
 There are hard, colored and complex plates in each
segments of insect body which is called sclerites.
 The sclerites present on dorsal side is called tergides,
 Lateral side is called pleurites and
 Ventral side is called sternites.
 Segments except in head (6 segments fused together to
form a capsule) joint together with a flexible soft and
white membrane called inter segmental membrane.
 Insect Body wall/Integument/Exoskeleton

 The cuticle is the characteristic feature of

arthropods and is to a large extent responsible
for the success of insects as terrestrial
animals.
 The body wall or integument is the outer layer
of insect and bends inwards at various points
to form supporting ridges or braces.
 The body wall of insect is composed of three
principal layers: the cuticle, epidermis and
basement membrane.
General structure of the insect cuticle
 1. Cuticle
 The cuticle is an outer layer which contains a
characteristic chemical compounds called
chitin, proteins and pigments.
 The cuticle is made up of three principal
layers: epicuticle, exocuticle and endocuticle.
 The exo- and endo- cuticle together referred
as procuticle.
 Contd….
a. Epicuticle: Epicuticle is the outer, thin, delicate layer without any chitin
and may have four sub- layers
i. Inner epicuticle: it is the thickest layer of 0.5 to 2.0 µm immediately outside
the procuticle and chemically consists of tanned lipoproteins.
ii. Outer epicuticle: This is very thin trilaminar layer only of about 15 nm. It is
the first formed layer of new cuticle product at each molt protecting the
new procuticle from the molting enzymes. The material forming the outer
epicuticle is highly polymerized lipid is often referred to as cuticulin.
iii. Epicuticular wax layer: The wax layer contains many different compounds
but wax comprises over 90% and is important in water proofing the
cuticle.
iv. Cuticular cement layer: The cement is very thin layer outside most of wax
and consists of mucopolysaccharide. It protects underlying wax and not
produced by all insects.
 Contd…
b. Exocuticle: It is a thicker layer below epicuticle and is often darker and harder
than the rest.
 It contributes rigidity and toughness to the cuticle. The exocuticle is wanting or
considerably reduced in the regions of integument which are more flexible.
 The exocuticle structurally consists mainly of chitin and protein.
 Chitin is a polymerized nitrogenous polysaccharide linked to protein.
 It is pigmented by a hard brown material as is referred to as tanned.
 Other constituents of cuticle include quinones which polymerized to form dark
brown or black pigment known as melanin and in others quinones are utilized
in forming sclerotin.

c. Endocuticle: The inner undifferentiated part below the exocuticle is

endocuticle and is characterized by the presence of chitin.
Endoskeleton of insect cuticle provides space for attachment of muscles of
antenna and mouthparts, called as Tentorium
 Contd…

2. Epidermis: It is a cellular layer of one cell thick beneath

endocuticle.
 The epidermal cells are glandular and secrete cuticle and the
enzymes for the cuticle formation and digestion at the time of
molting.
 Some of the epidermal cells have specialized glandular
function.
3. Basement membrane: The basement membrane is also called
basal lamila.
 It is a noncellular layer beneath epidermis and serves as
stable platform where epidermal cells are anchored and
muscles are attached
 Molting
 Process of shedding of or casting of old cuticle or
exoskeleton known as molting.
 Apolysis: separation of epidermis from cuticle
known as apolysis.
 Ecdysis: shedding of the old cuticle.
 Sclerotization: The process of hardening involves
the development of cross links between protein
chains which is also known as sclerotization.
 Insect Head
Insect head is a hard and highly sclerotized
compact structure.
It is the foremost part in insect body consisting of
6 segments that are fused to form a head capsule.
The head is connected to the thorax by a flexible
neck or cervis strengthened by small cervical
sclerites
The head segments can be divided in to two
regions i.e. procephalon and gnathocephalon
(mouth).
 Types of head or orientation of Head
The orientation of head with respect to the rest of the body varies.
According to the position or projection of mouth parts, the head of the
insect can be classified as: 
A) Hypognathous (Hypo – Below: Gnathous – Jaw) The head remain
vertical and is at right angle to the long axis of the body and mouth
parts are ventrally placed and projected downwards. This is also
known as Orthopteroid type. Eg: Grasshopper, Cockroach

 
 Contd…..

(b) Prognathous: (Pro – infront: Gnathous – Jaw) the

head remains in the same axis to body and mouth
parts are projected forward. This is also known as
Coleopteroid type.
Eg: beetles
 Contd…
(c) Opisthognathous: (Opistho – behind: Gnathous – Jaw)
It is same as prognathous but mouthparts are directed
backward and held in between the fore legs. .This is also
known as Hemipteroid or Opisthorhynchous type.
E. g: bugs
 Antennae

• All insect except Protura possess a pair of antennae

• Antennae function almost exclusively in sensory perception.
• Some of the information that can be detected by insect
antennae includes: motion and orientation, odor, sound,
humidity, and a variety of chemical cues.
• Antennae vary greatly among insects, but all follow a basic
plan: segments 1 and 2 are termed the scape and pedicel,
respectively.
• The remaining antennal segments (flagellomeres) are jointly
called the flagellum.
Typical structure of Antennae
 MODIFICATIONS OF INSECT ANTENNAE

 1. Aristate
 
• Aristate antennae are pouch-like with a lateral
bristle. Examples: House and shore flies (order
Diptera).
• The antennae are important sensory structures
used to detect air movement and odors.
• The antenna is three-segmented with a branched
arista projecting dorsally from the third segment.
 2. Capitate or Knobbed or head shaped
 Capitate antennae are abruptly clubbed at the end.
 The antenna starts narrow at the base and gets bigger toward the tip,
but only right near the tip.
 Examples: Butterflies (order Lepidoptera), sap beetles (Coleoptera).
 3. Clavate or Club shaped
 Clavate antennae are gradually clubbed at the end.
 Technically, the capitate antennae of butterflies are also
clavate because they are also clubbed, but they’re a
special kind of club and get their own name (they’re
capitate clavate antennae)
 Examples: Carrion beetles (order Coleoptera)
 4. Filiform or Thread like
 Filiform antennae have a thread-like shape.
 All the segments are of about the same thickness and have
no prominent constrictions at the joints
 Examples: Ground and longhorned beetles (order
Coleoptera), cockroaches (order Blattodia). Grasshoppers
(Orthoptera)
 5. Geniculate or Elbow like
 Geniculate antennae are hinged or bent like an
elbow.
 Bents abruptly at an angel at the distal end of scape
forming bent like knee or elbow
 Examples: Bees and ants (Hymenoptera), Weevils
( Coleoptera)

Ant's geniculate antennae

 6. Lamellate or plate like

 The last three segments extend in one side

forming a leaf like structure
 Examples: Scarab beetles (order: Coleoptera)
 7. Moniliform
 Moniliform have a beadlike shape.
 Segments are more or less globular with prominent
constriction between them
 Examples: Termites (order Isoptera).
 8. Pectinate or comb shape

 The segments of pectinate antennae are longer on

one side, giving each antennae a comb-like shape.
 The term pectinate derives from the Latin pectin,
meaning comb.
 Examples: Fire-colored beetles and fireflies (order :
Coleoptera)
 9. Plumose or feather like
 Segments produce bunch of hairs from each
joints
 Also called pinnate or bipectinate
 Examples: Moths (order Lepidoptera)and male
mosquitoes (order Diptera).
 10. Serrate

 Serrate antennae have a saw-toothed

shape.
 Examples: Click beetles, mango stem
.borers (order Coleoptera)
 11. Setaceous or bristle like

 The size of segments decrease from the base to

apex
 Examples: Dragonflies and damselflies (order
Odonata), cicada (Hemiptera), mayflies (order 
Ephemeroptera)

•  
1.Digestive system
2. Reproductive system, male
3. Reproductive system, Female
4. Respiratory system
5. Circulatory system
6. Nervous system and
7. Excretory system
8. Apiculture
9. Sericulture and
10. Lacculture
Entomology and Pest Management
Larry P Pedigo and Marlin E. Rice
 MOUTH PARTS
The mouthparts are the organs concerned for the ingestion of different nature of food.
The variation can be correlated with the methods of feeding and the techniques of
insect pest management.
The mouthparts have also taxonomic importance as it gives clues for the
classification of insects
The mouth parts comprises the unpaired upper lip or labrum in front, the lower or
ventral surface of which forms the epipharynx, a tongue like hypopharynx behind the
mouth, a pair of jaws or mandibles, the paired maxillae and a labium forming a lower
lip.
The mouthparts may include up to two pairs of sensory, feeler-like palps (labial palps or
maxillary palps).
Various pairs of glands (labial glands, mandibular glands, maxillary glands and thoracic
glands) are also associated with the mouthparts.
In insects, the mouthparts do not lie in a cavity of the head and the condition is called
ectognathous.
The mouth parts of Collembola, Diplura and Protura lie in a cavity of the head and the
condition is called entognathous condition.
Figure : Insect mouth parts
a. Labrum: Labrum or upper lip is a broad lobe that covers the mandibles
and closes the mouth cavity from the upper front. It helps to pull the food
into mouth.
b. Mandibles: Mandibles are the anterior or the first pair of true insect
mouth parts and lie directly behind the labrum as the appendages of the
second post-oral segment. Generally the mandibles are hard and heavily
sclerotized, have various sets of teeth and brushes. Mandibles move
sideways, can bite off and chew food particles.
c. Maxillae: These lie directly behind the mandibles and are the appendages
of the third post oral segment. The generalized type of maxillae is
masticating structure which can be divided following well marked parts;
i. Cardo: The triangular basal sclerite attached to the head capsule that
serves as a hinge for the movement of the remainder of the maxillae.
ii. Stipes: It is the central portion of the body of the maxillae. It is
somewhat rectangular in shape. The stipes is situated above the cardo and
is the basis for the remaining of the maxillae.
iii. Galea: It is the outer or lateral lobe articulating at the end of the stipes. It
is frequently developed as a sensory pad or bears a cap of sense organs.
iv. Lacinia: It is the inner or mesal lobe articulating at the apex of the stipes. It is
usually mandible like in form with a series of spines or teeth along its mesal
edge.
v. Palpus: It is the antennae like segmented appendage which arises from the
lateral side of the stipes. It is commonly five segmented and entirely sensory in
function.
d. Labium: Labium or lower lip is a single structure lying posterior the maxillae
and is formed by the fusion of a pair of appendages serially homologous with
the maxillae. The labium is divided by a labial suture into two primary
portions: a basal postmentum and distal prementum.
vi. Postmentum: It is the basal region of labium and hinges with the head
membranes.
ii. Prementum: It is the apical region of the labium and includes various lobes
and processes. The central portion is the prementum also called stipulae
which bears a pair of labial palpi, one on each side of the prementum and
each usually three segmented in generalized forms. The apical portion of
prementum frequently forms a sort of tongue and is called ligula. The ligula
varies greatly in structure but usually is divided into two pairs of lobes: the
mesal glossa and lateral paraglossae parallel to glossae. In many groups the
glossae are fused to form an alaglossa and in many others the glossa and
paraglossa are fused to form totoglossa.
e.Epypharynx: On inner and posterior side of labrum a membranous median
lobe, epipharynx is present.
Epipharynx is a sensory area believed to contain end organs of taste.
f. Hypopharynx: Hypopharynx is a short tongue like structure located
immediately above the labium and between the maxillae.
It usually forms a project lobe or mould and is associated with the base of
labium as to be considered a part of it.
Unlike the other mouth parts, the hypopharynx is not an appendage but an
un-segmented outgrowth of the ventral membranous floor of the head.
In most insects, the ducts from salivary glands open on or near the
hypopharynx.
In a few primitive insects, a pair of lateral lobes occurs with the median
lingua of hypopharynx and is called superlinguae.
 Modification of mouth parts
 The most important way in which insects inflict losses and injury upon
man and his possessions is by eating or feeding.
 The mouth part of an insect can be classified in accordance with their
function.
 Mouthparts very greatly among insects of different orders but there are
two main functional groups: mandibulate and haustellate. Haustellate
mouthparts can be further classified as follows:
a) Stylet: Piercing-sucking: e.g. Mosquito
Rasping-sucking: e.g. Thrips
b) Non-stylet
Siphoning: e.g. Butterflies
Sponging: e.g. House fly
Chewing-lapping: e.g. Honey Bee
 Stylets are needle-like projections used to
penetrate plant and animal tissue.
 The modified mandibles, maxilla, and
hypopharynx form the stylets and the feeding
tube.
 After piercing solid tissue, insects use the
modified mouthparts to suck liquids from the
host.
 MANDIBULATE MOUTH PART

 Mandibulate (Biting and chewing) mouthparts are used for

biting and grinding solid foods.
 Examples: Dragonflies and damselflies (order Odonata),
 Termites (order Isoptera),
 Adult lacewings (order Neuroptera), beetles (order Coleoptera),
 Ants (order Hymenoptera),
 Cockroaches (order Blattaria),
 Grasshoppers, crickets and katydids (order Orthoptera)
 Caterpillars (order Lepidoptera). Adult Lepidoptera have
siphoning mouthparts.
 Piercing-sucking mouthparts

 Piercing-sucking mouthparts are used to

penetrate solid tissue and then suck up liquid
food.
 Examples: Cicadas, aphids,  and other bugs
(order Hemiptera), sucking lice (order
Phthiraptera), stable flies and mosquitoes
(order Diptera).
 These group of insects are also called drinkers
a) Labrum: It is a short flap or triangular lobe that covers the labium groove
towards the base
b) Mandibles and Maxillae: The mandibles and maxillae are long, slender and
form delicate, hollow needle or bristle like stylets four in number
The piercing-sucking needle is formed from four hairlike stylets fitted closely
together
The outer stylets are derived from mandibles and the inner stylets are derived
from maxillae
Mandibles are chief piercing organs
The maxillae are double grooved on the inner face and when held together,
form two channels; one is for the passage of saliva into plant to facilitate food
flow and digestion and the other is for the uptake of plant juices.
c) Hypopharynx: At the posterior part of the beak, between the bases of the
piercing stylets, there is a small conical lobe
Anterior wall of hypopharyns is continued dorsally into the chamber of sucking
pumps
d) Labium: The labium forms a protective sheath for the stylets.
Plant feeders like leafhoppers, aphids and scales have the same basic mouth
part structure and many inject viruses and other disease-causing organisms
into the plant along with their saliva
 Rasping and sucking mouth parts
 Rasping and sucking mouthparts are a form of the piercing-sucking type
and are found in thrips (Thysanoptera)
 Thrips have asymmetrical mouthparts that are also unique to the group.
 The right mandible of thrips is reduced– and in some species completely
absent.
 Thrips mouth parts have a cone shaped beak formed from the clypeus ( a
plate above the labrum in chewing insects), labrum, parts of the maxillae
and the labium
 This beak contains the maxillae, hypopharynx and the left mandible;
together this structure forms a stylet
 Thrips use the beak to rasp host tissues and take up liquid food through
stylet.
 Chewing and Lapping
 Found in bees and wasps and is modified for taking solid and liquid
food like pollen, nectar and honey
1) Labrum: Similar to chewing type mouth part
2) Mandibles: Similar to chewing type mouth part but become more or
less flattened to form tools useful in molding wax, manipulating nest
materials and grasping prey
3) Maxillae and labium: Galea, labial palps and glossa are elongated and
modified to make five part long cylindrical tongue for lapping up nectar
Galeae form a pair of blade like structure
The paraglossae are greatly reduced and glossae greatly elongated to
form a united hairy, flexible, tongue which terminated distally to a
honey spoon or flabellum and can be rapidly protracted and retracted
to reach deep into the nectarines of tubular flowers
Feeding mechanism:
A temporary food channel in formed by the concave inner surface of the galea roofing
over glossa and fitting lenghwise against the labial pulps.
By such the complexly formed tube suck up the nectar or honey
In general bees thrust out the glossa or tongue on open nectarines and licks out the
nectar with the tip
Many other state that the liquid food ascends capillary action thorough the ventral canal
of the glossa and glossa is shortened by a muscular pull on the inner rod squeezing the
nectar upward to enter the space between the glossa and the base of paraglossa
Chewing and Lapping
 Siphoning
 The mouth parts of adult butterflies and moths are elongated
and stylet like to form highly specialized proboscis for sucking
up liquid without piercing
1) Labrum and mandibles: Labrum greatly reduced and
mandible in imperfect
2) Maxillae: Galea greatly elongated to form slender hollow
tube, the proboscis which is only the essential sucking part
but not capable for piercing. The maxillary pulps are
rudimentary
3) Labium: The labium is represented only by the large hairy or
scaly three segmented labial palps with very small basal plate
 Proboscis
 One of the more defining characteristics of
Lepidopterans is their coiled proboscis.
 It is held coiled under the head when not in
use.
 During feeding, however, it is extended to
reach the nectar of flowers.
 The proboscis is a long tube that is formed by
heavily modified maxillae, specifically the galea.
 Sponging
 The mouth parts are fitted for using only foods which are either liquid or readily
soluble in saliva.
 Eg. House fly, non blood sucking Muscidae, Syrphidae and many dipterans
 The mandibles and maxillae are non functional and the remaining parts form
proboscis with fan-shaped sponge at the tip
 Liquid fluid is “mop up” by the capillary action of this sponge
 If not liquid, salivary secretions through the mouthparts make it so.
Labium: On lower side of the head, there is a fleshy, elbowed and retractile proboscis
which is the major mouth part and is the labium.
The end of the labium is specialized into a large sponge like apex the labella
The labella are transverse by a series of furrows and channels forming capillaries
which convey the liquid food to the food channel
Labrum, epipharynx and hypopharynx: The interlocking of the elongate epipharynx and
hypopharynx together form two stylets which function as food sucking channel but
are incapable of piercing the host tissues
Feeding Mechanism: Capillary action
 Cutting and sponging
 In horse flies and certain other Diptera, are similar to
sponging type but have well developed mandibles forming
sharp blades and maxillae forming probing stylets
 Together these structures cut and tear the skin of mammals,
causing blood to flow
 The blood is collected by the sponge like development of
labium and conveyed to the hypopharynx
 The hypopharynx and epipharynx fit together to form a tube
through which the blood is sucked into the oesophagus
 Visual Organs or Photoreceptors

 The eyes general are sensitive to light rays and

transmit the effect on its sense cells to the
central nervous system
 The eyes are thus also called photoreceptors
or light perceiving organs.
 Photoreceptors of insects includes
1. Compound eyes
2. Simple eyes or dorsal ocelli
3. Lateral ocelli or stemmata
 Ocelli -- Simple eyes

Two types of "simple eyes" can be found in the class Insecta:   dorsal ocelli and lateral
ocelli (=stemmata).   Although both types of ocelli are similar in structure, they are
believed to have separate phylogenetic and embryological origins.
Dorsal ocelli are commonly found in adults and in the immature stages (nymphs) of
many hemimetabolous species.  
They are not independent visual organs and never occur in species that lack
compound eyes.  
Whenever present, dorsal ocelli appear as two or three small, convex swellings on the
dorsal or facial regions of the head.  
They differ from compound eyes in having only a single corneal lens covering an array
of several dozen rhabdom-like sensory rods.  
These simple eyes do not form an image or perceive objects in the environment, but
they are sensitive to a wide range of wavelengths, react to the polarization of light,
and respond quickly to changes in light intensity.  
No exact function has been clearly established, but many physiologists believe they
act as an "iris mechanism" -- adjusting the sensitivity of the compound eyes to
different levels of light intensity.
 Ocelli -- Simple eyes

 Lateral ocelli (=stemmata) are the sole visual organs of

holometabolous larvae and certain adults (e.g. Collembola, Thysanura,
Siphonaptera, and Strepsiptera).  
 Stemmata always occur laterally on the head, and vary in number
from one to six on each side.  
 Structurally, they are similar to dorsal ocelli but often have a 
crystalline cone under the cornea and fewer sensory rods.  
 Larvae use these simple eyes to sense light intensity, detect outlines of
nearby objects, and even track the movements of predators or prey.  
 Covering several ocelli on each side of the head seems to impair form
vision, so the brain must be able to construct a coarse mosaic of
nearby objects from the visual fields of adjacent ocelli. 
Dorsal ocelli Lateral ocelli (=stemmata)
 Compound Eyes

A pair of compound eyes are the principle visual organs of most insects; they are
found in nearly all adults and in many immatures of ametabolous and
hemimetabolous orders.  
As the name suggests, compound eyes are composed of many similar, closely-packed
facets (called ommatidia) which are the structural and functional units of vision.  
The number of ommatidia varies considerably from species to species:   some worker
ants have fewer than six while some dragonflies may have more than 28,000.
Externally,each ommatidium is marked by a convex thickening of transparent cuticle,
the corneal lens.  
Beneath the lens, there is often a crystalline cone secreted by a pair of semper cells.  
Together, the lens and the crystalline cone form a dioptric apparatus that refracts
incoming light down into a receptor region containing visual pigment.
Primary pigment cells (or) Iris pigment cells: These are darkly pigmented cells,
commonly two in number, present around the crystalline cone which are mainly
useful for separating the ommatidia from one another and also restrict the
movement of light passing from the neighboring ommatidia.
The light-sensitive part of an ommatidium is called the rhabdom.   It is a rod-like
structure, secreted by an array of 6-8 specialized neurons ( retinula cells)
 Compound Eyes

  The rhabdom contains an array of closely packed microtubules where light-

sensitive pigments (e.g. rhodopsin, etc.) are stored.
 The retinular cells continue with the axons that pass through the basement
membrane forming an optic nerve which remain connected to the optic lobes
of the brain.
 Most diurnal insects have pigment cells surrounding each ommatidium.  
 Secondary pigment cells: The rhabdom is surrounded by secondary pigment
cells that help to separate the ommatidia. They surround the retinular and
primary pigment cells. These are numerous in number.
 Nocturnal and crepuscular (are those that are active primarily during twilight -
i.e., dawn and dusk) insects have pigment cells that do not completely isolate
each facet.  
 Their ommatidia are stimulated by light from larger fields of view.   This
produces a brighter but theoretically less distinct mosaic image.
 They can detect polarization patterns in sunlight, and discriminate wavelengths
in a range from ultraviolet to yellow (but not red). 
 Difference between Simple Eyes and
Compound Eyes
 Compound eyes are made up of clusters of ommatidia, but
simple eyes are made up of only one single unit of eye.
 Compound eyes are found in most of the arthropods, annelids
and molluscs. However, simple eyes are found among many
types of organisms including most of the higher vertebrates.
 Compound eyes can cover a wider angle compared to simple
eyes.
 The types of simple eyes are more diversified than the
compound eyes.
 The polarization of sunlight could be understood via
compound eyes, but not through simple eyes.
 THORAX AND THORACIC SEGMENTS AND ITS APPENDAGES

The thorax is the middle body region

between the head and abdomen.
The insect thorax has three segments:
the prothorax,  mesothorax, and 
metathorax.
The anterior segment, closest to the
head, is the prothorax; its major
features are the first pair of legs and the 
pronotum.
The middle segment is the mesothorax;
its major features are the second pair of
legs and the anterior wings, if any. 
The third, the posterior, thoracic
segment, abutting the abdomen, is the
metathorax, which bears the third pair
of legs and the posterior wings.
Each segment is delineated by an
intersegmental suture.
 THORAX AND THORACIC SEGMENTS AND ITS APPENDAGES

 Each segment has four basic regions

 A thickened dorsal plate on each segment
of the body of an insect is called the
tergum (or notum) to distinguish it from
the abdominal terga.[
 The two lateral regions are called the
pleura (singular: pleuron) and
 The ventral aspect is called the sternum.
 In turn, the notum of the prothorax is
called the pronotum, the notum for the
mesothorax is called the mesonotum and
the notum for the metathorax is called
the metanotum.
 The legs arise on pleura and wings
articulated between notal and pleural
region

 Continuing with this logic, there is also

the mesopleura and metapleura, as well
as the mesosternum and metasternum.
 Structure of legs
The fore-legs are located on the prothorax, the mid-legs on the mesothorax and the hind legs on
the metathorax. Each leg has six major components, listed here from proximal to distal: 
Coxa: It is the basal segment articulated with the thorax in the
pleural region. The parts of coxa is divided into two parts- the
posterior and anterior (neron).
Trochanter: It is the small second segment articulated with coxa
and forms an immobile attachment with the femur distally.
Femur: It is the first thickest, largest and stoutest segment of
insect leg.
Tibia: It is the slender and second longest shank of the leg
articulated with the femur by dicondylic joint.
Tarsus: Tarsus or foot is the subdivided into from two to five
tarsomeres. The basal tarsomere, the basitarsus is articulated with
tibia by a single condyle but other tarsomeres are connected by
flexible membrane and can move freely. The distal end of tibia
contains prominent spines or spurs that help to maintain a footing.
Pretarsus: It is the end of the tarsus that bears claws and pegs
and is placed flat upon the ground when walking. Pretarsus usually
bears two sharp curved hooks or claws between them some
complicated pads also known as pulvulli, arolia or empodia which
are very important in locomotion. In some insects like house fly,
the arolia bear tiny hollow hairs that exude sticky substance.
 Modification of legs

The basic walking legs show modifications in various ways to serve different functions.
The followings are the major:

1. Fossorial or digging: nsects with fossorial legs live

underground and use their highly modified legs, usually
the forelegs, to dig burrows. The legs modified for
digging are best known in mole crickets (Gryllotalpa
africana) and dung beetles. In Gryllotalpa, the forelegs
are very short and broad, the tibia and tarsomeres
bearing stout lobes which are used in digging

2. Cursorial or walking-running type: Cursorial

legs tend to be long and narrow and are
designed so that the insect can move very
quickly. It has five segmented tarsus, both
femur and tibia bears spines. Example:
mesothoracic legs of cockroach, Periplanteta
amenricana, ground and tiger beetles
(order Coleoptera).
 Modification of legs

3. Saltatorial or jumping type: Hind Femur

is greatly enlarged. Saltatorial legs work
well for jumping because they are
enlarged legs filled with bulky, strong
muscles.  All those muscles allow insects
with this type of leg to jump, propelling
themselves forward very long distances
very quickly. The power for jumping is
provided by sudden extension of the
hind tibia. Example: hind legs of
grasshopper, Hieroglyphus banian.  

4. Raptorial or grasping legs: Coxa is

elongated, femur and tibia bear rows of
spines.This type of leg modification is
found in predatory insects and helps in
catching the prey. Example: the forelegs
of praying mantids, Mantis religiosa and
water scorpion.
 Modification of legs

5. Natatorial or swimming: Natatorial

is another word for swimming, so
insects with natatorial legs are
aquatic insects that require modified
legs to move easily through water.
Coxa is long, tibias and tarsi bear
hears and flattened to form an oar
like structure for swimming. Example:
the hind legs of water scavenger
beetle.

6. Scansorial or clinging type:

Tarsus is single segmented and
terminated into a powerful
claw for clinging. Example: fore
legs of body louse,
Haematopinus suis.
 Modification of legs

7. Polleniferous or pollen
carrying: The femur and
tibia of hind legs are
provided with brush like
hairs, the tibia is
broadened with concave
outer surface fringed with
long curved spines and acts
as pollen basket. A comb in
the inner side of pretarsus
is used for pollen
collection. A rake at the
base of tibia is used for
scrapping and collecting
pollen in the pollen basket.
Example: the workers of
Apis mellifera.
• Notum: The tergum or dorsum of particularly thoracic segments
• Alinotum: The wing bearing plate of the dorsum of the mesothorax or metathorax of
pterygotes insects
• Postnotum: The post scutellar, phragma bearing plate often present in the dorsum of an
alate segment, derived from the anterior part of the following tergum. Also called
phragmanotum or post scutellum
• Epimeron: The area of pleurone posterior to the pleural suture sometimes divided
horizontally into a supra-, an- and infra or kat-epimeron
• Episternum: The area of pleuron before the pleural suture and above the trochantin
sometimes divided horizontally into supra-, an- and infra or kat-episternum Prescutum:
The anterior area of mesonotum or metanotum between the antecostal suture and
prescutal suture, when the latter is present
• Scutum: The area of alinotum anterior to the suture of the V-shaped notal ridge or
between this suture and prescutal suture if the latter is present
• Scutellum: The area of alinotum posterior to the suture of the Y-shaped notal ridge or the
corresponding area when the ridge is incomplete or absent.
• 1. Ambulatorial (Walking leg): e.g. Fore and middle legs of cockroach. Femur and tibia are long. Legs are well developed
similar in form.
• 2. Cursorial (Running leg): e.g. All three pairs of legs of Ants. Femur in not swollen. All the legs are long.
• 3. Saltatorial (Jumping leg): e.g. Hind leg of grasshopper, field cricket, Trochanter is fused with femur. Hind femur is enlarges.
• 4. Scansorial (Clining leg): e.g. All three pairs of legs of head house. Tibia is stout and at one side bears a thump like process.
The tarsus is single segmented. There is a single large claw that usually fits against a thumb-like process, which forms an
efficient mechanism for hanging on to the hairs of host.
• 5. Fossorial (Digging leg): e.g. Fore legs of mole cricket. Femur is shout. Tibia is short and shout and bears distally two or three
strongly printed tines. The first two segments of tarsus are also produced into strong tines. The first two segments of tarsus are
also produced into strong tines. Tympanum is present on fore mantids.
• 6. Raptorial (Grasping leg): e.g. Fore legs of preying mantids. Fore legs are of no use in locomotion. Coxae elongated to give an
extended reach to capture the prey. The femur is large and groove when it snaps down over the prey. Tarsus consists of five
tarsomeres.
• 7. Natatorial (Swimming leg): e.g. Hind legs of water bug or water. Beetle, Femur, tibia and first four tarsomeres are all broad
and flattened. Their edges are provided with flattened setae. The hind legs serve as oars.
• 8. Sticking leg: e.g. All the three pairs of legs of housefly.
Pretarsus consists of a pair of lateral adhesive pads called pulvilli and a pair of claw. Arolium is absent. But a median spine like
structure called campodium is present. The pulvilli are covered with dense mats of tiny glandular hairs called tenant hairs.
Secretions of these glandular hairs are helpful in clinging to smooth surfaces and to walk upside down on the ceiling.
• 9. Basket-like leg : e.g. Legs of dragonfly and damselfly
Legs are situated just being the head and are anterior in position. Legs are spiny and closely placed which are useful in seizing
the prey during flight. Legs are not useful in locomotion.
• 10. Foragial leg: (Pollens collecting and carrying leg) e.g. legs honey bee.
a. Eye brush: Hairs on tibia useful to clean the compound eyes.
b. Antenna cleaner: Velum is a movable clasp present at distal end Tibia. Antenna c. c. comb semicircular notch lined with
small spines.
d. Pollen brush: Bristles on basitarsus from the pollen brush which is useful to collect pollen from the head and mouth parts.
 WINGS
• Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly. 
• Most insects have two pairs of wings -- one pair on the mesothorax and one pair on the
metathorax (never on the prothorax) except flies and a few other groups, which have only one
pair.
• Some insects are wingless eg. Apteygota
• Except for may flies , all immature insects lack functional wings
• The wings may be membranous, parchment-like, heavily sclerotized, fringed with long hairs, or
covered with scales. 
• Wings serve not only as organs of flight, but also may be adapted variously as protective covers
(Coleoptera and Dermaptera), thermal collectors (Lepidoptera), gyroscopic stabilizers (Diptera),
sound producers (Orthoptera), or visual cues for species recognition and sexual contact
(Lepidoptera).
• In most cases, a characteristic network of veins runs throughout the wing tissue.
• These veins are extensions of the body's circulatory system. 
• They are filled with hemolymph and contain a tracheal tube and a nerve. 
• In membranous wings, the veins provide strength and reinforcement during flight.
• Wing shape, texture, and venation are quite distinctive among the insect taxa and therefore
highly useful as aides for identification.
• Termites and certain ants break off their wings after a single nuptial flight. In many others, only one sex has wings and the other sex is wingless. Some insects have
only one pair of wings but no insect has more than four wings
 Wing venation
Longitudinal veins:
• The longitudinal veins vary
somewhat in their method of
branching in different insects
but the basic arrangement is as
follows:
1. Costa (C) – the leading edge of
the wing
2. Subcosta (Sc) – second
longitudinal vein (behind the
costa), typically unbranched
3. Radius (R) – third longitudinal
vein, one to five branches reach
the wing margin
4. Media (M) – fourth longitudinal
vein, one to four branches reach
the wing margin
5. Cubitus (Cu) – fifth longitudinal
vein, one to three branches
reach the wing margin
6. Anal veins (A1, A2, A3) –
unbranched veins behind the
cubitus
 Wing venation
Cross veins: The cross veins are named
according to their location in the
wing or the longitudinal veins they
connect.
1. Humeral (h): It is the cross vein run
between the costa and subcosta
2. Radial (r): It connects R1 and the
anterior branch of the radial sector.
3. Sectoral (s): It connects the
longitudinal radius veins R3 and R4
4. Radio-medial (r-m): It connects the
posterior branch of the radius and
the anterior branch of media
5. Media (m): It connects longitudinal
veins media M2 and M3.
6. Media-cubital (m-cu): It connects
the posterior branch of media and
the anterior branch of the cubitus
7. Cubito- anal (cu-a): It connects the
posterior branch of the cubitus and
the first anal vein
 Wing adaptations and modifications:
Characteristic Appearance Order(s)

Coleoptera 
Elytra -- hard, sclerotized front wings that serve and 
as protective covers for membranous hind wings
Dermaptera

Hemelytra -- front wings that are leathery or

parchment-like at the base and membranous Hemiptera: Heteroptera ( true bugs)
near the tip

Tegmina -- front wings that are completely Orthoptera,

Blattodea,
leathery or parchment-like in texture and Mantodea

Halteres -- small, club-like hind wings that serve

Diptera
as gyroscopic stabilizers during flight

Fringed wings -- slender front and hind wings Thysanoptera

with long fringes of hair
Membranous: Both fore- and hind wings are thin, firm and more or less
transparent.
• Example: Odonata (dragonflies)

Scaly wings -- front and hind wings covered with flattened setae (scales)

• Lepidoptera

Hamuli -- tiny hooks on hind wing that hold front and hind wings together

• Hymenoptera

• Stigma: Thickened opaque spot along the costal margin of equal sized,
net veined, membranous wings. Example: dragonflies and damselflies
 ABDOMEN
• The insects abdomen is the third region of the insect body and is often longer than head and thorax
• Insects abdomen usually consists of six (Collembolas) to ten segments and terminaes in the
paraproct, whre the anus opens
• This paraproct may form a lobe like epiproct above the anus and a pair of leteral paraprocts around
it.
• The dorsal and ventral abdominal segments are termed terga (singular tergum) and sterna (singular
sternum), respectively. 
• Spiracles usually can be found in the conjunctive tissue between the terga and sterna of abdominal
segments 1-8.
• Reproductive structures are located on the 9th segment in males (including the aedeagus, or penis,
and often a pair of claspers) and on the 8th and 9th abdominal segments in females (female external
genitalia copulatory openings and ovipositor). 

• Ovipositor 
• The ovipositor is the egg-laying device found only in female insects. In some insects, the ovipositor
is highly modified and conspicuous. In others, the apparatus may be needle or blade-like.
Insects Abdomen
 Abdominal Appendages
• Abdominal appendages of insects can be
grouped as
Pre-genital appendages
Genital appendages
Post genital appendages
 Contd….
Pre-genital appendages: Appendages prior to eight segments
a) Styliform appendages: In primitive apterygotes or in non-insect hexapods, there are
pairs of small, unjointed styli each inserted on a basal sclerite called coxa along with
eversible vesicles

b) Collembolan appendages: On the third abdominal segments , a median love called

ventral tube projects and at its tip long and tubular eversible vesicles are present in
pair

c) Cornicles or siphunculi: Paired secretory structures located dorsally on the

abdomen of aphids
It project from the dorsum of 5 or 6 or from between them and have defensive
function in most cases.
The cornicles produce substances that repel predators or elicit care-giving behavior
by symbiotic ants.
 Contd….
d) Gills: Respiratory organs found in the nymphs (naiads) of certain aquatic insects.
In Ephemeroptera (mayflies), paired gills are located along the sides of each abdominal segment
In Odonata (damselflies), the gills are attached to the end of the abdomen.
Many larvae of aquatic insects like mayflies may have 6 or 7 pairs of plate like or filamentous gills.
The gills have direct role in gaseous exchange and more importantly to maintain a flow of water over
the body.

e) Prolegs or pseudolegs: Except to the three pairs of thoracic legs, leg like outgrowths of the body wall
in abdominal region are the feature of many holometabolous insects and are called prolegs or
pseudolegs or non-thoracic legs or temporary legs.
They are fleshy, locomotory appendages found only in the larvae of certain orders (notably
Lepidoptera, but also Mecoptera and some Hymenoptera).
Based on number of prolegs the larvae are categorized to
1) caterpillar: Larvae with 5 pairs of prolegs one pair each on 3-6 and 10 segments, example: cabbage
butterfly larvae
2) Pseudo caterpillar: The larvae with 6-9 pairs of legs one pair each on 2 to 7th and 10th segments,
example: sawfly
3) Loopers: Only two pairs one pair each on 6th and 10th segments, example: inch worm larvae.
4) Semiloopers: The larvae have three pairs of prolegs, example: cabbage semi-loopers
 Genital appendages
• The reproductive openings and genitalia are found on the ninth abdominal
segment in male and on eight and ninth abdominal segments in the female are
commonly called genital appendages
• The insect's genital opening lies just below the anus:   it is surrounded by
specialized sclerites that form the external genitalia.  
• In females, paired appendages of the eighth and ninth abdominal segment fit
together to form an egg-laying mechanism called the ovipositor  
• These appendages consist of four valvifers (basal sclerites with muscle
attachments) and six valvulae (apical sclerites which guide the egg as it emerges
from the female's body).
• In males, the genital opening is usually enclosed in a tube-like aedeagus which
enters the female's body during copulation (like a penis).   The external genitalia
may also include other sclerites (e.g. subgenital plate, claspers, styli, etc.) that
facilitate mating or egg-laying.  
• The structure of these genital sclerites differs from species to species to the
extent that it usually prevents inter-species hybridization and also serves as a
valuable identification tool for insect taxonomists.
 Contd….
• Post genital appendages
• Cerci (singular cercus) are paired appendages
 on the rear-most segments of many 
Arthropoda, including insects and Symphyla.
• Many forms of cerci serve as sensory organs,
but some serve as pinching weapons or as
organs of copulation.[1]
• In many insects they simply may be
functionless vestigial structures.
• Most cerci are segmented and jointed, or
filiform (threadlike), but some take very
different forms.
• Some Diplura, in particular Japyx species,
have large, stout forcipate (pincer-like) cerci
that they use in capturing their prey.[3]
• The cerci of two sexes may differ in many
insect species or have dimorphism
 Contd….
• Crickets have particularly
long cerci while other
insects have cerci that are
too small to be noticeable.
• However, it is not always
obvious that small cerci
are without function; they
are rich in sensory cells
and may be of importance
in guiding copulation and 
oviposition.
 Contd….
• Median caudal filament
This is a thread like projection arising from the center of the last abdominal
segment between the cerci.
Some insects such as mayflies, silverfish and bristletails have an accompanying
third central tail filament which extends from the tip of the abdomen.

• Urogomphi (Singular urogomphus;)
Greek oura, tail; gomphos, club): (Arthropoda: Insecta) In Coleoptera larvae, a pair
of outgrowths of the tergum ofsegment 9 in the form of short spines or 
multiarticulate processes
Also referred as pseudocerci; corniculi.
 Contd….
• Terminal spines:
The 10th abdominal segment of hawk moths
and jet moths bear spine like structures
Used for defense
 Insect Metamorphosis and Development
• The majority of insects start life in the form of a fertilized egg laid by a female.
• After hatching of the egg the developing young one undergoes a series of changes
in size and structure before becoming adult.
• Each time an insect makes a change into the next growth stage, it has to molt
(shed) its skin.
• After each molt, the insect becomes a little larger and somewhat different in form
until it reaches the adult stage.
• After it reaches the adult stage, it does not molt or grow any more.
• To the series of changes which takes place in the life history of an insect the term
metamorphosis has been applied.
• There are four kinds of metamorphosis, complete (butterflies), gradual
(grasshoppers), incomplete (dragonflies) and no metamorphosis (Silverfish).
• The exact style of metamorphosis is not the same for all insects, but insects in the
same order have the same style of metamorphosis.
 Contd……
• Ametabolous Some orders of insects are said to have no
metamorphosis (Ametabolous development) because there
is little or no difference in appearance between the young
stages and the adult except for size.
• The no-metamorphosis model is found in primitively wingless
insects (Subclass Apterygota). Suitable examples are primitive
insects such as silverfish (Thysanura) sprint tails etc.
 Contd….
Gradual metamorphosis (Paurometabolous) The life cycle of
insects with gradual metamorphosis have three life stages: egg,
nymph and adult. (Aphid, grasshoppers, termites)
Nymphs resemble the adult except that their body parts are out of
proportion with each other, and they do not have fully developed
wings and external genitalia.
With each molt, the nymphs gradually develop wings and take on
the body proportions of an adult.
Nymphs have the same type of mouthparts as the adult, and they
both feed on the same kind of food.

• Fig. The life cycle of a plant bug

 Contd…..
• Incomplete metamorphosis (Hemimetabolous development) is
somewhat like gradual metamorphosis and also has three life stages:
egg, naiads and adult.
• However, the adult insect with incomplete metamorphosis lays its
eggs in or near water and the naiads develop in water.
• The adults are flying insects that live out of water.
• Naiads and adults therefore do not eat the same kind of food.
• Naiads have chewing mouthparts, but the adults have differently
shaped chewing mouthparts or no functional mouthparts.
• The naiad and the adult usually differ a lot in appearance although
the naiads gradually develop wings.
• Eg. Dragonflies, Mayflies, Stoneflies
 Complete metamorphosis
(Holometabolous):
• It has four distinct form stages: egg, larvae, pupa and adult.
• The larval stages do not look like the adult at all, and they are often worm-like.
• Larvae often have different mouthparts and food habits than the adult, and
they often live in places different from the adult.
• Larvae molt several times and get a little larger with each molt, but there is no
gradual development of wings or other adult characteristics.
• When a fully grown larva molts, it changes into a pupa.
• The pupa usually does not eat or move around much, but a lot of internal
changes take place.
• When the pupa has made all its internal changes, its skin splits and the fully
formed adult emerges.
• Most insects with complete metamorphosis are winged in the adult stage.
• The adults do not molt or grow any more.
• Little flies or beetles, for instance, do not grow to become larger. Flies (Diptera),
beetles (Coleoptera), wasps (Hymenoptera) and butterflies (Lepidoptera), have
holometabolic life cycles.  
Fig. Complete metamorphosis
Heterometabolous: (of an insect) undergoing incomplete
metamorphosis in which the nymph is essentially like the
adult and there is no pupal stage
Hypermetamorphosis:
• This is specialized type of metamorphosis found in higher
orders of Endopterygota insects. It is a type of complete
metamorphosis in which different larval instars represent
two or more markedly different types of larvae. The first
instars larva is active and usually campodaeiform and the
subsequent larval instars are vermiform or scarabaeiform
e.g. blister beetles.
 Types of Larvae
Holometabolous insects have four stages of
development from egg to adult.
The immature stage between egg and pupa is known as
larva, and the other one between larva and adult is
called pupa.
The larvae are generally voracious feeders where as
pupae do not feed at all.
There are various types of larvae and of pupae.

•
 Types of Larvae

Types of larvae: There are three main types of insects larvae

namely oligopod, polypod and apodous.
A Oligopod: Thoracic legs are well developed. Abdominal legs
are absent. There are subtypes:
Campodiform: Larvae are elongated, somewhat flattened and
legs are well developed. Example: Lady bird beetle larvae
Scarabaeidiform: Having short thoracic legs and C-shaped body,
these larvae are known as grubs. Example: White grubs.
Elateriform: Having elongated, cylindrical long body with tough
shin, popularly known as wireworms. Example: click beetle
larvae
 Contd….
B. Polypod - They possess thoracic and abdominal legs
(prolegs):
Pseudocaterpillar: Larvae having 3 pairs of thoracic legs
and 6 to 9 pairs of prolegs. Example: Sawfly larvae
Caterpillar: Besides 3 pairs of thoracic legs, they possess
5 pair of prolegs. Example: Cabbage butterfly larvae
Semilooper: Having 3 pairs of thoracic legs, and 3 pairs
of prolegs. Example: Cabbage semi-loopers
Looper: They have 3 pairs of thoracic legs and only 2
pairs of prolegs. Example: Inch-worm larvae 
 Contd….

Apodous: Larvae lacking both thoracic legs and

prolegs.
– Eucephalous: Well sclerotized head capsule.
Example: Cerambycidae ( round headed bettle)
– Hemicephalous: Head slightly reduced. Example:
Honey bee larvae
– Acephalous: Head greatly reduced. These larvae
are called maggots. Example: Housefly maggots
 Quiescence and Diapause
Diapause: Diapause is a mechanism used as a means to
survive predictable, unfavorable environmental conditions,
such as temperature extremes, drought or reduced food
availability
Diapause is not only induced in an organism by specific
stimuli or conditions
Once it is initiated, only certain other stimuli are capable of
bringing the organism out of diapause.
Generally the pattern of diapause is determined by genetic
costitution and the diapause period may last several
months to a year or more
 Types of Pupae
A. Based on adherence of appendages
• Exarate: Body appendages loosely attached or or
extended freely from any secondary attchments to
the body. Example: Bees, Wasps, Beetles, etc
• Obtect: Body appendages firmly attached to the
body. Example: Lemon butterfly pupa, moth pupa
• Coarctate: Pupa covered in a hardened exuviae(skin)
of the last larval instars. Example: Housefly Pupa
 PUPAL PROTECTION
• In general pupal stage lacks mobility. Hence, it is the most vulnerable
stage.
• To get protection against adverse conditions and natural enemies, the
pupa is enclosed in a protective cover called cocoon.
• Based on the nature and materials used for preparation of cocoons,
there are several types:

S.No Types of cocoon Materials used Example

1 Silken cocoon silk silkworm

2 Earthen cocoon Soil and saliva Gram pod borer

3 Hairy cocoon Body hairs Wolly bear

4 Frassy cocoon Frass + saliva Coconut black headed

caterpillar

5 Fibrous cocoon Fibres Red palm weevil

 Quiescence
• Quiescence: A temporary arrest of growth and
development at any stage in the live cycle by
adverse conditions like drought, starvation, lack
of nutrients or essential substances,
temperature
• Quiescence is abruptly terminated by stimuli
• In oriental fruit moth quiescence of larvae is
controlled by temp. and photoperiod and
darkness break it.
INSECT CLASSIFICATION
AND
ECONOMICALLY
IMPORTANT ORDERS
WITH FAMILIES
• All living organisms are placed into certain groups or categories for
classification and identification. The seven most commonly used categories are:
  Kingdom- Animal
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Insecta
Order – Lepidoptera (Butterflies and moths)
Family – Noctuidae
Genus – Helicoverpa
Species – armigera

• The species is the basic taxonomic category and may be defined as groups of
actually interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from
other such groups.
• Closely related species are grouped together in the next higher category – the
genus.
• Related genera make up a family and related families are grouped into orders.
• The scientific name of an organism consists of two words – the generic name and
the specific name.
• This system of naming insects is called the binomial system of nomenclature.
 Insect orders
The classification of insects into various orders is
based on the presence or absence of wings, wing
venation, the type of metamorphosis, the type of
mouth parts, the characters of antennae, tarsi,
etc. Thus we have:
 Class: INSECTA
Sub-class: APTERYGOTA (Wingless)

Sub-class: PTERYGOTA (Winged)

 Metamorphosis
• The apterygota have no metamorphosis. Except for the size, all larval stages closely
resemble the adults (which are wingless).
• The exopterygota undergo a simple metamorphosis. In molting from egg, via the
nymphal stages to an adult, there is a gradual change in the external appearance. The
late nymphal stages already show the development of wing pads. But only in the last
molt functional wings are developed. The nymphs usually have the same feeding
habits as the adults.
• In the endopterygota there is a complete metamorphosis. In these insects the external
(and internal) changes during the life history are the greatest. The eggs hatch into
larvae which feed actively during the different instars. The larvae may or may not have
legs. The development of wings is not visible during the larval stages. After several
molts a pupa is formed. A pupa is an inactive stage, it does not feed and it does not
move. Sometimes the pupa is protected by a cocoon of silk, or it is found in an earthen
cell in the soil. During this pupal stage big changes take place internally. After the
pupal stage, a highly active winged adult appears. Often, the larvae and the adults live
in different types of habitat and use different types of food.
 Sub-class: APTERYGOTA (Wingless)
Insect Example(s) Characteristics
Order

Protura Telson tails, Tiny, flightless insects that feed on decayed organic
Proturans matter. They have cone-shaped heads that lack
antennae.
Diplura Japygids, Minute insects that are mainly active at night. Found
Diplurans worldwide, usually in soil, they typically have white
bodies, long antennae, and no eyes or wings

Collembola Snow-fleas, Oldest known group of insects. They have drab colors,
Springtails are able to leap, and usually live in soil, where they feed
on decomposing plant matter.

Thysanura Silverfish Characterized by long antennae and tapering bodies

covered in tiny scales.
None of them are of economic importance,
except silverfish
Which occasionally damage book-bindings.
The subclass PTERYGOTA is further divided into
two groups as:
EXOPTERYGOTA (Simple body change during
growth)
ENDOPTERYGOTA (Complex body change during
growth)
EXOPTERYGOTA (Simple body change
during growth)
EXOPTERYGOTA includes 16 insect orders
1. Order: Ephemeroptera (Ephemero: living for
a day, ptera: wing)
Example: Mayflies
Characteristics: Fragile insects with two pairs of
wings: a triangular front pair and a rounded
rear pair.
The nymphs are aquatic, with tracheal gills.
In many species, adults die within hours or days
after reaching maturity.
 Contd…
2. Order: Odonata (Odon: a tooth, toothed flies)
Example: Dragonflies, damselflies
Characteristics: Characterized by short antennae
and inconspicuous
Four large net- veined, membranous wings and
large head with large protruding eyes and
long, slender bodies
Mouth parts are well developed chewing type,
nymphs are aquatic
 Contd…
3. Order: Orthoptera (Straight wings)
Example: Grasshoppers, crickets
Characteristics: High-jumping insects, most of
which can use their forewings to produce
sounds.
Chewing mouth parts
The fore wings are modified into tegmina; hind
wings membranous
Cerci present.
 Contd…
4. Order: Phasmatodea (Like a ghost)
Example: Walkingsticks
Characteristics: Includes both stick-insects,
which resemble sticks, and leaf- insects, which
look like leaves. Living in dense shrubbery in
tropical regions, these insects are primarily
vegetarian.
 Contd…
5. Order: Grylloblattaria
Example: Rock crawlers, ice insects
Characteristics: Confined to cooler regions,
Eyes absent or reduced, ocelli abscent
Mouth parts mandibulate
Male genitalia asymmetrical
Ovipositor well developed
 Contd…
6. Order: Mantophasmatodea
Example: Gladiators
Characteristics:
 Contd…
7. Order: Dermaptera
Example: Earwigs
Characteristics: Characterized by large, delicate
wings
Cerci modified into a pincers
Omnivorous, nocturanal
The common earwig is often found in gardens,
where it feeds on wastes.
 Contd…
7. Order: Plecoptera
Example: Stoneflies
Characteristics: Ancient group of insects whose
early stages occur in water.
Adults commonly have delicate, transparent
wings and long antennae.
 Contd…
8. Order: Embioptera
Example:Web-spinners
Characteristics: Small insects that live communally
and are most common in the tropics.
Male winged, female wingless
Silk glands and spinnig haris on first segment of front
tarsus
Construct silk-lined tunnels and webs beneath stones
and in the soil.
 Contd…
9. Order: Zoraptera
Example: Angel wings
Characteristics: Extremely small insects found in
warm, humid climates, often in decaying
wood.
Both winged and wingless forms may occur in
the same species.
 Contd…
10. Order: Isoptera (equal wings)
Example: Termites
Characteristics: Social, nest-building insects with soft,
whitish or colorless bodies and strong biting
mouthparts.
Also called white ants because of color and social habits
Bears a pair of cerci
Nest populations range from a few dozen members to
hundreds of thousands
Only kings and queen reproduce and are winged
 Contd…
11. Order: Mantodea (like a prophet)
Example: Praying mantids
Characteristics: Elongated body
Raptorial front legs with one or two rows of spines
2 pairs of wings, both of which are used in flight.
Although some species have reduced wings and others are wingless
Forewings protectively hardened to cover the membranous hind
wings when at rest
Very mobile triangular shaped head with distinctive ocelli, large
compound eyes
Short to medium sized  filiform  antennae
 Contd…
12. Order: Blattodea (Insect avoiding light)
Example: Cockroaches
Characteristics: Mostly nocturnal insect, with
biting mouthparts and legs that are adapted for
swift running.
The body is oval and dorsoventrally flattened,
allowing the animals to hide in narrow spaces,
for example under bark or in crevices of trees
and rocks.
 Contd…
13. Order: Homoptera
Example: True bugs
Characteristics: Characterized by sucking
mouthparts used for feeding on plants and
animals tissues
 Contd…
14. Order: Hemiptera (half wings)
Example: Bedbugs, aphids, cicadas, True bugs
Characteristics: Characterized by sucking
mouthparts used for feeding on either plant or
animal tissues.
(Homoptera is merged in Hemiptera)
 Contd…
15. Order: Thysanoptera
Example: Thrips
Characteristics: Minute insects with a fringe of
fine hairs bordering each edge of their wings.
Sometimes called thunder-flies because they are
particularly active in summer thunderstorms.
 Contd…
16. Order: Psocoptera
Example: Book-louse
Characteristics: Barklice, barkflies, or booklice
(Psocoptera) are minute insects that live
hidden away under bark, in leaf litter, or
sometimes in your old books.
Both adults and larvae can spin silk
 Contd…
17. Order: Phthiraptera (Louse wings)
Example: Chewing lice and sucking lice
Characteristics: Small, wingless insects, permanently
parasitic on mammals and birds.
Minute, wingless insects with mouthparts adapted for
chewing and sucking
Tiny insects similar to biting lice, except that mouthparts
are adapted for sucking.
Found in the skin of birds and mammals, they contribute to
the spread of some diseases, including typhus fever.
 ENDOPTERYGOTA (Complex body change during growth)

It includes nine orders

1. Order: Coleoptera (Coleo: Sheath, ptera: wing)
Example: Beetles, weevils, fireflies
Include 330,000 species
Characteristics: Largest order of insects, characterized by
hard bodies and chewing mouthparts.
Adults are plant feeders and typically have two pairs of
wings.
Fore wings modified into hard, sclerotized; elytra where as
hind wings are membranous
 Contd…
2. Order: Neuroptera
Example: Lacewings, antlions
Include 4000 species
Characteristics: Characterized by long antennae,
chewing mouthparts,
Large leaf like often colored wings, equal size
and texture, fine net veined
 Contd…
3. Order: Hymenoptera (Hymen: membranous, ptera: wing)
Example: Bees, wasps, ants, sawflies
Include 145,000 species
Characteristics: Four wings, hind wings with hooklets called
hamuli
Some are known for their highly evolved social
organization, but most species are nonsocial.
All have mouthparts designed for biting, chewing or lapping ,
eyes well developed and undergo complete metamorphosis.
Ovipositor distinct and modified for stinging
 Contd…
4. Order: Trichoptera
Example: Caddisflies
Include 5000 species
Characteristics: Adults resemble dull moths,
but their wings are covered with fine hairs
rather than scales.
They have soft bodies and poorly developed
mouthparts, and they usually live near water.
 Contd…
5. Order: Lepidoptera (Lepido: sclae, ptera: wings)
Example: Butterflies, moths
Include 160,000 species
Characteristics: Two pairs of wings, covered with
thousands of overlapping scales of varying colors.
They have large compound eyes and adults with sucking
proboscis, larvae with biting chewing mouthparts.
Caterpillars, the larval form, mostly feed on plant leaves.
 Contd…
6. Order: Siphonaptera (Siphon: a tube, aptera: wing less
Example: Fleas
Include 1400 species
Characteristics: Wingless parasites that suck the blood of
mammals or birds.
Powerful hind legs enable them to jump from one host
to another.
Members of this group were responsible for spread of
plague
 Contd…
7. Order: Mecoptera
Example: Scorpionflies
Include 400 species
Characteristics: Oldest group of fully metamorphosing insects.
heads with beaklike extensions.
Antennae long and filiform
Mouthparts biting and chewing type
Wings long, narrow subequll and membranous
They have slender bodies, abdomen elongate with terminal
segments raised like that of scorpion
 Contd…
8. Order: Strepsiptera
Example: Stylopids
Include 370 species
Characteristics: Minute, beetle-like insects that
parasitize other
Females live sedentary lives and are visited by
males, which fly rapidly with wings that
produce a tiny humming noise.
 Contd…
9. Order: Diptera (Di: two, ptera: wing
Example: Mosquitoes, fruit flies, house flies, leaf miners,
gall mides
Include 85,000 species
Characteristics: Known as the true flies, considered
the most accomplished fliers of all insects, with an
ability to fly backward, forward, and sideways.
With few exceptions, they all have a single pair of wings,
as well as structures called halters that help them
achieve balance in flight.
INSECT ORDERS OF
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
 1. THYSANURA:

Body relatively flat, tapered and often covered with scales

Compound eyes small or absent
Antennae long, thread-like, and multi segmented
Abdomen with ten complete segments
Eleventh abdominal segment elongated to form a median
caudal filament
Cerci present, nearly as long as median caudal filament
Styliform appendages located on abdominal segments 7-9
Domestic species such as silverfish and firebrats may cause
extensive damage to household goods.
 2. ORTHOPTERA: Grasshoppers / Locusts / Crickets / Katydids

The name Orthoptera, derived from the Greek "ortho" meaning straight and "ptera" meaning
wing, refers to the parallel-sided structure of the front wings (tegmina).
 
Important characters
 1. Antennae filliform
2. Mouthparts mandibulate, hypognathous
3. Pronotum shield like, covering much of thorax
4. Front wings narrow, leathery (tegmina); hind wings fan-like
5. Hind legs usually adapted for jumping (hind femur enlarged)
6. Tarsi 3- or 4-segmented
7. Cerci short, unsegmented
8. Immature are structurally similar to adults, developing wing pads often visible on thorax.
9. Orthoptera is generally regarded as a dominant group in most terrestrial habitats.
10. These insects feed on all types of plants and often cause serious economic damage.
11. Swarms of grasshoppers (locusts) regularly appear in parts of Africa, Asia, and North America
and destroy crops over wide land areas.
12. Mole crickets are major pests in lawns and golf courses in the southern United States.
13. Several species of field crickets are reared commercially as fish bait.
 Major Families
Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers and locusts) --
Herbivores. Common in grasslands and prairies. This family includes
many pest species such as the twostriped grasshopper (Melanoplus
bivittatus), the differential grasshopper (M. differentialis), the African
migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), and the desert locust
(Schistocerca gregaria).
Tettigoniidae (long-horned grasshoppers and katydids) --
Herbivores. Females have a long, blade-like ovipositor. Some species
are pests of trees and shrubs.
Gryllidae (true crickets) -- Herbivores and scavengers. Females have a
cylindrical or needle-shaped ovipositor. This family includes the house
cricket, Acheta domesticus.
Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets) -- The front legs are adapted for digging.
Most species feed on the roots of plants, but some are predatory
 3. ORDER: HEMIPTERA

Hemi- half, Ptera - wings

Previously Hemiptera was divided into 2 sub orders Heteroptera and Homoptera.
But later on these two suborder become separate and homoptera become
different order and the suborder heteroptera being the order hemiptera. Greek
word hemi means half and ptera means wings.
Characters of hemiptera:
The size of the insect varies from <1mm to >100mm.
Insect have got piercing and sucking type of mouth parts.
They may be winged or wingless. They usually have 4 wings.
They may be soft or hard bodied insects.
They are brightly or lightly coloured.
Many species have glans for secreting odours waxes, scales like coverings.
There is hemimetabolous type of development.
Basal portion of the front wings of true bus are generally thicken and coloured
but membranous overlapping tips are coloured or transparent.
 Contd….
Hind wing are entirely membranous and hidden under the front wings.
Scutellum is usually exposed and triangular in shape.
The beak is 3-4 segmented or rostrum is 3-4 segmented.
The beak arises from the front of the head and cutves backward to
extend along the ventral side of the body.
Insect feed on plant sap, seed fungi, fruit juices or blood of insect and
other animals including human beings.
Many species are plant pest and few species transmit animal diseases
but many are of no direct economic importance to human beings
Some are predators on some insects
Scents glands are present on the side of the thorax and they emit some
peculiar odours for self-protection.
Most of the species are terrestrial but some common groups are
aquatic or semiaquatic.
 Families of economic importance
 
1. Pentatomidae (Stink bugs or shield bugs)
Medium to large insects, most common and abundant of bugs that produce disagreeable odour. Broad shield
like.
Head with lateral margins concealing bases of antennae
Antennae usually 5 – segmented. Ocelli almost always present
The pronotum broad and shield shaped. Scutellum large triangular sometimes extends posteriorly to the extent
of covering the wings entirely.
In hemelytron, corium large extending to anal margin. Membrane with many longitudinal veins, arising
from a vein which is nearly paralleled to the apical margin of corium.
Four pairs of odoriferous glands are present on dorsum of abdomen of the nymphs
The eggs are usually barrel shape with spines on the upper end. Eg: Green (stink) bug
– Nezara viridula, Red pumpkin bug -Aspongopus janus Cabbage painted bug –
Bagrada cruciferarum
2. Lygaeidae Seed bugs or Chinch bugs Small bugs, hard bodied
Antennae 4 segmented inserted down on the sides of the head, apical segment is larger
Compound eyes and ocelli are well developed
4 to 5 unbranched simple veins in the membrane of hemelytra. Cuneus is lacking, clavus is elongate
Metathoracic gland openings are present.
In some, the front femora moderately swollen with 2 rows of teeth beneath
Coxa rotator, tarsi 3 segmented, pulvulli present Eg. Dusky cotton bug Groundnut pod bug
 Contd….
3. Miridae (Capscidae) Mirid bugs
Medium or small, usually delicate insects
Ocelli absent
Rostrum is 4 segmented
Cuneus is present 5. Empodium is indistinct. Tarsi almost invariably 3
segmented
Majority live on plant juices, some prey on small arthropods Eg. Tea mosquito
bug -
Helopeltis antonii Predator on rice BPH - Cyrtorhinos lividipennis
4. Pyrrhooreidae (Pyrrhocoreids), red cotton bugs or cotton strainers
• They exhibit red and black colorations
• Ocelli absent
• More branched veins and ceels present in hemelytra
• Coxa is rotatory and tarsi 3 segmented with pulvilli Eg.Dysdercus cingulatus –
red cotton bug
 Contd….
5. Coreidae: Leaf footed bugs
Medium to large, long and narrow bugs
Antennae 4 segmented sitiuated well upon the sides of the head above a line drawn from the eyes to the
base of the beak. Ocelli present.
Head narrower, shorter than pronoutm, scutellum smaller.
In hemelytra, richly branched veins are present.
In most of the species, either or both the hind femora and tibiae may have conspicuous enlargements or
leaf like dilations and hence the name leaf footed bugs.
Tarsi – 3 segmented pulvilli present.
Metathoraccic gland openings present
Eg Rice gundhi bug- Leptocorisa oratorius Pod bugs: Clavigralla gibbosa on pulses
 
6. Pyrrhocoreidae (Pyrrhocoreids), red cotton bugs or cotton strainers
They exhibit red and black colourations
Ocelli absent
More branched veins and ceels present in hemelytra
Coxa is rotatory and tarsi 3 segmented with pulvilli Eg.Dysdercus cingulatus – red cotton bug
 4. ORDER: HOMOPTERA.
Homo: Alike; Pteron: Wings (uniform wings) Jassids, Aphids, mealy bugs, whiteflies etc
Important characters
This order contains a large and diversified group of insects and is closely related to the
hemiptera.
1. These are minute to small insects and are distributed widely
2. Head is deflexed and not generally constricted behind to form a neck.
3. Compound eyes well developed, ocelli absent in apterous form but 2 to 3 in winged forms
4. Antennae well developed and usually 3 to 10 segmented 
5. Mouth parts piercing and sucking type, stylets often exceedingly long, retractile, rostrum
arising from the back of the head, in some cases appearing to arise between anterior coxae. In
some adults like male coccids the mouth parts are vestigial or absent
6. Thoracic segments generally fused together and not distinguishable from abdomen in
wingless forms. Pronotum small and collar like.
7. Winged or wingless when winged the four wings are uniform in consistency and the wings are
held roof like over the body at rest. Alary polymorphism is prevalent. In male coccids only one
pair i.e. forewings are present.
8. Wax glands or honey tubes usually well developed in most of the members of this order.
9. In most of the species, the life history is very complex involving sexual and parthenogenetic
generations winged and wingless individuals.
10. Usually undergo simple metamorphosis. In some species, the last nymphal instar is
quiescent and pupalike.
 Families of economic importance
1. Cicadellidae: (Jassidae): Jassids or leaf hoppers
Slender, usually tapering, posteriorly, wedge shaped insects usually rest in a position ready for jumping.
When disturbed they leap often several feet.
Antennae minute, bristle like, 3 segmented
One or two rows of small spines are present on hind tibia which is most important feature
Both young ones and adults have the characteristic habit of running sideward or diagonally
These are very important vectors of viral diseases.
Ovipositor well developed and adopted for lacerating plant tissues for egg laying.
Many excrete honeydew through anus.
Forewings are somewhat thickened and often brightly coloured
Anal veins 1A and 2A do not unite to form ‘Y’ shaped vein. Eg: Cotton leafhopper -
• Amrasca biguttula biguttula Paddy leafhopper -Nephotettix virescens – Mango hoppers
• - Amritodes atkinsoni,Ideoscopus clypealis
2. Delphacide Plant hoppers
• This is the largest family among the plant hoppers
• Most of the species are small with reduced wings
• The characteristic feature of this family is the presence of large mobile apical spur on hind tibiae
• · Costal cell is absent in the winged forms
• · Alary polymorphism is very common winged, wingless and brachypterous
• ·Forms occur in the some species. Eg Brown plant hopper of paddy (BPH)-Nilaparvata lugens
• · White backed plant hopper on rice (WBPH) -Sogatella furcifera
 Contd….
3. Aphididae Aphids or plant lice
This family constitute a large group of small soft bodied, pear shaped, fragile phytophagous
insects that are frequently found in large numbers sucking the sap from various parts of plants
Antennae fairly long
Rostrum usually long and well developed
The characteristic feature of aphids is the presence of a pair of cornicles on the dorsal surface of
5th or 6th abdominal segments (It is believed that they produce waxy substances)
 
Winged / Wingless. Alary polymorphism is prevalent. When winged, hind wings are much smaller
with fewer veins. At rest the wings are generally held vertically above the body.
Tarsus – 3 segmented with a pair of claws
Nine pairs of lateral spiracles present
Excrete honeydew through anus (honey dew consists of excess sap, excess sugars and waste
materials) to which ants are attracted,
Associated phenomenon in reproduction are parthenogenesis, oviparity and viviparity
Occurrence of alternation of generations. The sexes are unequally developed, males often being
rare. Eg: Myzus persicae – Tobacco aphid, Aphis gossypi – Cotton aphid, Aphis craccivora –
Groundnut aphid
 Contd….
Pseudococcidae Mealy bugs
Females are wingless, elongate oval with distinct segmentation. Body covered with powdery wax or filamentous
waxy secreations.
Legs well developed. No instar is sessile. All the insect stages are able to move because of legs
Eggs are placed in a loose cottony waxy material
Eg: Brinjal mealy bug – Planococcus insolitus Citrus mealy bug -Planococcus citri
Sugarcane mealy bug -Saccharicoccus sacchari 
5. Coccidae Scale insects (Soft scales)
The females in this group are flattened, elongate oval insects with obscure segmentation and hard
smooth exoskeleton or covered with wax or tough scales. They are wingless, legs present or absent and the
antennae absent or much reduced.
Males are active, 1st pair of wings well developed, 2nd pair reduced to halters.
Tarsus if present 1 – segmented with a single claw.
Metamorphosis complex. 1st instar nymph has legs & antennae and active known as crawlers after 1st moult,
become sessile a waxy or scale like covering is secreted. In males last instar preceeding adult is queicent and
called pupa. Females have one less instar than males.
Oviparous, ovoviviparous
Excrete honey dew like aphids Eg: Pulvinaria psidi – Guava scale, Icerya purchasi - cottony cushion scale

6. Aleurodidae E.g. White flies 

• E.g.: Sugarcane whitefly – Aleurolobus barodensis Cotton whitefly -Bemisia tabaci Castor whitefly -
Trialeurodes
 Difference between Hemiptera and Homoptera

Hemiptera (True bugs) Homoptera (Aphids, Jassids, mealy bugs,

Sn whiteflies)
1
Pronotum usually large Pronotum small and collar like
2
Gular region present and it is Gular region absent or very small and
sclerotized (the maxillary plates meet membranous
and fuse ventrally to form gula)
3
Forewings hemelytra Forewings uniform in consistency
4
Wings fold flat over the body at rest Wings held roof like over the body
5
Beak or rostrum arise from the front Beak or rostrum arise from the posterior part
part of the head and base of the of the head and base of rostrum extending
rostrum not touching anterior coxae between anterior coxae
6
Tarsi – 3 segmented antennae 4-5 Tarsi 1-3 segmented antenna 3-10
segmented, odoriferous glands are segmented, wax glands are present.
present
 5. COLEOPTERA
Typical characteristics:
Hard Exoskeleton and hardened pair of wings called elytra which covers the
abdomen and the flight wings.
Beetles comprise the largest order of insects with over 300,000 species forming
about 40 percent of the known insects.
Beetles have thickened front wings (elytra) that are soft, leathery, or hard and
brittle.
The elytra usually meet in the straight line along the middle of the longer,
folded, membranous hind wings. Some beetles have short elytra and or hind
wings or are wingless.
Most beetles use only the hind wings for the flight; the elytra are raised to allow
for hind wing movement.
The pronotum is generally distinct whereas the mesonotum and the
metanotum are hidden beneath the elytra.
The mouth parts of the adults and most larvas are adopted for chewing.
Some predatory larvae are able to suck body fluid of prey.
 Contd….
Larvae have a holometabolous type of development.

Beetles sizes vary from less than 1mm to over 200mm in length and up to
75mm in width (e.g. tropical rhinoceros and goliath beetles).
Body shape varies from round to slender, and flattened to stout or cylindrical.
Some adults have long and slender snout, horns, or tubercles on the head,
extremely long antennae, greatly enlarged mandibles or other r diverse
features.
The body and elytra surface may be smooth or rough, brightly colored or dull.
Many beetles produced sounds by rubbing body parts together (e.g., femur of
the margin of the elytron; head rubbed against the fronted margin of the
prothorax)
Some members of the Lampyridae, Phenogodidae, Drilidae and Elateridae
emit light (bioluminescence from special organs.
Certain beetles in the families: Staphylinidae, Pselaphidae, Scydmaenidae, and
others live in the nests of ants and termites.
 Contd….
Beetles are primarily plant feeders and scavengers, although a significant
number are predators of insects and other small invertebrates and a few are
parasites.
The plant feeding habit of adult and larvae have made many beetles serious
pests of agricultural crops and forests.
Some beetles also feed on museum specimens, clothes and stored food .a few
species transmit bacterial and fungal diseases to plants.
Life cycles vary from several weeks in warm climates to four or more years in cool
climates.
Wood and root boring beetles usually have longer life cycles than leaf feeding
species.
Eggs are usually deposited in an area suitable for larval development the
larva sometimes called grubs, typically molt three to five times.
The immobile pupa is soft, pale and resembles the adult.
 Economically important families
1. Carabidae: ground beetles
2. Cicindellidae - Tiger beetles
• Cicindela oregona: 12-14mm; green or blue; white or dull yellow
markings; long hairs near inner edge of eyes; labrum short; punctate
elytra.
• Cicindela punctulata: 10-13mm; brownish black or slightly green either
bronze sheen; row of small greenish or bluish depression on elytra; small
white markings present or absent along elytral margins.
3. Scarabaeidae- Scarab Beetles
Common name: scarab, June, and dung beetles
The body sizes ranges from 2-70mm in length. Some are metallic, other are
hairy ventrally. Scarabs are generally attracted to light. The stout larvae
have a curved body that is often wrinkled and the thoracic legs are well
developed.
4. Elateridae- Click beetle
5. Lampyridae- Fireflies
 Contd….
6. Dermestidae- Dermestid beetles
7. Coccinellidae- Lady beetles
Common name: ladybird beetles, ladybugs, lady beetles
They are broadly oval. Convex insects that often are brightly colored. Some
lady beetles are similar to the leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) but differ by
having three distinct tarsal segments instead of appearing to have four as
do leaf beetles. Most of the insect are of predators of aphids, scales.
8. Meloidae- Blister beetle
They are elongated beetles with a prothorax that is often narrow than the
head and sometimes neck like. The wings and body are soft and frequently
the tip of the abdomen in exposed. Common specie
Banded blister beetle: Mylabris phylerata
9. Chrysomelidae- Leaf beetles
 Contd..
16. Cerambycidae- Long horned beetles or Round headed wood borers
They are usually medium to large, elongated and cylindrical beetles with antennae over half the body length.
The eyes are notched and many species are brightly colored. Some smaller Cerambycids resemble the leaf
beetles (Chrysomelidae) but the leaf beetles are smaller and the antennae are less than half the body length.
Common species
Mango stem borer (Batocera rufomaculata).
17. Bruchidae- Pulse beetles
These are oval or egg-shaped beetles are generally less than 5 mm long and their elytra do not cover the tip of
the abdomen. The head is extended into a short, broad snout and the antennae may be clubbed, serrate, or
pectinate.
Common species
• Bruchus pisorum (pea weevil),Callosobruchus maculates, C. chinensis
18. Curculionidae- Weevils or snout beetles
Well developed and downward curved snout. The antennae is elbowed and clubbed and the first segment often
fits into a groove in the side of the snout.
Common species
Banana rhizome weevil, Banana stem weevil, Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) Maize weevil (Sitotrora cerealella),
Gray weevil
 6. ORDER: DIPTERA

Important characters
Ø Flies are characterized by a single pair of membranous wings attached to an
enlarged mesothorax.
Ø The hind wings on the metathorax are reduced to a pair of knoblike appendages.
Ø The halter, which help to balance the insects.
Ø Flies range in size less than 1mm in length (midge) to 75 mm (tropical robber
flies).
Ø The compound eyes are often large; in mangy groups the expanded eyes of
males meet on top of the head whereas they do not in females.
Ø Most adult flies have sucking mouth parts that are modified for piercing, lapping
or sponging the mouth parts are nonfunctional in some species.
Ø Food consists chiefly of nectar but numerous feed on fruit juice, plant saps.
Ø Fly larvae are usually legless and have either a distinct or greatly reduced head.
The latter types are maggots.
 Economically important families

1) Culicidae
The presence of scales on the wings and body and the long proboscis help to identify
mosquitoes. Male are prominent plumose antennae. Females feed on nectar as well as
blood; the majority of species feed on animals other than humans. Mosquitos’ larvae and
pupae are aquatic and occur in a variety of habitats depending on the particular species.
Common species
• Ades, Anopheles, Culex
2) Tabanidae- Deer and horse flies
Common species
Tabanus atratus, Tabanus liineala, Chrysops callidus
3) Asilidae- Robber flies
They have a long abdomen that tapers posteriorly, a bearded face and concavity on top of
the head.
4) Syrphidae – Flower flies, Syrphid fly
Common species Syrphus opinator Syrphus ribesii
 Contd….
5. Tephretidae/ Trypetidae- Fruit flies
• These are small to medium sized flies have banded or spotted wings
and varied body colors. Many species slowly move their wings up
and down while resting.
Common species:
Mango fruit fly (Dacus sp.). Citrus fruit fly, cucurbit fruit fly
6. Drosophilidae- Vinegar flies
• They are 3-4 mm long and generally yellowish. Adult are very
common around ripe and fermenting fruit and also occur on
decaying vegetation.
Common species
• Drosophila melanogater
 Contd…..
9. Agromyzidae- Leafminers
• The tiny to small black or yellowish flies in this family are common on vegetation but
easily overlooked because of their small size. Larvae are chiefly leaf miners and often
make a narrow winding mine that widens towards one end as the larva grows.
• Common species
• Phytomyza sp.
10. Muscidae- House Flies, Stable Flies and Allies
Common species
Musca domestica, Musca autumnalis, Muscina stabulans
11. Calliforidae- Flesh flies
12. Tachinidae- Tachinids
13. Babilionidae- Marsh flies
 7. ORDER: HYMENOPTERA

Hymeno- Membrane and Ptera -Wings. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Sawflies, Horntails etc.
Relatively very few species are considered as pests and are of conspicuous economic importance to crops.
Wasp, bees and some amts are well known for their stings. Some Hymenopterans are major pollinators such as
honey bees and others are important biological control agents of other insects. The order includes more than
70 families and 110000 spp. all over the world.
The important characters of this order are:
Sizes range from 0.20 mm to 65 mm in length.
Mouth parts are chewing or reduced in larvae but chewing or chewing-lapping in adults.
Antennal are fillform and geniculate etc.
Compound eyes are large but absent in ants.
Legs are long with five segmented tarsi.
Two pairs of long narrow membranous wings with fused venation are absent.
Hamuli or hooks represent on hind-wings of all winged forms.
The ovipositor may be modified into a sting.
Some species are highly social and have caste differences.
Larvae are either caterpillar-like or they are called “grubs”. Larvae herbivorous or parasitic to
scavenger.
Metamorphosis is complete.
Most species have constriction between thorax and abdomen. Wingless workers of ants and
sawflies are exceptions.
 Economic important families
1. Apidae (Honey bees)
• Hind tibia without spur and eyes hairy. Hind metatarsus modified as a pollen basket
on worker bees. Caste-system with non-reproductive workers and reproduction
queens and drones. Example: Honey bee, Apis indica L. Very important pollinator of
many plants. Honey and beeswax are useful items produced by t hem. Bee venom
sometimes used in traction illness of joints in man as at arthritis, for making one
pound of honey, one bee has to make flight equivalent to twice around the world.
2. Bombidae (Bumble Bees-Bhanwara)
• Hind tibia with spurs and the first segment of hind tarsus is flattened. Examples:
Bumble bee, locally known as Bhanwara. Very important family of plant pollinators.
3. Formicidae (Ants)
• Geniculate antennae, usually wingless, drones and queens winged in mating
season, workers always wingless and non-reproductive, and the ant make nests
with the leaves and several leaves are tied with silken threads.
4. Tenthredinidae (sawflies)
• Example: mustard sawfly, Athalia proxima lugens. The larvae feed on the leaves of
mustard and sometimes other cruciferous crops.
 Contd….
5. Trichogrammatidae (insect egg parasites especially lepidpterous insects).
Example: Trichogramma sp; egg parasite of various shoot and stemborers. Natural and
biological control agents as egg parasites of pest insects. Man can rear and release
insects t o control pest insects in the field.
6. Ichneumonidae
Example: Xanthopimpla predator, pupal parasite of chilo partellus.
The members of this family are mostly parasitic on caterpillars and other insect larvae
and pupae.
 
7. Chalcididae (chalcids)
• Example: Seed Chalcids. The seed chalcids infest seeds causing their destruction.
Some species of chalcids are helpful as natural control agents as egg parasite of
some other insects.
8. Braconidae (Braconids)
• Examples: Apanteles spp.; a larvae parasite of Pieris brassicae.
9. Vespidae
• Examples: common wasps
 8. ORDER: LEPIDOPTERA
The word “Lepidoptera” is derived from the word, “Lepis” means “scale” and “ptera”
means “wing”. There are scaly wings in this order’s insects. Examples: Butterfly, moths,
skippers (neither butterfly nor moth).
Adult Lepidopterans are small to large insects.
Having 200-300 mm normally wing span (Spread).
They have minute and powder like scales that covers the wings and body of most species.
Lepidopterans have usually 4 large wings. Although, some female moth are short- winged
or wingless. Examples: Bagworm.
Compound eyes are large.
Antennae are long.
Moths: Filamentous or thread like antennae
Butterflies: Clavate shaped.
Skippers: having hooks like at the end.
Mouthparts are generally reduced but maxilla and labial palp are extended. The
proboscis is extended to suck up the liquid food and coiled when not in use. Some moth
have not proboscis.
Certain moths have membranous auditory-organs on mesothorax or abdomen.
Vision is good. Many individuals respond to motion, flower shapes, wing pattern, blue-
violet and ultraviolet light.
 Contd….
Immature or caterpillars have holometabolous type of development (complete
metamorphosis).
Males often have patches of specialized scent-scales, which emit pheromones involved in mating
or it may fasten itself with silk to the vegetation
Adult lepidopterans feed primarily on flower-nectar and are good pollinators.
Females usually deposits eggs in masses on food plants or disperse them on or near the plant.
Larvae or caterpillars have biting and chewing types of mouth-parts.
Most larvae have prolegs (prolegs are fleshy). The prolegs vary from two to five pairs or none.
Caterpillars head is usually distinct from the rest of the body and has an inverted ‘Y’ shaped
suture on the face. There may be 0-6 pairs of ocelli (stemmata).
The body of caterpillars may naked or have a covering of hairs (setae) of varying density.
Nearly all caterpillars are plant feeder and most are restricted to one or a small group of plant
feed. Many larvae are serious pests feeding on or inside foliage, fruit, stems, roots, flowers,
wood, stored grain and flour, bee wax and fabric.
A few caterpillars feed on aphids, leafhoppers, mealy bugs, scales and immature ants.
Larval development takes two moulds, but some takes even three. Silk may be produced by silk
gland situated in the head of larvae. The silken threads are used by the larvae to adhere to
surfaces to construct cites, nests, shelters and to form cocoon just before the larvae molts
into the pupal stage. Example: Silk-worm.
Before pupation the mature larva seeks shelter in soil, debris, under bark, inside foliage or it may
fasten itself with silk to the vegetation
 Difference between moths and butterflies

Characters Moth Butterflies

Behaviors Nocturnal Diurnal
Antennae Pectinate, plumose Clavate
Ocelli Present Absent
Mandibles Present Absent
Labrum Present Absent
Frenulum Present Absent
Wings at rest Held roof like over Folded vertically upward
body

Abdomen Large and stout Comparatively small and slender

Pupa Obtect pupa with Obtect pupa without cocoon. It is a naked pupa
in a cocoon bright coloured and supported by a silken
girdles, called a chrysalis.

Olfactory Strong Not strong

sense

Moth hovers on Butterfly land on a flowers

flowers
 Economically important families
1. Pieridae
• Cabbage or white or sulfur or orange tip butterfly e.g. Pieris brassicae nepalensis.
Larvae feed on leaves of Cole-crops. Other example: Pieris canidia.
2. Papilionidae
• Examples: Papilio demoleus (lemon butterfly). Brightly colored, dark-blue, black, or
dark with bright yellow or orange red green marks on the body of the insects. They
are serious pest of citrus fruits. Larvae feed on leaves. Hind wing is extended into a
tail-like projection.
• Swallow tailed butterfly.
3. Nymphalidae
• Brush footed or four footed butterflies. Examples: Nymphalis spp.; Peacock pansy.
4. Hesperiidae
• Skipper - pest of several crops. Antennae widely separated at base, clubbed, hooked
at the tip. Head is as quite as or even wider- than the thorax. Hold wings at different
angles. E.g. Pelopedas mathias (Rice-skipper).
5. Danaidae
• Milk-weed butterfly or Monarch butterfly (Plain tiger). Larvae of this insect feed on
milk fluid of different plants. Examples: Danaus plexippus.
 Contd….
6. Satyridae: Rice green horned caterpillar
Example: Melanitis leda ismene (Rice green horned caterpillar) Feed on leaves of rice.
Moths (Heterocera)
1. Noctuidae
• Example: Noctuid moths. Largest family, about 4000 spp., dull colored, front margin or wings are
quite straight, forewing is somewhat narrower as compared to hind wings, and few species are crop
pests. E.g. Spodoptera litura (Tobacco Caterpillar)
• Spodoptera exigua; Helicoverpa armigera (Gram pod borer)
• Agrotis ipsilon (Cutworm)
• These insects feed on several types of crop plants. Cutworm cut the succulent stem of plants from
the ground level. The plants affected by this worm are cruciferous vegetables, solanaceous crops
and others.
2. Pyralidae
• Borers, Pyralid moths. Palpi projected towards foreside forming a beak like structure
• Examples: Maize stem borer: Chilo partellus.
• Rice Caseworm: Numphula dipunctalis; Rice stem borer: Scirpophaga incertulus. Rice leaf roller:
Cnaphalocrosis medinalis.
3. Plutellidae: Example: Diamond back-moth.
• Plutella Xylostella
Xylostella maculipenis.
Larvae damage the plants.
Serious pest on Crucifers
 Contd….
4. Lasiocampidae
• Example: Tent caterpillars and Lappet moths.
Tent caterpillar builds silken nests in the
crotches of cherry, peach, plum and other
trees like apple.
5. Bombycidae: Silk moth, Bombyx mori
 Life Cycle of Honey Bee (Apis indica)
Life cycle of honeybee is very informative to understand their social behavior,
communication and developmental aspects. Honey and wax are valuable
products of0 honeybees. Besides, they also help in pollination of various
crops. Thus, it is necessary to learn about bee colony and their development
Life cycle : Honey bees are holometabolous insects that have four different
stages of development.
Eggs : Queen starts laying three to four days after mating. She lays as many as
2000 eggs in a day. Eggs are creamy white in color and banana shaped. Eggs
hatch in 3 days.
Larvae : Known as grubs, they have no legs and eyes. All grubs feed on 'royal
jelly' for the first 3 days. Thereafter, workers and drones are given 'bee
bread'. This stage remains 7 days for drone, 5 days for queen and worker.
Pupae : On about 9th day, cells containing grubs are sealed with a wax cap.
Pupal stage passes inside the sealed chamber. Grub secretes a thin silken
cocoon around itself. This stage lasts 8 days for queen, 13 days for worker,
and 14 days for drone.
 Life Cycle of Honey Bee (Apis indica)
Adults : They come out from the cell by making hole through the cap. They are
differentiated into three different castes.
Queen: She is bigger in size than drones and workers. Queen is the only fertile
female in a hive, hatched form fertile eggs. Her grub stage is specially fed on
royal jelly. Her duty is to lay eggs and regenerate the colony.
Drones: They are intermediate in size. They develop parthenogenetically from
the unfertilized eggs. They fertilize queen and may sometimes regulate the
temperature inside the hive.
Workers: They are the smallest members of the colony, coming out of fertile
eggs, but unable to reproduce. Workers possess various structures in their
legs such as comb, pollen press and pollen basket. They perform various
activities, like secretion of wax and comb foundation, cleaning of cells in
which queen lays eggs, feeding the queen and grubs, collecting pollen and
nectar, producing honey, regulating temperature and guarding hive against
robber bees.
 Life Cycle of Mulberry Silkworm (Bombyx mori Linnaeus)

Silk is a very valuable commodity. The best quality of silk is obtained from the mulberry
silkworm, Bombyx mori. This insect passes through a complete metamorphosis. The
study of life cycle is very important in order to be familiar with its various stages of
development so that proper care and feeding can be done during the larval instars, for
higher and better quality of cocoon production.
Life cycle: Female lays 300-400 eggs on mulberry leaves or artificially prepared butter
cups. Eggs are oval in shape and creamy white in color. They hatch in 9-11 days. Proper
temperature and humidity should be maintained for good hatching.
Larvae (Caterpillars) : Newly hatched larvae are black or dark brown in color and become
smoother and lighter during different succeeding instars. There are five larval instars first
two instars are as young worms and rest three instars are called grown up warms. Larvae
after last moult. raise their head and search a shelter for resting. They secrete silken
thread and cover themselves. Larval stage lasts for 18-24 days.
Pupae : This is the resting stage or inactive stage in which pupae remain covered in the
silken cocoon. It lasts for 11-14 days.
Adults: Adults come out by making a small hole through the cocoon. They do not eat
during their short life span.
 Life Cycle of Lac Insect ( Kerria lacca)
Lac is a recinous secretion of a tiny lac insect. It has been used for various
preparations such as surface coating, mirror backing, printing drawing, hair
liquers, gramophone records, electric goods etc. Life cycle study of a lac insect
provides information on their developmental stages, which could be very useful
for inoculation, harvest and other management aspects.
Life Cycle: This insect passes through a gradual metamorphosis and has three
different stages:
Eggs: Oviposition starts just after mating. Eggs are laid in cells inside in crustation.
A female lays 300-1000 eggs and dies soon after oviposition. Eggs start hatching
within a few hours.
Nymphs: They thrust hair like proboscis up to the phloem of host plants and
derive their nutrition. Once settled, they do not move about. Nymphs have 3
moults. After first moult they loose their antennae, legs and eyes. These
appendages are again developed after second moult. Nymphs are encaged in
their own secretion and cell size increases with the increase in the growth of lac
insect. Nymphal stage lasts for about two months.
Adults: A short time after emergence, mating takes place and female continues
laying eggs.
Entomology and Pest Management ( Seventh
Edition)
• Lerry P Pedigo
• Marlin E Rice